comprehensive essay about climate change

Climate Change Essay for Students and Children

500+ words climate change essay.

Climate change refers to the change in the environmental conditions of the earth. This happens due to many internal and external factors. The climatic change has become a global concern over the last few decades. Besides, these climatic changes affect life on the earth in various ways. These climatic changes are having various impacts on the ecosystem and ecology. Due to these changes, a number of species of plants and animals have gone extinct.

When Did it Start?

The climate started changing a long time ago due to human activities but we came to know about it in the last century. During the last century, we started noticing the climatic change and its effect on human life. We started researching on climate change and came to know that the earth temperature is rising due to a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. The warming up of earth surface causes many ozone depletion, affect our agriculture , water supply, transportation, and several other problems.

Reason Of Climate Change

Although there are hundreds of reason for the climatic change we are only going to discuss the natural and manmade (human) reasons.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Natural Reasons

These include volcanic eruption , solar radiation, tectonic plate movement, orbital variations. Due to these activities, the geographical condition of an area become quite harmful for life to survive. Also, these activities raise the temperature of the earth to a great extent causing an imbalance in nature.

Human Reasons

Man due to his need and greed has done many activities that not only harm the environment but himself too. Many plant and animal species go extinct due to human activity. Human activities that harm the climate include deforestation, using fossil fuel , industrial waste , a different type of pollution and many more. All these things damage the climate and ecosystem very badly. And many species of animals and birds got extinct or on a verge of extinction due to hunting.

Effects Of Climatic Change

These climatic changes have a negative impact on the environment. The ocean level is rising, glaciers are melting, CO2 in the air is increasing, forest and wildlife are declining, and water life is also getting disturbed due to climatic changes. Apart from that, it is calculated that if this change keeps on going then many species of plants and animals will get extinct. And there will be a heavy loss to the environment.

What will be Future?

If we do not do anything and things continue to go on like right now then a day in future will come when humans will become extinct from the surface of the earth. But instead of neglecting these problems we start acting on then we can save the earth and our future.

Although humans mistake has caused great damage to the climate and ecosystem. But, it is not late to start again and try to undo what we have done until now to damage the environment. And if every human start contributing to the environment then we can be sure of our existence in the future.

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Essay on Climate Change: Check Samples in 100, 250 Words

• Updated on  
• Sep 21, 2023

Writing an essay on climate change is crucial to raise awareness and advocate for action. The world is facing environmental challenges, so in a situation like this such essay topics can serve as s platform to discuss the causes, effects, and solutions to this pressing issue. They offer an opportunity to engage readers in understanding the urgency of mitigating climate change for the sake of our planet’s future.

Must Read: Essay On Environment  

Table of Contents

• 1 What Is Climate Change?
• 2 What are the Causes of Climate Change?
• 3 What are the effects of Climate Change?
• 4 How to fight climate change?
• 5 Essay On Climate Change in 100 Words
• 6 Climate Change Sample Essay 250 Words

What Is Climate Change?

Climate change is the significant variation of average weather conditions becoming, for example, warmer, wetter, or drier—over several decades or longer. It may be natural or anthropogenic. However, in recent times, it’s been in the top headlines due to escalations caused by human interference.

What are the Causes of Climate Change?

Obama at the First Session of COP21 rightly quoted “We are the first generation to feel the impact of climate change, and the last generation that can do something about it.”.Identifying the causes of climate change is the first step to take in our fight against climate change. Below stated are some of the causes of climate change:

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Mainly from burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy and transportation.
• Deforestation: The cutting down of trees reduces the planet’s capacity to absorb carbon dioxide.
• Industrial Processes: Certain manufacturing activities release potent greenhouse gases.
• Agriculture: Livestock and rice cultivation emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas.

What are the effects of Climate Change?

Climate change poses a huge risk to almost all life forms on Earth. The effects of climate change are listed below:

• Global Warming: Increased temperatures due to trapped heat from greenhouse gases.
• Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels: Ice caps and glaciers melt, causing oceans to rise.
• Extreme Weather Events: More frequent and severe hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires.
• Ocean Acidification: Oceans absorb excess CO2, leading to more acidic waters harming marine life.
• Disrupted Ecosystems: Shifting climate patterns disrupt habitats and threaten biodiversity.
• Food and Water Scarcity: Altered weather affects crop yields and strains water resources.
• Human Health Risks: Heat-related illnesses and the spread of diseases.
• Economic Impact: Damage to infrastructure and increased disaster-related costs.
• Migration and Conflict: Climate-induced displacement and resource competition.

How to fight climate change?

‘Climate change is a terrible problem, and it absolutely needs to be solved. It deserves to be a huge priority,’ says Bill Gates. The below points highlight key actions to combat climate change effectively.

• Energy Efficiency: Improve energy efficiency in all sectors.
• Protect Forests: Stop deforestation and promote reforestation.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Adopt eco-friendly farming practices.
• Advocacy: Raise awareness and advocate for climate-friendly policies.
• Innovation: Invest in green technologies and research.
• Government Policies: Enforce climate-friendly regulations and targets.
• Corporate Responsibility: Encourage sustainable business practices.
• Individual Action: Reduce personal carbon footprint and inspire others.

Essay On Climate Change in 100 Words

Climate change refers to long-term alterations in Earth’s climate patterns, primarily driven by human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, which release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat, leading to global warming. The consequences of climate change are widespread and devastating. Rising temperatures cause polar ice caps to melt, contributing to sea level rise and threatening coastal communities. Extreme weather events, like hurricanes and wildfires, become more frequent and severe, endangering lives and livelihoods. Additionally, shifts in weather patterns can disrupt agriculture, leading to food shortages. To combat climate change, global cooperation, renewable energy adoption, and sustainable practices are crucial for a more sustainable future.

Must Read: Essay On Global Warming

Climate Change Sample Essay 250 Words

Climate change represents a pressing global challenge that demands immediate attention and concerted efforts. Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This results in a greenhouse effect, trapping heat and leading to a rise in global temperatures, commonly referred to as global warming.

The consequences of climate change are far-reaching and profound. Rising sea levels threaten coastal communities, displacing millions and endangering vital infrastructure. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires, have become more frequent and severe, causing devastating economic and human losses. Disrupted ecosystems affect biodiversity and the availability of vital resources, from clean water to agricultural yields.

Moreover, climate change has serious implications for food and water security. Changing weather patterns disrupt traditional farming practices and strain freshwater resources, potentially leading to conflicts over access to essential commodities.

Addressing climate change necessitates a multifaceted approach. First, countries must reduce their greenhouse gas emissions through the transition to renewable energy sources, increased energy efficiency, and reforestation efforts. International cooperation is crucial to set emission reduction targets and hold nations accountable for meeting them.

In conclusion, climate change is a global crisis with profound and immediate consequences. Urgent action is needed to mitigate its impacts and secure a sustainable future for our planet. By reducing emissions and implementing adaptation strategies, we can protect vulnerable communities, preserve ecosystems, and ensure a livable planet for future generations. The time to act is now.

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in Earth’s climate patterns, primarily driven by human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation.

Five key causes of climate change include excessive greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, notably burning fossil fuels and deforestation. 

We hope this blog gave you an idea about how to write and present an essay on climate change that puts forth your opinions. The skill of writing an essay comes in handy when appearing for standardized language tests. Thinking of taking one soon? Leverage Edu provides the best online test prep for the same via Leverage Live . Register today to know more!

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Essay on Climate Change

Climate Change Essay - The globe is growing increasingly sensitive to climate change. It is currently a serious worldwide concern. The term "Climate Change" describes changes to the earth's climate. It explains the atmospheric changes that have occurred across time, spanning from decades to millions of years. Here are some sample essays on climate change.

100 Words Essay on Climate Change

200 words essay on climate change, 500 words essay on climate change.

The climatic conditions on Earth are changing due to climate change. Several internal and external variables, such as solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, volcanic eruptions, plate tectonics, etc., are to blame for this.

There are strategies for climate change reduction. If not implemented, the weather might get worse, there might be water scarcity, there could be lower agricultural output, and it might affect people's ability to make a living. In order to breathe clean air and drink pure water, you must concentrate on limiting human activity. These are the simple measures that may be taken to safeguard the environment and its resources.

The climate of the Earth has changed significantly over time. While some of these changes were brought on by natural events like volcanic eruptions, floods, forest fires, etc., many of the changes were brought on by human activity. The burning of fossil fuels, domesticating livestock, and other human activities produce a significant quantity of greenhouse gases. This results in an increase of greenhouse effect and global warming which are the major causes for climate change.

Reasons of Climate Change

Some of the reasons of climate change are:

Deforestation

Excessive use of fossil fuels

Water and soil pollution

Plastic and other non biodegradable waste

Wildlife and nature extinction

Consequences of Climate Change

All kinds of life on earth will be affected by climate change if it continues to change at the same pace. The earth's temperature will increase, the monsoon patterns will shift, the sea level will rise, and there will be more frequent storms, volcano eruptions, and other natural calamities. The earth's biological and ecological equilibrium will be disturbed. Humans won't be able to access clean water or air to breathe when the environment becomes contaminated. The end of life on this earth is imminent. To reduce the issue of climate change, we need to bring social awareness along with strict measures to protect and preserve the natural environment.

A shift in the world's climatic pattern is referred to as climate change. Over the centuries, the climate pattern of our planet has undergone modifications. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has significantly grown.

When Did Climate Change Begin

It is possible to see signs of climate change as early as the beginning of the industrial revolution. The pace at which the manufacturers produced things on a large scale required a significant amount of raw materials. Since the raw materials being transformed into finished products now have such huge potential for profit, these business models have spread quickly over the world. Hazardous substances and chemicals build up in the environment as a result of company emissions and waste disposal.

Although climate change is a natural occurrence, it is evident that human activity is turning into the primary cause of the current climate change situation. The major cause is the growing population. Natural resources are utilised more and more as a result of the population's fast growth placing a heavy burden on the available resources. Over time, as more and more products and services are created, pollution will eventually increase.

Causes of Climate Change

There are a number of factors that have contributed towards weather change in the past and continue to do so. Let us look at a few:

Solar Radiation |The climate of earth is determined by how quickly the sun's energy is absorbed and distributed throughout space. This energy is transmitted throughout the world by the winds, ocean currents etc which affects the climatic conditions of the world. Changes in solar intensity have an effect on the world's climate.

Deforestation | The atmosphere's carbon dioxide is stored by trees. As a result of their destruction, carbon dioxide builds up more quickly since there are no trees to absorb it. Additionally, trees release the carbon they stored when we burn them.

Agriculture | Many kinds of greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere by growing crops and raising livestock. Animals, for instance, create methane, a greenhouse gas that is 30 times more potent than carbon dioxide. The nitrous oxide used in fertilisers is roughly 300 times more strong than carbon dioxide.

How to Prevent Climate Change

We need to look out for drastic steps to stop climate change since it is affecting the resources and life on our planet. We can stop climate change if the right solutions are put in place. Here are some strategies for reducing climate change:

Raising public awareness of climate change

Prohibiting tree-cutting and deforestation.

Ensure the surroundings are clean.

Refrain from using chemical fertilisers.

Water and other natural resource waste should be reduced.

Protect the animals and plants.

Purchase energy-efficient goods and equipment.

Increase the number of trees in the neighbourhood and its surroundings.

Follow the law and safeguard the environment's resources.

Reduce the amount of energy you use.

During the last few decades especially, climate change has grown to be of concern. Global concern has been raised over changes in the Earth's climatic pattern. The causes of climate change are numerous, as well as the effects of it and it is our responsibility as inhabitants of this planet to look after its well being and leave it in a better condition for future generations.

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Climate Change Essay in English- जलवायु परिवर्तन पर निबंध 1000 शब्दों में

Climate change is the term used to describe a bad change in the climate and its effects on Earth's living things. Get Climate change essay in English and Hindi in short and long form for students

Table of Contents

The abrupt change in the climate of the earth has given goosebumps to every sane person. One of the most important problems affecting our planet right now is climate change. This phenomenon is mainly attributed towards the Global Warming. The world gets warmer as a result of greenhouse gases being released into the atmosphere. Methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide are the main greenhouse gases. So, students are encouraged to know more about it and develop a scientific outlook towards climate change. That is why school ask their students to write an essay on climate change. In this article, we will learn how to write a climate change essay in English and Hindi along with sample examples.

Climate Change Essay

Climate Change Essay: We are currently dealing with a serious problem called climate change, which is caused by urbanization. Changes in climate are mostly caused by human activity. The combustion of fossil fuels for transportation, energy production, and other uses results in the atmospheric emission of copious amounts of greenhouse gases. Because trees collect carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, deforestation also plays a role in climate change. We are all concerned about the issue of climate change, and we are all affected by it. Scientists are still unsure about whether or not climate change is the only factor contributing to global warming. Due to the interconnected nature of the two issues, it can be challenging to distinguish between climate change and global warming. Controlling climate change needs to happen as soon as possible.

Here we, at adda247 are providing 10 lines of essays, short essays, and long essays on climate change.

Climate Change Essay UPSC

Introduction: Climate change is an unprecedented global crisis driven by human activities, primarily greenhouse gas emissions. Its far-reaching impacts threaten ecosystems, economies, and livelihoods worldwide. Urgent action is needed to mitigate its effects and build resilience for a sustainable future.

