how to do research ks2

• Create new account
• Reset your password

Register and get FREE resources and activities

Ready to unlock all our resources?

How to help your child develop research skills

Remember your own school days, when researching a homework project meant going to the library and looking through books to find the facts you needed?

It’s easy to assume that research is a far easier task for today’s children, with the internet at their fingertips. But in reality, the vast amount of information that they have access to can make it harder to find what they need.

Start a unqiue learning programme!

• Weekly programme for each school year
• Worksheets sent direct to your inbox
• Keeps your child's learning on track

From the start of KS2, you’re likely to find your child is given research-based homework tasks on subjects ranging from the Great Fire of London to Ancient Egypt , and the skills they gain from these projects are vital for their future learning.

‘Once they get to secondary school , children are expected to be able to research things independently, but there’s not always time to teach them how to do it,’ explains Tricia Adams, director of the School Library Association . ‘Once they develop these skills, they’ve got them for life, so the sooner we can start to introduce them, the better.’

How to start researching a topic

Children often leap into research-based projects without stopping to think about what is actually required of them. For example, they might be asked specifically to find out about homes in Saxon times , but end up gathering facts not just about homes, but also about jobs, food, leisure time, and so on. They then either produce a piece of work that doesn’t meet the brief, or end up having to discard all the extraneous info they’ve uncovered.

The first step is to help your child identify what’s actually being asked. Some teachers, particularly in lower KS2, will give children clear prompts, such as a bullet-pointed brief with questions that they have to answer, such as:  

• When did the Saxons live?
• What did their houses look like?
• What were they made of?

In this case, encourage your child to read through all of the questions before they even start researching. It can be helpful to give them a sheet of paper for each question so they can write down information in rough as they find it.

Other times, and more commonly in upper KS2, the brief may be more general: ‘Find out how people lived in Saxon times'. In this case, the onus is on your child to think about what they’re being asked to do. Encourage them to plan their work by coming up with subheads or a paragraph plan; this will help focus their mind on the specific areas they need to research.

Researching using the internet

Most kids automatically use the internet as their first (and often only) source of information. ‘There’s a lot of fantastic information out there, but there’s also a lot that’s unhelpful and even inappropriate,’ says Tricia. ‘If your child is going to use the internet for research, the first thing to do is make sure you have really good parental controls in place so they can’t access anything harmful.’

When they’re using the internet for research, there are six key skills that your child needs to develop.

Using the right search terms. ‘Children need to learn that to do a successful search, they need to put the right words into the search box,’ says Tricia. If their wording is too specific, they may not find the information they need, but if it’s too loose, they’ll find too much irrelevant detail. Spelling mistakes can also throw a search off kilter.

One good way to help your child get to grips with using the right search terms is to get them to underline the keywords in the brief they’ve been given: for example, ‘Find out how people lived in Saxon times’. These will often be the words that form the basis of their search.

Sit with your child and demonstrate how using the right search terms can make their research more productive. Get them to look up information using three different terms ranging from the general to the specific, for instance, ‘Saxons’, ‘Saxon life’, and ‘Saxon houses’. The first will throw up way too much information, while the last may be too narrow. This will help them understand the sort of terms they need to use to get to the information they need.

Using search engines. ‘When they’re using the internet for research, children typically go straight to Google, and then use the first two websites that come up,’ Tricia says. ‘The problem is that the top hits are often ad-based or influenced by their past search history, and may not be the best sources of information.’

Tricia recommends encouraging your child to experiment with search engines other than Google. ‘Different search engines use different algorithms, so you won’t necessarily get the same results,’ she explains. ‘Get your child to compare and contrast them with Google, and say which they think is more useful.’

It’s also important to encourage your child to look beyond their first couple of hits, especially as one of these is likely to be Wikipedia, which isn’t always accessible for children, or reliable. Using a website further down the list not only opens the possibility of finding different information, but also means their final piece of work won’t be a carbon copy of everyone else’s.

Assessing reliable and unreliable sources . One of the trickiest parts of using the internet for research is developing an understanding that not all sources are reliable. ‘Being able to tell whether a source is reliable is a real skill, and is something that students are still developing at university level,’ says Tricia.

Talk to your child about good and bad sources of information, and how to tell them apart. For example, the information on websites produced by museums, well-known charities or institutions like the BBC or NHS is likely to be reliable, while those run by lesser known organisations or individuals may not be. ‘Encourage your child to look at the About page, and help them make a judgement about whether the people behind the website are likely to be trustworthy,’ Tricia says.

You can also encourage them to look for other clues that point to a website’s reliability. For example, does it look well designed? Are there spelling mistakes? When was it written?

Cross-checking. Children often skip this stage of research; they simply find the information they think they need, and then move on. But knowing how to cross-check is an important skill as they get older, and helps to confirm whether the information they’ve found is reliable. If two or more websites are saying the same thing, they can be confident that it’s accurate, whereas if they find contradictory information, they need to dig deeper to find out which is right.

Skimming and scanning. Being able to skim-read a piece of information to determine whether it’s going to be useful is an important skill that saves children the effort of reading vast amounts of text in detail, only to discover that it’s not what they need. ‘This is a skill that children develop over time, and they need to be confident readers before it can happen,’ says Tricia.

Taking notes. Your child needs to learn to take the information they’ve found, extract the key facts, and put them into their own words. The finished piece of work is likely to be far better if they take notes, rather than trying to write the final version as they do their research. Encourage them to use pencil and paper, rather than copying and pasting the information from websites; this means they’re more likely to use their own words.

Researching using books

The internet may seem the easiest place for your child to do their research, but this isn’t always the case. ‘The main problem is that the text isn’t often pitched at primary-school level,’ says Tricia. ‘There’s some brilliant information on museum websites, for example, but it’s usually aimed at an adult audience.’

Although using books might seem time-consuming, it can actually be more efficient than wading through the vast amounts of information online. ‘The benefit of books is that they’re focused on the specific topic, so you can find everything in one place,’ Tricia says. ‘It’s also easier to find books that are pitched at the right level: it’s fairly obvious from the vocabulary, typeface and format to tell whether your child has the right book in their hands.’

Some schools have a library where children can either use books in situ or take them home. There may also be a school library service, where schools can borrow books relating to the particular topic the class is studying, although budget cuts have meant that this service has disappeared in some areas.

‘I would also always encourage parents to take their children to the public library, where they can find information that’s tailored to their age group,’ adds Tricia. ‘If you can’t find what you’re looking for, the librarian will always be happy to help.’

