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Course: US history   >   Unit 7

• The presidency of Herbert Hoover

The Great Depression

• FDR and the Great Depression
• The New Deal
• The Great Depression was the worst economic downturn in US history. It began in 1929 and did not abate until the end of the 1930s.
• The stock market crash of October 1929 signaled the beginning of the Great Depression. By 1933, unemployment was at 25 percent and more than 5,000 banks had gone out of business.
• Although President Herbert Hoover attempted to spark growth in the economy through measures like the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, these measures did little to solve the crisis.
• Franklin Roosevelt was elected president in November 1932. Inaugurated as president in March 1933, Roosevelt’s New Deal offered a new approach to the Great Depression.

The stock market crash of 1929

Hoover's response to the crisis, what do you think.

• David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 37-41, 49-50.
• T.H. Watkins, The Hungry Years: A Narrative History of the Great Depression in America (New York: Henry Holt, 1999), 44-45; Kennedy, Freedom from Fear , 87.
• Louise Armstrong, We Too Are the People (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1938), 10.
• On bank failures, see Kennedy, Freedom from Fear , 65.
• See Kennedy, Freedom from Fear , 87, 208; Robert S. McElvaine, ed., Down and Out in the Great Depression: Letters from the “Forgotten Man” (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983), 81-94.
• John A. Garraty, The Great Depression: An Inquiry into the Causes, Course, and Consequences of the Worldwide Depression of the Nineteen-Thirties, as Seen by Contemporaries and in the Light of History (New York: Doubleday, 1987).
• Kennedy, Freedom from Fear , 83-85.
• On Hoovervilles and Hoover flags, Kennedy, Freedom from Fear , 91.

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The Great Depression and New Deal: A Very Short Introduction

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The Great Depression and the New Deal: A Very Short Introduction explores the roots, events, and legacy of the Great Depression and Roosevelt's New Deal. America's post-war laissez-faire economic policies resulted in an economic upheaval of unprecedented severity, to which President Roosevelt responded with a vigorous (and sometimes unconstitutional) set of Depression-fighting economic measures, which were only justifiable in the face of such a global economic disaster. Key New Deal programmes are examined, such as the National Recovery Agency, Public Works Administration, and Social Security, revealing why some worked and others did not.

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Great Depression Research Paper Topics

In this comprehensive guide on Great Depression research paper topics , we delve into the fascinating world of one of the most significant economic crises in history. As students studying history and assigned to write a research paper, it is essential to explore a wide range of engaging and thought-provoking topics related to the Great Depression. This page offers a comprehensive list of Great Depression research paper topics, an article on the Great Depression and its impact, expert advice on topic selection, tips on writing an effective research paper, and information about iResearchNet’s writing services. By following this guide, you will gain valuable insights and resources to unleash your potential and excel in your Great Depression research papers.

100 Great Depression Research Paper Topics

The Great Depression was a period of immense economic turmoil that gripped the world in the 1930s. It left a profound impact on various aspects of society and shaped the course of history. As a student of history, delving into the depths of this significant era provides a multitude of research opportunities. In this section, we present a comprehensive list of Great Depression research paper topics, divided into ten categories. These topics encompass a wide range of subjects and perspectives, allowing you to explore different facets of this transformative period.

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Economic Causes and Effects:

• The Stock Market Crash of 1929: Causes, Consequences, and Lessons Learned
• Banking Failures and the Collapse of the Financial System during the Great Depression
• Unemployment and its Social and Economic Implications during the Great Depression
• The Role of Government Policies in Shaping the Economic Landscape of the Great Depression
• The Impact of International Trade and Protectionism on the Global Economy during the Great Depression
• Changes in Monetary and Fiscal Policy Approaches in Response to the Great Depression
• Economic Inequality and the Great Depression: Examining the Disparities
• The Role of Consumer Spending and Investment Patterns in Shaping the Great Depression
• Economic Recovery Efforts and the Effectiveness of New Deal Programs
• Comparative Analysis of the Great Depression with Other Economic Crises

Social Impact and Cultural Changes:

• Poverty and Homelessness in the Great Depression: Causes, Experiences, and Responses
• Gender Roles and Women’s Experiences during the Great Depression
• African Americans and the Great Depression: Struggles, Activism, and Cultural Expression
• Art and Literature as Responses to the Great Depression: Depictions of Hardships and Resilience
• Social Movements and Labor Unions during the Great Depression: Strikes, Protests, and Reforms
• The Role of Education and Intellectual Life during the Great Depression
• Migration and Mobility during the Great Depression: Impact on Communities and Culture
• The Influence of Music and Entertainment on Society during the Great Depression
• Changes in Family Dynamics and Relationships during the Great Depression
• Public Health and Social Welfare Systems during the Great Depression: Challenges and Reforms

Government Interventions and Policies:

• Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal: Analyzing its Objectives, Implementation, and Results
• Role of the Federal Reserve in the Great Depression: Monetary Policy and Regulation
• Social Security Act of 1935: Origins, Implementation, and Long-Term Impact
• Agricultural Adjustment Act and its Effects on the Farming Community
• The National Industrial Recovery Act: Assessing its Goals, Strategies, and Legacy
• The Works Progress Administration (WPA): Job Creation and Infrastructure Projects
• The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): Environmental Conservation during the Great Depression
• The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): Regulating Financial Markets after the Crash
• The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): Providing Relief to the Needy
• The Role of International Organizations and Agreements in Addressing the Global Effects of the Great Depression

Global Perspectives:

• The Global Spread and Impact of the Great Depression: Comparative Analysis
• The Great Depression in Europe: Causes, Effects, and Recovery Strategies
• The Great Depression and the Rise of Fascism: Examining the Interconnections
• Latin America’s Experience of the Great Depression: Economic Challenges and Political Shifts
• The Great Depression in Asia: Exploring Economic, Social, and Political Transformations
• The Role of International Financial Institutions in Mitigating the Global Effects of the Great Depression
• The Impact of Colonialism and Imperialism on Economic Vulnerability during the Great Depression
• The Great Depression and International Relations: Shifting Power Dynamics and Diplomatic Challenges
• Lessons Learned from the Great Depression: Policy Recommendations for Future Economic Crises
• Historical Comparisons: Assessing the Great Depression in Relation to Other Global Economic Downturns