• Causes of Climate Change: Climate change is primarily caused by the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial processes, and agriculture. These activities release greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere, trapping heat and leading to global warming.
• Impacts of Climate Change: Climate change has dire consequences, including rising sea levels, extreme weather events, loss of biodiversity, disruptions in agricultural patterns, and water scarcity. Vulnerable communities, especially in developing nations, face the brunt of these impacts, exacerbating poverty and migration.
• Mitigation Strategies: Mitigating climate change requires collective efforts from governments, businesses, and individuals. Transitioning to renewable energy sources, promoting energy efficiency, afforestation, and adopting sustainable practices are crucial steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Conclusion: Addressing climate change demands immediate and comprehensive action at the global level. It necessitates international cooperation, innovative policies, and sustainable practices to preserve our planet for future generations. Taking up this challenge is not a choice but an ethical imperative for humanity’s survival.

Climate Change Essay in 10 Lines

• Climate change is a terrible threat to all living things on Earth.
• Since the environment has changed, the traditional meaning of the word “climate” has become meaningless. The timing of weather changes is unpredictable.
• Overuse of fossil fuels, deforestation, and the exploitation of all other natural resources are the main contributors to climate change.
• The effects of climate change are not pleasant; they include rising temperatures, glaciers melting, heavy rainfall, and frequent forest fires.
• Alarmingly, the Earth’s temperature is rising at a rate that, if it keeps going, will cause it to warm by 1 to 5 degrees Celsius within the next ten years.
• Affected negatively by climate change and global warming is agriculture.
• Climate change is significantly influenced by greenhouse gases.
• The ozone layer is decreasing day by day.
• Due to the near extinction of natural resources, we will soon need to switch to sustainable energy sources.
• The end is near if global warming and climate change are not stopped.

Climate Change Essay in 250 Words

Climate change, which is endangering life on Earth, is currently one of the most heavily debated issues worldwide. Climate change is the term used to describe a bad change in the climate and its effects on Earth’s living things. Over the last two million years, Earth’s climate has warmed, and climate change and global warming are to blame. Seasonal shifts are just one of the extreme effects of the unreasonable increase in air temperature. The main causes of global warming, which changes the climate, include deforestation, the use of fossil fuels, and other human activities.

The terrible climate changes brought on by global warming include forest fires, heavy rain, and glacier melting. In order to lead a peaceful and contented existence, we must stop global warming. The exploitation of the already-existing natural resources must stop immediately, and reforestation should be practised. In order for the planet to heal, serious problems like climate change and global warming must be addressed.

Climate Change Essay in 500 words for UPSC

According to the definition of climate, long-term periodic changes in the weather patterns that have been recorded for centuries are referred to as climate. Climate change results from the simultaneous occurrence of various changes on Earth since its creation. Climate change occurs in cycles; it began during a cooler ice age and is now much warmer than it was two million years ago. The Sun, which is the ultimate source of energy and continuously powers the weather system, is responsible for the millions of living things we see on Earth today.

To name a few major changes, the world is currently facing unjustified droughts, unpredictable weather patterns, sudden rains, and snowfall, there is a steady fluctuation in temperatures leading to tragedies like forest fires, and the weather is no longer predictable enough. The changes are unpredictable, and it is becoming more and more difficult to keep track of them. Both positive and negative effects of these changes on human lives are significant.

Since the beginning of evolution, mankind have continuously benefited from nature. This has produced Some of these include the high levels of carbon dioxide in the environment, other dangerous substances in the air and water, and the complete depletion of fossil fuels as a result of frequent use. Constant exploitation of natural resources and a lack of major action to improve the situation finally led to the buildup of hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Climate change also contributes to the ozone layer’s destruction from greenhouse gases.

These changes to the biosphere that humans have brought about are irreversible. All we can do is work to improve the biosphere as a place to live. Because it is expected that, due to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, Earth’s temperature would rise steadily over the next days, causing the extinction of life as we know it. The heat that should be emitted is trapped by greenhouse gases.

Essay on Climate Change and Its Impact

Climate change is an alarming global phenomenon that refers to long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns on Earth. It is primarily driven by human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial processes, and agriculture, leading to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. This essay delves into the devastating impact of climate change on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.

• Environmental Impact: (a) Global Warming: The Earth’s average temperature has been steadily rising, resulting in the melting of polar ice caps and glaciers. This contributes to rising sea levels, leading to coastal erosion and the inundation of low-lying areas, threatening millions of people living in coastal regions.

(b) Extreme Weather Events: Climate change intensifies extreme weather events such as hurricanes, cyclones, floods, and droughts. These events cause widespread destruction, loss of life, and exacerbate food and water scarcity.

(c) Disruption of Ecosystems: Climate change disrupts ecosystems and affects biodiversity. Many plant and animal species are facing extinction as they struggle to adapt to rapidly changing conditions.

• Impact on Agriculture: Climate change has far-reaching consequences for agriculture and food security. Changing weather patterns and more frequent extreme events disrupt crop production, leading to reduced yields and higher food prices. This affects livelihoods and puts vulnerable communities at risk of hunger and poverty.
• Water Scarcity: Global warming leads to altered precipitation patterns, causing uneven distribution of rainfall. Some regions experience severe droughts, while others face intense floods. The resulting water scarcity affects communities, agriculture, and industries, further exacerbating conflicts over water resources.
• Health Impacts: Climate change influences the spread of diseases like malaria, dengue, and Zika, as changing temperatures and rainfall patterns create more favorable conditions for disease vectors. Additionally, extreme heat events can lead to heat-related illnesses and deaths, particularly among vulnerable populations.

The impact of climate change is undeniable and poses a significant threat to our planet’s ecosystems, human societies, and future generations. Urgent and collective action is essential to combat this global crisis. Governments must commit to ambitious emission reduction targets, promote renewable energy, and implement sustainable policies. Individuals can play their part by adopting eco-friendly practices and supporting climate-friendly initiatives. Only by working together can we mitigate the impact of climate change and create a sustainable future for all living beings on Earth.

Climate Change in India Essay

Climate change is a pressing global issue affecting countries worldwide, and India is no exception. As one of the most populous and climate-vulnerable countries, India faces numerous challenges due to changing weather patterns, rising temperatures, and extreme weather events. This essay explores the impact of climate change on India and emphasizes the importance of collective efforts to address this critical issue.

Impact of Climate Change in India:

• Rising Temperatures: India is experiencing a steady increase in average temperatures, leading to more frequent and intense heatwaves. These heatwaves have severe consequences for human health, agriculture, and water resources, particularly in densely populated urban areas.
• Erratic Monsoons: Climate change disrupts the monsoon patterns, which are crucial for India’s agricultural productivity. Irregular monsoons lead to droughts or floods, affecting crop yields, food security, and livelihoods of millions of farmers.
• Glacier Melting: Himalayan glaciers, vital sources of water for major Indian rivers, are receding due to global warming. The loss of glacial meltwater impacts downstream communities, reducing water availability and increasing the risk of water scarcity in the future.
• Sea Level Rise: With a long coastline, India is highly vulnerable to rising sea levels caused by the melting of polar ice caps. Coastal erosion, salinization of freshwater sources, and the risk of submergence of low-lying coastal areas pose significant challenges to coastal communities.
• Biodiversity Loss: Climate change threatens India’s rich biodiversity. Rising temperatures and changing habitats lead to the loss of plant and animal species, impacting ecosystems and ecological balance.

Solutions to Address Climate Change in India:

• Renewable Energy: Transitioning to renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydro power, can significantly reduce India’s carbon footprint and dependency on fossil fuels.
• Afforestation and Reforestation: Promoting afforestation and reforestation initiatives can aid in carbon sequestration, enhance forest cover, and protect biodiversity.
• Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Implementing climate-resilient agricultural practices, such as drought-resistant crops, efficient irrigation, and soil conservation techniques, can help farmers adapt to changing weather patterns.
• Water Management: Adopting sustainable water management practices and rainwater harvesting can mitigate the impact of water scarcity and enhance water security.
• Public Awareness and Education: Raising awareness about climate change and its impact is crucial for fostering public support and encouraging individual actions toward sustainability.

Climate change poses a formidable challenge to India’s economic growth, social stability, and environmental integrity. As a responsible global citizen, India must take proactive measures to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable practices. Collaborative efforts among governments, communities, and individuals are essential to combat climate change, protect vulnerable populations, and secure a sustainable future for the nation and the planet.

Human Impact on Climate Change Essay

Human Impact on Climate Change Introduction

Climate change is one of the most pressing global issues of our time, with far-reaching consequences for the environment, economies, and societies. It is primarily driven by the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, and the majority of these emissions are the result of human activities. This essay examines the significant human impact on climate change, explores the causes, consequences, and potential solutions to address this critical issue.

Causes of Human Impact on Climate Change

• Burning Fossil Fuels : The combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, for energy production, transportation, and industrial processes, is the largest source of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This contributes significantly to the greenhouse effect, trapping heat in the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Deforestation : The cutting down of forests for agriculture, urbanization, and logging reduces the Earth’s capacity to absorb CO2. Trees act as carbon sinks, and their removal releases stored carbon into the atmosphere, further exacerbating global warming.
• Agricultural Practices : Modern agriculture, including livestock farming and the use of synthetic fertilizers, releases methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere. These gases are potent greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming.
• Industrial Processes : The manufacturing industry emits greenhouse gases through various processes, such as the production of cement, chemicals, and other goods. These emissions are a substantial driver of climate change.

Consequences of Human-Induced Climate Change

• Global Temperature Rise : The Earth’s average temperature has been steadily increasing due to the enhanced greenhouse effect. Rising temperatures lead to various adverse effects, including more frequent and severe heatwaves.
• Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels : Higher temperatures cause glaciers and polar ice caps to melt, resulting in rising sea levels. This can lead to coastal flooding, displacement of communities, and loss of valuable land.
• Extreme Weather Events : Climate change is linked to an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, floods, and wildfires. These events have devastating impacts on ecosystems and human settlements.
• Ocean Acidification : Increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere also lead to higher levels of CO2 being absorbed by the world’s oceans, causing ocean acidification. This harms marine life, especially coral reefs and shellfish.
• Biodiversity Loss : Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, threatening numerous species with extinction due to altered temperature and precipitation patterns.

Solutions to Mitigate Human-Induced Climate Change

• Transition to Renewable Energy : Moving away from fossil fuels and investing in renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric power is crucial to reducing CO2 emissions.
• Reforestation and Sustainable Land Use : Protecting and restoring forests and adopting sustainable land use practices can help sequester carbon and combat deforestation.
• Efficient Transportation : Promoting public transportation, electric vehicles, and cycling can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector.
• Green Building Practices : Encouraging energy-efficient construction and retrofitting of existing buildings can reduce emissions from the built environment.
• International Cooperation : Global efforts, like the Paris Agreement, are essential for countries to work together to reduce emissions and limit global temperature rise.
• Individual Action : Encouraging individuals to reduce their carbon footprint through energy conservation, waste reduction, and lifestyle changes can make a significant impact.

Human activities are undeniably responsible for the rapid and detrimental changes in the Earth’s climate. Climate change poses a grave threat to the planet and its inhabitants, requiring immediate action at the individual, community, national, and international levels. Addressing human impact on climate change is an imperative that demands cooperation, innovation, and a commitment to sustainable practices in all aspects of life. Failure to act now could have catastrophic consequences for the future of our planet.

Paragraph on Climate Change

Climate change is one of the most pressing challenges facing our planet today. It refers to long-term shifts in global weather patterns and temperatures, primarily driven by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. The consequences of climate change are far-reaching and include rising global temperatures, more frequent and severe weather events, melting ice caps and glaciers, and sea level rise. These changes have significant implications for ecosystems, economies, and human societies. Climate change also exacerbates existing environmental issues, threatens biodiversity, and poses a serious risk to future generations. Addressing this crisis requires collective global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, transition to sustainable energy sources, and adapt to the changes that are already underway. It’s a complex and urgent issue that demands immediate action and a commitment to a more sustainable and environmentally responsible future.