Avoiding plagiarism

The idea of a primary school child being pulled up for plagiarism may seem far-fetched, but it’s important that they get used to putting information into their own words. Not only will this avoid them getting into trouble later on in their education, but it also means they’ve understood the information they’ve found, rather than just copying and pasting it.

A good way to explain plagiarism to your child is to get them to do a really good piece of homework, and then say, ‘Right, we’re going to give this to your friend, and they’re going to get all the marks for it.’

‘Children instantly recognise that this isn’t fair, and it’s a brilliantly simple way to demonstrate what plagiarism is, even to very young kids,’ Tricia says.

It’s also a good idea to read through your child’s work, and if there are words or phrases that you suspect they’ve lifted straight from a website or book, ask them what they mean. If they can’t explain it, chances are they’ve copied it, and you can ask them to go back and put it into their own words.

TheSchoolRun recommends some of the best reference books for children as well as offering primary-school-friendly guides to history, geography, science and religion homework topics in the free Homework Gnome section .

Give your child a headstart

• FREE articles & expert information
• FREE resources & activities
• FREE homework help

More like this

• Research Skills

How to Teach Online Research Skills to Students in 5 Steps (Free Posters)

Please note, this post was updated in 2020 and I no longer update this website.

How often does this scenario play out in your classroom?

You want your students to go online and do some research for some sort of project, essay, story or presentation. Time ticks away, students are busy searching and clicking, but are they finding the useful and accurate information they need for their project?

We’re very fortunate that many classrooms are now well equipped with devices and the internet, so accessing the wealth of information online should be easier than ever, however, there are many obstacles.

Students (and teachers) need to navigate:

• What search terms to put into Google or other search engines
• What search results to click on and read through (while avoiding inappropriate or irrelevant sites or advertisements)
• How to determine what information is credible, relevant and student friendly 
• How to process, synthesize, evaluate , and present the information
• How to compare a range of sources to evaluate their reliability and relevancy
• How to cite sources correctly

Phew! No wonder things often don’t turn out as expected when you tell your students to just “google” their topic. On top of these difficulties some students face other obstacles including: low literacy skills, limited internet access, language barriers, learning difficulties and disabilities.

All of the skills involved in online research can be said to come under the term of information literacy, which tends to fall under a broader umbrella term of digital literacy.

Being literate in this way is an essential life skill.

This post offers tips and suggestions on how to approach this big topic. You’ll learn a 5 step method to break down the research process into manageable chunks in the classroom. Scroll down to find a handy poster for your classroom too.

How to Teach Information Literacy and Online Research Skills

The topic of researching and filtering information can be broken down in so many ways but I believe the best approach involves:

• Starting young and building on skills
• Embedding explicit teaching and mini-lessons regularly (check out my 50 mini-lesson ideas here !)
• Providing lots of opportunity for practice and feedback
• Teachers seeking to improve their own skills — these free courses from Google might help
• Working with your librarian if you have one

💡 While teaching research skills is something that should be worked on throughout the year, I also like the idea of starting the year off strongly with a “Research Day” which is something 7th grade teacher Dan Gallagher wrote about . Dan and his colleagues had their students spend a day rotating around different activities to learn more about researching online. Something to think about!

Google or a Kid-friendly Search Engine?

If you teach young students you might be wondering what the best starting place is.

I’ve only ever used Google with students but I know many teachers like to start with search engines designed for children. If you’ve tried these search engines, I’d love you to add your thoughts in a comment.

💡 If you’re not using a kid-friendly search engine, definitely make sure SafeSearch is activated on Google or Bing. It’s not foolproof but it helps.

Two search engines designed for children that look particularly useful include:

These sites are powered by Google SafeSearch with some extra filtering/moderating.

KidzSearch contains additional features like videos and image sections to browse. While not necessarily a bad thing, I prefer the simple interface of Kiddle for beginners.

Read more about child-friendly search engines

This article from Naked Security provides a helpful overview of using child-friendly search engines like Kiddle.

To summarise their findings, search-engines like Kiddle can be useful but are not perfect.

For younger children who need to be online but are far too young to be left to their own devices, and for parents and educators that want little ones to easily avoid age-inappropriate content, these search engines are quite a handy tool. For older children, however, the results in these search engines may be too restrictive to be useful, and will likely only frustrate children to use other means.

Remember, these sorts of tools are not a replacement for education and supervision.

Maybe start with no search engine?

Another possible starting point for researching with young students is avoiding a search engine altogether.

Students could head straight to a site they’ve used before (or choose from a small number of teacher suggested sites). There’s a lot to be learned just from finding, filtering, and using information found on various websites.

Five Steps to Teaching Students How to Research Online and Filter Information

This five-step model might be a useful starting point for your students to consider every time they embark on some research.

Let’s break down each step. You can find a summary poster at the end.

Students first need to take a moment to consider what information they’re actually looking for in their searches.

It can be a worthwhile exercise to add this extra step in between giving a student a task (or choice of tasks) and sending them off to research.

You could have a class discussion or small group conferences on brainstorming keywords , considering synonyms or alternative phrases , generating questions etc. Mindmapping might help too.

2016 research by Morrison showed that 80% of students rarely or never made a list of possible search words. This may be a fairly easy habit to start with.

Time spent defining the task can lead to a more effective and streamlined research process.

It sounds simple but students need to know that the quality of the search terms they put in the Google search box will determine the quality of their results.

There are a LOT of tips and tricks for Googling but I think it’s best to have students first master the basics of doing a proper Google search.

I recommend consolidating these basics:

• Type in some simple search terms using only the important keywords
• If the initial results aren’t what you want, alter the search terms and get more specific  (get clues from the initial search results e.g. you might see synonyms that would work or get ideas from the “People Also Ask” section)
• Use quotation marks if you want your keywords in an exact order, e.g. “raining cats and dogs”
• use your best guess with spelling (Google will often understand)
• don’t worry about punctuation
• understand that everyone’s results will be different , even if they use the same search terms (depending on browser history, location etc.)

📌 Get a free PDF of this poster here. 

Links to learn more about Google searches

There’s lots you can learn about Google searches.

I highly recommend you take a look at  20 Instant Google Searches your Students Need to Know by Eric Curts to learn about “instant searches”.

Med Kharbach has also shared a simple visual with 12 search tips which would be really handy once students master the basics too.