Psychological and Social Welfare:

• Psychological Impact of the Great Depression on Individuals and Communities
• Mental Health Services and the Understanding of Mental Illness during the Great Depression
• The Role of Charity and Philanthropy in Assisting those Affected by the Great Depression
• Social Welfare Programs and Relief Efforts: Examining their Design and Effectiveness
• The Influence of Social Work and Social Workers during the Great Depression
• The Role of Religion and Faith-Based Organizations in Providing Support during the Great Depression
• The Impact of Childhood Experiences during the Great Depression: Long-Term Effects
• Social Assistance and Relief Programs: Comparing Strategies and Approaches
• Social Movements and Grassroots Activism for Social Justice during the Great Depression
• The Influence of Public Opinion and Mass Media on Social Welfare Policies

Impact on Specific Industries:

• The Automobile Industry during the Great Depression: Challenges, Innovations, and Recovery
• Impact of the Great Depression on the Banking and Financial Sector
• Film Industry during the Great Depression: Entertainment and Escapism in Troubled Times
• The Construction Industry during the Great Depression: Infrastructure Development and Public Works Projects
• The Impact of the Great Depression on the Textile and Manufacturing Industries
• Changes in the Agricultural Sector during the Great Depression: Farming Practices and Government Interventions
• Mining and Natural Resource Industries during the Great Depression: Challenges and Adaptations
• The Role of Labor Unions in Protecting Workers’ Rights during the Great Depression
• Impact of the Great Depression on the Shipping and Maritime Industry
• The Aviation Industry during the Great Depression: Technological Advances and Commercial Aviation Expansion

Political Climate and Leadership:

• Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Leadership during the Great Depression: Policies and Legacy
• Opposition and Criticisms of New Deal Programs: Political Debates and Alternative Proposals
• Role of Political Parties and Electoral Shifts during the Great Depression
• Populist Movements and Responses to Economic Hardships: The Influence of Radical Politics
• The Role of Women in Politics during the Great Depression: Activism and Reform Efforts
• The Impact of the Great Depression on the Presidency and the Executive Branch
• Socialism, Communism, and the Great Depression: Ideological Shifts and Debates
• The Role of the Supreme Court in Shaping New Deal Policies and their Constitutionality
• The Influence of International Relations and Geopolitics on National Responses to the Great Depression
• Political Movements and Grassroots Activism during the Great Depression: Lessons for Today

Cultural and Artistic Responses:

• Literature of the Great Depression: Themes, Styles, and Authors
• Visual Arts during the Great Depression: Depictions of Hardship and Social Commentary
• Music and the Great Depression: Exploring Jazz, Blues, and Folk Music Movements
• Theatre and Performance Arts during the Great Depression: Escapism and Social Critique
• Photography and Documentary Projects: Capturing the Realities of the Great Depression
• Radio and Broadcasting during the Great Depression: Entertainment and News Dissemination
• The Influence of Hollywood Films on Popular Culture during the Great Depression
• Dance and Dance Halls during the Great Depression: Cultural Expression and Social Gathering
• Sports and Athletics during the Great Depression: Resilience and National Identity
• Fashion and Popular Culture Trends during the Great Depression: Reflections of Social Change

Regional Perspectives:

• The Great Depression in the United States: Regional Variations and Local Impacts
• The Great Depression in Rural Communities: Challenges and Agricultural Adjustments
• Urban Areas during the Great Depression: Impact on Cities, Migration, and Community Dynamics
• The Great Depression in Europe: Regional Responses and Recovery Strategies
• The Great Depression in Asia: Regional Economic Shifts and Political Unrest
• Latin America’s Experience of the Great Depression: Economic Policies and Social Transformations
• The Great Depression in Africa: Colonial Economies and Indigenous Responses
• The Impact of the Great Depression on the Caribbean: Trade, Tourism, and Political Instability
• The Great Depression in the Middle East: Oil, Colonialism, and Economic Resilience
• The Great Depression in Oceania: Impacts on Indigenous Communities and Trade Relations

Lessons Learned and Legacy:

• Economic Policies and Regulations Implemented Post-Great Depression: Analysis and Evaluation
• The Great Depression’s Influence on Modern Economic Thought and Macroeconomic Theory
• The Great Depression and the Formation of International Financial Institutions
• Comparative Analysis of the Great Depression with Subsequent Economic Crises
• The Long-Term Social and Economic Consequences of the Great Depression
• Historical Reflections on the Lasting Impact of the Great Depression: Lessons for Today
• The Great Depression’s Influence on Government Intervention and Social Welfare Programs
• The Role of Economic Forecasting and Risk Management in Post-Great Depression Policies
• The Great Depression and Changes in Economic Theory and Policy Approaches
• Evaluating the Successes and Failures of Recovery Efforts during the Great Depression

This comprehensive list of Great Depression research paper topics offers a diverse array of subjects for exploration and analysis. Whether you are interested in the economic, social, cultural, political, or regional aspects of this era, there is a topic to suit your research interests. By selecting a topic from this list, you can delve into the complexities of the Great Depression, uncovering its causes, effects, and the lessons it holds for the present and future.

The Great Depression: Exploring its Impact and Historical Significance

The Great Depression stands as one of the most transformative periods in modern history, leaving an indelible mark on societies around the world. This 2000-word article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the Great Depression, its historical context, and its profound significance. By delving into the range of Great Depression research paper topics, we can gain valuable insights into the causes and effects of the economic collapse, its social impact, and the government responses that shaped the path to recovery. Through the study of the Great Depression, we can better understand the complexities of economic systems, social inequality, and the role of government intervention in times of crisis.

