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How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

Published on February 28, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 18, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a thesis ,  dissertation or research paper ). The abstract concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly what your paper is about.

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you’ve used, and the conclusions you’ve drawn.

One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure. This stands for:

• Introduction

Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.

In a dissertation or thesis , include the abstract on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Table of contents

Abstract example, when to write an abstract, step 1: introduction, step 2: methods, step 3: results, step 4: discussion, tips for writing an abstract, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about abstracts.

Hover over the different parts of the abstract to see how it is constructed.

This paper examines the role of silent movies as a mode of shared experience in the US during the early twentieth century. At this time, high immigration rates resulted in a significant percentage of non-English-speaking citizens. These immigrants faced numerous economic and social obstacles, including exclusion from public entertainment and modes of discourse (newspapers, theater, radio).

Incorporating evidence from reviews, personal correspondence, and diaries, this study demonstrates that silent films were an affordable and inclusive source of entertainment. It argues for the accessible economic and representational nature of early cinema. These concerns are particularly evident in the low price of admission and in the democratic nature of the actors’ exaggerated gestures, which allowed the plots and action to be easily grasped by a diverse audience despite language barriers.

Keywords: silent movies, immigration, public discourse, entertainment, early cinema, language barriers.

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You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

• Completing a thesis or dissertation
• Submitting a research paper to an academic journal
• Writing a book or research proposal
• Applying for research grants

It’s easiest to write your abstract last, right before the proofreading stage, because it’s a summary of the work you’ve already done. Your abstract should:

• Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper
• Be fully understandable on its own
• Reflect the structure of your larger work

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research question did you aim to answer?

You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of your dissertation topic , but don’t go into detailed background information. If your abstract uses specialized terms that would be unfamiliar to the average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a concise definition.

After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use verbs like “investigate,” “test,” “analyze,” or “evaluate” to describe exactly what you set out to do.

This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple tense  but should never refer to the future, as the research is already complete.

• This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
• This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it refers to completed actions.

• Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.
• Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

Don’t evaluate validity or obstacles here — the goal is not to give an account of the methodology’s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

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Next, summarize the main research results . This part of the abstract can be in the present or past simple tense.

• Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research : what is your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

• We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
• We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility and generalizability of your research.

If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make suggestions for further research.

If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to help potential readers find your paper during their own literature searches.

Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style , have specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only) part that people read, so it’s important to get it right. These strategies can help you get started.

Read other abstracts

The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your discipline is to read other people’s. You probably already read lots of journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review —try using them as a framework for structure and style.

You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases .

Reverse outline

Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.

For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences that summarize the central point or argument. This will give you a framework of your abstract’s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make connections and show how the argument develops.

Write clearly and concisely

A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts. Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

• Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by using the active voice.
• Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise expressions or single words (e.g., “In order to” for “To”).
• Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic.
• Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.
• Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other scholars’ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your thesis or paper.

If you’re struggling to edit down to the required length, you can get help from expert editors with Scribbr’s professional proofreading services or use the paraphrasing tool .

Check your formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research papers you can follow the APA abstract format .

Checklist: Abstract

The word count is within the required length, or a maximum of one page.

The abstract appears after the title page and acknowledgements and before the table of contents .

I have clearly stated my research problem and objectives.

I have briefly described my methodology .

I have summarized the most important results .

I have stated my main conclusions .

I have mentioned any important limitations and recommendations.

The abstract can be understood by someone without prior knowledge of the topic.

You've written a great abstract! Use the other checklists to continue improving your thesis or dissertation.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 200–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis , dissertation or research paper .

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page in the thesis or dissertation , after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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• How to Write an Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Table of Contents

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

• Describe the paper.
• Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
• Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
• Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

• Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
• What you want to study, achieve or discover.
• Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

• A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
• Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
• A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
• An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

• Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
• Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
• Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

• A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
• It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
• A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
• It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
• It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
• A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
• It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
• It is written impartially and objectively.

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

• What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
• What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

• A significant take-home message.
• Corresponding important findings.
• The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

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Types of Essays in Academic Writing - Quick Guide (2024)

What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to write an abstract that will be accepted

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• Peer review
• Mary Higgins , fellow in maternal fetal medicine 1 ,
• Maeve Eogan , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist 2 ,
• Keelin O’Donoghue , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist, and senior lecturer 3 ,
• Noirin Russell , consultant obstetrician and gynaecologist 3
• 1 Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
• 2 Rotunda Hospital Dublin, Ireland
• 3 Cork University Maternity Hospital, Ireland
• mairenihuigin{at}gmail.com

Researchers do not always appreciate the importance of producing a good abstract or understand the best way of writing one. Mary Higgins and colleagues share some of the lessons they have learnt as both researchers and reviewers of abstracts

Effective abstracts reflect the time, work, and importance of the scientific research performed in the course of a study. A last minute approach and poor writing may not reflect the good quality of a study.

Between the four of us we have written over 150 published papers, as well as having reviewed numerous abstracts for national and international meetings. Nevertheless, we have all had abstracts rejected, and this experience has emphasised a number of teaching points that could help maximise the impact of abstracts and success on the world, or other, stage.

An abstract is the first glimpse an audience has of a study, and it is the ticket to having research accepted for presentation to a wider audience. For a study to receive the respect it deserves, the abstract should be as well written as possible. In practice, this means taking time to write the abstract, keeping it simple, reading the submission guidelines, checking the text, and showing the abstract to colleagues.

It is important to take the necessary time to write the abstract. Several months or years have been spent on this groundbreaking research, so take the time to show this. Five minutes before the call for abstracts closes is not the time to start putting it together.

Keep it simple, and think about the message that needs to be communicated. Some abstracts churn out lots of unrelated results and then have a conclusion that does not relate to the results, and this is just confusing. Plan what points need to be made, and then think about them a little more.

Read the submission guidelines and keep to the instructions provided in the call for abstracts. Don’t submit an unstructured abstract if the guidance has asked for a structured one. Comply with the word or letter count, and do not go over this.

An abstract comprises five parts of equal importance: the title, introduction and aims, methods, results, and conclusion. Allow enough time to write each part well.

The title should go straight to the point of the study. Make the study sound interesting so that it catches people’s attention. The introduction should include a brief background to the research and describe its aims. For every aim presented there needs to be a corresponding result in the results section. There is no need to go into detail in terms of the background to the study, as those who are reviewing the abstract will have some knowledge of the subject. The methods section can be kept simple—it is acceptable to write “retrospective case-control study” or “randomised controlled trial.”

The results section should be concrete and related to the aims. It is distracting and irritating to read results that have no apparent relation to the professed aims of the study. If something is important, highlight it or put it in italics to make it stand out. Include the number of participants, and ensure recognition is given if 10 000 charts have been reviewed. Equally, a percentage without a baseline number is not meaningful.

In the conclusion, state succinctly what can be drawn from the results, but don’t oversell this. Words like “possibly” and “may” can be useful in this part of the abstract but show that some thought has been put into what the results may mean. This is what divides the good from the not so good. Many people are capable of doing research, but the logical formation of a hypothesis and the argument of its proof are what make a real researcher.

Once you have written the abstract, check the spelling and grammar. Poor spelling or grammar can give the impression that the research is also poor. Show the abstract to the supervisor or principal investigator of the study, as this person’s name will go on the abstract as well. Then show the abstract to someone who knows nothing about the particular area of research but who knows something about the subject. Someone detached from the study might point out the one thing that needs to be said but that has been forgotten.

Then let it go; abstracts are not life and death scenarios. Sometimes an abstract will not be accepted no matter how wonderful it is. Perhaps there is a theme to the meeting, into which the research does not fit. Reviewers may also be looking for particular things. For one conference, we limited the number of case reports so that only about 10% were accepted. It may be that your research is in a popular or topical area and not all abstracts in that area can be chosen. On occasions, politics play a part, and individual researchers have little control over that.

Finally, remember that sometimes even the best reviewer may not appreciate the subtleties of your research and another audience may be more appreciative.

Competing interests: We have read and understood the BMJ Group policy on declaration of interests and have no relevant interests to declare.

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Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

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Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

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How to Write an Abstract for a Research Paper | Examples

What is a research paper abstract?

Research paper abstracts summarize your study quickly and succinctly to journal editors and researchers and prompt them to read further. But with the ubiquity of online publication databases, writing a compelling abstract is even more important today than it was in the days of bound paper manuscripts.

Abstracts exist to “sell”  your work, and they could thus be compared to the “executive summary” of a business resume: an official briefing on what is most important about your research. Or the “gist” of your research. With the majority of academic transactions being conducted online, this means that you have even less time to impress readers–and increased competition in terms of other abstracts out there to read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) notes that there are  12 questions or “points” considered in the selection process  for journals and conferences and stresses the importance of having an abstract that ticks all of these boxes. Because it is often the ONLY chance you have to convince readers to keep reading, it is important that you spend time and energy crafting an abstract that faithfully represents the central parts of your study and captivates your audience.

With that in mind, follow these suggestions when structuring and writing your abstract, and learn how exactly to put these ideas into a solid abstract that will captivate your target readers.

Before Writing Your Abstract

How long should an abstract be.

All abstracts are written with the same essential objective: to give a summary of your study. But there are two basic styles of abstract: descriptive and informative . Here is a brief delineation of the two:

Of the two types of abstracts, informative abstracts are much more common, and they are widely used for submission to journals and conferences. Informative abstracts apply to lengthier and more technical research and are common in the sciences, engineering, and psychology, while descriptive abstracts are more likely used in humanities and social science papers. The best method of determining which abstract type you need to use is to follow the instructions for journal submissions and to read as many other published articles in those journals as possible.

Research Abstract Guidelines and Requirements

As any article about research writing will tell you, authors must always closely follow the specific guidelines and requirements indicated in the Guide for Authors section of their target journal’s website. The same kind of adherence to conventions should be applied to journal publications, for consideration at a conference, and even when completing a class assignment.

Each publisher has particular demands when it comes to formatting and structure. Here are some common questions addressed in the journal guidelines:

• Is there a maximum or minimum word/character length?
• What are the style and formatting requirements?
• What is the appropriate abstract type?
• Are there any specific content or organization rules that apply?

There are of course other rules to consider when composing a research paper abstract. But if you follow the stated rules the first time you submit your manuscript, you can avoid your work being thrown in the “circular file” right off the bat.

Identify Your Target Readership

The main purpose of your abstract is to lead researchers to the full text of your research paper. In scientific journals, abstracts let readers decide whether the research discussed is relevant to their own interests or study. Abstracts also help readers understand your main argument quickly. Consider these questions as you write your abstract:

• Are other academics in your field the main target of your study?
• Will your study perhaps be useful to members of the general public?
• Do your study results include the wider implications presented in the abstract?

Outlining and Writing Your Abstract

What to include in an abstract.

Just as your  research paper title  should cover as much ground as possible in a few short words, your abstract must cover  all  parts of your study in order to fully explain your paper and research. Because it must accomplish this task in the space of only a few hundred words, it is important not to include ambiguous references or phrases that will confuse the reader or mislead them about the content and objectives of your research. Follow these  dos  and  don’ts  when it comes to what kind of writing to include:

• Avoid acronyms or abbreviations since these will need to be explained in order to make sense to the reader, which takes up valuable abstract space. Instead, explain these terms in the Introduction section of the main text.
• Only use references to people or other works if they are well-known. Otherwise, avoid referencing anything outside of your study in the abstract.
• Never include tables, figures, sources, or long quotations in your abstract; you will have plenty of time to present and refer to these in the body of your paper.

Use keywords in your abstract to focus your topic

A vital search tool is the research paper keywords section, which lists the most relevant terms directly underneath the abstract. Think of these keywords as the “tubes” that readers will seek and enter—via queries on databases and search engines—to ultimately land at their destination, which is your paper. Your abstract keywords should thus be words that are commonly used in searches but should also be highly relevant to your work and found in the text of your abstract. Include 5 to 10 important words or short phrases central to your research in both the abstract and the keywords section.

For example, if you are writing a paper on the prevalence of obesity among lower classes that crosses international boundaries, you should include terms like “obesity,” “prevalence,” “international,” “lower classes,” and “cross-cultural.” These are terms that should net a wide array of people interested in your topic of study. Look at our nine rules for choosing keywords for your research paper if you need more input on this.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

As mentioned above, the abstract (especially the informative abstract) acts as a surrogate or synopsis of your research paper, doing almost as much work as the thousands of words that follow it in the body of the main text. In the hard sciences and most social sciences, the abstract includes the following sections and organizational schema.

Each section is quite compact—only a single sentence or two, although there is room for expansion if one element or statement is particularly interesting or compelling. As the abstract is almost always one long paragraph, the individual sections should naturally merge into one another to create a holistic effect. Use the following as a checklist to ensure that you have included all of the necessary content in your abstract.