जलवायु परिवर्तन पर निबंध 1000 शब्दों में

जलवायु परिवर्तन, जो पृथ्वी पर जीवन को खतरे में डाल रहा है, वर्तमान में दुनिया भर में सबसे अधिक बहस वाले मुद्दों में से एक है। जलवायु परिवर्तन वह शब्द है जिसका उपयोग जलवायु में खराब परिवर्तन और पृथ्वी पर रहने वाले जीवों पर इसके प्रभावों का वर्णन करने के लिए किया जाता है। पिछले दो मिलियन वर्षों में, पृथ्वी की जलवायु गर्म हो गई है, और जलवायु परिवर्तन और ग्लोबल वार्मिंग इसके लिए जिम्मेदार हैं। मौसमी बदलाव हवा के तापमान में अनुचित वृद्धि के चरम प्रभावों में से एक हैं। ग्लोबल वार्मिंग के मुख्य कारणों में, जो जलवायु को बदलते हैं, वनों की कटाई, जीवाश्म ईंधन के उपयोग और अन्य मानवीय गतिविधियों में शामिल हैं।

ग्लोबल वार्मिंग द्वारा लाए गए भयानक जलवायु परिवर्तनों में जंगल की आग, भारी बारिश और ग्लेशियर का पिघलना शामिल है। शांतिपूर्ण और संतुष्ट अस्तित्व का नेतृत्व करने के लिए, हमें ग्लोबल वार्मिंग को रोकना होगा। पहले से मौजूद प्राकृतिक संसाधनों का दोहन तत्काल बंद होना चाहिए और वनों की कटाई का अभ्यास किया जाना चाहिए। ग्रह को ठीक करने के लिए, जलवायु परिवर्तन और ग्लोबल वार्मिंग जैसी गंभीर समस्याओं का समाधान किया जाना चाहिए।

यूपीएससी के लिए 500 शब्दों में जलवायु परिवर्तन निबंध

जलवायु की परिभाषा के अनुसार, सदियों से दर्ज किए गए मौसम के पैटर्न में दीर्घकालिक आवधिक परिवर्तन को जलवायु कहा जाता है। इसके निर्माण के बाद से पृथ्वी पर विभिन्न परिवर्तनों की एक साथ घटना के परिणामस्वरूप जलवायु परिवर्तन होता है। चक्रों में जलवायु परिवर्तन होता है; यह एक ठंडे हिमयुग के दौरान शुरू हुआ और अब दो मिलियन वर्ष पहले की तुलना में बहुत गर्म है। सूर्य, जो ऊर्जा का अंतिम स्रोत है और लगातार मौसम प्रणाली को शक्ति देता है, आज हम पृथ्वी पर देखे जाने वाले लाखों जीवित चीजों के लिए जिम्मेदार हैं।

कुछ बड़े बदलावों का नाम लेने के लिए, दुनिया वर्तमान में अनुचित सूखे, अप्रत्याशित मौसम के पैटर्न, अचानक बारिश और बर्फबारी का सामना कर रही है, तापमान में लगातार उतार-चढ़ाव हो रहा है जिससे जंगल की आग जैसी त्रासदियों का सामना करना पड़ रहा है, और मौसम अब पर्याप्त अनुमानित नहीं है। परिवर्तन अप्रत्याशित हैं, और उन पर नज़र रखना अधिक कठिन होता जा रहा है। इन परिवर्तनों के सकारात्मक और नकारात्मक दोनों प्रभाव मानव जीवन पर महत्वपूर्ण हैं।

विकास की शुरुआत के बाद से, मानव जाति ने प्रकृति से लगातार लाभ उठाया है। इसने उत्पादन किया है इनमें से कुछ में पर्यावरण में कार्बन डाइऑक्साइड का उच्च स्तर, हवा और पानी में अन्य खतरनाक पदार्थ और बार-बार उपयोग के परिणामस्वरूप जीवाश्म ईंधन की पूर्ण कमी शामिल है। प्राकृतिक संसाधनों के निरंतर दोहन और स्थिति में सुधार के लिए प्रमुख कार्रवाई की कमी के कारण अंततः वातावरण में खतरनाक गैसों का निर्माण हुआ। जलवायु परिवर्तन भी ग्रीनहाउस गैसों से ओजोन परत के विनाश में योगदान देता है।

मानव द्वारा लाए गए जीवमंडल में ये परिवर्तन अपरिवर्तनीय हैं। हम बस इतना कर सकते हैं कि जीवमंडल को रहने की जगह के रूप में बेहतर बनाने के लिए काम करें। क्योंकि यह उम्मीद की जाती है कि, वातावरण में ग्रीनहाउस गैसों के उत्सर्जन में वृद्धि के कारण, अगले दिनों में पृथ्वी का तापमान लगातार बढ़ेगा, जिससे जीवन विलुप्त हो जाएगा जैसा कि हम जानते हैं। उत्सर्जित होने वाली गर्मी ग्रीनहाउस गैसों द्वारा फंस जाती है।

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Q. What are the 3 main effects of climate change?

Ans. Hotter temperatures, More severe storms,  Increased drought.

Q. What is the most cause of climate change?

Ans. Human activity is the main cause of climate change.

Q. What makes the climate change?

Ans. Burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests and farming livestock are increasingly influencing the climate and the earth's temperature. 

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Climate Change Essay

500+ words essay on climate change.

Climate change is a major global challenge today, and the world is becoming more vulnerable to this change. Climate change refers to the changes in Earth’s climate condition. It describes the changes in the atmosphere which have taken place over a period ranging from decades to millions of years. A recent report from the United Nations predicted that the average global temperature could increase by 6˚ Celsius at the end of the century. Climate change has an adverse effect on the environment and ecosystem. With the help of this essay, students will get to know the causes and effects of climate change and possible solutions. Also, they will be able to write essays on similar topics and can boost their writing skills.

What Causes Climate Change?

The Earth’s climate has always changed and evolved. Some of these changes have been due to natural causes such as volcanic eruptions, floods, forest fires etc., but quite a few of them are due to human activities. Human activities such as deforestation, burning fossil fuels, farming livestock etc., generate an enormous amount of greenhouse gases. This results in the greenhouse effect and global warming which are the major causes of climate change.

Effects of Climate Change

If the current situation of climate change continues in a similar manner, then it will impact all forms of life on the earth. The earth’s temperature will rise, the monsoon patterns will change, sea levels will rise, and storms, volcanic eruptions and natural disasters will occur frequently. The biological and ecological balance of the earth will get disturbed. The environment will get polluted and humans will not be able to get fresh air to breathe and fresh water to drink. Life on earth will come to an end.

Steps to be Taken to Reduce Climate Change

The Government of India has taken many measures to improve the dire situation of Climate Change. The Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal agency for climate change issues in India. It has initiated several climate-friendly measures, particularly in the area of renewable energy. India took several steps and policy initiatives to create awareness about climate change and help capacity building for adaptation measures. It has initiated a “Green India” programme under which various trees are planted to make the forest land more green and fertile.

We need to follow the path of sustainable development to effectively address the concerns of climate change. We need to minimise the use of fossil fuels, which is the major cause of global warming. We must adopt alternative sources of energy, such as hydropower, solar and wind energy to make a progressive transition to clean energy. Mahatma Gandhi said that “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need, but not any man’s greed”. With this view, we must remodel our outlook and achieve the goal of sustainable development. By adopting clean technologies, equitable distribution of resources and addressing the issues of equity and justice, we can make our developmental process more harmonious with nature.

We hope students liked this essay on Climate Change and gathered useful information on this topic so that they can write essays in their own words. To get more study material related to the CBSE, ICSE, State Board and Competitive exams, keep visiting the BYJU’S website.

Frequently Asked Questions on climate change Essay

What are the reasons for climate change.

1. Deforestation 2. Excessive usage of fossil fuels 3. Water, Soil pollution 4. Plastic and other non-biodegradable waste 5. Wildlife and nature extinction

How can we save this climate change situation?

1. Avoid over usage of natural resources 2. Do not use or buy items made from animals 3. Avoid plastic usage and pollution

Are there any natural causes for climate change?

Yes, some of the natural causes for climate change are: 1. Solar variations 2. Volcanic eruption and tsunamis 3. Earth’s orbital changes

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Steps To Follow While Writing An Essay On Climate Change

Table of Contents

Climate change is the most essential issue of our generation; we are the first to witness its early signs and the last who have a chance of stopping them from happening.

Living in a bubble of denial can only get us this far; the planet which is our home is already a scene for melting glaciers, raising floods, extinction of species… the list goes on and on. Spreading awareness on matters of climate change through any means available, including as seemingly trivial form as writing a school essay, cannot be underestimated.

Follow the guidelines suggested in the paragraphs below to learn how to create a perfect essay that will get you an appraisal of your teacher.

Essay on climate changes: how to write?

If you really want to make your teacher gasp while they are reading your work, there are three vital things to pay attention to .

First of all, read the topic carefully and understand it’s specific, i.e., what is expected from you.

For instance, if it is the role of individuals in helping prevent climate change, you should not focus so much on the global problems, but speak about how small changes all of us can introduce in our routines will eventually have a positive environmental effect.

Secondly, determine your personal take on the problem . Search for materials on your subject using keywords, and pile up the evidence that supports your point of view.

Finally, write a conclusion. Make sure that the conclusion you make reflects the viewpoints you have been expressing all throughout your essay.

Below you will find a more detailed breakdown of tasks you will have to accomplish to complete writing an essay on climate changes that is worthy of a top mark.

Check if it is an argumentative essay on climate change or more of a speculative one? Arrange your writing accordingly.

• Craft the outline and don’t go off-topic.
• Search for keywords .
• Make a plan .
• Avoid the most common mistakes from the start.
• Write an introduction thinking about what you will write later.
• Develop your ideas according to the outline .
• Make a conclusion which is consistent with what you’ve written in the main paragraphs.
• Proofread the draft , correct mistakes and print out the hard copy. All set!

One of the most focal of your writing will be factual evidence. When writing on climate change, resort to providing data shared by international organizations like IPCC , WWF , or World Bank .

It is undeniable that among the main causes of climate change, unfortunately, there are oil and fossil fuels that are the basis of the whole economy and still invaluable sources of energy.

Although everyone knows that oil resources are polluting and that it would be much more useful and environmentally sustainable to rely on renewable energies such as wind and solar energies and electricity, the power of the world seem not to notice or pretend not to see for don’t go against your own interests.

The time has come to react and raise awareness of the use of renewable energy sources.

In addition to the causes already mentioned, we must consider the increase in the carbon dioxide air that traps heat in our atmosphere, thus increasing the temperatures with the consequent of the Arctic glaciers melting.

WWF reported that in 2016, the recorded data was quite worrying with a constant increase in temperatures and a 40% decrease in Arctic marine glaciers.

Topics for essay on global warming and climate change

If you do not have any specific topic to write on, consider yourself lucky. You can pick one that you are passionate about – and in fact, this is what you should do! If we think back to the very definition of essay, it is nothing more than a few paragraphs of expressing one’s personal attitude and viewpoints on a certain subject. Surely, you need to pick a subject that you are opinionated about to deliver a readable piece of writing!

Another point to consider is quaintness and topicality factors. You don’t want to end up writing on a subject that the rest of your class will, and in all honesty, that has zero novelty to it.

Even if it is something as trivial as the greenhouse effect, add an unexpected perspective to it: the greenhouse effect from the standpoint of the feline population of Montenegro. Sounds lunatic, but you get the drift.

Do not worry, below you will find the list of legitimately coverable topics to choose from:

• The last generation able to fight the global crisis.
• Climate change: top 10 unexpected causes.
• Climate changes. Things anyone can do.
• Climate changes concern everyone. Is it true?
• The Mauna Loa volcano: climate change is here.
• Water pollution and coastal cities: what needs to be done?
• Is there global warming if it’s still cold?
• The CO2 concentration in the atmosphere.
• Celebrity activists and climate changes.
• Individual responsibility for the environment.
• How the loss of biodiversity is the biggest loss for humanity.
• Ways to fight global warming at home.
• Sustainable living as a way of fighting climate change.
• Climate change fighting countries to look up to.
• Industrial responsibility and climate change.
• What future will be like if we fail to make an environmental stand?
• Discovering water on Mars: a new planet to live on?
• Climate change effects on poor countries.
• Nuclear power laws and climate change.
• Is it true that climate change is caused by man?

Mistakes to avoid when writing an essay on climate change

When composing your essay, you must avoid the following (quite common!) mistakes:

• Clichés – no one wants to read universal truths presented as relevant discoveries.
• Repeating an idea already expressed – don’t waste your readers’ time .
• Making an accumulation of ideas that are not connected and that do not follow one another; structure your ideas logically .
• Being contradictive (check consistency).
• Using bad or tired collocations .
• Using lackluster adjectives like “good”/”bad”. Instead, think of more eye-catching synonyms.

Structure your essay in a logical way : introduce your thesis, develop your ideas in at least 2 parts that contain several paragraphs, and draw a conclusion.

Bottom line

Writing an essay on global warming and climate change is essentially reflecting on the inevitable consequence of the irresponsible behavior of people inhabiting the planet. Outside of big-scale thinking, there is something each of us can do, and by shaping minds the right way, essential change can be done daily.

Each of us can act to protect the environment, reducing the use of plastic, recycling, buying food with as little packaging as possible, or turning off water and light when not in use. Every little help, even a short essay on climate change can help make a difference.

Can’t wait to save the planet? Do it, while we write your essay. Easy order, complete confidentiality, timely delivery. Click the button to learn more!

What Makes A Good Leader: Essay Hints

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Ideas on how to ask a professor to round up your grade.

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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

Your environment. your health., human health impacts of climate change.

Climate change impacts human health in both direct and indirect ways 1 , 2 . Extreme heat waves, rising sea level, changes in precipitation resulting in flooding and droughts, and intense hurricanes can directly cause injury, illness, and even death 3 . The effects of climate change can also indirectly affect health through alterations to the environment. For example, worsening air pollution levels can have negative impacts on respiratory and cardiovascular conditions 4 . Changes in temperature and rainfall can alter the survival, distribution, and behavior of insects and other species that can lead to changes in infectious diseases 5 . Increases in precipitation, storm surge, and sea temperature can lead to more water-related illnesses 6 . Climate change can also affect food safety, exposing people to contaminated foods that can result in foodborne illnesses 7 . In addition, climate change can affect mental health and well-being 8 , 9 .

Exposure to climate-related hazards can include biological, chemical, or physical stressors and can differ in time, locations, populations, and severity. These are referred to as exposure pathways. These threats can occur simultaneously, resulting in compounding health impacts. Climate change threats may also accumulate over time, leading to longer-term changes in resilience and health.