• The Historical Context : The article begins by setting the stage for the Great Depression, exploring the economic prosperity of the 1920s, the underlying factors that contributed to the collapse, and the global context in which it unfolded. It highlights the interconnectedness of economies and the far-reaching consequences of the financial downturn.
• The Causes of the Great Depression : This section delves into the causes of the Great Depression, examining factors such as the stock market crash of 1929, the unsustainable economic practices of the time, and the impact of international events. It explores the intricate web of circumstances that led to the onset of the devastating economic downturn.
• The Effects of the Great Depression : Here, we explore the wide-ranging effects of the Great Depression on individuals, families, businesses, and entire nations. We discuss the soaring unemployment rates, widespread poverty, loss of homes and farms, and the resulting social and psychological impact on affected communities. The section also highlights the global ramifications, including a decline in international trade, financial instability, and political shifts.
• Social Impact and Cultural Changes : The Great Depression had a profound impact on society, reshaping social norms, cultural attitudes, and the fabric of communities. This section explores the challenges faced by various social groups, such as women, minorities, and workers. It discusses the emergence of social movements, the role of art and literature as responses to the crisis, and the cultural shifts that took place during this period.
• Government Responses and Policies : The government responses to the Great Depression played a critical role in shaping the trajectory of recovery. This section examines the policies implemented by governments around the world, focusing on notable initiatives such as Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal in the United States. It analyzes the effectiveness of these policies, their impact on the economy and society, and the enduring legacy of government intervention.
• Economic Systems and Lessons Learned : The Great Depression prompted a reevaluation of economic systems and theories. This section explores the debates surrounding capitalism, socialism, and the role of government regulation. It discusses the long-term implications of the Great Depression on economic thought, policy approaches, and the establishment of social safety nets.
• Social Inequality and Social Justice : Studying the Great Depression provides an opportunity to examine the deep-rooted issues of social inequality and the pursuit of social justice. This section explores the unequal distribution of wealth and resources during the period, the impact on marginalized communities, and the subsequent efforts to address systemic inequalities. It also examines the role of labor unions and their fight for worker rights during this tumultuous time.
• Government Intervention and the Role of Institutions : The Great Depression led to a significant expansion of government intervention and the establishment of new institutions. This section examines the role of institutions such as the Federal Reserve, the creation of social welfare programs, and the impact of regulatory bodies. It evaluates the lasting effects of these interventions on economic stability, social welfare, and the relationship between the government and the private sector.
• Global Impact and International Relations : The Great Depression had a profound effect on the global stage, reshaping international relations and sparking geopolitical shifts. This section explores how different countries were affected by the economic downturn and how it influenced their foreign policies. It also examines the efforts to address the global economic crisis through international cooperation and the establishment of institutions like the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
• Lessons Learned and Legacy : In this final section, we reflect on the lessons learned from the Great Depression and its enduring legacy. It discusses the reforms and regulations implemented to prevent a similar economic catastrophe in the future, the importance of financial regulation, and the significance of social safety nets. It also examines the long-term impact on economic policies, the role of the government in managing economic crises, and the relevance of studying the Great Depression in the modern world.

The Great Depression stands as a defining moment in history, with profound implications for economic, social, and political systems. By studying the causes, effects, social impact, and government responses of this period, we gain valuable insights into the complexities of economic systems, social inequality, and the role of government intervention. Exploring the range of Great Depression research paper topics allows us to deepen our understanding of this transformative era and its relevance to contemporary society.

How to Choose Great Depression Research Paper Topics

Selecting an engaging and meaningful research topic is crucial when delving into the realm of Great Depression studies. This section provides valuable guidance on how to choose the most suitable research paper topic that aligns with your interests, academic goals, and the significance of this historical period. By following these ten tips, you can navigate through the vast array of potential Great Depression research paper topics and identify a research question that allows for a comprehensive exploration of the Great Depression.

• Reflect on Personal Interests : Begin by considering your personal interests within the broader context of the Great Depression. Reflect on aspects such as social history, economic policies, cultural impact, or political responses. Exploring Great Depression research paper topics that resonate with your passion will ensure a deeper engagement and motivation throughout the research process.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Engage in preliminary research to familiarize yourself with the existing scholarship on the Great Depression. This will help you identify gaps in the literature and uncover potential avenues for further investigation. Consult academic journals, books, and reputable online sources to gain a comprehensive understanding of the current scholarly discourse.
• Focus on Specific Regions or Time Periods : The Great Depression had a global impact, affecting different regions in unique ways. Consider narrowing your research focus to a specific country, region, or even a particular community. This allows for a more nuanced analysis and provides an opportunity to examine localized experiences and responses to the economic crisis.
• Analyze Primary and Secondary Sources : Utilize both primary and secondary sources to gather evidence and support your research. Primary sources, such as letters, diaries, government records, and newspapers from the period, offer firsthand accounts and insights. Secondary sources, including scholarly articles and books, provide critical analysis and interpretations of the Great Depression.
• Explore Different Aspects of the Great Depression : The Great Depression is a multi-faceted historical event that impacted various spheres of life. Consider exploring different aspects, such as the economic causes, social consequences, political responses, cultural expressions, or international relations. By delving into different dimensions, you can gain a comprehensive understanding of the era.
• Examine the Impact on Different Social Groups : The Great Depression affected people from all walks of life differently. Explore the experiences of various social groups, such as women, racial and ethnic minorities, farmers, workers, and the urban poor. Investigate how these groups navigated through the economic crisis and the impact it had on their lives.
• Analyze Government Policies and Programs : Government responses played a significant role in addressing the Great Depression. Choose a research topic that focuses on specific government policies, programs, or initiatives implemented during this time. Analyze their effectiveness, impact on the economy and society, and the long-term consequences of these interventions.
• Investigate Cultural Responses and Artistic Expressions : The Great Depression fostered a wealth of cultural responses, including literature, music, photography, and visual arts. Explore the cultural expressions of the era and their reflection of the social and economic climate. Analyze the works of artists, writers, and musicians to understand how they captured the experiences and emotions of the time.
• Consider Comparative Analysis : Comparative analysis allows for a deeper understanding of the Great Depression by examining similarities and differences between different countries, regions, or time periods. Compare the economic, social, and political responses of multiple nations or explore the impact of the Great Depression on different continents.
• Engage with Historiographical Debates : The study of the Great Depression is dynamic, with ongoing debates and reinterpretations of historical events and their significance. Choose a research topic that engages with these historiographical debates and contributes to the scholarly discourse. By exploring conflicting interpretations, you can develop a nuanced understanding of the complexities surrounding the Great Depression.