1) Identify your purpose and motivation

So your research is about rabies in Brazilian squirrels. Why is this important? You should start your abstract by explaining why people should care about this study—why is it significant to your field and perhaps to the wider world? And what is the exact purpose of your study; what are you trying to achieve? Start by answering the following questions:

• What made you decide to do this study or project?
• Why is this study important to your field or to the lay reader?
• Why should someone read your entire article?

In summary, the first section of your abstract should include the importance of the research and its impact on related research fields or on the wider scientific domain.

2) Explain the research problem you are addressing

Stating the research problem that your study addresses is the corollary to why your specific study is important and necessary. For instance, even if the issue of “rabies in Brazilian squirrels” is important, what is the problem—the “missing piece of the puzzle”—that your study helps resolve?

You can combine the problem with the motivation section, but from a perspective of organization and clarity, it is best to separate the two. Here are some precise questions to address:

• What is your research trying to better understand or what problem is it trying to solve?
• What is the scope of your study—does it try to explain something general or specific?
• What is your central claim or argument?

3) Discuss your research approach

Your specific study approach is detailed in the Methods and Materials section .  You have already established the importance of the research, your motivation for studying this issue, and the specific problem your paper addresses. Now you need to discuss  how  you solved or made progress on this problem—how you conducted your research. If your study includes your own work or that of your team, describe that here. If in your paper you reviewed the work of others, explain this here. Did you use analytic models? A simulation? A double-blind study? A case study? You are basically showing the reader the internal engine of your research machine and how it functioned in the study. Be sure to:

• Detail your research—include methods/type of the study, your variables, and the extent of the work
• Briefly present evidence to support your claim
• Highlight your most important sources

4) Briefly summarize your results

Here you will give an overview of the outcome of your study. Avoid using too many vague qualitative terms (e.g, “very,” “small,” or “tremendous”) and try to use at least some quantitative terms (i.e., percentages, figures, numbers). Save your qualitative language for the conclusion statement. Answer questions like these:

• What did your study yield in concrete terms (e.g., trends, figures, correlation between phenomena)?
• How did your results compare to your hypothesis? Was the study successful?
• Where there any highly unexpected outcomes or were they all largely predicted?

5) State your conclusion

In the last section of your abstract, you will give a statement about the implications and  limitations of the study . Be sure to connect this statement closely to your results and not the area of study in general. Are the results of this study going to shake up the scientific world? Will they impact how people see “Brazilian squirrels”? Or are the implications minor? Try not to boast about your study or present its impact as  too  far-reaching, as researchers and journals will tend to be skeptical of bold claims in scientific papers. Answer one of these questions:

• What are the exact effects of these results on my field? On the wider world?
• What other kind of study would yield further solutions to problems?
• What other information is needed to expand knowledge in this area?

After Completing the First Draft of Your Abstract

Revise your abstract.

The abstract, like any piece of academic writing, should be revised before being considered complete. Check it for  grammatical and spelling errors  and make sure it is formatted properly.

Get feedback from a peer

Getting a fresh set of eyes to review your abstract is a great way to find out whether you’ve summarized your research well. Find a reader who understands research papers but is not an expert in this field or is not affiliated with your study. Ask your reader to summarize what your study is about (including all key points of each section). This should tell you if you have communicated your key points clearly.

In addition to research peers, consider consulting with a professor or even a specialist or generalist writing center consultant about your abstract. Use any resource that helps you see your work from another perspective.

Consider getting professional editing and proofreading

While peer feedback is quite important to ensure the effectiveness of your abstract content, it may be a good idea to find an academic editor  to fix mistakes in grammar, spelling, mechanics, style, or formatting. The presence of basic errors in the abstract may not affect your content, but it might dissuade someone from reading your entire study. Wordvice provides English editing services that both correct objective errors and enhance the readability and impact of your work.

Additional Abstract Rules and Guidelines

Write your abstract after completing your paper.

Although the abstract goes at the beginning of your manuscript, it does not merely introduce your research topic (that is the job of the title), but rather summarizes your entire paper. Writing the abstract last will ensure that it is complete and consistent with the findings and statements in your paper.

Keep your content in the correct order

Both questions and answers should be organized in a standard and familiar way to make the content easier for readers to absorb. Ideally, it should mimic the overall format of your essay and the classic “introduction,” “body,” and “conclusion” form, even if the parts are not neatly divided as such.

Write the abstract from scratch

Because the abstract is a self-contained piece of writing viewed separately from the body of the paper, you should write it separately as well. Never copy and paste direct quotes from the paper and avoid paraphrasing sentences in the paper. Using new vocabulary and phrases will keep your abstract interesting and free of redundancies while conserving space.

Don’t include too many details in the abstract

Again, the density of your abstract makes it incompatible with including specific points other than possibly names or locations. You can make references to terms, but do not explain or define them in the abstract. Try to strike a balance between being specific to your study and presenting a relatively broad overview of your work.

Wordvice Resources

If you think your abstract is fine now but you need input on abstract writing or require English editing services (including paper editing ), then head over to the Wordvice academic resources page, where you will find many more articles, for example on writing the Results , Methods , and Discussion sections of your manuscript, on choosing a title for your paper , or on how to finalize your journal submission with a strong cover letter .    

Undergraduate Research Center

The following instructions are for the Undergraduate Research Center's Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Conference, however the general concepts will apply to abstracts for similar conferences.  In the video to the right, Kendon Kurzer, PhD presents guidance from the University Writing Program.  To see abstracts from previous URC Conferences, visit our Abstract Books Page .

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a summary of a research project. Abstracts precede papers in research journals and appear in programs of scholarly conferences. In journals, the abstract allows readers to quickly grasp the purpose and major ideas of a paper and lets other researchers know whether reading the entire paper will be worthwhile. In conferences, the abstract is the advertisement that the paper/presentation deserves the audience's attention.

Why write an abstract?

The abstract allows readers to make decisions about your project. Your sponsoring professor can use the abstract to decide if your research is proceeding smoothly. The conference organizer uses it to decide if your project fits the conference criteria. The conference audience (faculty, administrators, peers, and presenters' families) uses your abstract to decide whether or not to attend your presentation. Your abstract needs to take all these readers into consideration.

How does an abstract appeal to such a broad audience?

The audience for the abstract for the Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creative Activities Conference (URSCA) covers the broadest possible scope--from expert to lay person. You need to find a comfortable balance between writing an abstract that both shows your knowledge and yet is still comprehensible--with some effort--by lay members of the audience. Limit the amount of technical language you use and explain it where possible. Always use the full term before you refer to it by acronym Example:  DNA double-stranded breaks (DSBs). Remember that you are yourself an expert in the field that you are writing about--don't take for granted that the reader will share your insider knowledge.

What should the abstract include?

Think of your abstract as a condensed version of your whole project. By reading it, the reader should understand the nature of your research question.

Like abstracts that researchers prepare for scholarly conferences, the abstract you submit for the Undergraduate Research, Scholarship and Creativities Conference (URSCA) will most likely reflect work still in progress at the time you write it. Although the content will vary according to field and specific project, all abstracts, whether in the sciences or the humanities, convey the following information:

• The purpose of the project identifying the area of study to which it belongs.
• The research problem that motivates the project.
• The methods used to address this research problem, documents or evidence analyzed.
• The conclusions reached or, if the research is in progress, what the preliminary results of the investigation suggest, or what the research methods demonstrate.
• The significance of the research project. Why are the results useful? What is new to our understanding as the result of your inquiry?

Whatever kind of research you are doing, your abstract should provide the reader with answers to the following questions: What are you asking? Why is it important? How will you study it? What will you use to demonstrate your conclusions? What are those conclusions? What do they mean?

SUGGESTED CONTENT STRUCTURE:  

Brief Background/Introduction/Research Context:       What do we know about the topic? Why is the topic important?   Present Research Question/Purpose:       What is the study about? Methods/Materials/Subjects/Materials:       How was the study done? Results/Findings:         What was discovered?    Discussion/Conclusion/Implications/Recommendations       What does it mean?

What if the research is in progress and I don't have results yet? 

For the URSCA Conference you can write a "Promissory Abstract"  which will still describe the background, purpose and how you will accomplish your study's purpose and why it is important.  Phrases like  "to show whether"  or "to determine if"  can be helpful to avoid sharing a "hoped for" result. 

Stylistic considerations

The abstract should be one paragraph for the URSCA Conference and should not exceed the word limit (150-200 words). Edit it closely to be sure it meets the Four C's of abstract writing:

• Complete — it covers the major parts of the project.
• Concise — it contains no excess wordiness or unnecessary information.
• Clear — it is readable, well organized, and not too jargon-laden.
• Cohesive — it flows smoothly between the parts.

The importance of understandable language

Because all researchers hope their work will be useful to others, and because good scholarship is increasingly used across disciplines, it is crucial to make the language of your abstracts accessible to a non-specialist. Simplify your language. Friends in another major will spot instantly what needs to be more understandable. Some problem areas to look for:

• Eliminate jargon. Showing off your technical vocabulary will not demonstrate that your research is valuable. If using a technical term is unavoidable, add a non-technical synonym to help a non-specialist infer the term's meaning.
• Omit needless words—redundant modifiers, pompous diction, excessive detail.
• Avoid stringing nouns together (make the relationship clear with prepositions).
• Eliminate "narration," expressions such as "It is my opinion that," "I have concluded," "the main point supporting my view/concerns," or "certainly there is little doubt as to. . . ." Focus attention solely on what the reader needs to know.

Before submitting your abstract to the URSCA Conference:

• Make sure it is within the word limit.  You can start with a large draft and then edit it down to make sure your abstract is complete but also concise.  (Over-writing is all too easy, so reserve time for cutting your abstract down to the essential information.).  
• Make sure the language is understandable by a non-specialist. (Avoid writing for an audience that includes only you and your professor.)
• Have your sponsoring professor work with you and approve the abstract before you submit it online.
• Only one abstract per person is allowed for the URSCA Conference.  

Multimedia Risk Assessment of Biodiesel - Tier II Antfarm Project

Significant knowledge gaps exist in the fate, transport, biodegradation, and toxicity properties of biodiesel when it is leaked into the environment. In order to fill these gaps, a combination of experiments has been developed in a Multimedia Risk Assessment of Biodiesel for the State of California. Currently, in the Tier II experimental phase of this assessment, I am investigating underground plume mobility of 20% and 100% additized and unadditized Soy and Animal Fat based biodiesel blends and comparing them to Ultra Low-Sulfer Diesel #2 (USLD) by filming these fuels as they seep through unsaturated sand, encounter a simulated underground water table, and form a floating lens on top of the water. Thus far, initial findings in analyzing the digital images created during the filming process have indicated that all fuels tested have similar travel times. SoyB20 behaves most like USLD in that they both have a similar lateral dispersion lens on top of the water table. In contrast, Animal Fat B100 appears to be most different from ULSD in that it has a narrower residual plume in the unsaturated sand, as well as a narrower and deeper lens formation on top of the water table.

Narrative Representation of Grief

In William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying and Kazuo Ishiguro's Never Let Me Go how can grief, an incomprehensible and incommunicable emotion, be represented in fiction? Is it paradoxical, or futile, to do so? I look at two novels that struggle with representing intense combinations of individual and communal grief: William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying and Kazuo Ishiguro's Never Let Me Go . At first glance, the novels appear to have nothing in common: Faulkner's is a notoriously bleak odyssey told in emotionally heavy stream-of-consciousness narrative, while Ishiguro's is a near-kitschy blend of a coming-of-age tale and a sci-fi dystopia. But they share a rare common thread. They do not try to convey a story, a character, an argument, or a realization, so much as they try to convey an emotion. The novels' common struggle is visible through their formal elements, down to the most basic technical aspects of how the stories are told. Each text, in its own way, enacts the trauma felt by its characters because of their grief, and also the frustration felt by its narrator (or narrators) because of the complex and guilty task of witnessing for grief and loss.

This webpage was based on articles written by Professor Diana Strazdes, Art History and Dr. Amy Clarke, University Writing Program, UC Davis. Thanks to both for their contributions.

How to Write an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Introduction

The basic research paper structure, what is the main purpose of an abstract, what are some examples of abstracts, aspects included in an abstract, what makes a good abstract, how to write an abstract.

Writing an effective research abstract is a critical step in scientific research dissemination, particularly in the social sciences. An abstract serves as a concise summary of your research paper , providing a quick overview of your study's aim, research methodology , results, and conclusions. It enables readers to quickly assess the relevance and scope of your work, aiding in the wider dissemination of your research findings. Given its importance, understanding the structure and components of a well-crafted abstract is crucial for researchers. This article offers clear, step-by-step guidance on constructing a coherent and informative abstract for research papers published in peer-reviewed journals within the social sciences. By focusing on clarity and conciseness, this guide aims to support researchers in effectively communicating the essence of their work to an academic audience.