The Google Search Education website is an amazing resource with lessons for beginner/intermediate/advanced plus slideshows and videos. It’s also home to the  A Google A Day classroom challenges. The questions help older students learn about choosing keywords, deconstructing questions, and altering keywords.

Useful videos about Google searches

How search works.

This easy to understand video  from Code.org to explains more about how search works.

How Does Google Know Everything About Me?

You might like to share this video with older students that explains how Google knows what you’re typing or thinking. Despite this algorithm, Google can’t necessarily know what you’re looking for if you’re not clear with your search terms.

What about when the answer comes up in Google instantly?

If you’ve been using Google for a while, you know they are tweaking the search formula so that more and more, an answer will show up within the Google search result itself. You won’t even need to click through to any websites.

For example, here I’ve asked when the Titanic sunk. I don’t need to go to any websites to find out. The answer is right there in front of me.

While instant searches and featured snippets are great and mean you can “get an answer” without leaving Google, students often don’t have the background knowledge to know if a result is incorrect or not. So double checking is always a good idea.

As students get older, they’ll be able to know when they can trust an answer and when double checking is needed.

Type in a subject like cats and you’ll be presented with information about the animals, sports teams, the musical along with a lot of advertising. There are a lot of topics where some background knowledge helps. And that can only be developed with time and age.

Entering quality search terms is one thing but knowing what to click on is another.

You might like to encourage students to look beyond the first few results. Let students know that Google’s PageRank algorithm is complex (as per the video above), and many websites use Search Engine Optimisation to improve the visibility of their pages in search results. That doesn’t necessarily mean they’re the most useful or relevant sites for you.

As pointed out in this article by Scientific American ,

Skilled searchers know that the ranking of results from a search engine is not a statement about objective truth, but about the best matching of the search query, term frequency, and the connectedness of web pages. Whether or not those results answer the searchers’ questions is still up for them to determine.

Point out the anatomy of a Google search result and ensure students know what all the components mean. This could be as part of a whole class discussion, or students could create their own annotations.

An important habit to get into is looking at the green URL and specifically the domain . Use some intuition to decide whether it seems reliable. Does the URL look like a well-known site? Is it a forum or opinion site? Is it an educational or government institution? Domains that include .gov or .edu might be more reliable sources.

When looking through possible results, you may want to teach students to open sites in new tabs, leaving their search results in a tab for easy access later (e.g. right-click on the title and click “Open link in new tab” or press Control/Command and click the link).

Searchers are often not skilled at identifying advertising within search results. A famous 2016 Stanford University study revealed that 82% of middle-schoolers couldn’t distinguish between an ad labelled “sponsored content” and a real news story.

Time spent identifying advertising within search results could help students become much more savvy searchers. Looking for the words “ad” and “sponsored” is a great place to start.

4) Evaluate

Once you click on a link and land on a site, how do you know if it offers the information you need?

Students need to know how to search for the specific information they’re after on a website. Teach students how to look for the search box on a webpage or use Control F (Command F on Mac) to bring up a search box that can scan the page.

Ensure students understand that you cannot believe everything you read . This might involve checking multiple sources. You might set up class guidelines that ask students to cross check their information on two or three different sites before assuming it’s accurate.

I’ve written a post all about teaching students how to evaluate websites . It includes this flowchart which you’re welcome to download and use in your classroom.

So your students navigated the obstacles of searching and finding information on quality websites. They’ve found what they need! Hooray.

Many students will instinctively want to copy and paste the information they find for their own work.

We need to inform students about plagiarism  and copyright infringement while giving them the skills they need to avoid this.

• Students need to know that plagiarism is taking someone’s work and presenting it as your own. You could have a class discussion about the ethics and legalities of this.
• Students also need to be assured that they can use information from other sources and they should. They just need to say who wrote it, where it was from and so on.

All students can benefit from learning about plagiarism, copyright, how to write information in their own words, and how to acknowledge the source. However, the formality of this process will depend on your students’ age and your curriculum guidelines.

Give students lots of practice writing information in their own words. Younger students can benefit from simply putting stories or recounts in their own words. Older students could investigate the difference between paraphrasing and summarising .

There are some free online tools that summarise information for you. These aren’t perfect and aren’t a replacement from learning the skill but they could be handy for students to try out and evaluate. For example, students could try writing their own summary and then comparing it to a computer summary. I like the tool SMMRY as you can enter text or a URL of an article. Eric Curts shares a list of 7 summary tools in this blog post .

Students also need a lot of practice using quotation marks and citing sources .

The internet can offer a confusing web of information at times. Students need to be shown how to look for the primary source of information. For example, if they find information on Wikipedia, they need to cite from the bibliography at the bottom of the Wikipedia article, not Wikipedia itself.

There are many ways you can teach citation:

• I like Kathy Schrock’s PDF document which demonstrates how you can progressively teach citation from grades 1 to 6 (and beyond). It gives some clear examples that you could adapt for your own classroom use.

Staying organised!

You might also like to set up a system for students to organise their information while they’re searching. There are many apps and online tools to curate, annotate, and bookmark information, however, you could just set up a simple system like a Google Doc or Spreadsheet.

The format and function is simple and clear. This means students don’t have to put much thought into using and designing their collections. Instead, they can focus on the important curation process.

Bring These Ideas to Life With Mini-Lessons!

We know how important it is for students to have solid research skills. But how can you fit teaching research skills into a jam-packed curriculum? The answer may be … mini-lessons !

Whether you teach primary or secondary students, I’ve compiled 50 ideas for mini-lessons.

Try one a day or one a week and by the end of the school year, you might just be amazed at how independent your students are becoming with researching.

Become an Internet Search Master with This Google Slides Presentation

In early 2019, I was contacted by Noah King who is a teacher in Northern California.

Noah was teaching his students about my 5 step process outlined in this post and put together a Google Slides Presentation with elaboration and examples.

You’re welcome to use and adapt the Google Slides Presentation yourself. Find out exactly how to do this in this post.

The Presentation was designed for students around 10-11 years old but I think it could easily be adapted for different age groups.

Recap: How To Do Online Research

Despite many students being confident users of technology, they need to be taught how to find information online that’s relevant, factual, student-friendly, and safe.

Keep these six steps in mind whenever you need to do some online research:

• Clarify : What information are you looking for? Consider keywords, questions, synonyms, alternative phrases etc.
• Search : What are the best words you can type into the search engine to get the highest quality results?
• Delve : What search results should you click on and explore further?
• Evaluate : Once you click on a link and land on a site, how do you know if it offers the information you need?
• Cite : How can you write information in your own words (paraphrase or summarise), use direct quotes, and cite sources?
• Staying organised : How can you keep the valuable information you find online organised as you go through the research process?