Choosing a research topic on the Great Depression requires careful consideration and a thoughtful approach. By reflecting on personal interests, conducting preliminary research, focusing on specific regions or time periods, analyzing primary and secondary sources, and exploring various aspects and social groups, you can identify a research question that aligns with your interests and academic goals. Engaging with government policies, cultural expressions, and comparative analysis provides further avenues for exploration. Remember to contribute to historiographical debates and approach your research with critical thinking and analytical skills. By following these ten tips, you will be well-equipped to embark on a successful research journey into the depths of the Great Depression.

How to Write a Great Depression Research Paper

Writing a research paper on the Great Depression requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective communication of your findings. This section provides valuable guidance on how to structure and write a successful research paper that showcases your understanding of this significant historical period. By following these ten tips, you can craft a compelling and insightful paper on the Great Depression.

• Formulate a Clear Thesis Statement : Start your research paper with a clear and concise thesis statement that articulates the main argument or focus of your study. The thesis statement should guide your research and provide a roadmap for your paper, ensuring coherence and direction throughout.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Engage in thorough research to gather relevant and reliable sources that support your thesis statement. Utilize primary and secondary sources to gain a comprehensive understanding of the Great Depression, its causes, impact, and historical context. Take notes and organize your research material for easy reference.
• Analyze Primary and Secondary Sources : Carefully analyze the primary and secondary sources you have collected. Critically evaluate the credibility, biases, and limitations of each source. Extract key information and evidence that supports your thesis and provides a robust foundation for your arguments.
• Outline Your Paper : Create a clear and detailed outline that serves as a roadmap for your research paper. Organize your main points, arguments, and supporting evidence in a logical and coherent manner. The outline will help you maintain focus, structure your paper, and ensure a smooth flow of ideas.
• Develop a Strong Introduction : Craft an engaging introduction that captures the reader’s attention and provides context for your research. Clearly state your thesis statement and provide a brief overview of the main points you will discuss in your paper. Set the tone for your research and highlight the significance of studying the Great Depression.
• Present a Coherent Argument : Structure your paper around a well-developed argument that supports your thesis statement. Present your main points in a logical sequence, providing evidence and analysis to support each claim. Ensure that your arguments flow smoothly and are interconnected, building a coherent narrative throughout your paper.
• Analyze Primary and Secondary Sources : Integrate your analysis of primary and secondary sources into your research paper. Use direct quotes, paraphrasing, and summarization techniques to incorporate evidence from your sources. Analyze the sources critically, demonstrating your ability to interpret and evaluate historical material.
• Provide Historical Context : Situate your research within the historical context of the Great Depression. Provide background information, discuss relevant events, policies, and social conditions that influenced the period. Help your readers understand the broader significance of your research and its relationship to the historical context.
• Use Clear and Concise Language : Write in a clear and concise manner, avoiding unnecessary jargon or complex language. Ensure that your ideas are easily understandable and your arguments are well-articulated. Use proper grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure to enhance the clarity and readability of your paper.
• Conclude with a Strong Summary : End your research paper with a strong and concise summary that restates your thesis statement and highlights the key findings of your study. Emphasize the significance of your research and its contribution to the understanding of the Great Depression. Reflect on the implications and broader lessons that can be drawn from your analysis.

Writing a research paper on the Great Depression requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective communication of your findings. By formulating a clear thesis statement, conducting in-depth research, and analyzing primary and secondary sources, you can develop a strong foundation for your paper. Organizing your thoughts with a well-structured outline, crafting an engaging introduction, and presenting a coherent argument will ensure a compelling and insightful research paper. Remember to provide historical context, use clear and concise language, and conclude with a strong summary that highlights the significance of your research. By following these ten tips, you will be well-prepared to write a comprehensive and impactful research paper on the Great Depression.

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Great Depression History

By: History.com Editors

Updated: October 20, 2023 | Original: October 29, 2009

The Great Depression was the worst economic crisis in modern history, lasting from 1929 until the beginning of World War II in 1939. The causes of the Great Depression included slowing consumer demand, mounting consumer debt, decreased industrial production and the rapid and reckless expansion of the U.S. stock market. When the stock market crashed in October 1929, it triggered a crisis in the international economy, which was linked via the gold standard. A rash of bank failures followed in 1930, and as the Dust Bowl increased the number of farm foreclosures, unemployment topped 20 percent by 1933. Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt tried to stimulate the economy with a range of incentives including Roosevelt’s New Deal programs, but ultimately it took the manufacturing production increases of World War II to end the Great Depression.

What Caused the Great Depression?

Throughout the 1920s, the U.S. economy expanded rapidly, and the nation’s total wealth more than doubled between 1920 and 1929, a period dubbed “ the Roaring Twenties .”

The stock market, centered at the New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street in New York City , was the scene of reckless speculation, where everyone from millionaire tycoons to cooks and janitors poured their savings into stocks. As a result, the stock market underwent rapid expansion, reaching its peak in August 1929.

By then, production had already declined and unemployment had risen, leaving stock prices much higher than their actual value. Additionally, wages at that time were low, consumer debt was proliferating, the agricultural sector of the economy was struggling due to drought and falling food prices and banks had an excess of large loans that could not be liquidated.

The American economy entered a mild recession during the summer of 1929, as consumer spending slowed and unsold goods began to pile up, which in turn slowed factory production. Nonetheless, stock prices continued to rise, and by the fall of that year had reached stratospheric levels that could not be justified by expected future earnings.