For most scientific journals, research papers follow a similar structure or, at minimum, have a basic set of shared components. Typically, this structure comprises an abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. The introduction sets the stage, outlining the research question, background information, and the study's significance. It provides context and articulates the research's objectives and hypotheses .

The methods section details the research design , data collection , and analysis procedures , offering enough information for transparency and potential replication. This part is crucial for establishing the study's validity and reliability. Following this, the results section presents the findings in a clear, logical order, often supported by tables, figures , and statistical analyses to illustrate the data.

The discussion interprets the results, linking them back to the research questions and the existing body of literature. It examines the implications of the findings, acknowledges any limitations, and suggests directions for future research. The conclusion summarizes the key findings and their relevance, reinforcing the study's contribution to the field.

In addition to these core components, research papers may include acknowledgments, references, and, occasionally, appendices. These elements support the main text, offering acknowledgment, supplementary information, or detailed data that underpin the research's integrity and transparency. Understanding this structure is foundational for both writing and reading scientific research, providing a consistent framework that facilitates knowledge dissemination and scholarly communication.

The primary function of a research paper abstract, especially within the context of peer-reviewed social science journals, is to succinctly summarize the core aspects of the entire paper. While many genres of academic writing do not require abstracts, journal audiences need a way to get concise information about research articles to determine where they should devote their reading time. Good abstract writing includes outlining the research question , methodology , key findings, and conclusions. By doing so, the abstract provides a clear and concise overview, enabling readers to quickly gauge the paper's relevance and decide whether to delve into the full text.

In research writing, the abstract serves as a critical navigational tool, guiding scholars and practitioners through a vast landscape of literature. Informative abstracts help in efficiently categorizing and indexing articles, thereby enhancing their discoverability in academic databases. This feature is particularly valuable in a field characterized by a constant influx of new research, facilitating quick identification of pertinent studies.

Moreover, the abstract operates as a standalone piece, often circulated independently of the full paper. It must, therefore, encapsulate all vital information, allowing readers to grasp the study's essence without needing to access the entire document. This characteristic is crucial for the exchange of knowledge within academic and professional communities, providing a snapshot that can inform, influence, and inspire further research and discussion.

In essence, the abstract is a fundamental element of the research paper, crafted to efficiently convey the study's key points. Its role in promoting understanding, engagement, and visibility of research cannot be overstressed, making it a vital component of scholarly communication in the social sciences.

Research paper abstracts succinctly summarize research across various social science disciplines, each tailored to its field's specific focus and methodology. Below are examples of descriptive abstracts, each from a different social science domain, demonstrating how they encapsulate the core essence of their respective studies.

Sociology: Urban migration dynamics

This research addresses the factors influencing urban migration, providing data-driven insights for effective urban management and policy formulation.

This study analyzes urban migration trends in emerging economies from 2000 to 2020, using demographic data, economic indicators, and policy analysis. The research employs quantitative regression methods and GIS to pinpoint the factors that drive individuals to move to urban areas, highlighting the roles of economic opportunity, education, and housing. The paper concludes with policy recommendations for sustainable urban development.

Political science: Electoral trust in post-conflict regions

The paper contributes to understanding how electoral trust impacts voter engagement, offering guidance for strengthening democracy in post-conflict areas.

Focusing on post-conflict societies, this study examines how trust in electoral systems affects voter turnout. By integrating survey data and interview findings, it identifies a positive correlation between trust in electoral integrity and participation rates, with variances across demographic groups and information access levels. The implications for enhancing democratic processes in post-conflict settings are discussed.

Economics: Digital currency's role in trade

This research evaluates digital currency's potential to alter trade dynamics, providing insights for economic stakeholders and policy developers.

This study assesses digital currency's effects on international trade, analyzing its influence on transaction efficiency and economic relationships using trade data and econometric analysis. The findings indicate that digital currencies lower transaction costs and time, suggesting significant potential impacts on trade practices. The study also addresses regulatory and future research needs.

Psychology: Social media's impact on adolescent self-esteem

This paper adds to the growing body of research on social media's psychological effects, focusing on its influence on adolescent self-esteem and offering strategies for positive engagement.

Investigating the correlation between social media use and self-esteem in adolescents, this longitudinal study monitors self-esteem changes and social media interaction over five years. It identifies specific usage patterns that either positively or negatively affect self-esteem. The findings inform recommendations for parents, educators, and mental health professionals.

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An abstract is a critical component of a research paper , especially in the context of peer-reviewed journal articles. It should provide a clear and concise summary of the key aspects of the research, allowing readers to quickly understand the purpose, methodology , findings, and significance of the study. A well-structured abstract includes several essential elements, each serving a distinct purpose in conveying the research's core information. Below are the major components that should be included in a compelling descriptive abstract.

Purpose of the study

This section clarifies the research question or objective and sets the stage for the subsequent description of the study. It should succinctly state what the study aimed to investigate or achieve, providing the context necessary for understanding the research's relevance and scope.

Methodology

The methodology part summarizes the paper's own research design , data collection , and analysis methods . It should give enough detail to understand how the study was conducted but remain concise. This component is crucial for readers who wish to assess the study's methodological approach and quality criteria such as validity, reliability, and generalizability.

This part of the abstract presents the main findings or outcomes of the research. It should highlight key results, data points, or trends identified through the study without delving into exhaustive detail. The aim is to provide a clear snapshot of what the research uncovered.

Conclusions and implications

Here, the abstract summarizes the study's conclusions and their broader implications. This section should tie the findings back to the research question or objective and suggest how the results contribute to the field of study. It may also propose areas for further research or practical applications of the findings.

While not a narrative section, including relevant keywords at the end of the abstract is a common practice that enhances the visibility and searchability of the research. These keywords should reflect the core topics and themes of the study, allowing potential readers to find the paper more easily in database searches.

In the context of peer-reviewed journals, writing abstracts is essential for capturing the essence of a research paper , facilitating its discovery, and encouraging further reading. Editors and peer reviewers often look for specific qualities that indicate an abstract effectively communicates the research's value and findings. These qualities not only enhance the paper's impact but also contribute to the broader academic dialogue. Here, we outline four key considerations that define the effectiveness of a compelling abstract in a peer-reviewed journal article.

Clarity and conciseness

A well-crafted abstract articulates the essential elements of the research clearly and succinctly. It avoids unnecessary jargon, overly complex sentences, and extraneous information, making it accessible to a broad audience. Clarity ensures that readers can quickly grasp the study's purpose, approach, and findings, while conciseness respects the reader's time and attention, presenting only the most pertinent information.

Coherence and structure

A good abstract follows a logical structure, guiding the reader through the study's purpose, methods , results, and conclusions in a coherent manner. Each section should seamlessly connect to the next, creating a cohesive narrative that accurately reflects the study's progression and findings. This structural integrity helps readers understand the research's flow and significance, enhancing the abstract's overall effectiveness.

Completeness

An effective abstract provides a complete overview of the research, including all critical aspects of the study. It should address the research question , methodology, main findings, and implications, ensuring that readers have a comprehensive understanding of the study without needing to read the full paper. Completeness ensures that the abstract stands alone as a summary of the research, providing sufficient detail for readers to evaluate the study's relevance and contribution to the field.

Impact and relevance

Finally, a good abstract highlights the study's impact and relevance to the field. It should make clear how the research contributes to existing knowledge, addresses a gap in the literature, or has practical implications for the field of study. By emphasizing the significance of the research, the abstract can engage readers' interest and underscore the value of the study within the broader academic and professional community.

Writing an abstract is a critical skill in academic research, serving as the bridge between your study and potential readers. An effective abstract succinctly summarizes the key aspects of your research, providing a clear and compelling overview that encourages further exploration of your work. The process involves distilling your study's essence into a concise format while ensuring that it remains informative and engaging. Here, we outline a step-by-step approach to crafting an abstract, emphasizing considerations that enhance its clarity, relevance, and impact.

Understand the abstract's purpose

Begin by recognizing the abstract's role as a standalone summary of your research. It should convey the core aspects of your study—its purpose, methodology , results, and conclusions—to someone who has not read the full paper. Understanding this purpose guides your focus, ensuring that you highlight the essential information and omit extraneous details. Keep your audience in mind, aiming to make your abstract accessible and informative for both experts and non-specialists in your field.

Start with a clear structure

Adopt a structured approach to writing your abstract, typically following the same order as your research paper: introduction (with the research question or objective), methodology, results, and conclusions. This structure not only aids in writing but also helps readers follow and understand your research's progression. Each section should flow logically to the next, creating a coherent narrative that mirrors the organization of your full study.

Focus on key details

In each section of your abstract, concentrate on the most significant information. In the introduction, clearly state the research problem or question and the study's objectives. For the methodology, provide an overview of the approaches and techniques employed, without delving into detailed procedures. Then, summarize the most important results, highlighting findings that contribute directly to understanding the research question. In the conclusion, emphasize the implications of your findings, noting their relevance and potential impact on the field.

Revise for clarity and conciseness

Once you have drafted your abstract, revise it meticulously to enhance clarity and conciseness. Remove any redundant phrases, complex jargon, or unnecessary details, striving for a clear and straightforward presentation of your research. Ensure that each sentence adds value and contributes to a comprehensive understanding of your study. Additionally, seek feedback from colleagues or mentors, as they can offer insights on how your abstract may be perceived by others. Finally, remember to tailor your abstract to your targeted journal and audience, using active voice, a structured format, or other stylistic preferences you may find in that journal's articles.

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation
• How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

Published on 1 March 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022 by Eoghan Ryan.

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a dissertation or research paper ). The abstract concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly what your paper is about.

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you’ve used, and the conclusions you’ve drawn.

One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure. This stands for:

• Introduction

Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.

In a dissertation or thesis , include the abstract on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Table of contents

Abstract example, when to write an abstract, step 1: introduction, step 2: methods, step 3: results, step 4: discussion, tips for writing an abstract, frequently asked questions about abstracts.

Hover over the different parts of the abstract to see how it is constructed.

This paper examines the role of silent movies as a mode of shared experience in the UK during the early twentieth century. At this time, high immigration rates resulted in a significant percentage of non-English-speaking citizens. These immigrants faced numerous economic and social obstacles, including exclusion from public entertainment and modes of discourse (newspapers, theater, radio).

Incorporating evidence from reviews, personal correspondence, and diaries, this study demonstrates that silent films were an affordable and inclusive source of entertainment. It argues for the accessible economic and representational nature of early cinema. These concerns are particularly evident in the low price of admission and in the democratic nature of the actors’ exaggerated gestures, which allowed the plots and action to be easily grasped by a diverse audience despite language barriers.

Keywords: silent movies, immigration, public discourse, entertainment, early cinema, language barriers.

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You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

• Completing a thesis or dissertation
• Submitting a research paper to an academic journal
• Writing a book proposal
• Applying for research grants

It’s easiest to write your abstract last, because it’s a summary of the work you’ve already done. Your abstract should:

• Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper
• Be fully understandable on its own
• Reflect the structure of your larger work

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research question did you aim to answer?

You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of your topic, but don’t go into detailed background information. If your abstract uses specialised terms that would be unfamiliar to the average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a concise definition.

After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use verbs like “investigate,” “test,” “analyse,” or “evaluate” to describe exactly what you set out to do.

This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple tense  but should never refer to the future, as the research is already complete.

• This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
• This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it refers to completed actions.

• Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.
• Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

Don’t evaluate validity or obstacles here — the goal is not to give an account of the methodology’s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

Next, summarise the main research results . This part of the abstract can be in the present or past simple tense.

• Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research : what is your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

• We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
• We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility and generalisability of your research.

If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make suggestions for further research.

If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to help potential readers find your paper during their own literature searches.

Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style , have specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only) part that people read, so it’s important to get it right. These strategies can help you get started.

Read other abstracts

The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your discipline is to read other people’s. You probably already read lots of journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review —try using them as a framework for structure and style.

You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases .

Reverse outline

Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.

For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences that summarise the central point or argument. This will give you a framework of your abstract’s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make connections and show how the argument develops.

Write clearly and concisely

A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts. Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

• Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by using the active voice.
• Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise expressions or single words (e.g., “In order to” for “To”).
• Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic.
• Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.
• Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other scholars’ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your thesis or paper.

If you’re struggling to edit down to the required length, you can get help from expert editors with Scribbr’s professional proofreading services .

Check your formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research papers you can follow the APA abstract format .

Checklist: Abstract

The word count is within the required length, or a maximum of one page.

The abstract appears after the title page and acknowledgements and before the table of contents .

I have clearly stated my research problem and objectives.

I have briefly described my methodology .

I have summarized the most important results .

I have stated my main conclusions .