Don’t forget to ask for help!

Lastly, remember to get help when you need it. If you’re lucky enough to have a teacher-librarian at your school, use them! They’re a wonderful resource.

If not, consult with other staff members, librarians at your local library, or members of your professional learning network. There are lots of people out there who are willing and able to help with research. You just need to ask!

Being able to research effectively is an essential skill for everyone . It’s only becoming more important as our world becomes increasingly information-saturated. Therefore, it’s definitely worth investing some classroom time in this topic.

Developing research skills doesn’t necessarily require a large chunk of time either. Integration is key and remember to fit in your mini-lessons . Model your own searches explicitly and talk out loud as you look things up.

When you’re modelling your research, go to some weak or fake websites and ask students to justify whether they think the site would be useful and reliable. Eric Curts has an excellent article where he shares four fake sites to help teach students about website evaluation. This would be a great place to start!

Introduce students to librarians ; they are a wonderful resource and often underutilised. It pays for students to know how they can collaborate with librarians for personalised help.

Finally, consider investing a little time in brushing up on research skills yourself . Everyone thinks they can “google” but many don’t realise they could do it even better (myself included!).

You Might Also Enjoy

Teaching Digital Citizenship: 10 Internet Safety Tips for Students

Free Images, Copyright, And Creative Commons:  A Guide For Teachers And Students

8 Ways Teachers And Schools Can Communicate With Parents

How To Evaluate Websites: A Guide For Teachers And Students

14 Replies to “How to Teach Online Research Skills to Students in 5 Steps (Free Posters)”

Kathleen, I like your point about opening up sites in new tabs. You might be interested in Mike Caulfield’s ‘four moves’ .

What a fabulous resource, Aaron. Thanks so much for sharing. This is definitely one that others should check out too. Even if teachers don’t use it with students (or are teaching young students), it could be a great source of learning for educators too.

This is great information and I found the safe search sites you provided a benefit for my children. I searched for other safe search sites and you may want to know about them. http://www.kids-search.com and http://www.safesearch.tips .

Hi Alice, great finds! Thanks so much for sharing. I like the simple interface. It’s probably a good thing there are ads at the top of the listing too. It’s an important skill for students to learn how to distinguish these. 🙂

Great website! Really useful info 🙂

I really appreciate this blog post! Teaching digital literacy can be a struggle. This topic is great for teachers, like me, who need guidance in effectively scaffolding for scholars who to use the internet to gain information.

So glad to hear it was helpful, Shasta! Good luck teaching digital literacy!

Why teachers stopped investing in themselves! Thanks a lot for the article, but this is the question I’m asking myself after all teachers referring to google as if it has everything you need ! Why it has to come from you and not the whole education system! Why it’s an option? As you said smaller children don’t need search engine in the first place! I totally agree, and I’m soo disappointed how schooling system is careless toward digital harms , the very least it’s waste of the time of my child and the most being exposed to all rubbish on the websites. I’m really disappointed that most teachers are not thinking taking care of their reputation when it comes to digital learning. Ok using you tube at school as material it’s ok , but why can’t you pay little extra to avoid adverts while teaching your children! Saving paper created mountains of electronic-toxic waste all over the world! What a degradation of education.

Thanks for sharing your thoughts, Shohida. I disagree that all schooling systems are careless towards ‘digital harms’, however, I do feel like more digital citizenship education is always important!

Hi Kathleen, I love your How to Evaluate Websites Flow Chart! I was wondering if I could have permission to have it translated into Spanish. I would like to add it to a Digital Research Toolkit that I have created for students.

Thank you! Kristen

Hi Kristen, You’re welcome to translate it! Please just leave the original attribution to my site on there. 🙂 Thanks so much for asking. I really hope it’s useful to your students! Kathleen

[…] matter how old your child is, there are many ways for them to do research into their question. For very young children, you’ll need to do the online research work. Take your time with […]

[…] digs deep into how teachers can guide students through responsible research practices on her blog (2019). She suggests a 5 step model for elementary students on how to do online […]

Writing lesson plans on the fly outside of my usual knowledge base (COVID taken down so many teachers!) and this info is precisely what I needed! Thanks!!!

Comments are closed.

• Español NEW

Research facts for kids

Research is the process of solving problems and finding facts in an organised way. Research is done by using what is known (if anything), and building on it. Additional knowledge can be got by proving (or falsifying) existing theories , and by trying to better explain observations . Research should be systematic, organized and objective .

"If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?" — Albert Einstein

Academic research

Scientific research, some basic principles of research, basic activities at research process, types of research, images for kids.

Researchers take part in field or laboratory experiments , reading relevant books, journals or websites , taking notes and making conclusions . Teaching and lecturing is only part of the job of a professor or researcher. When they are not directly teaching classes they are often working on academic research. Learning institutions can vary widely in what they expect from members of their faculty. Most expect faculty members to set up their own laboratories. They hire their own lab employees and obtain their own funding , often from more than one source. Academic researchers often compete for grants to fund research at their own university . The more money researchers can attract, the higher the prestige of that university.

The scientific method is the usual way of doing this kind of research. It is meant to improve understanding of biology , engineering , physics , chemistry and many other fields. With this kind of research, scientists can understand the world, and discover useful things.

Money for research comes from governments , private corporations , and charities . Some of these organizations combine research and development of new products and ways of doing their work.

Any research should be:

• Systematic : from an hypothesis or working objective, scientists gather data according to a scheme set out in advance. From this scientists change ideas or add new knowledge to that already existing. The approach used in research is the scientific method .
• Organized : members of a research group use the same definitions, standards and principles. To achieve this, the research is planned in detail.
• Objective : conclusions got from research must be based on observed and measured facts , not on subjective impressions. The conclusions should be un biased .
• Studying available information on the subject.
• Physical or computer modeling.
• Measuring the phenomena .
• Comparing the obtained results.
• Interpreting the results with the current knowledge, considering the variables which might have influenced the result.
• Basic research , also called fundamental research or pure research, aims to understand nature.
• Applied research aims at using the new knowledge to do something.

Research must be published so the world can learn from it. Nature , Science and Proceedings of the Royal Society , are general scientific journals. Many special journals are published.