Stock Market Crash of 1929

On October 24, 1929, as nervous investors began selling overpriced shares en masse, the stock market crash that some had feared happened at last. A record 12.9 million shares were traded that day, known as “Black Thursday.”

Five days later, on October 29, or “Black Tuesday,” some 16 million shares were traded after another wave of panic swept Wall Street. Millions of shares ended up worthless, and those investors who had bought stocks “on margin” (with borrowed money) were wiped out completely.

As consumer confidence vanished in the wake of the stock market crash, the downturn in spending and investment led factories and other businesses to slow down production and begin firing their workers. For those who were lucky enough to remain employed, wages fell and buying power decreased.

Many Americans forced to buy on credit fell into debt, and the number of foreclosures and repossessions climbed steadily. The global adherence to the gold standard , which joined countries around the world in fixed currency exchange, helped spread economic woes from the United States throughout the world, especially in Europe.

Bank Runs and the Hoover Administration

Despite assurances from President Herbert Hoover and other leaders that the crisis would run its course, matters continued to get worse over the next three years. By 1930, 4 million Americans looking for work could not find it; that number had risen to 6 million in 1931.

Meanwhile, the country’s industrial production had dropped by half. Bread lines, soup kitchens and rising numbers of homeless people became more and more common in America’s towns and cities. Farmers couldn’t afford to harvest their crops and were forced to leave them rotting in the fields while people elsewhere starved. In 1930, severe droughts in the Southern Plains brought high winds and dust from Texas to Nebraska, killing people, livestock and crops. The “ Dust Bowl ” inspired a mass migration of people from farmland to cities in search of work.

In the fall of 1930, the first of four waves of banking panics began, as large numbers of investors lost confidence in the solvency of their banks and demanded deposits in cash, forcing banks to liquidate loans in order to supplement their insufficient cash reserves on hand.

Bank runs swept the United States again in the spring and fall of 1931 and the fall of 1932, and by early 1933 thousands of banks had closed their doors.

In the face of this dire situation, Hoover’s administration tried supporting failing banks and other institutions with government loans; the idea was that the banks in turn would loan to businesses, which would be able to hire back their employees.

FDR and the Great Depression

Hoover, a Republican who had formerly served as U.S. secretary of commerce, believed that government should not directly intervene in the economy and that it did not have the responsibility to create jobs or provide economic relief for its citizens.

In 1932, however, with the country mired in the depths of the Great Depression and some 15 million people unemployed, Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt won an overwhelming victory in the presidential election.

By Inauguration Day (March 4, 1933), every U.S. state had ordered all remaining banks to close at the end of the fourth wave of banking panics, and the U.S. Treasury didn’t have enough cash to pay all government workers. Nonetheless, FDR (as he was known) projected a calm energy and optimism, famously declaring "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”

Roosevelt took immediate action to address the country’s economic woes, first announcing a four-day “bank holiday” during which all banks would close so that Congress could pass reform legislation and reopen those banks determined to be sound. He also began addressing the public directly over the radio in a series of talks, and these so-called “ fireside chats ” went a long way toward restoring public confidence.

During Roosevelt’s first 100 days in office, his administration passed legislation that aimed to stabilize industrial and agricultural production, create jobs and stimulate recovery.

In addition, Roosevelt sought to reform the financial system, creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ( FDIC ) to protect depositors’ accounts and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to regulate the stock market and prevent abuses of the kind that led to the 1929 crash.

The New Deal: A Road to Recovery

Among the programs and institutions of the New Deal that aided in recovery from the Great Depression was the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) , which built dams and hydroelectric projects to control flooding and provide electric power to the impoverished Tennessee Valley region, and the Works Progress Administration (WPA) , a permanent jobs program that employed 8.5 million people from 1935 to 1943.

When the Great Depression began, the United States was the only industrialized country in the world without some form of unemployment insurance or social security. In 1935, Congress passed the Social Security Act , which for the first time provided Americans with unemployment, disability and pensions for old age.

After showing early signs of recovery beginning in the spring of 1933, the economy continued to improve throughout the next three years, during which real GDP (adjusted for inflation) grew at an average rate of 9 percent per year.

A sharp recession hit in 1937, caused in part by the Federal Reserve’s decision to increase its requirements for money in reserve. Though the economy began improving again in 1938, this second severe contraction reversed many of the gains in production and employment and prolonged the effects of the Great Depression through the end of the decade.

Depression-era hardships fueled the rise of extremist political movements in various European countries, most notably that of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime in Germany. German aggression led war to break out in Europe in 1939, and the WPA turned its attention to strengthening the military infrastructure of the United States, even as the country maintained its neutrality.

African Americans in the Great Depression

One-fifth of all Americans receiving federal relief during the Great Depression were Black, most in the rural South. But farm and domestic work, two major sectors in which Black workers were employed, were not included in the 1935 Social Security Act, meaning there was no safety net in times of uncertainty. Rather than fire domestic help, private employers could simply pay them less without legal repercussions. And those relief programs for which African Americans were eligible on paper were rife with discrimination in practice since all relief programs were administered locally.

Despite these obstacles, Roosevelt’s “Black Cabinet,” led by Mary McLeod Bethune , ensured nearly every New Deal agency had a Black advisor. The number of African Americans working in government tripled .

Women in the Great Depression

There was one group of Americans who actually gained jobs during the Great Depression: Women. From 1930 to 1940, the number of employed women in the United States rose 24 percent from 10.5 million to 13 million Though they’d been steadily entering the workforce for decades, the financial pressures of the Great Depression drove women to seek employment in ever greater numbers as male breadwinners lost their jobs. The 22 percent decline in marriage rates between 1929 and 1939 also created an increase in single women in search of employment.

Women during the Great Depression had a strong advocate in First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt , who lobbied her husband for more women in office—like Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins , the first woman to ever hold a cabinet position.