I have mentioned any important limitations and recommendations.

The abstract can be understood by someone without prior knowledge of the topic.

You've written a great abstract! Use the other checklists to continue improving your thesis or dissertation.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarises the contents of your paper.

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 150–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis or paper.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Writing an abstract - a six point checklist (with samples)

Posted in: abstract , dissertations

The abstract is a vital part of any research paper. It is the shop front for your work, and the first stop for your reader. It should provide a clear and succinct summary of your study, and encourage your readers to read more. An effective abstract, therefore should answer the following questions:

• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?

So here's our run down of the key elements of a well-written abstract.

• Size - A succinct and well written abstract should be between approximately 100- 250 words.
• Background - An effective abstract usually includes some scene-setting information which might include what is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question (a few short sentences).
• Purpose  - The abstract should also set out the purpose of your research, in other words, what is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present).
• Methods - The methods section should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. It should include brief details of the research design, sample size, duration of study, and so on.
• Results - The results section is the most important part of the abstract. This is because readers who skim an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits.
• Conclusion - This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcomes of the study. However, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:
• The primary take-home message
• Any additional findings of importance
• Implications for future studies 

Example Abstract 2: Engineering Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone.

Abstract from: Dalstra, M., Huiskes, R. and Van Erning, L., 1995. Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone. Journal of biomechanical engineering, 117(3), pp.272-278.

And finally...  A word on abstract types and styles

Abstract types can differ according to subject discipline. You need to determine therefore which type of abstract you should include with your paper. Here are two of the most common types with examples.

Informative Abstract

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgements about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarised. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

(Adapted from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136027/ )

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How to Write an Abstract?

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• First Online: 24 October 2021

Cite this chapter

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• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
• Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  

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An abstract is a crisp, short, powerful, and self-contained summary of a research manuscript used to help the reader swiftly determine the paper’s purpose. Although the abstract is the first paragraph of the manuscript it should be written last when all the other sections have been addressed.

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. — Zora Neale Hurston, American Author, Anthropologist and Filmmaker (1891–1960)

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Writing the Abstract

Abstract and Keywords

Additional Commentaries

1 what is an abstract.

An abstract is usually a standalone document that informs the reader about the details of the manuscript to follow. It is like a trailer to a movie, if the trailer is good, it stimulates the audience to watch the movie. The abstract should be written from scratch and not ‘cut –and-pasted’ [ 1 ].

2 What is the History of the Abstract?

An abstract, in the form of a single paragraph, was first published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal in 1960 with the idea that the readers may not have enough time to go through the whole paper, and the first abstract with a defined structure was published in 1991 [ 2 ]. The idea sold and now most original articles and reviews are required to have a structured abstract. The abstract attracts the reader to read the full manuscript [ 3 ].

3 What are the Qualities of a Good Abstract?

The quality of information in an abstract can be summarized by four ‘C’s. It should be:

C: Condensed

C: Critical

4 What are the Types of Abstract?

Before writing the abstract, you need to check with the journal website about which type of abstract it requires, with its length and style in the ‘Instructions to Authors’ section.

The abstract types can be divided into:

Descriptive: Usually written for psychology, social science, and humanities papers. It is about 50–100 words long. No conclusions can be drawn from this abstract as it describes the major points in the paper.

Informative: The majority of abstracts for science-related manuscripts are informative and are surrogates for the research done. They are single paragraphs that provide the reader an overview of the research paper and are about 100–150 words in length. Conclusions can be drawn from the abstracts and in the recommendations written in the last line.

Critical: This type of abstract is lengthy and about 400–500 words. In this, the authors’ own research is discussed for reliability, judgement, and validation. A comparison is also made with similar studies done earlier.

Highlighting: This is rarely used in scientific writing. The style of the abstract is to attract more readers. It is not a balanced or complete overview of the article with which it is published.

Structured: A structured abstract contains information under subheadings like background, aims, material and methods, results, conclusion, and recommendations (Fig. 15.1 ). Most leading journals now carry these.

Example of a structured abstract (with permission editor CMRP)

5 What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

An abstract is written to educate the reader about the study that follows and provide an overview of the science behind it. If written well it also attracts more readers to the article. It also helps the article getting indexed. The fate of a paper both before and after publication often depends upon its abstract. Most readers decide if a paper is worth reading on the basis of the abstract. Additionally, the selection of papers in systematic reviews is often dependent upon the abstract.

6 What are the Steps of Writing an Abstract?

An abstract should be written last after all the other sections of an article have been addressed. A poor abstract may turn off the reader and they may cause indexing errors as well. The abstract should state the purpose of the study, the methodology used, and summarize the results and important conclusions. It is usually written in the IMRAD format and is called a structured abstract [ 4 , 5 ].

I: The introduction in the opening line should state the problem you are addressing.

M: Methodology—what method was chosen to finish the experiment?

R: Results—state the important findings of your study.

D: Discussion—discuss why your study is important.

Mention the following information:

Important results with the statistical information ( p values, confidence intervals, standard/mean deviation).

Arrange all information in a chronological order.

Do not repeat any information.

The last line should state the recommendations from your study.

The abstract should be written in the past tense.

7 What are the Things to Be Avoided While Writing an Abstract?

Cut and paste information from the main text

Hold back important information

Use abbreviations

Tables or Figures

Generalized statements

Arguments about the study

8 What are Key Words?

These are important words that are repeated throughout the manuscript and which help in the indexing of a paper. Depending upon the journal 3–10 key words may be required which are indexed with the help of MESH (Medical Subject Heading).

9 How is an Abstract Written for a Conference Different from a Journal Paper?

The basic concept for writing abstracts is the same. However, in a conference abstract occasionally a table or figure is allowed. A word limit is important in both of them. Many of the abstracts which are presented in conferences are never published in fact one study found that only 27% of the abstracts presented in conferences were published in the next five years [ 6 ].

Table 15.1 gives a template for writing an abstract.

10 What are the Important Recommendations of the International Committees of Medical Journal of Editors?

The recommendations are [ 7 ]:

An abstract is required for original articles, metanalysis, and systematic reviews.

A structured abstract is preferred.

The abstract should mention the purpose of the scientific study, how the procedure was carried out, the analysis used, and principal conclusion.

Clinical trials should be reported according to the CONSORT guidelines.

The trials should also mention the funding and the trial number.

The abstract should be accurate as many readers have access only to the abstract.

11 Conclusions

An Abstract should be written last after all the other sections of the manuscript have been completed and with due care and attention to the details.

It should be structured and written in the IMRAD format.

For many readers, the abstract attracts them to go through the complete content of the article.

The abstract is usually followed by key words that help to index the paper.

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Samiran Nundy

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write an Abstract?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_15

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• How to Write An Abstract For Research Papers: Tips & Examples

In many ways, an abstract is like a trailer of a movie or the synopsis of your favorite book. Its job is to whet the reader’s appetite by sharing important information about your work. After reading a well-written abstract, one should have enough interest to explore the full research thesis. 

So how do you write an interesting abstract that captures the core of your study? First, you need to understand your research objectives and match them with the key results of your study. In this article, we will share some tips for writing an effective abstract, plus samples you can learn from. 

What is an Abstract in Research Writing?

In simple terms, an abstract is a concise write-up that gives an overview of your systematic investigation. According to Grammarly, it is a self-contained summary of a larger work, and it serves as a preview of the bigger document. 

It usually appears at the beginning of your thesis or research paper and helps the reader to have an overview of your work without going into great detail. This means that when someone reads your abstract, it should give them a clear idea of the purpose of your systematic investigation, your problem statement, key results, and any gaps requiring further investigation. 

So how long should your abstract be to capture all of these details? The reality is you don’t need a lot of words to capture key pieces of information in your abstract. Typically, 6–7 sentences made up of 150–250 words should be just right. 

Read: Writing Research Proposals: Tips, Examples & Mistakes

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract? 

• A good abstract clearly states the aims and objectives of the research.
• It outlines the research methodology for data gathering , processing and analysis. 
• A good abstract summarizes specific research results.
• It states the key conclusions of the systematic investigation.
• It is brief yet straight to the point. 
• A good abstract is unified and coherent. 
• It is easy to understand and devoid of technical jargon. 
• It is written in an unbiased and objective manner. 

What is the Purpose of an Abstract? 

Every abstract has two major purposes. First, it communicates the relevance of your systematic investigation to readers. After reading your abstract, people can determine how relevant your study is to their primary or secondary research purpose. 

The second purpose of an abstract is to communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper. Research papers typically run into tens of pages so it takes time to read and digest them. To help readers grasp the core ideas in a systematic investigation, it pays to have a well-written abstract that outlines important information concerning your study. 

In all, your abstract should accurately outline the most important information in your research. Many times, it determines whether people would go ahead to read your dissertation. Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your thesis easily findable.

Learn About: How to Write a Problem Statement for your Research

What are the Sections of an Abstract?

You already know the key pieces of information that your abstract should communicate. These details are broken into six important sections of the abstract which are: 

• The Introduction or Background
• Research Methodology
• Aims and Objectives 
• Limitations

Let’s discuss them in detail. 

• The Introduction or Background 

The introduction or background is the shortest part of your abstract and usually consists of 2–3 sentences. In fact, some researchers write a single sentence as the introduction of their abstract. The whole idea here is to take the reader through the important events leading to your research. 

Understandably, this information may appear difficult to convey in a few sentences. To help out, consider answering these two questions in the background to your study : 

• What is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question? 
• What is not known about the subject (this is the focus of your study)? 

As much as possible, ensure that your abstract’s introduction doesn’t eat into the word count for the other key information. 

• Research Methodology 

This is the section where you spell out any theories and methods adopted for your study. Ideally, you should cover what has been done and how you went about it to achieve the results of your systematic investigation. It is usually the second-longest section in the abstract. 

In the research methodology section, you should also state the type of research you embarked on; that is, qualitative research or quantitative research —this will inform your research methods too. If you’ve conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection methods , sampling technique, and duration of your experiment. 

Explore: 21 Chrome Extensions for Academic Researchers in 2021

In the end, readers are most interested in the results you’ve achieved with your study. This means you should take time to outline every relevant outcome and show how they affect your research population . Typically, the results section should be the longest one in your abstract and nothing should compromise its range and quality. 

An important thing you should do here is spelled out facts and figures about research outcomes. Instead of a vague statement like, “we noticed that response rates differed greatly between high-income and low-income respondents”, try this: “The response rate was higher in high-income respondents than in their low-income counterparts (59% vs 30%, respectively; P

• Conclusion 

Like the introduction, your conclusion should contain a few sentences that wrap up your abstract. Most researchers express a theoretical opinion about the implications of their study, here. 

Your conclusion should contain three important elements: 

• The primary take-home message
• The additional findings of importance
• The perspective 

Although the conclusion of your abstract should be short, it has a great impact on how readers perceive your study. So, take advantage of this section to reiterate the core message in your systematic investigation. Also, make sure any statements here reflect the true outcomes and methods of your research. 

• Limitations 

Chances are you must have faced certain challenges in the course of your research—it could be at the data collection phase or during sampling . Whatever these challenges are, it pays to let your readers know about them, and the impact they had on your study. 

For example, if you had to switch to convenience sampling or snowball sampling due to difficulties in contacting well-suited research participants, you should include this in your abstract. Also, a lack of previous studies in the research area could pose a limitation on your study. Research limitations provide an opportunity to make suggestions for further research. 

Research aims and objectives speak to what you want to achieve with your study. Typically, research aims focus on a project’s long-term outcomes while the objectives focus on the immediate, short-term outcome of the investigation. You may summarize both using a single paragraph comprising a few sentences.

Stating your aims and objectives will give readers a clear idea of the scope, depth, and direction that your research will ultimately take. Readers would measure your research outcomes against stated aims and objectives to know if you achieved the purpose of your study. 

Use For Free: Research Form Templates

Abstract Writing Styles and General Guidelines 

Now that you know the different sections plus information that your abstract should contain, let’s look at how to write an abstract for your research paper.

A common question that comes up is, should I write my abstract first or last? It’s best to write your abstract after you’ve finished working on the research because you have full information to present to your readers. However, you can always create a draft at the beginning of your systematic investigation and fill in the gaps later.  

Does writing an abstract seem like a herculean task? Here are a few tips to help out. 

1. Always create a framework for your abstract 

Before you start writing, take time to develop a detailed outline for your abstract. Break it into sections and sketch the main and supporting points for each section. You can list keywords plus 1–2 sentences that capture your core messaging. 

2. Read Other Abstracts 

Abstracts are one of the most common research documents, and thousands of them have been written in time past. So, before writing yours, try to study a couple of samples from others. You can find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases.

3. Steer Clear of Jargon As Much As Possible 

While writing your abstract, emphasize clarity over style. This means you should communicate in simple terms and avoid unnecessary filler words and ambiguous sentences. Remember, your abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic. 