Aristotle , (384–322 BC), one of the early figures in the development of the scientific method

Scientific research equipment at MIT

German maritime research vessel Sonne

German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), considered to be one of the founders of modern source-based history

Research cycle

The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of secondary research in progress

Maurice Hilleman , the preeminent vaccinologist of the 20th century, is credited with saving more lives than any other scientist in that time.

Cover of the first issue of Nature , 4 November 1869

• This page was last modified on 16 October 2023, at 16:53. Suggest an edit .

Research Champions

Stories of real scientists and their amazing discoveries.

KS2 Science

Research Champion stories represent a wide range of scientists, from across the three disciplines of Biology, Chemistry, and Physics.

Obviously, it is very difficult to create a resource that is appropriate for all children in KS2. The stories are reasonably long, which could present a challenge to less confident readers, while the content is probably more suitable for Upper KS2 than Lower KS2. This said, the stories can be adapted, and certain aspects emphasised or left out, to suit different stages of learning.

Read on to find out how each story crosses over with the National Curriculum , and what statutory topics they could fit into.

All stories

All Research Champion stories either discuss, or could be used to discuss, the following aspects of the KS2 Science curriculum.

Lower KS2 (Year 3/4):

• Exploring, talking about, testing, and developing ideas about everyday phenomena and the relationships between living things and familiar environments.
• Broadening a child’s view of the scientific world around them, by providing opportunities to engage with different types of scientific enquiry.
• Drawing simple conclusions and using scientific language.

Upper KS2 (Year 5/6)

• Encountering more abstract ideas and beginning to recognise how these ideas help them to understand and predict how the world operates.
• Begin to recognise that scientific ideas change and develop over time.
• Find out about the work of naturalists and animal behaviourists.

The Truth about Tortoises

• Recognise that living things can be grouped in a variety of ways.
• Learning about what fair tests are, why they’re important, and how to carry them out.
• Making predictions.
• Life cycles of reptiles and mammals.
• Identify how animals are adapted to suit their environment.

Bacteria-banishing bandages

• Describe the simple functions of the basic parts of the digestive system in humans.
• Compare and group together everyday materials on the basis of their properties, including their hardness, solubility, transparency, conductivity (electrical and thermal) and their response to magnets.
• Describe how nutrients and water are transported within animals, including humans. Note: the story doesn’t discuss this specifically, but it does discuss how medicine may travel around the body, which requires similar knowledge.
• Describe how living things are classified into broad groups according to common observable characteristics and based on similarities and differences, including microorganisms, animals, and plants.

The Power of Prostheses.

• Identify that humans and some other animals have skeletons and muscles for support, protection, and movement.
• None specifically, but could be an interesting branch from which to look at the impacts of exercise, diet, and lifestyle on the way that bodies function. It discusses prostheses, which have a significant impact on a person’s ability to do these things .

Plants in Space

• Explore the requirements of plants for life and growth, and how they vary.
• Investigate the way in which water is transported in plants.
• Compare and group materials together, according to whether they are solids, liquids, or gases. This could tie into looking at what a plant needs to grow – air, water, and soil.
• Learn that an experiment can involve observing changes over periods of time and noticing patterns.
• An introduction to bar graphs.
• The story is an excellent foundation for all things ‘space’, including movement of the planets and describing the Earth, Moon, and Sun.
• Explaining gravity and its effects.
• Identify how animals and plants are adapted to suit their environment in different ways.

Spinosaurus : a dinosaur like no other.

• Describe in simple terms how fossils are formed when things that have lived are trapped in rock.
• Explore and use classification keys to help group, identify, and name a variety of living things in their local and wider environment.
• Construct and interpret a variety of food chains, identifying producers, predators, and prey.
• Give reasons for classifying plants and animals based on specific characteristics.
• Recognise that living things have changed over time and that fossils provide information about things that inhabited Earth millions of years ago.

Ice Cream Chemistry

• Compare and group materials together, according to whether they are solids, liquids, or gases.
• Observe that some materials change state when they are heated or cooled, and measure/research the temperature at which this happens.
• Compare and group together everyday materials on the basis of their properties, including their hardness, solubility, transparency, conductivity, and their response to magnets. This could be a follow-up after learning about the properties of ice cream and its ingredients.
• Know that some materials will dissolve in liquid to form a solution, and describe how to recover a substance from solution.
• Demonstrate that dissolving, mixing, and changes of state are reversible.
• Explain that some changes result in the formation of new materials, and that this kind of change is not usually reversible.

Glorious Glaciers

• Recognise that environments can change and that this can sometimes pose dangers to living things.
• Identify the part played by evaporation and condensation in the water cycle and associate the rate of evaporation with temperature. This is not directly addressed by the story but could be a possible tangent.
• Identify how animals and plants are adapted to suite their environment in different ways, and that adaptation may lead to evolution. This is not directly addressed but would be an easy follow-on from talking about how animals are adapted to cold environments like glaciers.

KS2 Geography

“Glorious Glaciers” features both maths and ‘earth science’, which means it crosses over with many aspects of the KS2 Geography curriculum . These include:

• Locate the world’s countries using maps, concentrating on their environmental regions, key physical and human characteristics, and major cities.
• Identify the position and significance of the hemispheres and the Arctic/Antarctic circle.
• Understand geographical similarities and differences through the study of human and physical geography of a region of the UK, a region in a European country, and a region within North or South America.
• Understand and describe aspects of physical geography including climate zones, biome and vegetation belts, rivers, mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes, and the water cycle.
• Understand and describe key aspects of human geography including the distribution of natural resources e.g. energy, food, minerals, water.
• Use maps, atlases, globes etc. to locate countries.

Share this:

• Already have a WordPress.com account? Log in now.
• Subscribe Subscribed
• Copy shortlink
• Report this content
• View post in Reader
• Manage subscriptions
• Collapse this bar

• International
• Schools directory
• Resources Jobs Schools directory News Search

Research Question Checklist - KS2 Literacy

Subject: English

Age range: 7-11

Resource type: Worksheet/Activity

Last updated

15 August 2018

• Share through email
• Share through twitter
• Share through linkedin
• Share through facebook
• Share through pinterest

KS2 Literacy - Research Question Checklist Worksheet This is a handy checklist to use when writing questions for research. The sheet outlines main question starters and provides examples to prompt pupils. This is a useful tool to support pupils in research tasks.

Tes paid licence How can I reuse this?

Your rating is required to reflect your happiness.

It's good to leave some feedback.

Something went wrong, please try again later.