Climate change can affect human health by changing the severity, duration, or frequency of health problems and by creating unprecedented or unanticipated health problems or health threats in places or populations where they have not previously occurred 10 . While everyone is exposed to climate-related health threats, not everyone experiences the same harms. Individuals may experience greater risk from climate-related health effects because: they have greater exposure to climate-related hazards; they are more sensitive to the effects of climate stressors; their own present state of health and wellbeing; or they do not have sufficient capacity or resources to cope or remove themselves from harm 11 . An effective public health response to mitigate the risks of climate change is essential to preventing injuries and illnesses and enhancing overall public health preparedness.

NIEHS supports research that can be used to make decisions that can help reduce the threats of climate change. In the 2016 report by the U.S. Global Change Research Program,  The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health: A Scientific Assessment , the Interagency Working Group on Climate Change and Health describes seven different types of health threats that help outline the major research areas. These include the following:

• Foodborne Illness and Nutrition
• Health Impacts of Air Quality
• Health Impacts of Extreme Weather Events
• Mental Health and Well-being
• People Who Are Vulnerable to Climate Change
• Temperature-Related Death and Illness
• Vector-borne Diseases
• Water-related Illnesses

• Ebi K.L, Balbus JM, Luber G, Bole A, Crimmins A, Glass G, Saha S, Shimamoto MM, Trtanj J, and White-Newsome JL. 2018: Human Health. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II [Reidmiller, D.R., C.W. Avery, D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, K.L.M. Lewis, T.K. Maycock, and B.C. Stewart (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 539–571. doi: 10.7930/NCA4. 2018. CH14. [ Full Text Ebi K.L, Balbus JM, Luber G, Bole A, Crimmins A, Glass G, Saha S, Shimamoto MM, Trtanj J, and White-Newsome JL. 2018: Human Health. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II [Reidmiller, D.R., C.W. Avery, D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, K.L.M. Lewis, T.K. Maycock, and B.C. Stewart (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 539–571. doi: 10.7930/NCA4. 2018. CH14. ]
• IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. [ Full Text IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. ]
• IPCC, 2021: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. [ Full Text IPCC, 2021: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. ]
• Mills, Nicholas L., et al. Adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Nature Clinical Practice Cardiovascular Medicine 6.1 (2009): 36-44. [ Full Text Mills, Nicholas L., et al. Adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Nature Clinical Practice Cardiovascular Medicine 6.1 (2009): 36-44. ]
• Hunter, Paul R. Climate change and waterborne and vector‐borne disease. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94 (2003): 37-46. [ Full Text Hunter, Paul R. Climate change and waterborne and vector‐borne disease. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94 (2003): 37-46. ]
• Rose, Joan B., et al. Climate variability and change in the United States: potential impacts on water-and foodborne diseases caused by microbiologic agents. Environmental Health Perspectives 109.suppl 2 (2001): 211-221. [ Full Text Rose, Joan B., et al. Climate variability and change in the United States: potential impacts on water-and foodborne diseases caused by microbiologic agents. Environmental Health Perspectives 109.suppl 2 (2001): 211-221. ]
• Lake, Iain R., et al. A re-evaluation of the impact of temperature and climate change on foodborne illness. Epidemiology & Infection 137.11 (2009): 1538-1547. [ Full Text Lake, Iain R., et al. A re-evaluation of the impact of temperature and climate change on foodborne illness. Epidemiology & Infection 137.11 (2009): 1538-1547. ]
• Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. [ Full Text Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. ]
• Cianconi P, Betrò S, and Janiri L. 2020 The impact of climate change on mental health: a systematic descriptive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11 (2020): 74. [ Abstract Cianconi P, Betrò S, and Janiri L. 2020 The impact of climate change on mental health: a systematic descriptive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11 (2020): 74. ] [ Full Text Cianconi P, Betrò S, and Janiri L. 2020 The impact of climate change on mental health: a systematic descriptive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11 (2020): 74. ]
• Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC. 2016. Chapter 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 25–42 . [ Abstract Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC. 2016. Chapter 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 25–42. ] [ Full Text Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC. 2016. Chapter 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 25–42. ]
• Benevolenza MA, DeRigne L. 2019. The impact of climate change and natural disasters on vulnerable populations: A systematic review of literature, Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. 29:2, 266-281 . [ Abstract Benevolenza MA, DeRigne L. 2019. The impact of climate change and natural disasters on vulnerable populations: A systematic review of literature, Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. 29:2, 266-281. ]
• Ebi K.L, Balbus JM, Luber G, Bole A, Crimmins A, Glass G, Saha S, Shimamoto MM, Trtanj J, and White-Newsome JL. 2018: Human Health. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II [Reidmiller, D.R., C.W. Avery, D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, K.L.M. Lewis, T.K. Maycock, and B.C. Stewart (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 539–571. doi: 10.7930/NCA4. 2018. CH14. [ Full Text Ebi K.L, Balbus JM, Luber G, Bole A, Crimmins A, Glass G, Saha S, Shimamoto MM, Trtanj J, and White-Newsome JL. 2018: Human Health. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II [Reidmiller, D.R., C.W. Avery, D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, K.L.M. Lewis, T.K. Maycock, and B.C. Stewart (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 539–571. doi: 10.7930/NCA4. 2018. CH14. ]
• IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. [ Full Text IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. ]
• IPCC, 2021: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. [ Full Text IPCC, 2021: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. ]
• Hunter, Paul R. Climate change and waterborne and vector‐borne disease. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94 (2003): 37-46. [ Full Text Hunter, Paul R. Climate change and waterborne and vector‐borne disease. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94 (2003): 37-46. ]
• Lake, Iain R., et al. A re-evaluation of the impact of temperature and climate change on foodborne illness. Epidemiology & Infection 137.11 (2009): 1538-1547. [ Full Text Lake, Iain R., et al. A re-evaluation of the impact of temperature and climate change on foodborne illness. Epidemiology & Infection 137.11 (2009): 1538-1547. ]
• Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. [ Full Text Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press. In Press. ]
• Cianconi P, Betrò S, and Janiri L. 2020 The impact of climate change on mental health: a systematic descriptive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11 (2020): 74. [ Abstract Cianconi P, Betrò S, and Janiri L. 2020 The impact of climate change on mental health: a systematic descriptive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11 (2020): 74. ] [ Full Text Cianconi P, Betrò S, and Janiri L. 2020 The impact of climate change on mental health: a systematic descriptive review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11 (2020): 74. ]
• Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC. 2016. Chapter 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 25–42 . [ Abstract Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC. 2016. Chapter 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 25–42. ] [ Full Text Balbus J, Crimmins A, Gamble JL, Easterling DR, Kunkel KE, Saha S, Sarofim MC. 2016. Chapter 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, 25–42. ]

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Climate Change, Health and Existential Risks to Civilization: A Comprehensive Review (1989–2013)

Associated data.

Background: Anthropogenic global warming, interacting with social and other environmental determinants, constitutes a profound health risk. This paper reports a comprehensive literature review for 1989–2013 (inclusive), the first 25 years in which this topic appeared in scientific journals. It explores the extent to which articles have identified potentially catastrophic, civilization-endangering health risks associated with climate change. Methods: PubMed and Google Scholar were primarily used to identify articles which were then ranked on a three-point scale. Each score reflected the extent to which papers discussed global systemic risk. Citations were also analyzed. Results : Of 2143 analyzed papers 1546 (72%) were scored as one. Their citations (165,133) were 82% of the total. The proportion of annual papers scored as three was initially high, as were their citations but declined to almost zero by 1996, before rising slightly from 2006. Conclusions : The enormous expansion of the literature appropriately reflects increased understanding of the importance of climate change to global health. However, recognition of the most severe, existential, health risks from climate change was generally low. Most papers instead focused on infectious diseases, direct heat effects and other disciplinary-bounded phenomena and consequences, even though scientific advances have long called for more inter-disciplinary collaboration.

1. Introduction

In 1988 the leading climate scientist James Hansen, of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, with three other senior researchers, testified to a U.S. Congressional committee that it was 99 percent certain that the warming trend in Earth’s temperature that was then observed was not natural variation but was caused by the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse” gases. This testimony was reported prominently in the New York Times [ 1 , 2 ]. Hansen was criticized then, and many times since, for his “adventurous” interpretation of climate data, however the publicity which followed his testimony, itself reflecting a decade of growing agitation about the geo-political impacts of climate change [ 2 ] may have influenced health workers to think more deeply about the issues. In any case, within a year, a Lancet editorial discussed health and the “greenhouse effect” [ 3 ], possibly the first such publication in a health journal, eight years after a chapter concerning climate change and parasitic disease appeared [ 4 ]. At least six other chapters on this topic were published in the 1980s, as well as at least two reports. For details, see [ 5 ]. Two other journal articles concerning climate change and health were also published in 1989 [ 6 , 7 ].

The 1989 editorial stated “global warming, increased ultraviolet flux, and higher levels of tropospheric ozone will reduce crop production, with potentially devastating effects on world food supplies. Malnutrition (sic) might then become commonplace, even among developed nations, and armed conflicts would be more likely as countries compete for a dwindling supply of natural resources” [ 3 ]. In the New England Journal of Medicine, Leaf warned, also in 1989, of sea level rise, especially in the south-eastern U.S. state of Florida, higher precipitation, millions of environmental refugees, an increased risk of drought and the possibility that warming at higher latitudes would not fully compensate any climate change related loss of agricultural productivity towards the equator [ 6 ]. The third paper published that year [ 7 ] was even more direct, warning of “catastrophic” consequences to human health and well-being.

In the early 1990s, warnings of potentially catastrophic consequences of climate change continued to dominate. Yet, by the turn of the millennium, the author had formed the impression that the scientific publishing milieu was becoming less receptive to the message that climate change and other forms of “planetary overload” [ 8 ] pose existential, civilization-wide risks. This was disturbing, as my own confirmation bias seemed to support the case that the evidence of existential risk was continuing to rise [ 9 , 10 ].

That the health risks from climate change are indeed extraordinarily high was stressed in the 2009 publication of the lengthy (41 page) article by the Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission, which described climate change as the “biggest global health threat of the 21st century” [ 11 ]. Yet, although this paper attracted considerable attention at the time, the long-term outlook for climate change and health has since continued to deteriorate.

By existential, I mean related to the word “existence”. But it is not the continued existence of Earth that is in doubt, but instead the existence of a high level of function of civilization, one in which prospects of “health for many” (though no longer “health for all”) are realistic and even improving [ 12 ]. Existential risk does not necessarily mean that global civilization will collapse. Nor does it exclude pockets of order and even prosperity enduring for generations, from which global or quasi-global civilization may one day emerge, provided worst case scenarios are avoided, such as runaway climate change and nuclear war leading to nuclear winter [ 13 ]. Compared to today, such prospects should be recognized as catastrophic. Unchecked climate change could generate similar, or bleaker, global futures. Seeking to minimize such possibilities should be seen as a major responsibility for all workers concerned with sustaining and improving global public health.

There is reticence [ 14 , 15 ], shared by many authors, reviewers, journals, funders and media outlets to discuss the possibility of such existential risks. Nonetheless, the consequences for health are so vast that discussion is warranted. This paper seeks to do that, in the process conducting the largest review on the topic of climate change and health yet to be published.

1.1. Climate Change Science, Risk and the 2015 Paris Agreement

The scientific knowledge that gases, accumulating mainly from the burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests, add to the natural “greenhouse effect” has been known since the 19th century [ 16 ]. In 1957 scientists observed “human beings are now carrying out a largescale geophysical experiment of a kind which could not have happened in the past nor be reproduced in the future. Within a few hundred years we are returning to the air and oceans the concentrated organic carbon stored over hundreds of millions of years” [ 17 ].

In 2015 the Paris climate change agreement, negotiated by representatives of 196 parties (195 nations and the European Union) committed countries (thus, effectively, civilization), upon ratification, to actions that would seek to restrict average global warming to “well below” 2 °C above “pre-industrial” levels and to “pursue efforts” to limit the rise to 1.5 °C. The text of the Paris Agreement defines neither the pre-industrial temperature nor the time for this baseline, but most experts agree that it means the temperature in the late 18th or 19th century, soon after the start of the industrial revolution, when coal burning increased. This time is after the end of the Little Ice Age, which itself was accompanied by a rebound in average temperatures, independent of the slow rise in greenhouse gases (chiefly methane and nitrous oxide as well as carbon dioxide) that occurred throughout the 19th century. Estimates of global warming for the period 1861–1880 until 2015 range from 0.93 °C [ 18 ] to 1.12 °C [ 19 ].

Although the goal of 1.5 °C is widely known, there is less understanding that meeting this challenge would not guarantee safety from a climate change perspective [ 20 ]. Indeed, if it were to be more widely accepted that climate change has already contributed to the Syrian war [ 21 , 22 ], to the rise in global food prices which accompanied the 2010 drought and heatwave in Russia [ 23 , 24 ], and the 2018 wildfire season in the Northern Hemisphere, then the threshold of danger might already be widely seen as having long been exceeded.

In recent years the science concerning the physical impacts of climate has continued to expand and to disturb. Average global temperatures continue to rise [ 25 ], apparently in a process more “stepped” than as a trend [ 26 ] with record average global heat in both El Niño and La Niña years. Loss of ice from both Antarctica and Greenland is increasing and the rate of sea level rise is consequently accelerating [ 27 ]. Property values in parts of the U.S. East Coast may soon fall, due to sea level rise [ 28 ]. There is growing concern about more intense rainfall [ 29 , 30 ], fires worsened by heat and drought [ 31 ], a weakening Gulf Stream [ 32 ] and increased sinuosity of the jet stream, which can cause unusual cold at lower latitudes, even if the average global temperature is rising [ 33 , 34 ]. The projected trend toward a weaker and poleward-shifted jet stream is also consistent with projections of a significantly increased risk of worsening extreme heat and dryness in the Northern Hemisphere [ 35 ].