4. Focus on Your Research

It goes without saying that your abstract should be solely focused on your research and what you’ve discovered. It’s not the time to cite primary and secondary data sources unless this is absolutely necessary. 

This doesn’t mean you should ignore the scholarly background of your work. You might include a sentence or two summarizing the scholarly background to show the relevance of your work to a broader debate, but there’s no need to mention specific publications. 

Going further, here are some abstract writing guidelines from the University of Bergen: 

• An abstract briefly explains the salient aspects of the content. 
• Abstracts should be accurate and succinct, self-contained, and readable.  
• The abstract should paraphrase and summarise rather than quote from the paper.
• Abstracts should relate only to the paper to be presented/assessed.

Types of Abstracts with Examples 

According to the University of Adelaide, there are two major types of abstracts written for research purposes. First, we have informative abstracts and descriptive abstracts. 

1. Informative Abstract  

An informative abstract is the more common type of abstract written for academic research. It highlights the most important aspects of your systematic investigation without going into unnecessary or irrelevant details that the reader might not find useful. 

The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of longer work, it may be much less.

In any informative abstract, you’d touch on information like the purpose, method, scope, results, and conclusion of your study. By now, you’re thinking, “this is the type of abstract we’ve been discussing all along”, and you wouldn’t be far from the truth. 

Advantages of Informative Abstracts

• These abstracts save time for both the researcher and the readers. 
• It’s easy to refer to these abstracts as secondary research sources. 

Disadvantages of Informative Abstracts

• These types of abstracts lack personality.

Example of an Informative Abstract

• Sample Informative Abstract Based on Experimental Work From Colorado State University
• Sample Informative Abstract Based on Non-experimental Work From Colorado State University

2. Descriptive Abstract 

A descriptive abstract reads like a synopsis and focuses on enticing the reader with interesting information. They don’t care as much for data and details, and instead read more like overviews that don’t give too much away. 

You’d find descriptive abstracts in artistic criticism pieces and entertainment research as opposed to scientific investigations. This type of abstract makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. They are usually written in 100 words or less. 

Advantages of Descriptive Abstracts

• It gives a very brief overview of the research paper. 
• It is easier to write descriptive abstracts compared to informational abstracts. 

Disadvantages of Descriptive Abstracts

• They are suitable for scientific research. 
• Descriptive abstracts might omit relevant information that deepens your knowledge of the systematic investigation.

Example of Descriptive Abstracts 

• Sample Descriptive Abstract From Colorado State University

FAQs About Writing Abstracts in Research Papers

1. How Long Should an Abstract Be?

A typical abstract should be about six sentences long or less than 150 words. Most universities have specific word count requirements that fall within 150–300 words. 

2. How Do You Start an Abstract Sentence?

There are several ways to start your abstract. Consider the following methods: 

• State a problem or uncertainty
• Make a general statement with the present research action.
• State the purpose or objective of your research
• State a real-world phenomena or a standard practice.

3. Should you cite in an abstract?

While you can refer to information from specific research papers, there’s no need to cite sources in your abstract. Your abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others. 

4. What should not be included in an abstract?

An abstract shouldn’t have numeric references, bibliographies, sections, or even footnotes. 

5. Which tense is used in writing an abstract?

An abstract should be written in the third-person present tense. Use the simple past tense when describing your methodology and specific findings from your study. 

Writing an abstract might appear challenging but with these steps, you should get it right. The easiest approach to writing a good abstract is centering it on key information including your research problem and objectives, methodology, and key results.

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Modeling collective behaviors from optic flow and retinal cues

Diego castro, franck ruffier, and christophe eloy, phys. rev. research 6 , 023016 – published 4 april 2024.

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Supplemental Material

• INTRODUCTION
• NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
• CONCLUSIONS

Animal collective behavior is often modeled with self-propelled particles, assuming each individual has “omniscient” knowledge of its neighbors. Yet, neighbors may be hidden from view and we do not know the effect of this information loss. To address this question, we propose a visual model of collective behavior where each particle moves according to bioplausible visual cues, in particular the optic flow. This visual model successfully reproduces three classical collective behaviors: swarming, schooling, and milling. This model offers a potential solution for controlling artificial swarms visually.

• Received 10 May 2023
• Accepted 16 February 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.023016

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

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• Physical Systems

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• 1 Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, ISM, Marseille, 13288 France
• 2 Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, Centrale Med, IRPHE, Marseille, 13013 France
• * [email protected]

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Notations used and principle of the visual cues. (a) The particle i is located in x i and θ i is its heading. θ i j is the retinal position of particle j for the i th particle. (b) The angle ϕ is the line of sight with respect to the particle's heading. The vector V i j = U ( e j − e i ) is the relative velocity of particle j perceived by i . It can be decomposed into radial and azimuthal components, V i r and V i ϕ . (c) Point of view of the particle i , the arrows represent the optic flow generated by the relative angular velocity of each particle. (d) The visual field V i ( φ ) is a binary representation of (c). It is formed of a set of “shades.” (e) The function R i ( ϕ ) represents the estimated distance associated to shades, assuming they are associated with a single individual of radius a . (f) Optic flow O i ( ϕ ) associated with the apparent angular velocity of the shade edges. (g) Optic flow divergence D i ( ϕ ) .

Illustration of the phases observed for N = 50 individuals. The scale bar measures 30 a in total ( 10 a for each section). The parameters ε = 1 and k η = 0.01 are fixed. We observe three phases when varying the other two parameters: (a) swarming ( k ⊙ = 0.1 ,   k ∥ = 0 ); (b) schooling ( k ⊙ = 0.06 ,   k ∥ = 0.2 ); and (c) milling ( k ⊙ = 0.1 ,   k ∥ = 0.04 ).

Phase diagrams for N = 50 individuals and noise strength k η = 0.01 . These phase diagrams compare the visual model (a), (b) and the omniscient model (c), (d) for ε = 0 (a), (c) and ε = 1 (b), (d). The colors represent different values of P and M as shown in (e). The contours show the values of opacity O (white solid), the line M = 0.5 (white dotted), and P = 0.5 (white dashed).

Example of the bistability observed in the visual model (parameter values: ε = 1 ,   k ⊙ = 0.1 , k ∥ = 0.2 , and k η = 0.01 ). (a) Time series of the three metrics P ,   M , and O . (b) Trajectories of the collective behavior in the ( M , P ) plane. Illustration of the phases: (c) schooling-milling transition; (d) milling; (e) milling-schooling transition; and (f) schooling.

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How do opt-in versus opt-out settings nudge patients toward electronic health record adoption? An exploratory study of facilitators and barriers in Austria and France

• Anna Griesser 1 ,
• Manel Mzoughi 2 ,
• Sonja Bidmon 3 &
• Emna Cherif 4  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  439 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Electronic health records (EHR) are becoming an integral part of the health system in many developed countries, though implementations and settings vary across countries. Some countries have adopted an opt-out policy, in which patients are enrolled in the EHR system following a default nudge, while others have applied an opt-in policy, where patients have to take action to opt into the system. While opt-in systems may exhibit lower levels of active user requests for access, this contrasts with opt-out systems where a notable percentage of users may passively retain access. Thus, our research endeavor aims to explore facilitators and barriers that contribute to explaining EHR usage (i.e., actively accessing the EHR system) in two countries with either an opt-in or opt-out setting, exemplified by France and Austria.

A qualitative exploratory approach using a semi-structured interview guideline was undertaken in both countries: 1) In Austria, with four homogenously composed group discussions, and 2) in France, with 19 single patient interviews. The data were collected from October 2020 to January 2021.

Influencing factors were categorized into twelve subcategories. Patients have similar experiences in both countries with regard to all facilitating categories, for instance, the role of health providers, awareness of EHR and social norms. However, we highlighted important differences between the two systems regarding hurdles impeding EHR usage, namely, a lack of communication as well as transparency or information security about EHR.

Implementing additional safeguards to enhance privacy protection and supporting patients to improve their digital ability may help to diminish the perception of EHR-induced barriers and improve patients’ health and commitment in the long term.

Practical implications

Understanding the differences and similarities will help to develop practical implications to tackle the problem of low EHR usage rates in the long run. This problem is prevalent in countries with both types of EHR default settings.

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Introduction

Health Information Technologies (HIT) have revolutionized healthcare delivery and transformed the way patients and healthcare organizations manage personal health data [ 1 ]. By leveraging a variety of technologies including applications, Internet of Things (IoT), Personal Health Records (PHR) and Electronic Health Records (EHR), the implementation of HIT has enabled patients and healthcare professionals to store, share and analyze health data leading to improved outcomes, reduced costs, and enhanced patient engagement [ 2 , 3 ].

One of the major HIT transforming the healthcare landscape is EHR, which serves as a centralized national repository for all patient data, including demographics, progress notes, past medical history, medications, vital signs, and immunizations [ 4 ]. The multitude of advantages arising from such technology from both patient and organizational perspectives derives from their ability to continuously collect, analyze, interpret, and disseminate health data. Specifically, the national Electronic Health Record (EHR) Footnote 1 serves as a pivotal technology facilitating the exchange of health data among the three key entities: health policymakers, healthcare providers, and patients. By providing patients with access to their health information and diagnoses, it actively engages them in collaborative interactions with healthcare providers [ 5 ]. Despite the tool’s potential to improve patient care, increase resource efficiency, and reduce treatment errors, EHR adoption rates in many European countries have fallen short of government expectations [ 6 , 7 ]. In Austria, for instance, 3.1% of the total population opted out of the EHR system in 2022, with deregistration numbers remaining constant since its introduction in 2015 [ 8 ]. Furthermore, in France, only 10 million EHR had been created three years after the generalization of the system, which is equivalent to 10% of eligible patients. Similarly, to Austria and France, in January 2023, Germany announced a number of users not exceeding 1% of insured patients [ 9 ].

Hence, previous studies have explored the factors that influence EHR usage from the patients’ perspective (i.e., [ 4 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]). These studies have identified several facilitators, such as information incentives and training to improve patients’ digital literacy, perceived usefulness and user-friendliness, as well as high standards of security and privacy [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. However, several barriers have also been identified that can impede patients’ adherence to using EHR, including privacy concerns, with the misuse of personal health data or lack of digital literacy being the main hurdles to broad acceptance of EHR [ 14 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. A recent study by Abbasi et al. [ 22 ] showed that, personal and technical readiness are among the most critical criteria affecting EHR usage.

Existing research has, nonetheless, mainly focused on explaining facilitators and barriers of EHR use and adoption through the general lens of the patient’s perceptions, thus neglecting one relevant factor that might significantly affect adoption by patients: whether the patient is a resident of a country with an EHR opt-out policy or an EHR opt-in policy. The opt-out policy entails automatic enrollment of all patients in the system, wherein personal health information is transferred to the EHR system unless patients choose to opt out. For instance, the Austrian EHR system offers patients the chance to opt-out if a person does not want to have an EHR. Consequently, in Austria, being considered a user is synonymous with not opting out, and actively accessing health records is not a prerequisite for being classified as a user [ 14 ]. However, refraining from opting out implies that physicians can utilize the EHR system for a specific patient, even if the respective patient is not actively involved in managing their EHR. If they do not opt out, his or her EHR can be accessed, at the very least, by Austrian healthcare professionals. Patient’s EHR usage in Austria, thus can vary according to the extent of usage reaching from passive usage to active and frequent usage. In contrast, in countries with an EHR opt-in policy like France, patients must expressly request the inclusion of their records. French patients need to actively opt-in to become users of the EHR system. In this context, being a user requires the explicit decision to participate and access health records [ 9 ]. Healthcare professionals, including physicians and pharmacies, utilize the EHR system in line with their professional roles, accessing and contributing to patient records as part of their clinical responsibilities [ 6 ].

Opt-in versus opt-out settings have gained increased attention in relation to many health-related issues (e.g., organ donations, obesity and overweight, chronic disease management, and vaccinations) in recent literature [ 23 , 24 , 25 ] as efficient interventions to (not) nudge and reinforce actions with a positive impact and deter actions with negative implications. Gong et al. (2020) show that the chosen mechanism depends on a personal perceived need and utility that impacts the decision [ 26 ]. As the use of an EHR system observably has positive contributions, measuring the stage of adoption throughout the country has become an important management tool for the health policy makers of the nations [ 27 ]. In line with these practices and in consideration of the high stakes for governments, understanding the underlying mechanisms of EHR adoption and use according to the type of policy (opt-in versus opt-out setting) is of high relevance for policy makers when deciding about implementing nudge interventions regarding EHR.