This resource hasn't been reviewed yet

To ensure quality for our reviews, only customers who have purchased this resource can review it

Report this resource to let us know if it violates our terms and conditions. Our customer service team will review your report and will be in touch.

Not quite what you were looking for? Search by keyword to find the right resource:

The Science Behind Self-Affirmations

Science is showing self-affirmations are valuable for health and well-being..

Posted August 7, 2023 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• What Is Resilience?
• Find a therapist near me
• Affirmations are short statements that are said aloud or to oneself regularly.
• Social psychologists have been doing research on self-affirmation theory for more than 40 years.
• Researchers have found that self-affirmation can improve one's health and well-being in a variety of ways.

Does repeating a positive phrase called an affirmation out loud or to oneself change one's feelings or behavior? Some psychologists believe the answer to this question is yes. Others remain skeptical. To answer this question we need to look at the science behind self- affirmations .

What Are Affirmations?

Affirmations are short statements that are said aloud or to oneself regularly. They also may be written and placed in locations always visible to the individual. They are repeated multiple times on a daily basis (for greater detail and background on affirmations, please read " Affirmations May Improve Life Satisfaction and Well-Being "). Affirmations are any act that underscores one's adequacy and reaffirms one's sense of self-integrity.

Research on Self-Affirmations

Social psychologists began serious academic research on self-affirmations in the 1980s and have continued for more than 40 years. This research is based on self-affirmation theory. Self-affirmation theory assumes the following:

• In times of threat, we maintain the self by defending it from outside conflicting information.
• We respond to threats in one domain by affirming self-worth in other domains.
• Our core values play an essential role in maintaining the self.

The majority of research on self-affirmation theory follows the same research design or variations of it:

• Participants are asked to identify a set of core values that they believe in.
• Participants are followed longitudinally in an existing threat situation (e.g., student academic underperformance). Participants repeat affirmations to themselves daily. Performance is measured and compared both pre and post. Or
• Participants are randomly assigned to either the (a) self-affirmation or (b) non–self-affirmation control condition. Participants in the self-affirmation condition experience affirmations of self-worth while the control group does not. Participants are then asked to complete a difficult task that induces an experience of failure. Pre- and post-experiment measurements are taken and the two groups' scores are compared.

Do Self-Affirmations Work?

Years of research show promise for self-affirmations as an intervention. Researchers have found that self-affirmation can improve one's life in a variety of ways. Here's a sampling of those findings:

• Affirmations and the brain. Cascio et al. 2 used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology to measure two parts of the brain associated with (1) self-related processing and (2) rewards following self-affirmation activities. They found a measurable significant increase in brain activity in both of these regions, concluding that self-affirmations affect brain activity.
• Self-control . Schmeichel and Vohs 10 found that self-affirmations helped participants achieve self-control by reflecting upon the values that guide their lives.
• Self-efficacy . Epton and Harris 5 found that self-affirmation promotes health behavior changes. They designed an experiment to see if self-affirmation would increase a health-promoting behavior (eating more fruits and vegetables). A seven-day diary record of fruit and vegetable consumption showed that self-affirmed participants ate significantly more portions of fruit and vegetables.
• Prosociality. Crocker, Niiya, and Mischkowski 4 found that writing essays about one's own important values increases feelings of love compared to writing about unimportant values.
• Improving academic achievement. Cohen et al. 3 had African American students complete a series of brief structured writing assignments focusing on self-affirmation. A two-year follow-up showed that African Americans' grade point average (GPA) was raised by 0.24 grade points on average. Low-achieving African American students benefited the most. Sherman et al. 13 conducted a similar longitudinal field experiment in middle school with Latino-American and European American students. Affirmed Latino-American students earned higher grades than non-affirmed Latino-American students and were less likely to have their daily feelings of academic fit and motivation undermined by identity threat. These effects persisted for a period of three years or more.
• Reducing stereotyping toward minority group members. Badea and Sherman 1 studied self-affirmation and prejudice reduction: "One exciting implication of the self-affirmation approach in the domain of prejudice reduction is that self-affirmation shows the potential malleability of prejudice in situations of intergroup conflict."
• Happiness and meaning in life. Nelson et al. 9 conducted experiments with two different cultures: (a) psychology students in South Korea and (b) psychology students in a public U.S. university of which the majority were Asian American (66 percent). Participants were randomly assigned to either a self-affirmation or a control condition. Results suggest that affirming important values bolsters one's happiness and meaning in life.
• Promoting health behavior change. Epton et al. 6 conducted a meta-analysis with 41 self-affirmation studies. The studies all had participants reflect upon important values, attributes, or social relations to reduce one's defensiveness to health behavior change. They found that when self-affirmations were paired with persuasive health information it was effective in changing health attitudes and behaviors. Falk et al. 7 used MRI technology to measure brain activity in participants' prefrontal cortex, a portion of the brain associated with positive valuation. They found that participants in the self-affirmation condition produced more brain activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex during exposure to health messages and went on to increase their objectivity. Affirmation of core values allows at-risk individuals to be open to health messages and behavior change.
• Affirmations and smartphone overuse. Xu et al. 14 found that just-in-time self-affirmations helped smartphone overusers reduce phone use by 57.2 percent.

This is only a brief review of self-affirmation research. For a more comprehensive review, I direct you to Self-Affirmation Interventions by Sherman et al. 12 and Self-Affirmation Theory and the Science of Well-Being by Andrew Howell. 8 There is a growing body of evidence showing the use of self-affirmations to be a valuable tool for health and well-being.

Practice Aloha. Do all things with love, grace, and gratit ude.

© 2023 David J. Bredehoft

1. Badea, C., & Sherman, D. K. (2019). Self-affirmation and prejudice reduction: When and why? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28 (1), 40–46.

2. Cascio, C. N., et al. (2016). Self-affirmation activates brain systems associated with self-related processing and reward and is reinforced by future orientation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 2016, 621–629.

3. Cohen, G. L., et al. (2009). Recursive processes in self-affirmation: Intervening to close the minority achievement gap. S cience, 324 , 400–403.

4. Crocker, J., Niiya, Y., & Mischkowski, D. (2008). Why does writing about important values reduce defensiveness? Self-affirmation and the role of positive, other-directed feelings. Psychological Science , 19 , 740–747.

5. Epton, T., & Harris, P. R. (2008). Self-affirmation promotes health behavior change. Health Psychology , 27, 746–752. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.27.6.746

6. Epton, T., et al. (2014, August 18). The impact of self-affirmation on health-behavior change: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology . Advanced online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/hea0000116

7. Falk, E. B., et al. (2015). Self-affirmation alters the brain’s response to health messages and subsequent behavior change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112 (7), 1977–1982.