Jobs available to women paid less but were more stable during the banking crisis: nursing, teaching and domestic work. They were supplanted by an increase in secretarial roles in FDR’s rapidly-expanding government. But there was a catch: over 25 percent of the National Recovery Administration’s wage codes set lower wages for women, and jobs created under the WPA confined women to fields like sewing and nursing that paid less than roles reserved for men.

Married women faced an additional hurdle: By 1940, 26 states had placed restrictions known as marriage bars on their employment, as working wives were perceived as taking away jobs from able-bodied men—even if, in practice, they were occupying jobs men would not want and doing them for far less pay.

Great Depression Ends and World War II Begins

With Roosevelt’s decision to support Britain and France in the struggle against Germany and the other Axis Powers, defense manufacturing geared up, producing more and more private-sector jobs.

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 led to America’s entry into World War II, and the nation’s factories went back into full production mode.

This expanding industrial production, as well as widespread conscription beginning in 1942, reduced the unemployment rate to below its pre-Depression level. The Great Depression had ended at last, and the United States turned its attention to the global conflict of World War II.

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Module 8: The Great Depression (1929-1932)

Introduction to life in the great depression, what you’ll learn to do: describe the lived experiences of many americans during the great depression.

Figure 1. A farmer during the Great Depression

The Great Depression affected huge segments of the American population—sixty million people by one estimate. But certain groups were hit harder than the rest. African Americans faced discrimination in finding employment, as White workers sought low-wage jobs like housecleaning. Southern Black people moved away from their farms as crop prices failed, migrating en masse to Northern cities, which had little to offer them. Rural Americans were also badly hit. The eight-year drought that began shortly after the stock market crash exacerbated farmers’ and ranchers’ problems. The cultivation of greater amounts of acreage in the preceding decades meant that land was badly overworked, and the drought led to massive and terrible dust storms, creating the region’s nickname, the Dust Bowl. Some farmers tried to remain and buy up more land as neighbors went broke; others simply fled their failed farms and moved away, often to the large-scale migrant farms found in California, to search for a better life that few ever found. Maltreated by Californians who resented the competition for jobs that these “Okies” represented, many of the Dust Bowl farmers were left aimless and wandering.

There was very little in the way of public assistance to help the poor. While private charities did what they could, the scale of the problem was too large for them to have any lasting effects. People learned to survive as best they could by sending their children out to beg, sharing clothing, and scrounging wood to feed the furnace. Those who could afford it turned to motion pictures for escape. Movies and books during the Great Depression reflected the shift in American cultural norms, away from rugged individualism and toward a more community-based lifestyle.

• US History. Provided by : OpenStax. Located at : http://openstaxcollege.org/textbooks/us-history . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/us-history/pages/1-introduction
• Great Depression Farmer. Authored by : Russell Lee. Located at : https://loc.getarchive.net/media/untitled-photo-possibly-related-to-food-storage-beginning-to-pour-concrete-bfe7b0 . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Roosevelt’s New Deal and the Great Depression Research Paper

Introduction, prerequisites of the new deal implementation, the essence of the new deal, new deal analysis, the new deal in the context of the great depression.

After the inauguration in 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt urgently took the course for the new deal, that was aimed to overcome the consequences of the Great Depression. It was the series of economic and social programs that were planned for the period 1933 to 1936. The First New Deal, which took place in 1933, included the banking reforms (including the reformation of the Banking Law), the emergency relief programs, work relief plans, agricultural reforms, and industrial reform. The plan also included the refuse from the gold standard.

A “Second New Deal”, that took place in 1935-1936 included labor union maintenance. The necessity to support the society, and expand the Security reasoned the issuing of the Social Security act, the promotion of the programs for farmers, including migrant workers. The New Deal ended with the beginning of World War Two when the other national priorities appeared.

It should be emphasized, that the New Deal provided the essential shift in external and internal politics in the US. The changes also touched upon the price regulation and the control of agricultural production. The New Deal is regarded to be the beginning of the further complex social programs and wider acceptance of trade unions.

The crash of the stock market in 1929 first was regarded as the beginning of the end, as it provided complex problems in the economy of the United States but it is not considered as the only cause of the Great Depression. The stock market crash just made the holes in the superficial prosperity of the United States more obvious. As the causes of the downfall in the economy were complicated, the solution to the multifaceted scenario confronted by the Americans was also complex enough. (Barnanke 2004).

American people sought to search for the reasons and responsible elements for the economic collapse. While one part of the American citizens regarded President Hoover as the major player in economic downfall, others blamed bankers, businesspersons, and brokers- “the three B’s”- as responsible for the collapse. However, a group of people or a single individual cannot be accused of the reasons for the Great Depression. To understand the mechanism of the New Deal by President Roosevelt and its impact on the economy, it is pertinent to highlight the circumstances prevailing at that time as well as the economic conditions of that era.

A major phenomenon existing at that time was the unequal distribution of income. Despite the continuous rise in wages, there was an inequality in income. The incredible accumulation of wealth in the hands of just a few individuals eventually meant that sustained economic prosperity was much reliant upon lavish expenditures and the high investment of the wealthy group. As such, during economic downfall and the market crash resulted in a fall in investment and spending.

On average two banks closed every day during 1923 1929. Still, up to the crash of the stock market in 1929, the country’s inevitable affluence supported and covered the potentially destructive flaws in the banking system of the United States of America. (Barnanke 2004).

The nation was transformed into a creditor nation from a debtor nation as a consequence of World War I. The victorious Allies as well as the defeated Powers, in the outcomes of the war, owed more money to the United States as compared to foreign countries. The Republican government during the 1920s persisted on gold bullion payments but the supply of gold in the world was limited. Moreover, at the end of the 1920s, most of the gold supply in the world was controlled by the United States. However, high tariffs along with protectionism resulted in keeping foreign goods away from U.S.

The unemployment rate increased from 4% to 25% from 1929 – 1933. The manufacturing and production rates were reduced by approximately a third. The falling of the prices caused the deflation of the currency rates that complicated the repayments of debts. The crisis mainly touched the farming, agriculture, and industry, while the white-collar service sectors were not so severely touched.