To date, research has not fully considered the impact of default settings in an opt-in versus an opt-out policy related to EHR systems on patient adoption. Liu et al. [ 28 ] showed that there has been no differentiation between opt-in and opt-out settings, despite a growing debate in the literature on the acceptability of the default nudge. Another study, however, claims that opt-out consent policies were associated with higher patient participation rates in EHR systems [ 29 ]. Additionally, Steinhauser and Raptis [ 30 ] found that the opt-out model resulted in a significantly higher participation rate, highlighting the impact of consent policies on patient engagement. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to fill this gap by exploring the mechanism underlying EHR usage in two EU countries with different system settings: France (opt-in) and Austria (opt-out) [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Understanding these exemplified differences, however, is also critical for other healthcare systems when selecting an effective strategy to boost EHR usage and improve patient care [ 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Nevertheless, it is imperative to clarify that the EHR under scrutiny in this study relates specifically to the patient-oriented solution rather than a standardized template employed by health providers. This distinction is pivotal in outlining our focus on the individual's interface with the EHR, clarifying the user-centric perspective that underscores our investigation.

Theoretical foundation

The relationship between nudging and default settings from a psychological point of view.

Nudges can be defined as “interventions that preserve freedom of choice but that nonetheless influence people’s decisions” ([ 35 ], p. 285). Whereas the theoretical principles of nudging have been thoroughly investigated in psychology during the past three decades [ 35 ] interest on the part of policy makers [ 36 ] and especially in healthcare settings [ 26 , 36 , 37 ] has only recently awakened.

One of the core tasks of legislatures is the decision to select nudges, amongst others in the form of default rules [ 28 , 35 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. In the view of policy makers, designing government-imposed choice structures could influence peoples’ decisions in a helpful way. Defaults in the context of decision making as a specific form of nudges have been used to an increasing extent recently to improve approval for social policies. Especially in the context of vaccination policies (i.e., [ 41 , 42 , 43 ]), two types of policies exist. “An opt-in policy (vaccination is rejected by default; explicitly opting in is required if a person wants to be vaccinated) and an opt-out policy (vaccination is accepted by default; explicitly opting out is required if a person does not want to be vaccinated)” ([ 28 ], p. 2). Another area of applying nudging in the healthcare domain is, e.g., opt-out testing for blood-borne viruses (BBCs) as a method of case detection [ 44 ] based on positive results gained in the area of opt-out organ donation [ 45 ] and opt-out antenatal Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing [ 46 ].To sum up, default settings only seem to be accepted for distinct purposes and without causing respondents to feel they are being manipulated. This draws attention to one central question, which is the definition of nudges as “subtle rearrangements of the choice architecture” ([ 35 ], p. 5), and points to the psychological roots of the functioning of nudges. In the realm of EHR systems, however, it can be assumed that the default setting of a government’s decision in favor of an opt-in or, alternatively, an opt-out system might have an impact on perceived facilitators and barriers to EHR usage of the respective population. However, different facilitators and barriers might prompt patients to actively access the EHR system in a country with either an opt-in or and opt out system.

The influencing chain of technology acceptance originating in the TAM

As EHR are a special form of innovative information technology, the general theoretical approach, i.e., the technology acceptance models, can be applied. The most widely known approach is the original Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), which was proposed by Davis in 1989 and suggested that two main factors influence a user’s decision about how and when they would use the new technology: the perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU) [ 47 , 48 ]. Besides external variables such as social influence, these two central determinants have an impact on the attitude toward a new technology and further the intention to use it. The basic model has been further developed by different authors leading to the TAM 2 [ 49 , 50 ], the UTAUT [ 51 ], the TAM 3 in the area of e-commerce [ 52 ] and the most recent stage of theory development, the UTAUT2 [ 53 ]. The UTAUT [ 51 ], which proposed four central antecedents: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions also accounted for moderating variables like gender, age, voluntariness and experience. The UTAUT2 [ 53 ] has become even more widespread and has added three new constructs to the influencing chain, i.e., hedonic motivation, price value and habit. For this study, it can be assumed that hedonic motivation can be neglected, because, first of all, EHR usage usually does not cause a financial burden for patients besides opportunity costs of life time which could have been spent doing other things rather than taking a look at the data saved in one’s own EHR. Secondly, considering that hedonic and utilitarian values are conceptualized as two types of knowledge drawn out of prior experience, the health category is related more closely to utilitarian value than to hedonic value [ 54 ]. Thus, we assume that performance expectancy, effort expectancy and social influence as well as facilitating conditions and habit might constitute possible antecedents of EHR usage.

Privacy calculus theory

Existing literature reveals that privacy concerns are among the most significant impediments to widespread adoption of EHR. Pang et al. [ 55 ] found out that, for patients, risk, control over access and trust are among the most important factors in terms of privacy concerns. Many patients are hesitant to take advantage of the EHR due to privacy concerns although they are eager to disclose personal health data to benefit from improved healthcare delivery [ 15 ]. When positive feelings and perceptions outweigh perceived risks and negative beliefs, privacy concerns can likely be alleviated [ 56 ]. For instance, previous research has shown that although risk perception may lead patients to engage in protective behaviors when benefits are high enough to override perceived risks [ 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ], privacy concerns decrease, and intentions to use [ 58 ] and share personal health data increase [ 54 , 61 ]. As evidenced by previous studies in the e-commerce context, consumers' personal positive and negative perceptions, such as privacy concerns, are related to inhibiting or driving behaviors. Inhibitors act as barriers to online transactions. By contrast, drivers encourage consumers to purchase online. The cumulative evaluation of the sets of inhibitors and drivers – privacy calculus – and the extent to which each set might outweigh the other influence the user’s final decision [ 55 ]. Thus, if the patient’s cumulative evaluation of the drivers to use EHR efficiently and disclose their personal health data is greater than their reluctance, they will more likely engage in the use and adoption behavior [ 62 ]. To sum up, based on the three theoretical frameworks explained, the following general research question was explored in our study:

Which underlying mechanisms in the form of facilitators and barriers contribute to explaining EHR usage in countries with an opt-in vs. an opt-out setting?

This research aims to examine specific facilitators and barriers contributing to explain EHR usage in opt-in and opt-out systems. EHR usage in our study refers to actively accessing the EHR system of the respective country and consequently a “user” in our study has been defined as a person who has accessed the EHR system at least once in the past.

Country selection

In order to address these objectives, the research study examines two EHR systems: one used in Austria, known as ELGA, and the other used in France, known as DMP. These two European countries were selected for a cross-country investigation due to their similarities in terms of healthcare regimes.

In Austria, the Electronic Health Record (EHR) system, established in 2009, operates under the legislative framework of the ELGA Act. Launched in 2015, the system interconnects various healthcare providers with the aim of enhancing information flow. Health data, generated by providers like hospitals and physicians, supplements medical treatments, and access to the EHR requires a multi-stage registration process via a personal mobile phone signature for identity verification. Patient control is emphasized, with the ability to block or remove attending health providers [ 14 ]. In France, the EHR is an optional and voluntary process for patients, regulated by the Act of Public Health Code. Patients create and manage their EHR, accessible online for medical monitoring. Access rights are stringent, with only attending physicians and Emergency Medical Services having full access. Patient consent is prioritized, allowing them to block or remove any health provider [ 9 ]. Both countries emphasize patient control and privacy, with distinct approaches to EHR governance and access rights [ 9 , 14 ]. Figures 1 and 3 in Appendix ( A ) provide visual overviews of EHR governance in Austria and France, respectively.).

Study design and data collection

To allow an in-depth understanding of patients’ facilitators and barriers when implementing EHR systems, a qualitative exploratory approach was taken with the help of an adapted interview guideline gathering the same themes for both samples. In pursuing these objectives, the research focuses on EHR systems in Austria and France. Although at first glance the two European countries appear similar in terms of health care regime, they are currently very different with respect to cultural values and dimensions as well as EHR system default settings.

On the one hand, Austria places great value on an egalitarian social structure. According to Hofstede Insights [ 63 ], Austria scores very low on the “Power Distance” dimension, meaning that emphasis is placed on participative communication and equality among members of society. The social welfare system of Austria reflects this value of equality. Furthermore, the Austrian propensity towards warmth is manifested through their ways of socializing with one another. For example, Austrians often enjoy engaging and learning through conversation and socializing in public places is also common. Furthermore, citizens are automatically enrolled in the EHR system, resulting in a higher overall awareness and familiarity with the system. Given this heightened awareness among the Austrian population, focus groups were deemed a suitable method, allowing participants to engage in group discussions and share their experiences more openly, leveraging their collective knowledge.

On the other hand, France scores fairly high on the “Power Distance”, which indicates the manner of communication is determined by social status, level of education, and age. Tone and choice of words will vary among these factors [ 63 ]. The French population, enrolled in the DMP system, faces a different dynamic due to the opt-in nature of the program. This results in potentially lower awareness among citizens. The decision to conduct individual interviews in this context aimed to provide a more focused and personalized exploration of participants' experiences, compensating for potential disparities in group engagement. Thus, the French opt-in enrollment prompted individual interviews to delve into personal experiences while the Austrians’ automatic enrollment might lead to higher EHR awareness, making focus groups conducive to open discussions. The primary rationale for adopting distinct methodologies was both grounded in the concept of “power distance” and rooted in each national context’s unique characteristics.

In order to make the results comparable, the same semi-structured interview guideline was developed and coordinated in several feedback loops within our research teams and can be found in the Appendix ( B ). In Austria, four online focus group discussions were conducted in September and October 2021, leading to an average length of 60 min per focus group. In France, the data collection started in November 2021 and lasted three months, covering nineteen individual online semi-structured interviews, also with an average length of 60 min. Concerning the study’s sample size, research subjects, and quality of responses, semantic saturation was achieved due to the plateau of the emergence of new themes and codes [ 64 ].

Analysis procedure

In a first step, the two research teams in Austria and France developed a first codebook independently for each country. In the next step, codings were discussed, and consensus was reached to develop a common codebook. During this coding process, coders worked independently to reveal any similarities or discrepancies with regard to EHR adoption, first using Excel spreadsheets, which were transferred into MAXQDA after data cleansing procedures. Data were sorted across participants and country of origin and then categorized into subcategories according to the four codes: barriers and facilitators, each assigned to either the opt-in system or the opt-out system. In order to obtain results that are robust and valid, we adopted a meticulous approach to data analysis. Specifically, we categorized the codes associated with barriers and facilitators into distinct types and cross-referenced the data according to the type of regime. Finally, to ensure the validity of the analysis, an independent reviewer checked the data and confirmed the results’ convergence. To organize the source data more clearly, codes were classified into main codes and subcodes within MAXQDA. Specifically, EHR facilitators and barriers served as two overall main codes, which can comprise numerous subcodes, each containing their own subcodes. The results presented are the most frequent categories that emerged from the data.

Participants

As this study aims to examine similarities and differences between an opt-in and an opt-out regime of EHR, our target population consists of citizens who are potential or actual patients. In the Austrian sample, the designation of 'non-user' pertains to patients who, although not having actively opted-out, have not accessed their EHR system in the past. Conversely, the term ‘user’ is assigned to patients actively engaging with the EHR system. To elaborate on the French system, ‘users’ are defined as patients who have deliberately opted in and are actively accessing the system. At the same time ‘non-users’ comprise those who are not presently accessing the system. Participants are not limited to residents of hospitals and clinics, ensuring a balanced sample. Furthermore, the recruitment strategy aimed to capture a spectrum of demographics, including age, gender and education levels, to enhance the generalizability of findings to the broader citizenry. Participants were drawn from various backgrounds, encompassing both urban and rural settings, to mitigate potential biases. The four groups comprised a total of N  = 30 participants from Austria and were homogenously composed with regard to user experience and age (see Table  1 ). The same sampling conditions were applied when recruiting the N  = 19 French participants (see Table  2 ).

The ethical boards installed in each of the two universities of the research teams in Austria and in France gave their consent to the data collection procedures ahead of data collection.

Utilizing the recommended approach of qualitative content analysis according to Mayring [ 65 , 66 ], this study analyzed facilitators and barriers for two distinct patient groups – those with and without prior experience of using EHR systems – across two countries, one with an opt-in policy (France) and the other with an opt-out policy (Austria). The analysis identified facilitators and barriers organized into subcategories, such as the role of health providers and social norms, as well as the governmental role, information security, and technological discomfort. The results of this analysis are presented in the following themes, which arose from the interview guide (Fig.  1 ).

Code system of derived categories of facilitators and barriers in Austria and France

EHR facilitators

Role of health providers, usefulness of ehr.

The usefulness of EHR is a high-priority topic of discussion in the study, and the analyses indicate that there is a positive trend towards increased usage among patients with prior experience, which has been reinforced by the COVID-19 pandemic. One participant from Austria highlighted the benefits of EHR beyond simply storing personal health data, stating that they can also be used for additional features such as the COVID-19 electronic immunization record.  “The benefit is not only in the triage of all personal health data, but also in the additional features one can use, such as the COVID-19 electronic immunization record.” (Austria, U12, Male, 61]). In addition, some patients with no prior usage experience express “…that the information is trustworthy and verified by a physician.” (Austria, N1, Male, 35).