There is also growing evidence of greenhouse effect-intensifying feedbacks in the Earth system [ 36 ] that might release enormous quantities of carbon dioxide and methane, independent of fossil fuel combustion, agriculture or deforestation, from sources including warming tundra and increased fires, both of peat and forests [ 37 , 38 ]. Such releases could dwarf the climate saving made possible by the putative implementation of the Paris climate agreement. The strength of the oceanic carbon sink is also weakening [ 39 ]. If this intensifies it is likely to accelerate warming of the atmosphere, ocean and land.

1.2. Interaction, Attribution, and Causation

All, or virtually all, environmental health effects interact with social and technological factors as well as other “purely” environmental determinants. For example, the effects of heat upon individual health are influenced by temperature, humidity, exercise, hydration, age, pre-existing health status, and also by occupation, clothing, behavior, autonomy, vulnerability, and sense of obligation. Does the person affected by heat, perhaps a brick maker in India, have the capacity to regulate her heat exposure; or might they be an elite athlete or emergency worker voluntarily pushing their limits? Other factors influencing the heath impact of heat include housing quality, the presence of absence of affordable air conditioning and energy subsidies, if any. In turn, these factors are influenced by governance and socio-economic status. Thus, the health-harming effects of heat can be seen to have many contributing causes, of which climate change is only one. As McMichael (and before him David Hume, among others) pointed out, causal attribution is to an extent philosophical; it is influenced by the “focal depth” of the examiner’s “causal lens” [ 40 ]. Consider a mass shooting in a school: Some will see underlying social and legal factors as contributing; others may see only the shooter. Yet, a major role and goal of public health is to seek to identify and reduce “deep” or “underlying” causes [ 41 ]. A world in which only the most “proximal” causes are identified will not function well.

Attributing the fraction of human-caused (anthropogenic) climate change to physical events such as storms, floods and heatwaves is similarly contested and assumption-dependent. The contribution of climate change to more indirect, strongly socially mediated effects such as migration, famine or conflict is even more difficult and contentious [ 22 , 42 , 43 ]. Perhaps in part because of these causal complications, issues such as famine, genocide, large-scale population dislocation and conflict have, with rare exceptions [ 44 ], been peripheral to public health. This is despite the obvious large-scale adverse health effects of these phenomena.

Rigorous methods have been developed to detect and attribute the health effects of phenomena that are more directly or obviously related to climate change, such as heat and infectious diseases [ 45 ]. However, excessive caution risks a type II error, the overlooking of genuine effects [ 46 , 47 ]. To reduce this risk, the authors of a recent study on attribution acknowledged the role for “well-informed judgments, based on understanding of underlying processes and matching of patterns of health, climate, and other determinants of human well-being” [ 45 ]. This paper makes many such judgments.

1.3. Integrative Risk and the Sustainability of Civilization

Publications in health journals about nuclear war and health date at least to 1962 [ 48 ]. In 1992 the Union of Concerned Scientists coordinated the “World Scientist’s warning to humanity”, signed by over 1700 leading scientists (but no public health workers) [ 49 ]. This warning was repeated in 2017, with far more signatories (including many health workers) [ 50 ].

Many authors outside health have warned of the fragility of modern civilization [ 51 , 52 ]. However, comparatively few writers with a health background have contributed [ 9 , 10 , 53 , 54 ]. Tony McMichael, who led the first Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on health [ 55 ] frequently wrote and spoke of eroding “life support mechanisms” [ 56 , 57 ], a term probably introduced into the health literature in 1972 by Sargent [ 58 ]. Certainly, McMichael wanted to convey, when using this term, a profound risk to human well-being and health.

If civilization is to collapse then effects such as conflict, population displacement and famine are likely to be involved. A heatwave, on its own, is unlikely to cause the collapse of civilization, nor even ruin an economy for a decade. It needs social co-factors to do this. For example, a series of heatwaves damaging crop yields and contributing to internal migration has been postulated as contributing to the Syrian civil war that started in 2011 [ 21 , 22 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 ]. Prolonged heat, especially if in a humid setting, could cause some regions to be completely abandoned [ 63 , 64 , 65 ].

A severely damaged health system, allied with worsening undernutrition and poverty, could provide a milieu for a devastating epidemic, including a resurgence of HIV/AIDS [ 66 ]. An increase in infectious diseases, if of sufficient scale, could contribute to integrative cascades of failure generating regional or even global civilization collapse. Infectious diseases, as well as unfavorable eco-climatic change, contributed to the collapse of the Roman Empire [ 67 ].

While such consequences may seem far-fetched to some, the prospect of sea level rise of one meter or more by 2100 (perhaps sooner), proliferating nuclear weapons, millions of refugees, xenophobia and tribalism which limits integration, and growing cases of state failure is disquieting. Few, if any, formal scenarios, as exercises by senior scientists, are as bleak, but funding and other pressures constrain the realism of such exercises [ 15 ]. Already, the number of forcibly displaced people exceeds 68 million [ 68 ], a rise that has been linked with tightening limits to growth, including climate change [ 69 ].

It is stressed, again, that the idea that any single climate related event, such as heat, drought, sea level rise, conflict or migration will cause the collapse of civilization is simplistic. It is far more plausible to conceive that collapse (or quasi-collapse) could arise via a “milieu” of multi-factorial risk, enhancing, inflaming and interacting with climate change and other factors [ 43 , 70 ].

1.4. Hypothesis

This article seeks to test the hypothesis that the early literature relevant to climate change and health was more willing to describe catastrophic, potentially civilization disrupting health effects including famine, mass migration and conflict than it was to become, at least until 2014.

To explore this hypothesis, a database of articles relevant to climate change and health was assembled, relying mainly on PubMed and Google Scholar. This had six steps (see Appendix for details). Due to limited resources, the main search was restricted to the period 1980–2013, and the terms “climate change” and health or “global warming” and health. After eliminating duplicates, remaining papers were checked to see if they met eligibility criteria (see Box 1 ).

inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Included: Articles, editorials, commentaries, journalistic pieces with bylines.

Excluded: Reports, books, book sections including e-chapters, letters, factsheets, monographs, un-credited journalistic entries, non-English publications, papers concerning stratospheric ozone depletion, podcast transcripts, journalistic pieces that could not easily be recovered.

The search was not restricted to health or to multidisciplinary journals. However, papers outside health journals had to meet more exacting requirements to be included. They had to include health (or a synonym such as nutrition) in their title, abstract, keywords or text, even if they focused on an effect with health implications, such as population displacement, conflict or food insecurity.

The title of each identified paper was read, followed by the abstract of each paper, assessed as possibly eligible. If a score was still unclear, the full text was obtained and searched for words and phrases that suggested a broader interpretation of the indirect effects of climate change, such as “population displacement”, “migration”, “conflict”, “war”, “famine”, and “food insecurity”.

Eligible papers were scored as one if they exclusively concerned an effect other than conflict, migration, population displacement or large-scale undernutrition or famine. They also needed to exclude statements (even if introductory) such as “climate change has been recognized as the greatest risk to health in the 21st century”.

Papers were scored as two if they either mentioned such an effect and/or contained statements recognizing the potentially enormous scale of the health impacts from climate change. A synonym for this understanding was the phrase eroding “life support mechanisms”.

Papers were scored as three if they included a more detailed explanation or assertion of the future (or current) existence and importance of conflict, migration or famine, perhaps suggesting an interaction among them. A score of three was more likely if they also warned of the general severity of climate change. The score was also influenced by the tone of the language, and the space devoted to these issues (see Appendix for further details).

In addition, PubMed was searched for papers published from 2014–2017 matching the criteria “climate change” and “health”. A sample of 156 of these articles was randomly selected, approximately 5% in each year, after the elimination of a proportion of ineligible articles. Each was then scored, using the method described above for papers published from 1989 to 2013 (inclusive). Bootstrapping was then used to estimate the average score and 95% confidence interval of these articles, by taking ten thousand resamples, each of 156 papers, with replacement from this set (so that in each iteration some papers will appear more than once, while others will not appear at all).

A total of 2143 unique articles and journalistic essays satisfied the inclusion criteria, for the period 1989–2013 inclusive. The full database is available in the supplementary material . This shows the year, lead author (at least), journal, title and primary search method. It also lists the number of Google Scholar citations and the date these were identified. Table A1 ( Appendix ) tabulates the primary search method of papers, by each year.

No paper published before 1989 was eligible for retention in the final database. One potential publication [ 71 ] was cited by Kalkstein and Smoyer [ 5 ] as published in 1988, but it could not be located. About half the total papers (1142 or 53%) were published since 2009 (see Figure 1 ). Most papers (1546 papers, 72%) were scored as one, while only 189 (3.3%) were scored as three. The difference in these scores is statistically significant ( p < 0.01 ANOVA). The average score of these 2143 papers was 1.37 (see Table A2 in Appendix ).

Number of papers in each category. Since 1989 the number of papers concerning climate change and health has expanded considerably, particularly since 2008. As this article did not review the entire literature, the actual number of papers published, even in English, is more than shown. The average score of these papers declined from 1.9 in the first quintile to 1.34 in the final five years.

The increase in the size of literature reflects growing awareness of the risks to health from climate change. Over 50% of the papers published in the first quintile (1989–1993) were scored as two or three, although the total number in that time (27) was small (see Figure 1 ). Since 1993 the majority of papers have focused on effects such as heat, infectious diseases, allergies or asthma. The number of papers scored as two or three increased slightly after its trough (23%) in the third quintile (1999–2004) but was only 26% for 2009–2013 inclusive.

Papers scored as three were particularly uncommon in the third quintile (1999–2003), representing only 2.6% of the total published papers in that period. Even in the first quintile (1989–1993) most citations were for papers scored as one (see Figure 2 ).

Number of citations per annum for each score of paper. Most citations were for papers scored as one. Note that in 2005–2007 three extensively cited papers were scored as two (these are discussed in the Appendix A ).

3.1. Citations

Citation data were available for 2105 papers (98%). Over 201,000 citations were identified by Google Scholar (see Table A3 in Appendix ). Thirty two percent of these citations were for papers published since 2009 (see Figure 2 ). Of these citations, the great majority (82%) were for papers scored as one, each of which was cited an average of 107 times. Papers scored 2 were cited an average of 73 times, representing 15% of the total. Papers scored as three were cited 35 times each on average and accounted for 3% of the total. The difference in these citation scores is also statistically significant ( p < 0.01 ANOVA). Citations for papers scored as three from 1995 to 2008 inclusive were even lower, accounting for less than 1% of the total citations in each year of this period (see Figure 3 ). The fraction of the literature discussing existential risk remained lower in the last 5 years of this database than in the first five years (see Figure 1 ). The shift in the ratio of annual citations from the early period to the more recent years is evident in Figure 3 . Until 1991, the majority of citations were for papers scored as three. From 1994 the fraction of citations for papers scored as three was almost zero (3% or less) in every year until 2009. In 2013 it again fell to 3%.

The proportion of citations each year for papers scored as one and three. Since 1991 most citations have been for papers scored as 1. The Lancet UCL paper published in 2009 [ 11 ] led to a resurgence of citations for papers scored as 3, but this effect declined. Three individual papers, each scored as two (published in 2005, 2006 and 2007), were disproportionately cited. In each year at least some papers scored two or three, but their proportion of citations fell steeply after the first quintile. In 2003 no paper was scored as three, and for almost a decade (1997–2005 inclusive) virtually no papers scored as three were cited.

3.2. Coverage of Topics

All papers published in 1989 discussed multiple potential health effects of climate change. However, from 1990, journal articles focusing exclusively on infectious diseases and climate change appeared [ 72 , 73 , 74 ]. Early papers also focused on heat [ 75 ] and allergies [ 76 ]. From 2000, the foci of concerns expanded greatly. Additional topics included reduced micronutrient concentrations in food [ 77 ], asthma [ 78 ], thunderstorm asthma [ 79 ], chronic diseases and obesity [ 80 ], toxin exposure (such as from increased concentrations in Arctic mammals [ 81 ] and increased algal blooms [ 82 ]), forest fires [ 83 ], mental health [ 84 ] and respiratory [ 85 ], cardio-vascular [ 86 ], renal [ 87 ], fetal [ 88 ], genito-urinal [ 89 ] and skin conditions [ 90 ]. By 2000, papers were also appearing arguing that the impact of climate change for malaria was overstated [ 91 , 92 ].

Articles also appeared on the impact of climate change on groups such as indigenous people [ 93 ], children [ 94 ], the elderly [ 95 ] and regions and locations, including cities [ 96 ], the Arctic [ 97 ] and small island states [ 98 ] as well as many individual nations. Other themes appeared, including on how the health sector might reduce its carbon footprint [ 99 ], on “co-benefits” [ 100 ], on climate change as a great opportunity to improve public health [ 101 ], on medical education [ 102 ], pharmaceuticals [ 103 ] and on the health risks of adaptation and geoengineering, including of carbon capture and storage [ 104 ].