The New Deal approach essentially increased the involvement of the government in economic affairs. The Depression aggravated during the months before Roosevelt’s inauguration. Farm foreclosures, bank failures, and factory closings increased. Moreover, the level of unemployment soared. As such President, Roosevelt confronted the greatest economic crisis in the history of the United States since the Civil War.

A ‘New Deal’, pledged by Franklin D. Roosevelt in his election campaign and the inaugural address, focused on alleviating emergencies and supporting the recovery of the economy. Roosevelt provided swift actions to implement his New Deal. He closed banks for some time to end panic in the depositors. He collaborated with a special Congress session in the phase of the first 100 days. The purpose was to pass recovery legislation for establishing alphabet agencies like ‘Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) and ‘Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). The main intention was to create employment opportunities, especially for the younger generation. Different other agencies supported labor and businesses. Moreover, they also provided security to depositors of banks, subsidized payments of a farm as well as home mortgages, and ensured regulation of the stock market. That was aimed to support and increase the overall employment level. The measures adopted and policies implemented under the New Deal approach revived the confidence in the nation’s economy. Direct relief saved people from starvation. However, the measures in New Deal involved government heavily in a direct way especially in the domain of economic and social life. The minimum working time standards were established, and the minimum wage was fixed. (Smilely, 2003).

Most of the significant institutions and laws that shape the basis of the U.S. contemporary financial system take their origin in the period of the New Deal. Legislation of the New Deal extended the authority of the Federal government in agriculture, public welfare, and banking.

During the 1930s, the American economy reached its bottom and experienced the stage of depression with unemployment soaring. A common fear existed that the economic and social basis of American society was facing a breakdown. Belief in the capitalist market was shattered as millions of unemployed people search for desperate ways to ensure their families’ subsistence.

President Roosevelt, as per his pledge to restore economic activities and transform the economy from Depression to prosperity embarked on a variety of exceptional experiments in the year 1933. These exclusive experiments in the cover of the ‘New Deal’ altered the relationships between the economy, businesses, banks, and the government. It also changed the nature of coordination among local, state, and federal governments.

The focus of the New Deal was the payment of billions of dollars for the funds for supporting work relief jobs. Moreover, it is also intended to provide relief to American citizens throughout the nation without any discrimination. For the first time in the history of the United States, the Federal government intervened in the economic activities by assuming the responsibilities of supporting the poor and unemployed. The New Deal by President Roosevelt revolutionized the economy. It also supported welfare spending in the short term as well as long term. At the most fundamental level, the relief programs of the New Deal accomplished the basic aim of providing seriously-needed income to individuals with no apparent prospects and opportunities for private employment.

As it was emphasized, Roosevelt’s New Deal may be segregated into two parts; the ‘First’ New Deal; and the ‘Second’ New Deal. The key aim of the ‘First’ New Deal was restoring the economy from the top. In 1933 ‘The Agricultural Adjustment Act’ entered its first phase, which acknowledged the long-sustained principle that low level of prices in the farm was the consequence of overproduction. Therefore, the government searched for ways to stimulate high prices by making payments to produce at low level.

The period of the Second New Deal ranges from 1935 to 1940 and focused to restore the economy at the bottom line. It endeavored to end the Depression through distinctive ways including spending at the base of the economy where funding by the government attempts for transforming non-consumers to become consumers again. ‘The Works Progress Administration’ was an enormous program of federal jobs aimed to employ unemployed breadwinners to strengthen the comfort and welfare of their families along with stimulating consumer demand. (Powell, 2004).

The Social Security Act in 1935 established and ensured a moderate worker-funded pension system guaranteed by the Federal government. Social Security proved to be successful in performing as a safety net for elderly workers and stimulating consumer demand. The impact of the National Labor Relations Act in the year 1935 was massive as it guaranteed the collective negotiation rights for American workers. A significant instance of the ‘Second’ New Deal was its endeavor to restore and reinstate the economy of the United States from the bottom up.

Roosevelt is regarded by most historians and experts as a pragmatic politician but not as an idealist or intellectual. New Deal served as a precedent for the Federal government to assume a primary role in the social and economic affairs of the nation. (Sowell, 2007) The New Deal catalyzed the extension of activities by trade unions in different industries including rubber, automobiles, and steel. Comprehensive programs and institutions that seem indispensable in the modern economy were established.

The Agriculture Adjustment Act was created to support American farmers by sustaining prices and restricting overproduction. ‘Civilian Conservation Corps’ was designed and operated under the supervision and control of the army. The Securities and Exchange Commission was aimed to supervise the affairs related to the stock market. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation’s major objective was to guarantee to pay out the deposits at banks. The Social Security System was established to provide pensions to old-age citizens based on their prior contributions.

FDR’s New Deal had practically supported improving the general standards of lives suffered from the disastrous effects of the Great Depression. Further the programs of the New Deal served as a precedent, particularly for the federal government to assume a primary role in the social and economic affairs of the nation.

The New Deal regulations and principles took their origin from the ideas, offered only in the 20th century. All these ideas and the entire program were innovative. However, some historians consider6, that some principles (like Antimonopoly traditions) were innovated by Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson. It is argued, that monopolies were a negative financial impact, as they produced waste and undermined competence. However, the anti-monopoly commission never had essential power during the implementation of the New Deal course. The National Recovery administration took the ideas from Woodrow Wilson’s administration policies. This agency advocated the techniques, that were used during World War I. Nevertheless, the rest (and the most) of the ideas were first originated in the 1920s: these are the efforts to harmonize the financial system by creating cooperative relations, and the principles of banking system regulation.

Roosevelt created the system that is currently called the Brain Trust: it is a group of advisers that are claimed to assist in the recovery efforts. The solutions, taken by these advisers are generally more extensive for the economic regulation.

It is necessary to emphasize, that the New Deal also faced some conservative opposition. The opposition groups were predominantly formed by the democrats and called the Old Right. Though, there were also the Republicans.