The clear majority of French participants agreed that being integrated in a medical digitalization system cannot be beneficial without multiplying the efforts and contacts. Their perspective suggests that the potential benefits of EHR outweigh the additional burden that may come with using them. They recognized the value of EHR for improving healthcare delivery and patient outcomes. Hence, we can cite the relevant quotes  “I do not doubt that we need to accept the need to share and use EHR; if the system is not at risk of being dismantled, as was the case a few years ago.” (France, N1, Male, 55).

Increased efficacy of the patient-physician encounter

The health provider’s ability as gatekeeper to influence EHR usage was classified as that of a facilitator who motivated patients, as the following quote illustrates: “I see the physician as the best option to convince patients to use EHR systems, for instance, concerning positive communication incentives after an examination: Today, you had your blood test, and tomorrow you can already view your results in the EHR system.” (Austria, U10, Male, 70). In another context related to the opt-out regime, patients described behavioral loyalty to their health provider due to a feeling of bonding. “ The patients trust physicians and if it works at the grassroots level, it gets transported upwards. This is an opportunity that should be used !" (Austria, U6, Female, 29).

Obviously, completed EHR are able to help health providers to improve communication with patients, especially when tracking patient progress over time . Participants report that a strong emotional connection can be developed due to trust and confidence in their physicians . “My attending physician promptly diagnosed my cancer through the centralization of my previous medical examinations. I consider myself fortunate to have had such a knowledgeable medical professional overseeing my care” . (France, U9, Female, 34).

Awareness of EHR

Awareness level of ehr.

The awareness of EHR usage from the patients’ perspective does not only positively influence the individual treatment process, but even unnecessary additional treatments and time efforts for the healthcare system are seen by patients (“ I am thinking of multiple treatments [laboratory, X-ray, etc .], long waiting times for results, etc . The data simply transfers from one place to the other without any major problems .” (Austria, U12, Male, 61)).

Both users and non-users of EHR in France expressed that increasing their awareness of the benefits they can gain from utilizing EHR has a positive impact on their intention to share personal health data. Several participants mentioned that they received information about EHR, which contributed to their understanding of the system and its advantages: “The first time it was in 2017 that I received an e-mail from the social security organization expounding the new system and how to create one’s own EHR. After that and whenever I was sick, my doctor used to give me an informative flyer about the EHR functions.” (France, U3, Male,70).

Social norm of EHR

Social influence.

Without the support of, for instance, family members, friends or health professionals, patients, especially older patients, might be limited during the EHR usage process. In addition, during the registration process there is a steady need for assistance. ( "An important factor is certainly the social component of support during the EHR usage.” (Austria, U13, Male, 55)).

For non-users in France, there is a notable and increasing social demand for engagement in a medical information sharing system. Participants are frequently faced with encounters with health providers or their relatives, which further emphasizes the significance of their involvement. “ It would help my attending doctor, the other care-providers and myself   to be up to date with my healthcare. This task is a personal responsibility if we want to make things change.” (France, U7, Female, 46).

EHR barriers

Governmental ‘role’, lack of communication about ehr.

The lack of information emerges as a significant barrier to the utilization of EHR. This barrier encompasses various aspects, including insufficient knowledge and understanding of EHR systems among potential users. Therefore, one of the primary challenges faced by patients is a lack of awareness regarding the benefits and functionalities of EHR. At the very beginning of the rollout plan patients remembered negative propaganda (i.e., flyers, posters, etc.) with an invitation to opt out of the entire EHR system ( “Get out of the EHR system” (Austria, N1, Male, 35)). Nevertheless, the current information available on EHR was still perceived as insufficient. ( “A big area is undoubtedly the information gap that exists. Patients do not know exactly what an EHR system is, what benefits it brings or what to do with it.” (Austria, N3, Female, 23)).

However, many non-users stipulate that they are not adequately informed about how EHR can enhance the quality and coordination of healthcare, improve patient outcomes, and streamline medical processes. Without a clear understanding of these advantages, many patients still hesitate to adopt EHR and perceive them as unfamiliar or unnecessary. ( “It was clear that I wouldn’t be enrolled, however even the social security organisation paid no attention at all and didn’t even follow up with me to join the EHR system.” (France, N6, Male, 52)).

Lack of transparency about EHR

The lack of transparency surrounding EHR significantly hampers their adoption and utilization. Consequently, being well informed about the advantages of health digitalization is the best way to enhance use of EHR in both the opt-in and the opt-out regime. In Austria, patients are not aware of the opt-in setting and the process of ‘opting-out’ ( “…It’s interesting that you have to go through the registration process before you are allowed to opt out” (Austria, N9, Male, 54)).

Similarly, in France, the lack of transparency regarding EHR contributes to a lack of awareness among patients. Some participants pointed out the lack of clear and accessible information leading to a lack of understanding, confusion and mistrust. This lack of information becomes evident in statements of patients, for instance, (“Why should I risk my data privacy? Health organization language is very vague.” (France, N9, Female, 39)).

Information security

Privacy concerns about ehr.

Bearing the sensitivity of the exchanged data in mind, patients found that data with regard to privacy security throughout the entire usage process had to be comprehensively guaranteed. Especially, possible restrictions/regulations by the patient of their sensitive data were addressed repeatedly. Nevertheless, a kind of uncomfortable feeling emerged in the form of ( “You still feel like a human being made of glass.” (Austria, U12, Male, 61)).

Some French participants questioned the protection of data during the collection level, the transmission levels, and the storage level: ( “I am not able to face the scourge of data privacy. I am unable to prevent my personal data from being disclosed; we hear about it every day i.e. Facebook scandal; and no one can stop this process.” (France, N8, Female, 28)).

Patients express that privacy security guarantees of the EHR system seemed to be sufficiently implemented through the complex and secure, but challenging login procedure. However, if a data leak appears, the impact is immense and, in the worst-case scenario, ( “ If people can access my data and use it against me, this could lead to social exclusion due to, for example, mental illness, delayed procedures for applying for early retirement, or job loss.” (Austria, U12, Male, 61)).

Lack of knowledge on EHR related to legal regulations and restrictions

None of the patients has in-depth background knowledge of whether, and if so, which specific law (i.e., European basic data protection regulation) is behind the EHR system in Austria. Only one patient with usage experience confessed that the situation was unclear for the parties involved since ( “ each health institution defines for itself what goes into the EHR system (i.e., doctor’s letter, laboratory, X-rays, etc .], although this is actually required by law in Austria.” (Austria, U8, Male, 52)).

Similarly, French interviewees display a lack of awareness that EHR are a standardized and secured digital health record implemented by the Ministry of Health. Participants completely ignore the regulatory aspects of EHR, including important ones, despite the French government’s efforts, for example insisting on the consent that gives patients the possibility to block or remove any health provider from the list at any time. Hence, none of the participants mentioned this regulation. ( “I can’t share all of my medical history for fear that my employer will fire me after realizing that I have a chronic illness”. (France, U4, Male, 53)).

Additional existence of stand-alone solutions for medical records

Especially in Austria, the existence of additional stand-alone solutions for medical records might add confusion as ( "in some hospitals in, for example, other federal states, the examination result is provided electronically and in other facilities it continues to be provided in analogue form." (Austria, U10, Male, 70)). However, non-users address that with the co-existence of additional stand-alone solutions for medical records, the perceived usefulness of an EHR system on a national basis is raised into question. (" As long as there are different systems from, for example, private institutions, there is also no added value. " (Austria, N5, Male, 25)). French users and non-users of EHR figured out that standardization of EHR systems between public hospitals, private institutions and physicians is a priority to achieve more efficient infrastructure. (“When asking for a medical check-up I often encounter a frustrating experience where they have their own separate online systems or I switch to the “doctolib” application.” (France, N1, Male, 55)).

Perceived repelling attitudes of health providers towards EHR

From the patients’ perspective however, a repelling attitude of health providers towards EHR was reasonable. It was attributed to an increased additional effort in terms of the financing of and training in the use of the EHR system, a burden imposed on the health providers (“ …in the form of a new system, training and education for health providers, maintenance and support, etc .” (Austria, N1, male, 35)).

Thus, physicians are the primary users of EHR systems, and their engagement and buy-in are critical for the successful implementation and adoption of the system. Many participants reported that they will cross the line only if their attending health provider guarantees the secure handling of their data: ( “I have recently completed my EHR, and still panic about the idea that my data can be hacked. Unfortunately, none of my health providers explained to me the importance of sharing my medical data or reassured me that in case of emergency only health providers would have access.” (France, U1, Male, 47)).

Technological discomfort

Access to and completion of the ehr.

Patients, regardless of their usage experience, consistently emphasized the importance of having an EHR system that is user-friendly, easily understandable and tailored to their specific needs. This is seen as a crucial factor in increasing the likelihood of widespread adoption and high levels of utilization. One statement highlights the frustration caused by a poorly designed and unclear platform:  “The platform itself is totally unclear and badly designed, so it is not understandable, which wastes a lot of my time with every log in". (France, U1, Male, 47)).

In Austria, the technical necessity (i.e., personal digital identification via smartphone) for secure access and a transparent usage process was perceived as an indispensable albeit challenging factor. A system that is easy to understand and tailored to patient needs is seen to increase the chances of a high level of system use. As mentioned by patients ( “The login process, with its path and various links and shortcuts, is much too lengthy and complicated.” (Austria, U6, Female, 29)).

Digital literacy in relation to EHR usage

The theme ‘digital literacy’ refers to the specific competency necessary to be able to manage and use EHR effectively ( "Many, unfortunately, are not ready yet, the digital competency is lagging here." (Austria, U2, Male, 30)). In general, digital literacy was identified by experienced and “younger French users as a prerequisite to handle the EHR system” (France, U2, Male, 24) to be able to navigate through the EHR system ( "People who use EHR systems can also more easily use similar platforms (i.e., mobile banking).” (Austria, U9, Male, 47)). Dealing with technological discomfort experienced by participants placed an emphasis on the role of media and the key stakeholders of healthcare delivery in assisting patients in need, especially the elderly. Indeed, young interviewees express being creative in developing innovative and useful features of EHR systems, for instance, (“ integrating the vaccination status and generating automatic reminders for having a booster shot ”, (France, U2, Male, 24)).

Contribution to theory

This research aims to contribute to the expanding literature on the facilitators and barriers to EHR adoption, specifically comparing the opt-out system in Austria to the opt-in system in France. We find that patients in both countries have similar experiences regarding the facilitating factors, such as the role of health providers, awareness of EHR, and social norms.

Our results are consistent with previous work in this field highlighting that perceived usefulness [ 48 , 49 ], including up-to-date and complete health information, can be identified as a key factor in increasing EHR usage in the long run [ 20 , 67 ]. Especially heavy consumers of the healthcare system due to multimorbidity and high intensity of healthcare services could be classified as EHR supporters in the study by Halmdienst and others [ 14 , 68 ]. Their study also showed that patients with an optimistic attitude or enjoyment of life have a positive impact on using EHR. Furthermore, the provision of system training or experts/power-users to work with the EHR system were considered to facilitate EHR usage [ 22 ]. Our in-depth view shows that this relationship might be explained at least to a certain degree by increased efficacy of the patient-physician encounter due to EHR usage. This finding corroborates the results of Abbasi et al. [ 22 ], who identified usability as one of the most important reasons for using the Iranian EHR system SEPAS from the end-users’s perspective.

Furthermore, our study also reveals that physicians play a significant role as facilitators and gatekeepers by motivating patients and increasing their awareness of EHR [ 69 , 70 , 71 ], which is also in line with existing literature assuming enhanced IT competencies and confidence regarding EHR systems by physicians [ 72 ]. This might go hand in hand with an increased awareness of health prevention and promotion (i.e., health screenings) of patients, which was found to contribute to higher EHR acceptance in existing literature on EHR usage [ 14 ].

A high degree of social systems and connectedness, influence by family, friends and health providers, were found to be essential for EHR usage and generate spillovers to provide access to EHR regardless of location and time [ 3 , 14 , 18 , 73 ]. Without the support of others, patients may face limitations when handling the complex, though classified as secure, login procedure and in their ability to navigate through the features. Empowering patients from a societal perspective, especially when belonging to the elderly population, is critical, as Torrens and Walker [ 73 ] point out. Patient empowerment can help to improve the acceptance and adoption of EHR or other patient portals and can assist in fulfilling other daily – digital – tasks [ 14 ].