3.3. The Leadership Role of Some Journals

Many journals played prominent, even campaigning roles, especially the Lancet, BMJ and Environmental Health Perspectives. Several journals had special issues, including Global Health Action, the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, the Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health and Health Promotion International. Seven journals published at least 28 articles each, including editorials and news items (see Table A4 in Appendix ). At least 34 journals published editorials, which, with an average score of 2.2, were more likely to be scored as two or three than journal articles (average score 1.3). News items and other journalistic pieces had an average score of 1.6. At least 21 articles were published in nursing journals, with an average score of 1.67.

3.4. Papers for the Period 2014–2017

A total of 3377 papers were identified by PubMed as published from 2014–2017. Of these, 346 were found to be ineligible, although the true number would be higher, if all candidates were examined. Of the potentially eligible remainder, 113 papers were published in 2018, but recorded by PubMed as e-published in 2017. Slightly over five percent of the articles for each year was randomly selected, resulting in 156 articles (see Table A5 in Appendix ). Their average score and 95% confidence interval, estimated by bootstrapping, was 1.29 (95% CI 1.21–1.39) (see Figure A2 in Appendix ). Details of these 156 papers are in the supplementary material . Note that their citations were not checked.

4. Discussion

This paper describes the first published analysis of the extent to which the literature on climate change and health has described or in other ways engaged with “existential” risk. By including 2000 articles, 60 editorials and 83 news items (2143 “papers” in total) on climate change and health, it is by far the largest review of the climate change and health literature to have so far been published. Lack of resources currently prevents an extension of the fuller analysis to more recent years. However, a randomly selected sample of 156 articles for papers identified by PubMed as published in the period 2014–2017 found that these papers had an average score lower than the average score for any quintile from 1989–2013, other than for 1999–2003 (see Table A2 and Table A5 in Appendix ).

Several systematic and other reviews of topics related to climate change and health have been published, but on a much smaller scale, and with different research questions. Ford and Pearce systematically reviewed 420 papers, published between 1990 and 2009, exploring the topic of climate change vulnerability in the Canadian western Arctic [ 105 ]. Two systematic reviews concerned heat. Huang et al. [ 106 ] searched for papers published between 1980 and July 2010, projecting the heat related mortality under climate change scenarios. Only 14 papers were included in their final analysis. Xu et al. [ 107 ] explored the relationship between heat waves and children’s health, but selected twelve, an even small number. A systematic review into dengue fever and climate change (for the period 1991–2012) included 16 studies [ 108 ].

Nichols et al. (2009) [ 109 ] undertook a systematic review on health, climate change and energy vulnerability, searching for papers published in English between 1998 and 2008. They retrieved 114 papers but included only 36 in their final analysis. Bouzid et al. (2013) undertook a “systematic review of systematic reviews” to explore the effectiveness of public health interventions to reduce the health impact of climate change [ 110 ]. This identified over 3100 unique records, but of these, only 85 full papers were assessed, with 33 included in the final review.

This may also be the first review paper concerning climate change and health to use a citation analysis [ 111 ] as an indicator of influence. Citations in Google Scholar were used for convenience and cost. Although such citations are prone to error, and include essays in the gray literature, they still reflect influence. Some reports in the gray literature may be more widely read and more influential than more scholarly work.

4.1. Selection and Other Forms of Bias

A systematic review was not undertaken. However, all papers identified by searching using PubMed and at least 100 papers for each year identified by Google Scholar were considered for inclusion. The search term relevant to health was restricted to a single word, rather than synonyms such as “disease”, “morbidity”, “illness”, or “mortality”. Undoubtedly, a search using additional terms will identify more papers, as would a systematic review.

To examine the possibility that a more extensive search strategy would alter the conclusions, PubMed was also searched for the terms “climate change” and “morbidity” for papers published in 2013. This strategy identified 261 papers, compared to 496 when searching for “climate change” and “health”. Of these 261 papers, 30 had not previously been identified by the other search methods used, and met the other inclusion criteria. However, all of these additional papers were scored as one. Their inclusion in the final analysis was considered likely to bias the paper away from the null hypothesis, by accentuating the fraction of papers not scored as two or three. This bias towards papers scored one (i.e., identified by searching for “morbidity”) seems plausible because the term morbidity may be more likely to be associated with specific diseases than the term “health”. These papers therefore were not added to the analysis.

The search was supplemented by the addition of 17 papers first identified from the author’s own database, but not later found by the search strategy using Google Scholar or PubMed (steps 2–3) as described in Figure A1 . Eight of these 17 papers, five of which the author wrote or co-wrote, were scored as three. Their average score was 2.17, far higher than for the balance (1.23). This group also includes two editorials, one published in the Lancet, one in the BMJ. The inclusion of one of these editorials (scored as three, published in 1989) has biased the findings in favor of the hypothesis that highly scored papers were more common in the early period of this literature. Note, however, that no citations were recorded for this editorial.

The inclusion of these higher scoring papers later in the period of analysis has biased the result to the null, that is, away from the hypothesis that fewer such papers were published from about 2000. The most influential of these 17 papers, judged by Google Scholar citations, was cited 272 times. It was the first to report that rising levels of carbon dioxide depress micronutrient concentrations in food [ 77 ]. The other 16 papers were cited 405 times between them, an average of 25, which is low compared to the average citation number (94). Twenty eight other papers were included, mostly identified from special issues. Their average score was 1.9. One paper was identified post-review, by chance. It was scored as two (perhaps generously) and was included because it was judged that to exclude it would bias the result away from the null hypothesis.

Bias is also likely to have been introduced in the scoring process, but not to the extent that it could challenge the main conclusions. The rigor of this paper would be improved if the scores could be checked by a third party, blind to the first score. Unfortunately, no resources were available for this purpose. Some classification errors are likely, especially for papers for which the author had no previous familiarity, and if published after 2009, when, due to time pressure, many papers were scored rapidly. On the other hand, in the process of ranking over 2000 papers the author became skilled at making rapid decisions, especially for most papers scored as one. The difference between papers scored one and two was generally more apparent than for papers scored between two and three. In cases of doubt a higher score was always selected.

The likelihood of bias and error is unlikely to explain the difference in the character of the papers in the early period and those which later dominated. Although the widely cited paper by Costello et al. [ 11 ] (1583 citations as of June 2018) may have refreshed appreciation of the potentially catastrophic nature of climate change, the majority of papers and their citations published between 2010 and 2013 continued to focus on specific issues. This trend appears to have persisted in the years since, judged by the analysis of a randomly selected sample, identified by PubMed as published between 2014 and 2018.

4.2. Reasons for the Apparent Conservatism of the Literature

There are several plausible, overlapping and interacting explanations for the decline in the proportion of papers scored as two or three (and for their comparatively fewer citations) following 1996, and also in the failure for papers published since 2009 to fully amplify the most severe warnings. One likely contributing explanation is self-censorship. The topic of climate change and health is unfamiliar territory for many health editors and writers. Climate change has become politicized in many English-speaking countries, especially in the U.S. and Australia. Although comparatively few health workers have expertise concerning climate change and health, the readership of some health journals seems judged, by their editor, to be skeptical of, or even to reject climate science. For example, one editor, defending the decision to publish a paper (scored, possibly generously, as two) [ 112 ] seemed almost apologetic, writing “On its face, the paper by Hess and colleagues is largely a political commentary and a departure from the types of articles found in Academic Emergency Medicine” [ 113 ].

Thus, for some health workers and editors, even broaching the topic of climate change and health may be a courageous act. The publication of papers in health journals that describe potential pathways that could threaten civilization would appear even bolder. It is unsurprising that such papers are still fairly uncommon, at least until 2014, and particularly in journals which do not yet have a long tradition of publishing papers or editorials on this topic.

In the early period of the climate and health literature (1989–1993) some of the most outspoken articles were editorials. Perhaps at that time, there was a certain sense of shock concerning climate change, which has since waned. It was also a time when concerns about overpopulation were slightly less taboo [ 114 , 115 , 116 ]. However, editorials in more years also tend to have a higher index of concern than other articles.

Another likely contributor to the comparative degree of restraint is the view, backed by some research, that an excess of fear is counter-productive [ 117 ]. However, the smell of smoke in a theater requires the sounding of a vigorous alarm. Compounding the difficulty of communicating the risk over climate change is the lag between the whiff of smoke and the onset of visible fire. Hansen warned of great danger over thirty years ago, and he, with others, have issued many warnings since [ 118 ]. Sceptics are still waiting to see the metaphorical “flames” of climate change, even disputing the link between literal flames (fires) and climate change.

On the other hand, science, though not infallible, has delivered countless miracles such as antisepsis, anesthesia, penicillin and the jet engine. It has long warned of the physical changes of climate change. We who work in health should not be amazed if the predictions of climate and Earth scientists prove broadly accurate. Social science is less precise than climatology [ 43 ], however the links between food insecurity, drought, sea level rise, migration and, in some places, conflict are, also, surely not far-fetched. Papers that fail to express appreciation of the extraordinary risks we face as civilization may be judged by people of the future as having failed in their duty of care to protect health.

Another likely reason for the general restraint in the literature is the fragmentation of science and limited funding for multidisciplinary work. Comparatively few authors, other than if collaborating in large, multidisciplinary teams (rare for most authors primarily concerned with health), are rewarded or funded for thinking systemically. This problem is possibly worsening. Related to this, many recent papers are by sub-disciplines of health that have not previously published on the topic of climate change. Such papers are probably less likely to discuss existential risk.

As the effects of climate change have become increasingly clear the need for adaptation has become overwhelming. A stress on adaptation does not necessarily reflect any underestimation of the eventual severity of climate change. However, a stress on adaptation at the expense of mitigation may do so. In many countries, political leadership favors adaptation.

5. Conclusions

In 1989, thirty two years after the International Geophysical Year, the first papers on global warming and health appeared in the world’s leading medical journals [ 3 , 6 , 7 ]. All three of these early papers warned of severe, even existential risk and were each scored as three.

In 1990 McCally and Cassel warned that “progression of these environmental changes could lead to unprecedented human suffering” [ 119 ]. Also, in 1990, Fiona Godlee, then deputy editor of the BMJ, wrote “Countries in the developing world would suffer both the direct effects of drought and flood and the knock-on effect of agricultural and economic decline in the West. The already present problems of feeding the world’s growing population would be compounded by the increasing numbers of displaced people unable to grow their own food” [ 120 ]. In 1992 Powles observed “It is possible that adverse lagged effects of current industrial (and military) activities will disrupt the habitat of future generations of our species through processes such as stratospheric ozone depletion, global warming and others as yet unpredicted” [ 121 ]. However, in the following years, this sense of urgency largely dissipated, until the long paper by Costello et al. in 2009 [ 11 ].

Conditioned by growing up during the Cold War, the author has long been apprehensive about civilization’s survival. However, my timeline for global health disaster has always been multi-decadal. Civilizational collapse, if it is to occur, will not necessarily be in my own lifetime [ 54 ]. My concerns are not based solely on climate change. Climate change, by itself, is most unlikely to cripple civilization. A well-functioning global society, motivated to do so, could easily eliminate hunger and poverty, not only today, but under all but worst-case climate change. Refugees from inundated islands, war-torn Syria or the drought-stricken Chad basin [ 122 ] could easily be accommodated in more fertile and more elevated parts of the world. Unfortunately, humans currently do not co-operate on such a scale, and this behavior may, in part, be driven by inborn, “hard-wired”, evolutionary-shaped traits [ 123 ]. If civilization is to endure we may need to collectively overcome our seemingly deep wiring for tribalism and separation.

Acknowledgments

My thanks to John Potter for his help with locating obscure references, and to Andy Morse and Kristie Ebi for their very helpful comments, and Joseph Guillaume for his statistical advice. I especially thank Ivan Hanigan for the bootstrap analysis. I also thank three anonymous reviewers.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/10/2266/s1 .

Appendix A.1. Detailed Methods and Results

The search method had six steps (see Figure A1 ). Initial exploration used the author’s Endnote database, of over 35,000 references, to find relevant articles. The second step was to search, using Google Scholar, for up to the first 100 results for each year in the search period (1980–2013), using the terms “climate change” and health or “global warming” and “health”. For the first decade in which relevant articles were found (1989–1998) both pairs of terms were used, but from 1999 to 2013 inclusive, only the former terms were used (“climate change” and “health”). In the third step, the search was expanded by seeking the same terms, using PubMed, for the same period; 1980–2013 (inclusive). After eliminating duplicates, all remaining papers were checked to ensure that they met the eligibility criteria listed in Box 1 . In stage 4, several papers were included if they appeared in special issues of journals, together with articles identified by PubMed, or suggested by colleagues. In stage 5, the BMJ database for news items about climate change and health was searched explored, because although PubMed found a few the proportion it identified was low. Finally, in stage 6, several other papers were found by chance, such as in reviews, in the references of cited papers, or by searching for other papers.

Outline of the six stage search strategy for papers published from 1989–2013.

Appendix A.2. Further Scoring Details

The following details are provided in order to provide additional information about the scoring process. It discusses the scoring process for three highly cited papers (from 2005–2007), each of which was scored as two. The first (cited 2059 times) had no mention of population displacement or conflict, but included the sentence “Projections of the effect of climate change on food crop yield production globally appear to be broadly neutral, but climate change will probably exacerbate regional food supply inequalities” [ 124 ]. This statement was assessed as accepting the possibility of a degree of food scarcity judged to be more severe than that described by many papers (particularly concerning the Arctic) which discuss a likely impairment in regional nutrition, but do not forecast insufficient calories or nutrients, let alone famine. Although the conclusion regarding overall global food security in this paper was reassuring, there are already four acknowledged famines in African nations and one in Yemen [ 125 ]. Any exacerbation of regional food supply inequalities is therefore likely to result in aggravated famines, unless future famines are eliminated; an unlikely prospect. Because this paper was cited so frequently a lower score would impact the overall result. If there is a bias from scoring this paper as two it is towards the null hypothesis.