8. Howell, A. J. (2017). Self-affirmation theory and the science of well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 18, 293–311.

9. Nelson, S. K., Fuller, J. A. K., Choi, I., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). Beyond self-protection: Self-affirmation benefits hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 40 , 998–1011.

10. Schmeichel, B. J., & Vohs, K. (2009). Self-affirmation and self-construal: Affirming core values counteracts ego depletion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 96 , 770–782.

11. Sherman, D. K. (2013). Self-affirmation: Understanding the effects. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7 (11), 834–845.

12. Sherman, D. K., Lokhande, M., Muller, T., & Cohen, G. L. (2021). Self-affirmations Interventions. In G. M. Walton & A. J. Crum (Eds.), Handbook of Wise Interventions: How Social Psychology Can Help People Change (pp. 63–99). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

13. Sherman, D. K., et al. (2013). Defecting the trajectory and changing the narrative: How self-affirmation affects academic performance and motivation under identity threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104 (4), 591–618.

14. Xu, X et al. (2022). TypeOut: Leveraging just-in-time self-affirmation for smartphone overuse reduction. Creative Commons Attribution International. https://doi.org/10.1145/3491102.3517476

David Bredehoft, Ph.D., is a professor emeritus and former chair of psychology at Concordia University.

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Therapy Center NEW
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

Understanding what emotional intelligence looks like and the steps needed to improve it could light a path to a more emotionally adept world.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

Cookies on GOV.UK

We use some essential cookies to make this website work.

We’d like to set additional cookies to understand how you use GOV.UK, remember your settings and improve government services.

We also use cookies set by other sites to help us deliver content from their services.

You have accepted additional cookies. You can change your cookie settings at any time.

You have rejected additional cookies. You can change your cookie settings at any time.

• Education, training and skills
• School curriculum
• Primary curriculum, key stage 2
• Tests and assessments (key stage 2)
• Key stage 2 tests: access arrangements
• Standards & Testing Agency

2024 key stage 2 access arrangements guidance

Updated 18 March 2024

© Crown copyright 2024

This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: [email protected] .

Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders concerned.

This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/key-stage-2-tests-access-arrangements/2024-key-stage-2-access-arrangements-guidance

1. Introduction

This guidance details the access arrangements available for pupils participating in the key stage 2 (KS2) national curriculum tests.

Pupils with specific needs may require additional arrangements so they can take part in the KS2 tests. Access arrangements are adjustments that can be put in place to support those pupils. Headteachers and teachers must decide whether any of their pupils will need access arrangements before they administer the tests.

Schools must make an application to the Standards and Testing Agency (STA) to request permission in advance for some arrangements (see section 2). Some arrangements do not require permission, but schools must notify STA of their use once all tests have been administered (see section 3). Other arrangements may be used without prior approval, or the need to notify STA, provided they reflect normal classroom practice (see section 4).

1.1 Overview of access arrangements

Access arrangements must never advantage the pupil. Any support should be based primarily on normal classroom practice. Support must not change the test questions and the pupil’s answers must be their own.

It may be helpful to use previous KS2 practice materials with pupils before administering the tests. This will enable schools to identify whether pupils need additional support or adaptations to the test materials or their administration.

Access arrangements may be appropriate for pupils:

• with an education, health and care (EHC) plan
• for whom provision is being made in school using the SEN Support system
• whose learning difficulty or disability significantly affects their ability to access the tests
• who have behavioural, emotional or social difficulties

Access arrangements might also be used to support pupils who have:

• difficulty reading
• difficulty writing
• difficulty concentrating
• difficulty processing information
• a hearing impairment
• a visual impairment
• English as an additional language

Due to the diversity of pupils’ needs, this guidance does not list every circumstance where it may be appropriate to use access arrangements.

Pupils should only take tests if they are in a fit physical and mental state. Some pupils may not be able to access the tests, despite the provision of additional arrangements.

Adults administering tests to pupils who need access arrangements must not be a relative, carer or guardian of the pupil.

Adults providing support as an access arrangement (scribe, reader, translator or transcribe), must not be a relative, carer or guardian of the pupil.

Schools can contact STA using the ‘Message us – access arrangements’ form on the Primary Assessment Gateway (PAG) if further advice is required.

1.2 Evidence

During a monitoring visit , local authorities may ask to see evidence that any support provided to pupils in the tests is regularly provided as part of normal classroom practice.

Schools must ensure they have documentation available to demonstrate that a pupil is eligible for access arrangements. Evidence will vary according to the type of support and may include:

• notes recorded in teaching plans
• individual pupil support plans
• a pupil’s classwork

1.3 Maladministration

Schools could be subject to a maladministration investigation if they fail to use access arrangements appropriately.

This includes:

• failing to make the relevant application or notification to STA
• early opening of test materials without permission from STA
• unauthorised additional time
• inaccurate transcription of pupil’s work
• not having evidence that access arrangements used in the tests reflect normal classroom practice

A maladministration investigation may lead to the pupil’s result being amended or annulled.

2. Arrangements requiring an application

Schools must apply to STA in advance for permission to use the following access arrangements:

• additional time

early opening

• compensatory marks for spelling

In some instances, STA may request further information before providing the outcome of an application. Schools must await the outcome of their application before taking any further related action.

Schools must submit application forms in the ‘Available activity’ section of the PAG .

The form to make applications for additional time will be available from Monday 12 February to Monday 22 April 2024.

The form to make applications for early opening will be available from Monday 12 February to Friday 8 March.

The form to make applications for compensatory marks for spelling will be available from Monday 12 February to Monday 22 April.

STA will only consider applications after the deadlines in exceptional circumstances. Examples of these include, but are not limited to, where a pupil’s needs have significantly changed after the application deadline, or a pupil joins the school after the application deadline. In such cases, schools should contact STA using the ‘Message us – access arrangements’ form on the PAG to discuss the pupil’s requirements.

If any access arrangements are likely to disturb or aid other pupils, schools should consider making arrangements for pupils to complete the test separately.

Schools must not send copies of application forms, or any other correspondence with the test scripts, as this will slow down the marking process.