However, participants’ views are divided in Austria and France regarding the barriers to EHR usage. The lack of communication and transparency about EHR on the part of the government is identified as a major barrier in both countries. In France, uninformed patients expressed concerns about actively disclosing their EHR data, highlighting the importance of patient awareness in decision-making. Additionally, information security is considered as a prerequisite in both countries, with patients’ motivation for better health outweighing their privacy concerns. Patients without usage experience in France express the greatest concerns regarding privacy, indicating a different information situation compared to patients with usage experience [ 19 , 69 ]. On the other hand, lack of knowledge about government regulations and restrictions related to EHR is noted among patients who have already interacted with the system in both countries.

In line with previous research [ 19 , 20 ] on privacy concerns and data protection, information security was identified as a necessary prerequisite in both countries, especially the setting in which it is implemented by the federal authorities – opt-in or opt-out. In line with existing literature [ 20 ], and based on the privacy calculus theory [ 38 ] we found that patients’ motivation [ 19 , 39 , 40 ] for better health clearly overrides their concerns and boosts their confidence that privacy is being respected by the government [ 15 ]. Thus, our study’s findings show again that French patients without usage experience express the greatest concerns regarding privacy due to a different information situation compared to patients with usage experience. Furthermore, a lack of knowledge of the government’s EHR-related legal regulations and restrictions [ 8 , 9 ] is only noted among patients who had already dealt with the EHR system in both countries. Liu et al. [ 28 ] demonstrate that participants show relevant motivation to get involved in an EHR rollout plan. This complexity highlights the existence of barriers that hinder patients from actively using EHR and that has not been analyzed in-depth in other literature before. Austrian and French patients mention additional stand-alone solutions for medical records provided by private hospitals and physicians as frustrating regarding the inconsistency of data from multiple sources, which are not always compatible with one another.

In both countries, patients perceive a negative attitude from health providers towards EHR, emphasizing the importance of health providers’ motivation and commitment to EHR adoption, which aligns with previous studies [ 62 , 64 ]. This statement clearly shows that the health providers’ motivation and commitment determine whether an EHR system is used or not [ 18 , 19 , 64 ]. Thus, physicians can be seen as noticeable gatekeepers [ 6 ]. Finally, technical discomfort, including lack of accessibility and digital literacy, are identified as a significant challenge in both countries, affecting patients’ ability to use the system effectively [ 3 , 19 , 20 ].

Contribution to practice

Our results corroborate the findings of a study by Crameri et al. [ 74 ], who found that one of the most significant barriers to EHR usage is a lack of patient communication about the technology. Thus, nationwide and standardized communication measures initiated by the government can be used, which may ultimately help to increase and maintain patients’ EHR handling process [ 2 ]. Köse et al. [ 27 ] suggest including EHR communication strategies in form of interpersonal, interactive, and mass media (i.e., login procedure, opt-out scheme, etc.) as a target in national strategic plans, which have been identified as vital encouragements of EHR usage in their study. Also, Abbasi et al. [ 22 ] pointed out the implication of changing the philosophy from local to national comprehensive plans to integrate a working interoperable EHR system. From a macro perspective, boosting EHR usage by communication measures might contribute to a government’s higher degree of additional information supply that might not be evaluated in a trial or study. The data collected during and after a treatment process enable the evaluation of outcomes and resources across patients’ long-term interactions with the national healthcare systems (i.e., medications, health services, diagnoses) [ 65 ]. This subject could also be included on the meso-level of communication, demonstrating that health providers are aware and actively address the topic of EHR education and training [ 71 ]. The findings of our study corroborate the findings of Halmdienst and others [ 14 ], revealing that some patients have a low digital literacy level due to a lack of familiarity with health IT resulting in an insufficient understanding of functions and usefulness of EHR. It may be beneficial to encourage social contacts (i.e., family, health provider) to support patients along the digital path. Considering that findings have indicated that the concerns regarding information security may be a matter of individual choice, government could make patients more aware of their EHR related legal regulations and restrictions [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. Mediated health communication to reduce barriers and/or foster facilitators by using a segmentation approach (users vs. non-users) could boost EHR usage [ 16 ].

In light of the foregoing, to improve EHR adherence regardless of the regime type, multiple interventions inspired by the nudge theory have to be employed [ 1 ]. Our research brings to light a shared concern prevalent in both settings, a noticeable lack of awareness among patients regarding their opt-in or opt-out status, stemming from deficiencies in information dissemination and transparency [ 19 , 69 ]. Patients, irrespective of the governmental opt-in or opt-out setting, expressed a lack of awareness regarding the registration process and subsequent opt-out options in Austria; similarly, in France, a lack of clear and accessible information contributed to a shortage of understanding and heightened mistrust. The discussions encompass patients’ apprehensions about information security, confusion arising from unclear and inaccessible information, and the need for improved communication strategies [ 15 , 16 ]. In this context, it is crucial for health policymakers to actively engage healthcare providers in the early stages of deliberation on the implementation and dissemination of EHR. Additionally, they must determine the appropriate communication strategies for informing patients about the accessibility and usage of health data. Contrary to viewing digitalization as a standalone solution for healthcare challenges, it should be seamlessly integrated into existing processes that involve the primary stakeholders in healthcare delivery. As evidenced by previous research on the healthcare provider relationship, healthcare professionals play a pivotal role in serving as ambassadors for EHR among patients [ 6 , 69 ]. Healthcare providers emerge as critical figures in fostering EHR adoption and, notably, in establishing a trustworthy relationship with patients. In fact, this requires setting EHR functionalities and features to default options that promote adherence. For example, pre-selecting relevant options or templates for data entry can guide users towards providing comprehensive and accurate information, reducing the likelihood of errors or omissions [ 2 ].

However, the concept of nudging, popularized by behavioral economics, has been applied to various policy interventions beyond EHR adoption [ 35 ]. In the context of donor registration, nudging approaches have been implemented to increase organ donation rates. This opt-out approach has shown success in increasing donor registration [ 23 ]. Similarly, nudging techniques have been employed in chronic disease management to encourage healthier behaviors among patients. These interventions often involve personalized feedback, reminders, and incentives to promote adherence to treatment plans and lifestyle changes [ 25 ]. In the context of vaccinations, timely reminders, social norms, and simplifying the vaccination process aim to influence individuals’ decision-making [ 41 , 42 ]. Comparatively, the adoption of EHR systems involves distinct challenges and considerations. Unlike some nudging interventions, EHR adoption is not solely reliant on individual behavior but involves complex interactions between patients, healthcare providers, and policy frameworks. Understanding the differences and similarities between nudging approaches in various domains and EHR adoption can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of different behavioral interventions and their implications for public initiatives [ 75 ].

Moreover, to nudge users towards desired actions, national organizations have to implement timely reminders and prompts within the EHR system. These reminders can be designed to prompt clinicians to update patient records, complete specific tasks, or follow best practices [ 3 ]. By simplifying choices within the EHR interface, the patients’ decision-making process could be streamlined. This can be achieved by presenting information in a clear and concise manner, avoiding overwhelming options or complex navigation. Patients will then be more likely to adhere to the EHR workflow and make informed decisions efficiently [ 4 ]. Finally, it will be very efficient to incorporate social norms and peer influence within the EHR system to promote adherence. By highlighting the positive behaviors of colleagues or presenting aggregate data on adherence rates, medical authorities can create a sense of social pressure and motivate users to align with desired practices. Leveraging the power of social influence can encourage users to conform to the norms and standards established within the EHR environment [ 8 , 76 ].

This study provides an understanding of patients’ facilitators and barriers when using EHR systems, in the context of two different policies with an opt-in (France) and opt-out (Austria) setting. The results reveal very few differences in facilitators and barriers between the two countries. Significantly, the opt-in model implemented in France has led to lower rates of usage when compared to settings that prioritize enhanced privacy protection and incorporate additional safeguards [ 55 ]. In our view, the Australian My Health Record system (MHR), Australia’s national EHR system, might be seen as a best practice example combining the advantages of both the opt-in and the opt-out settings. The initial opt-in setting in Australia prompted only 2 million registrations. After switching to an opt-out setting, more than 23 million Australians, i.e., 90% of Australians, had an EHR in 2019 due to the strength of privacy protection and additional safeguards [ 77 ]. Hollo and Martin [ 77 ], however, put emphasis on the promotion of equity in health information security for EHR users. Thus, we highlight the importance of recognizing the potential benefits of implementing similar safeguards by, at the same time, considering equity in health information security in France to encourage higher adoption rates of EHR. Furthermore, Austria, lacking comparable safeguards, might benefit from exploring similar strategic options. In summary, each country should tailor its system's framework according to its national requirements. In the event of any deviations during the implementation phase, governments must take swift and effective action to address them [ 72 ]. An essential aspect of successful implementation lies in the adaptability of the roll-out plan to address unforeseen deviations. This responsiveness is vital to maintaining the integrity of the system, fostering public trust, and ultimately achieving the intended positive impact on healthcare outcomes and patient experiences.

Limitations and recommendations for future research

The authors acknowledge limitations, such as the qualitative approach focused on comparing only two countries. Hence, this research can be viewed as an initial step in comprehending different EHR regimes, providing valuable insights into the facilitators and barriers. However, to establish more robust and generalizable findings, it is imperative to expand the scope of the study by incorporating a larger sample of European countries such as Germany or Sweden. The participants’ disproportionate distribution in terms of educational background may reduce the external validity of the results. Future research could address these limitations by employing a larger and more representative sample. Furthermore, the participant selection process does not consider individuals who actively opted out due to a strongly negative disposition towards EHR. Those people may bring further insights on the perspectives of those opposed to EHR adoption. Thus, future research is encouraged to address this specific subgroup of people who have actively opted out of the EHR system in a country with an opt-out setting. Considerably more work will need to be done to determine the specific motives and reasons of those who have already opted out in order to contribute to a nuanced comprehensive understanding of attitudes and barriers related to EHR adoption by focusing on the other side of the coin, which is the refusal to participate in EHR systems.

Our research has also given rise to several questions in need of further investigation. If the debate is to be moved forward, a better understanding, especially of the needs of the elderly, needs to be developed. Against the backdrop of the aging of society, it should be mentioned that older adults often face increased personal health concerns and suffer from multimorbidity. To an increasing extent, this makes it crucial to understand how EHR can address their specific needs and enhance their healthcare experience. What is more, elderly patients may encounter difficulties in using new technologies, including EHR systems, due to factors such as limited digital literacy, unfamiliarity with technology, and potential physical or cognitive limitations. Overcoming these challenges in the realm of EHR is an important issue for future.

Data availability

The full data set and materials pertaining to this study can be obtained from the corresponding author on request.

Availability of data and materials

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available upon request.

The terms "Personal Health Records" (PHR) and "Electronic Health Records" (EHR) refer to distinct concepts in the realm of health information management. A Personal Health Record (PHR) typically involves health data managed by individuals, allowing them to store, track, and manage their health information. On the other hand, Electronic Health Records (EHR) encompass digitalized patient health records maintained by healthcare providers, facilitating comprehensive and centralized access to patient data within a healthcare institution [ 5 ].

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Griesser, A., Mzoughi, M., Bidmon, S. et al. How do opt-in versus opt-out settings nudge patients toward electronic health record adoption? An exploratory study of facilitators and barriers in Austria and France. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 439 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10929-w

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Received : 30 October 2023

Accepted : 29 March 2024

Published : 08 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10929-w

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Peptide-based self-assembled monolayers (sams): what peptides can do for sams and vice versa.

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a i3S – Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, Portugal E-mail: [email protected]

b INEB – Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, Portugal

c ICBAS – Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) represent highly ordered molecular materials with versatile biochemical features and multidisciplinary applications. Research on SAMs has made much progress since the early begginings of Au substrates and alkanethiols, and numerous examples of peptide-displaying SAMs can be found in the literature. Peptides, presenting increasing structural complexity, stimuli-responsiveness, and biological relevance, represent versatile functional components in SAMs-based platforms. This review examines the major findings and progress made on the use of peptide building blocks displayed as part of SAMs with specific functions, such as selective cell adhesion, migration and differentiation, biomolecular binding, advanced biosensing, molecular electronics, antimicrobial, osteointegrative and antifouling surfaces, among others. Peptide selection and design, functionalisation strategies, as well as structural and functional characteristics from selected examples are discussed. Additionally, advanced fabrication methods for dynamic peptide spatiotemporal presentation are presented, as well as a number of characterisation techniques. All together, these features and approaches enable the preparation and use of increasingly complex peptide-based SAMs to mimic and study biological processes, and provide convergent platforms for high throughput screening discovery and validation of promising therapeutics and technologies.

• This article is part of the themed collection: Celebrating the scientific accomplishments of RSC Fellows

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C. Redondo-Gómez, P. Parreira, M. C. L. Martins and H. S. Azevedo, Chem. Soc. Rev. , 2024, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D3CS00921A

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