In 2006 a widely cited paper [ 126 ] stated “Other important climatic risks to health, from changes in regional food yields, disruption of fisheries, loss of livelihoods, and population displacement (because of sea-level rise, water shortages, etc.) are less easy to study than these factors and their causal processes and effects are less easily quantified”. This is a more comprehensive list of civilization-endangering effects than the paper discussed above, but the language is restrained and brief. It was scored as a two.

In 2007 another widely cited paper included the sentences “Climate change will, itself, affect food yields around the world unevenly. Although some regions, mostly at mid-to-high latitude, could experience gains, many (e.g., in sub-Saharan Africa) are likely to be adversely affected, with impairment of both nutrition and incomes. Population displacement and conflict are also likely, because of various factors including food insecurity, desertification, sea-level rise, and increased extreme weather events” [ 127 ]. Of the three papers discussed here this provided the most comprehensive list of such effects and also explores their interaction. However, it did not speculate about civilization collapse, nor describe climate change as the biggest threat to global public health.

A gradient exists between papers scored two or three, rather than a clear threshold. Papers were not scored as three simply by including a more detailed explanation or assertion of the existence and importance of conflict, migration or famine, even if an interaction among them was suggested. They needed something extra. For example, one paper [ 128 ] stated (referring to Costello et al. [ 11 ]) “a watershed paper … suggests that climate change represents the biggest potential threat to human health in the twenty-first century … a recent report … also estimates that four billion people are vulnerable and 500 million people are at extreme risk”. This paper was scored as three even though the paper focused on medical education. Although the phrase “the biggest potential threat to human health in the twenty-first century” can, with repetition, lose its capacity to shock, its meaning, if taken literally, is surely sufficiently dire to be scored as three.

Another paper (scored as three) stated “global health, population growth, economic development, environmental degradation, and climate change are the main challenges we face in the 21st century” [ 129 ]. It also stated that “significant mass migration is likely to occur in response to climate change”.

The interpretation of papers was not excessively generous. For example, a paper that noted: “Changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather and climate events have had profound effects on both human society and the natural environment” was scored as one because there was no discussion of this aspect in the abstract or further in the text. It was also considered that the words “have had profound” was insufficiently clear. Nor did the paper discuss conflict, migration or famine.

In contrast, two papers about climate change and health in Nepal were scored as two, as they included the statements “Climate change is becoming huge threat to health especially for those from developing countries” (sic) [ 130 ] and “Climate change is a global issue in this century which has challenged the survival of living creatures affecting the life supporting systems of the earth: atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere” [ 131 ].

Appendix A.3. Sources (Detailed)

Seventeen articles were identified from the author’s database, but not found via PubMed or Google Scholar. Other sources are shown in Table A4 .

This shows the primary source of the 2146 included articles. 18 articles were from special issues, 5 were found accidentally, 1 was from a review and 1 was from a colleague. Many articles were found using multiple methods. The papers listed here in the GS column were not found by PM but may also have been identified by CB. Abbreviations: PM = PubMed, GS = Google Scholar, CB = Colin Butler.

Appendix A.4. Score, Citation and Journal Details

This shows the number of articles and their average score for each quintile from 1989–1993.

This shows the number of papers and citations in each category divided into five quintiles for the 25 years of analysis. Note that in the third quintile (1999–2003) only 5 articles were ranked as three. Ironically, the paper scored as three in 2002 was a news item which quoted Andrew Sims, policy director of the New Economics Foundation as lamenting “Health is not even being talked about here [Delhi], although the potential health impact is a devastating one, almost unimaginable” [ 132 ].

Ten journals published at least 22 articles on climate change and health in the period 1989–2013.

Appendix A.5. Additional Papers 2014–2018

PubMed was searched for the terms “climate change” and “health” for the period 2014–2017 inclusive. This found 3377 papers, which were grouped by year of publication and listed alphabetically, by surname of the first author. Every 20th paper (in each year) was then examined. If a paper was found to be ineligible, successive consecutive (alphabetical) candidates were examined until at least 5% of the total maximum number for each year had been found eligible and analyzed. In total, 156 papers were scored. This sample represented 5.1% of the 3036 papers which remained after 341 of the original pool had been eliminated. More would be excluded, given a more thorough inspection. The average score of these 156 articles and their 95% confidence interval, determined by bootstrapping, was 1.29 (1.21–1.39). The average score of these papers is lower than for the papers published from 2009–2013 (1.37). Although the 95% confidence interval for the period 2014–2018 overlaps with this, there is no evidence to suggest that the more recent literature better recognizes existential risk. See Table A5 and Figure A2 .

This shows the number, number analyzed and scores for the 156 papers that were analyzed for the period 2014–2018, tabulated by year. Note that some of the candidate papers would be culled after further examination.

This shows the density of means and distributions for each year (2014–2017), based on 10,000 bootstrapped resamples (with replacement from the set for each year) and also for papers from 2013–2018 inclusive.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Topics & Essay Examples about Climate Change More Essay writing topics list on Climate Change ❓ Questions on the topic of Climate Change

How To Save The Earth According to Bill McKibben And His Environmental Politics The Reason Why Stopping Deforestation Can Help Us Save The Earth How we pay for using natural resources? How to Stop Global Warming? How Gaming Can Make A Better World?

For many years we have struggled to figure out the real cause of climate change. We tend to go back and forth with it being just nature or it is caused by our society that is not taking good care of our environment. With this essay, I will be explaining why it is caused by nature makes more sense and could be the real cause of our climate change. Some examples that involve nature being the cause of climate change are the eruption of undersea volcanoes, carbon leak, and lastly but not least earth’s orbital variations.

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• Climate Change in Three Cities
• Jason Momoa and Climate Change
• Climate Change and Tropical Biodiversity
• Polar Bears Warming Up to Climate Change
• Biomass and Rural Economies
• Find a Place i would Like to Live
• Facts about Corporate Social Responsibility
• Climate Change
• What is Climate Change?
• Climate Change: Causes and Effects
• Human Activity Causes Climate Change
• CSR and Climate Change
• Climate Change And Human Security
• Deforestation and Climate Changes
• Climate Change And Its Impact on Mental Health
• Laypeople’s View on Climate Change
• Migration and Climate Change
• Climate change: Big lifestyle Changes Are The Only Answer
• An Outline of Global Climate Change on Earth
• Climate Change Communication
• Contemporary Concern of Humanity – Climate Change
• Global Warming and Climate Change: Impact on Human Life
• Global Ecological Collapse and Climate Change
• Stop to Global Warming and Climate Change
• Impact Of Climate Change And Possible Solutions Environmental Sciences
• Climate change occurs when changes in Earth’s climate system result
• Global Climate Change
• Climate change solutions
• Anomalies of Anthropogenic Climate Change
• Example of a Climate Proposal
• Causes And Cosequencesof Probable Global Climate Change
• To What Extent Does Climate Change Affect Society?
• Ocean Acidification and Climate Change
• Climate Change on Earth
• The Popular Disregard of Climate Change & Its Consequences

Volcanoes Spew Lava

We will begin with the eruption of undersea volcanoes, which make the global climate over thousands of years. Volcanoes spew lava, carbon dioxide, and other elements into the deep ocean. Due to volcanoes spewing carbon dioxide into the ocean, the carbon dioxide gets trapped into circulating water, which is cycled to different regions of the ocean, where it gets caught up in upwelling currents and emitted to the atmosphere (Vaidyanathan, Gayathr). The process can take up to 2000 years and most likely will add a fraction of the 88 million metric tons of carbon that is belched out by the volcanoes to the atmosphere. Volcanoes tend to erupt when ocean tides are at their lowest point due to the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. The future climate could also change due to high tides, suppress underwater volcanic activity, and thousands of years hence (Vaidyanathan, Gayathr).

Carbon Leak From the Southern Ocean

Secondly, carbon leak from the Southern Ocean is another cause of climate change by nature. A carbon leak in the Southern Ocean has gradually warmed the planet for 11,000 years. It is believed that an increase in ocean circulation in the area has triggered the leak of gas which can also be a cause of climate change (Dailymail.com, Mark Prigg For). This is caused by the increasing amounts of water, rich in nutrients and carbon dioxide, welled up from the deep ocean to the surface of the Southern Ocean during the Holocene. Due to the process of locking away greenhouse gas is weakened by activity of the Southern Ocean, the increase in its activity could be the mysterious warmth of the past 11,000 years. The increase of circulation in the Southern Ocean allowed carbon dioxide to leak into the atmosphere, working to warm the planet (Dailymail.com, Mark Prigg For). The new discoveries about ocean changes could also have implications for predicting how global warming will affect ocean circulation and how much atmospheric carbon dioxide will rise due to fossil fuel burning.

Lastly, Earth’s orbital variations and sea ice synch glacial periods also known as Milankovitch climate have been the cause of climate change due to nature. This affects our climate due to the fact that each of the Milankovitch Cycles has an influence on the amount of sunlight the planet receives. Every 100,000, 41,000, and 21,000 years the cycles change (Earth’s Orbital Variations, Sea Ice Synch Glacial Periods). With the 100,000-year cycle alone being the weakest of the three it has been a problem to the degree which it affects solar radiation. New studies have shown that the mechanism in which the 100,000 year cycle and the 21,000-year cycle work together to drive Earth’s glacial cycle. The 21,000-year cycle has to do with precession which is the change in orientation of Earth’s tilted rotational axis, which is what creates Earth’s changing seasons (Earth’s Orbital Variations, Sea Ice Synch Glacial Periods). With the northern Hemisphere being tilted toward the sun, it gets more sunlight and summer experience. On the other hand, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away, which causes it to get less sunlight and more winter experience(Earth’s Orbital Variations, Sea Ice Synch Glacial Periods). This also goes the other way around after a six-month period, so due to this whichever Hemisphere is closer to the sun causes it to summer, which would make the opposite hemisphere further away from the sun causing it to be winter.

Climate Change in Our Environment

In conclusion, nature has a lot to do with climate change in our environment. Three examples of this have been Undersea volcanic eruptions, carbon leaks in the Southern Ocean, and lastly but not least Earth’s orbital variations and sea ice synch glacial periods aka Milankovitch climate. This affects our climate due to the fact that each of the Milankovitch Cycles has an influence on the amount of sunlight the planet receives. The future climate could also change due to high tides, suppress underwater volcanic activity, and thousands of years hence. It is believed that an increase in ocean circulation in the area has triggered the leak of gas which can also be a cause of climate change. New discoveries about ocean changes could also have implications for predicting how global warming will affect ocean circulation and how much atmospheric carbon dioxide will rise due to fossil fuel burning. All these have been researched causes of our climate change and while there are more out there, these are the three I decided to focus on.

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Climate Change: Evidence and Causes: Update 2020 (2020)

Chapter: conclusion, c onclusion.

This document explains that there are well-understood physical mechanisms by which changes in the amounts of greenhouse gases cause climate changes. It discusses the evidence that the concentrations of these gases in the atmosphere have increased and are still increasing rapidly, that climate change is occurring, and that most of the recent change is almost certainly due to emissions of greenhouse gases caused by human activities. Further climate change is inevitable; if emissions of greenhouse gases continue unabated, future changes will substantially exceed those that have occurred so far. There remains a range of estimates of the magnitude and regional expression of future change, but increases in the extremes of climate that can adversely affect natural ecosystems and human activities and infrastructure are expected.

Citizens and governments can choose among several options (or a mixture of those options) in response to this information: they can change their pattern of energy production and usage in order to limit emissions of greenhouse gases and hence the magnitude of climate changes; they can wait for changes to occur and accept the losses, damage, and suffering that arise; they can adapt to actual and expected changes as much as possible; or they can seek as yet unproven “geoengineering” solutions to counteract some of the climate changes that would otherwise occur. Each of these options has risks, attractions and costs, and what is actually done may be a mixture of these different options. Different nations and communities will vary in their vulnerability and their capacity to adapt. There is an important debate to be had about choices among these options, to decide what is best for each group or nation, and most importantly for the global population as a whole. The options have to be discussed at a global scale because in many cases those communities that are most vulnerable control few of the emissions, either past or future. Our description of the science of climate change, with both its facts and its uncertainties, is offered as a basis to inform that policy debate.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following individuals served as the primary writing team for the 2014 and 2020 editions of this document:

• Eric Wolff FRS, (UK lead), University of Cambridge
• Inez Fung (NAS, US lead), University of California, Berkeley
• Brian Hoskins FRS, Grantham Institute for Climate Change
• John F.B. Mitchell FRS, UK Met Office
• Tim Palmer FRS, University of Oxford
• Benjamin Santer (NAS), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
• John Shepherd FRS, University of Southampton
• Keith Shine FRS, University of Reading.
• Susan Solomon (NAS), Massachusetts Institute of Technology
• Kevin Trenberth, National Center for Atmospheric Research
• John Walsh, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
• Don Wuebbles, University of Illinois

Staff support for the 2020 revision was provided by Richard Walker, Amanda Purcell, Nancy Huddleston, and Michael Hudson. We offer special thanks to Rebecca Lindsey and NOAA Climate.gov for providing data and figure updates.