As it has been emphasized, the starting point of the Great Depression was the Stock Market crash, which led to the financial crisis, the increase of the unemployment rates, and, consequently to the bankruptcy of farmers and industrialists. Soon, after the inauguration, Franklin Roosevelt proclaimed the implementation of the New Deal and started regulating the consequences of the crisis. The fact is that he killed two birds with a single stone: to restore and expand the infrastructure on the continent he claimed, that all unemployed agreed to work on the buildings of roads, connecting Eastern and Western parts of the USA. This decision was backed by the setting of the standards of minimal working days and minimal salary. Originally, the necessity to restore the infrastructure was not the highest, however, this decision may be regarded as rather rational, taking into account the increasing bankruptcy rates.

The farmers were granted the receiving of long-term credits in the order they could restore their farms and buy the necessary equipment. The fact is that the restoration of the banking system did not take much time, as only the hugest and the most stable banks left working after Roosevelt decided to close all the banks for some time: this looked like the natural selection, as most banks could not bear the inactivity period. The farmers got their credits and started restoring the agricultural sector.

It is stated, that the white-collar service sector was not severely hurt by the Depression, and the financial crisis, however, it also experienced essential troubles. To grant work for the white-collars, Franklin Roosevelt started creating different committees, and every committee was devoted to some particular problem or sphere. However, the committees also required financial support. Thus, the Work-Relief Agency got up to $11 billion for the period 1935-1943, and WPA provided up to 8 million jobs for this period.

As for the effectiveness of the New Deal, it should be mentioned, that historians express no doubt, that it helped to overcome the Great Depression. The economists, in their turn, are not so certain, and some of them argue, that it only worsened the Depression. Thus, the survey showed, that 51% of the economists agreed on the effectiveness of the New Deal. As for historians, 73% agreed.

The creation of the New Deal Coalition was the necessary step for overcoming the Depression crisis. It consisted of poor labor people, mainly the white southerners. They perfectly knew what people wanted from the presidential administration, and were able to formulate these requirements for the following law projects. The fact is that the people that entered this coalition were not professional financial experts, law experts, or even social workers. They were just the representatives of the masses, that is why this coalition is the subject of numerous arguments.

The New Deal promised by Roosevelt to the Americans was aimed at ending depression. In the early days of his presidency, the administration of Roosevelt initiated a passage of different laws related to banking reforms, relief programs for lifting emergencies along different other agricultural and work relief programs. (Mcelvaine, 1993) FDR’s New Deal practically supported improving the general standards of lives suffered from the disastrous effects of the Great Depression.

Moreover, in the long run, the programs of the New Deal served as a precedent, particularly for the federal government to assume a primary role in the social and economic affairs of the nation. (Sowell, 2007) It could be concluded, based on arguments presented in the paper, that FDR’s New Deal was successful in pulling the economy from Great Depression and has a perpetual impact on the economy of the United States.

Barnanke, B (2004) Essays on the Great Depression. Princeton University Press.

Bernanke has included a collection of essays in his book. He is a scrupulous and careful econometrician in his argumentative discussion about the decline of the economy after the Great Depression. He has provided a complete overview of the macroeconomics of the Great Depression.

McEclvaine, R (1993) The Great Depression: American 1929-1941. Three Rivers Press.

Robert McEclvaine’s description of the cultural shock and economic collapse brought by the Great Depression is presented in the book. The author has stated the responses of Roosevelt and Hoover that shaped the modern-day anticipations of the role played by the federal government in the daily routine lives of people. The book specifically deals with the events after World War I and events involving U.S in World War II.

Powell, J (2004) FDR’s Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great” Depression Three Rivers Press.

Jim Powell focuses on the effects of major policies implemented by Roosevelt. Powell has portrayed the sketches of the major players also. He has discussed the Social Security System about unemployment and the phenomenon of higher taxes as well as new labor laws along with their impact.

Smilely, G (2003) Rethinking the Great Depression. Ivan R. Dee, Publisher.

Gene Smiley has endeavored to link the events of the Great Depression with overproduction, inequality of wealth, and speculation in the stock market. These along with some other causes led to the New Deal implementation. These events have been investigated and their effects have been presented in the book.

Smith, Jean (2008) FDR. Random House Trade Paperbacks.

Smith is a renowned and independent biographer. He has magnificently presented a biography of one of the significant Presidents of the United States. Scores of articles and books have already been written about Roosevelt but the expressive blend of the complex life of FDR has been presented in an elaborative way

Sowell, T (2007) Economic Facts and Fallacies. Basic Books.

Thomas Sowell in economic Facts and Fallacies has attempted to expose some of the famous fallacies regarding economic issues and has included many beliefs disseminated in the mass media by politicians. Sowell has published popular and scholarly articles on economics and some interesting facts and figures about Great Depression.

Zelizer, J. E. (2000). The Forgotten Legacy of the New Deal: Fiscal Conservatism and the Roosevelt Administration, 1933-1938. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 30 (2), 331.

Julian Zelizer aimed to analyze the New Deal Approaches from the viewpoint of the current economic affairs and difficulties. The book entails the analysis of the origins of the New Deal approaches, studies the innovations, and offers the comparison with the contemporary approaches.

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IvyPanda. (2021, October 4). Roosevelt's New Deal and the Great Depression. https://ivypanda.com/essays/roosevelts-new-deal-and-the-great-depression/

"Roosevelt's New Deal and the Great Depression." IvyPanda , 4 Oct. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/roosevelts-new-deal-and-the-great-depression/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Roosevelt's New Deal and the Great Depression'. 4 October.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Roosevelt's New Deal and the Great Depression." October 4, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/roosevelts-new-deal-and-the-great-depression/.

1. IvyPanda . "Roosevelt's New Deal and the Great Depression." October 4, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/roosevelts-new-deal-and-the-great-depression/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Roosevelt's New Deal and the Great Depression." October 4, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/roosevelts-new-deal-and-the-great-depression/.

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