The following individuals served as reviewers of the 2014 document in accordance with procedures approved by the Royal Society and the National Academy of Sciences:

• Richard Alley (NAS), Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania State University
• Alec Broers FRS, Former President of the Royal Academy of Engineering
• Harry Elderfield FRS, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge
• Joanna Haigh FRS, Professor of Atmospheric Physics, Imperial College London
• Isaac Held (NAS), NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
• John Kutzbach (NAS), Center for Climatic Research, University of Wisconsin
• Jerry Meehl, Senior Scientist, National Center for Atmospheric Research
• John Pendry FRS, Imperial College London
• John Pyle FRS, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge
• Gavin Schmidt, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
• Emily Shuckburgh, British Antarctic Survey
• Gabrielle Walker, Journalist
• Andrew Watson FRS, University of East Anglia

The Support for the 2014 Edition was provided by NAS Endowment Funds. We offer sincere thanks to the Ralph J. and Carol M. Cicerone Endowment for NAS Missions for supporting the production of this 2020 Edition.

F OR FURTHER READING

For more detailed discussion of the topics addressed in this document (including references to the underlying original research), see:

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2019: Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [ https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc ]
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM), 2019: Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25259 ]
• Royal Society, 2018: Greenhouse gas removal [ https://raeng.org.uk/greenhousegasremoval ]
• U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), 2018: Fourth National Climate Assessment Volume II: Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States [ https://nca2018.globalchange.gov ]
• IPCC, 2018: Global Warming of 1.5°C [ https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15 ]
• USGCRP, 2017: Fourth National Climate Assessment Volume I: Climate Science Special Reports [ https://science2017.globalchange.gov ]
• NASEM, 2016: Attribution of Extreme Weather Events in the Context of Climate Change [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/21852 ]
• IPCC, 2013: Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) Working Group 1. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis [ https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1 ]
• NRC, 2013: Abrupt Impacts of Climate Change: Anticipating Surprises [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/18373 ]
• NRC, 2011: Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts Over Decades to Millennia [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12877 ]
• Royal Society 2010: Climate Change: A Summary of the Science [ https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/publications/2010/climate-change-summary-science ]
• NRC, 2010: America’s Climate Choices: Advancing the Science of Climate Change [ https://www.nap.edu/catalog/12782 ]

Much of the original data underlying the scientific findings discussed here are available at:

• https://data.ucar.edu/
• https://climatedataguide.ucar.edu
• https://iridl.ldeo.columbia.edu
• https://ess-dive.lbl.gov/
• https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/
• https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/
• http://scrippsco2.ucsd.edu
• http://hahana.soest.hawaii.edu/hot/

Climate change is one of the defining issues of our time. It is now more certain than ever, based on many lines of evidence, that humans are changing Earth's climate. The Royal Society and the US National Academy of Sciences, with their similar missions to promote the use of science to benefit society and to inform critical policy debates, produced the original Climate Change: Evidence and Causes in 2014. It was written and reviewed by a UK-US team of leading climate scientists. This new edition, prepared by the same author team, has been updated with the most recent climate data and scientific analyses, all of which reinforce our understanding of human-caused climate change.

Scientific information is a vital component for society to make informed decisions about how to reduce the magnitude of climate change and how to adapt to its impacts. This booklet serves as a key reference document for decision makers, policy makers, educators, and others seeking authoritative answers about the current state of climate-change science.

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Quantifying the stochastic trends of climate extremes over Yemen: a comprehensive assessment using ERA5 data

• Al-Sakkaf, Ali Salem
• Zhang, Jiahua
• Yao, Fengmei
• Hamed, Mohammed Magdy
• Al-Aizari, Ali R.
• Dammag, Abdulkarem Qasem
• Al-Masnay, Yousef A.
• Thabit, Fursan
• Shahid, Shamsuddin

Climate change is worsening existing vulnerabilities in developing countries such as Yemen. This study examined the spatial distribution trends of extreme climate indices defined by ETCCDI (Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices), for precipitation and temperature, from 1988 to 2021. It employed both the classical Mann-Kendall (MK) test as well as its modified (MMK) version that accounts for long-term persistence in hydroclimatic time series, that could otherwise impact the significance of the identified trends. It represents the first country-level investigation of climate extremes in Yemen using ERA5 reanalysis data to overcome the limitations of station data. Results found widespread increases in temperature indices, indicating significant warming nationwide. Minimum temperatures amplified more than maximums, particularly TNn (the minimum of the minimum temperature), with an increasing trend of more than 0.7° per decade. Inland cities exhibited more substantial warming than coastal cities. Precipitation trends displayed higher spatial variability, with intensity indices declining across most areas, raising drought concerns. However, Socotra Island presents an exception, with increased precipitation intensity and heightened flood risks. Furthermore, spatial heterogeneity in precipitation indices underscored Yemen's complex terrain. Fewer trends were significant when applying the MMK test versus MK, confirming the impact of climate variability over the region. This research identifies the most climate-vulnerable regions to prioritise focused adaptation actions. Adaptation strategies are urgently needed, including efficient irrigation, flood assessments for Socotra Island, and investigation of projected climate changes and their implications under diverse topographic and climatic influences.

• Climate indices;
• Modified Mann-Kendall test;
• Reanalysis data;
• Spatiotemporal variability;
• Trend analysis

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Ramaphosa signs crucial climate change bill into law.

P resident Cyril Ramaphosa’s signing of the Climate Change Bill into law on Tuesday marks the dawn of a new era in coordinated climate action for South Africa, the Presidential Climate Commission (PCC) has said.

The Act sets out the legal mandate for a nationwide climate change response to align policy and actions, including mitigation and adaptation, “which also constitutes our country’s fair contribution to the global climate change response”, the commission said.

“While a few state departments and other government agencies have just transition outcomes explicitly outlined in their annual performance plans, the Act now clearly instructs every organ of state to review and if necessary, revise, amend, coordinate and harmonise their policies and measures, programmes and decisions to ensure that the risks of climate change impacts and associated vulnerabilities are taken into consideration,” it said.

The new law is the country’s first comprehensive piece of legislation to encourage the development of an effective climate change response. 

The Act incorporates the country’s Paris Agreement targets or nationally determined contributions into domestic law.

“Undoubtedly any successful climate action effort will require alignment of major social-economic, environmental and governance policies,” said Crispian Olver , the executive director of the PCC. 

“We are entering a new phase of climate action and we believe the Climate Change Act will foster institutional coherence and enhance climate change adaptation governance across the national, provincial and local layers of government.”

The legislation not only clearly sets out the functions of the PCC, but outlines the role that provinces and municipalities will play in mitigation efforts “to ensure the realisation of the vision for effective climate change response and just transition to a climate-resilient and low-carbon economy and society”, he said.

The presidency said the Act enables the alignment of policies that influence the country’s response to climate change “to ensure that South Africa’s transition to a low-carbon and climate-resilient economy and society is not constrained by policy contradictions”.

The law aims to enhance the country’s ability and capacity to over time reduce greenhouse gas emissions and build climate resilience, while reducing the risk of job losses and promoting opportunities for new jobs in the green economy.

James Reeler , the senior manager for climate action at World Wide Fund for Nature South Africa, welcomed the passing of the Act after nearly 10 years of discussions and seven years after the first draft Bill was published.

“Over this same period South Africa has emitted over four billion tonnes of carbon dioxide, and the evidence of climate change impacts on people’s lives and livelihoods has become increasingly apparent. The importance of this framework law in guiding our response to this crisis cannot be overstated,” he said.

“The hard work still has to be done but the Climate Change Act provides a key legal framework for the country — and all its citizens — to steer away from the damaging and inequitable future that was otherwise locked in, and realise a vision for sustainable development.”

The Centre for Environmental Rights welcomes the “express formalisation” of a comprehensive climate change response in the country’s domestic law, said Brandon Abdinor , a climate advocacy lawyer at the organisation.

“In addition to the legislated management of climate change adaptation and mitigation, the Climate Change Act imposes duties across organs of state affected by climate change to harmonise their laws, policies, programmes and decisions with the principles and objectives of the Act.”

He said climate change mitigation, or the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, now has a legal basis with the upcoming allocation of carbon budgets to significant emitters. 

“While the Act could have been stronger in making excess greenhouse gas emissions an offence, at least there are now tools in place to assist the monitoring of emissions and mitigation plans, which will effectively start to compel heavy emitters to engage with decarbonising their businesses,” Abdinor said.

Abdinor said policymakers and state decision-makers were now obliged to work with climate adaptation needs based on the best available science, which would accelerate the protection of vulnerable and at-risk people.

The presidency said the Act sets out the functions of the PCC, which includes providing advice on the country’s climate change response to ensure the vision is realised for effective climate change response and the long-term just transition to a climate-resilient and low-carbon economy and society.

The PCC said it would strengthen its relations with the government, particularly the department of forestry, fisheries, and the environment and the treasury “in giving life to the Act” and to ensure a smooth evolution to a public entity.

Abdinor added that the formalisation of the PCC as a statutory body would help give this forum the legal status that it needed. “In addition to commissioning and producing science-based research reports, the forum hosts the challenging negotiations between social partners — that is business, labour, civil society and government — on how to implement a just transition that leaves no one behind and how to decarbonise our society and economy in a just and equitable manner.”

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A review of precision irrigation water-saving technology under changing climate for enhancing water use efficiency, crop yield, and environmental footprints.

1. Introduction

2. review methodology, 3. results and discussion, 3.1. traditional irrigation method and its modernization for enhancing water use efficiency, 3.1.1. precision irrigation scheduling (ps) for efficient water management, 3.1.2. why do we need precision agriculture and irrigation water-saving systems, 3.2. related work on the precision irrigation water-saving systems, 3.3. precision irrigation water-saving monitoring and control systems, 3.3.1. smart irrigation water-saving controlling tools, 3.3.2. smart irrigation water-saving monitoring techniques.

3.4. Smart Irrigation Water-Saving Architecture and Data-Sharing Communication Technologies

3.4.1. iot architecture, 3.4.2. wireless sensor network architecture, 3.4.3. data sharing and communication technologies (dsct), 3.5. role of artificial intelligence (ai) in irrigation water saving, 3.6. future prospects of piss/siss, 4. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Lakhiar, I.A.; Yan, H.; Zhang, C.; Wang, G.; He, B.; Hao, B.; Han, Y.; Wang, B.; Bao, R.; Syed, T.N.; et al. A Review of Precision Irrigation Water-Saving Technology under Changing Climate for Enhancing Water Use Efficiency, Crop Yield, and Environmental Footprints. Agriculture 2024 , 14 , 1141. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14071141

Lakhiar IA, Yan H, Zhang C, Wang G, He B, Hao B, Han Y, Wang B, Bao R, Syed TN, et al. A Review of Precision Irrigation Water-Saving Technology under Changing Climate for Enhancing Water Use Efficiency, Crop Yield, and Environmental Footprints. Agriculture . 2024; 14(7):1141. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14071141

Lakhiar, Imran Ali, Haofang Yan, Chuan Zhang, Guoqing Wang, Bin He, Beibei Hao, Yujing Han, Biyu Wang, Rongxuan Bao, Tabinda Naz Syed, and et al. 2024. "A Review of Precision Irrigation Water-Saving Technology under Changing Climate for Enhancing Water Use Efficiency, Crop Yield, and Environmental Footprints" Agriculture 14, no. 7: 1141. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14071141

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Green finance in banking industry: a systematic literature review

• Published: 22 July 2024
• Volume 4 , article number  91 , ( 2024 )

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• Jaweria Yameen 1 ,
• Ploypailin Kijkasiwat   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5088-8990 2 ,
• Anwar Hussain 1 ,
• Muhammad Azhar Farooq 1 &
• Tahira Ajmal 3  

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This study reviews the literature on green finance and highlights the emerging themes. This review is undertaken in the context of the growing global concern for environmental protection, action on climate change, and the pursuit of sustainable development goals. Employing a systematic review approach, this research critically examines and summarizes findings from 50 relevant studies. For this review, 50 papers published across 35 journals were selected with a particular focus on the most recent contributions that prioritize the subject of green finance. The literature review spans the period from 1980 to 2021. The aim of this study is to provide an overview of perspectives on green finance in the banking industry, and highlight key themes relating to green finance, including, but not limited to, environmental protection, climate change risk mitigation, technology and innovation, bank credit policies, and interest rates. The research question is: what do previous and current studies discuss under the topic of green finance? Through a comprehensive systemic review, this investigation reveals 22 distinct factors that significantly influence the adoption of green finance within banks. The ensuing discussion delves into the global imperatives, banking regulations, ethics, internal practices, risk and interest considerations, as well as the role of technology and innovation in enhancing awareness and understanding of green finance within the banking industry.

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Department of Business Administration, Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan, Pakistan

Jaweria Yameen, Anwar Hussain & Muhammad Azhar Farooq

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JY: conceptualization, methodology, writing original draft; PK: project administration, research gap, discussion, writing revised drafts; AH: systematic analysis, writing the introduction; MAF: writing revised draft; TA: Systematic analysis, writing original draft.

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Yameen, J., Kijkasiwat, P., Hussain, A. et al. Green finance in banking industry: a systematic literature review. SN Bus Econ 4 , 91 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-024-00683-w

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Received : 13 November 2023

Accepted : 30 June 2024

Published : 22 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-024-00683-w

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