2.1 Additional time

Pupils automatically qualify for:

• up to 25% additional time in all of the tests, if they have an education, health and care (EHC) plan in place
• up to 100% additional time in all of the tests, if they use the modified large print (MLP) or braille versions of the tests

Schools do not need to complete an application for these pupils. Pupils who are automatically allowed additional time may also use other access arrangements if this reflects normal classroom practice.

Additional time to complete the tests may be appropriate for other pupils who:

• require additional time under test conditions to properly demonstrate their knowledge and understanding; this may include pupils who are unable to work at the same speed as their peers due to a specific need
• are waiting for confirmation of an EHC plan

Schools should make an application for additional time in these circumstances.

Schools should consider whether supervised rest breaks during the tests would be more beneficial to pupils than additional time (see section 4.3). Rest breaks can be used together with additional time to prevent pupils suffering from fatigue.

Local authorities do not make decisions about applications for additional time, although they can view schools’ completed applications.

Applying for additional time (Monday 12 February to Monday 22 April)

A teacher with understanding of the pupil’s needs should make the application. Reports from educational psychologists or other education professionals are not required. This is because pupils who do not hold a report may still be eligible for additional time. Where a report is already in place, the teacher can use it to inform their responses about the pupil.

Schools will need to respond to each of the following 7 questions about the pupil. These questions draw on the teacher’s assessment of the pupil’s abilities or needs and do not relate to a specific diagnosis or condition. Schools should think carefully about the questions and how they relate to the pupil and must have evidence to justify their responses to the application questions in case they receive a monitoring visit.

• Can the pupil understand and respond appropriately to a simple request or instruction given in English, without being prompted or aided by an interpreter or translator?
• Does the pupil have a hearing impairment that prevents them from being able to respond appropriately to a simple question or instruction given in English, without being prompted or aided by a communicator, sign language interpreter or having to lip-read?
• Does the pupil need braille and/or enlarged print in order to read and understand text?
• Can the pupil focus on a task, which requires them to work independently and without interruption, for at least 15 minutes without being prompted to stay on task?
• Is the pupil prevented from being able to write independently at a speed of more than 10 words per minute by a physical, motor skill or learning disability?
• Can the pupil read age-appropriate texts aloud and fluently without making errors, or with very few errors?
• Does the pupil have difficulty processing information, which prevents them from being able to answer questions on practice key stage 2 tests, even when they are allowed to refer back to the questions?

Based on the responses to the questions in the application, STA may decide the pupil qualifies for a maximum of up to 25% additional time. However, a pupil may also be allowed the use of an aid as outlined in the application outcome. For example, a pupil who has difficulty reading and difficulty writing could use a scribe for writing and still qualify for up to 25% additional time if they are reading independently.

Allowing a pupil additional time in the tests that has not been authorised by STA may lead to a maladministration investigation.

Once submitted, applications for additional time cannot be amended or deleted. If you make a mistake, you will have to reapply. If you reapply, you will need to explain why there are multiple applications and which is the correct one if you receive a monitoring visit. Please note the error on your school copy of the correct application form. If you require any further information, please contact the national curriculum assessments helpline on 0300 303 3013.

Schools will receive the outcome of their application directly after submission of the form. The outcome will confirm whether the pupil is eligible for additional time or whether the school could consider alternative access arrangements.

Schools should check the outcome of their applications well before the application deadline to ensure that appropriate arrangements can be made ahead of test week.

There is a step-by-step video tutorial on how to make an application for additional time on STA’s YouTube playlist :

How to make an application for additional time

2.2 Early opening to adapt a test paper

Before making the decision to modify test materials, schools should consider whether modified tests provided by STA would meet the needs of the pupil. Modified tests are primarily designed for pupils with visual impairments, although they may be suitable for pupils with other needs.

Schools may open test papers up to one hour before a test is due to start, to make adaptions or preparations, without seeking permission from STA. This flexibility is designed to help schools that need to:

• photocopy test papers onto coloured paper
• enhance diagrams
• enlarge text
• prepare a translator or signer
• prepare equipment

Schools do not need to make applications for early opening for subject-specific guidance and models, which are provided with the MLP and braille tests.

Schools are responsible for ensuring that any adaptations to the tests are done correctly. STA will not compensate or give special consideration where test papers have been incorrectly modified.

Opening test papers earlier than the date specified in the statutory test timetable or earlier than your approved early opening application by STA may lead to a maladministration investigation.

Applying for early opening (Monday 12 February to Friday 8 March)

If you need to open test papers (including modified test papers) more than one hour early to make complex adaptations, you must have an approved application for early opening. If you are planning to make the same adaptations for more than one pupil, and you require the same amount of time, you can include multiple pupils on the same application form.

STA will only allow schools to open standard test materials more than one school day before the scheduled test date, or modified materials more than two school days before the scheduled test date, in exceptional circumstances.

Appropriate reasons for an application include:

• preparations for MLP or braille versions of the tests, such as setting up visual scanning equipment or preparing tactile diagrams
• enlargement or adaptations of a test paper for a pupil with a visual impairment or other special educational needs or disabilities
• photocopying a test paper on to coloured paper
• communicators or sign language interpreters planning how they will present a test to pupils with a hearing impairment
• preparation of a written or oral translation of the mathematics test

The headteacher is responsible for ensuring the integrity, security and confidentiality of test materials. Only the headteacher, or the person making adaptations, should have access to test papers that have been opened early.

If a school submits an application for early opening for all test papers, requesting one school day early opening, where the application is approved, it will mean:

• English grammar, punctuation and spelling papers 1 and 2 could be opened on Friday 10 May
• English reading paper could be opened on Monday 13 May
• mathematics papers 1 and 2 could be opened on Tuesday 14 May
• mathematics paper 3 could be opened on Wednesday 15 May

Schools will be advised of the outcome of their application for early opening by Monday 8 April.

There is a step-by-step video tutorial on how to make an application for early opening on STA’s YouTube playlist:

How to make an application for early opening

2.3 Compensatory marks for spelling

Pupils with a profound hearing impairment and who do not lip-read or use a signing system, or can only use fingerspelling signing, may not be able to access the spelling paper of the English grammar, punctuation and spelling test even with the full range of access arrangements. Raw scores from both English grammar, punctuation and spelling papers are needed to give an overall scaled score. Awarding compensatory marks allows these pupils to receive an overall test outcome for the English grammar, punctuation and spelling test. Compensatory marks are based on the average raw score achieved by pupils who take the test.

Applying for compensatory marks (Monday 12 February to Monday 22 April)

When applying, you must confirm that the pupil:

• has a profound hearing impairment and is unable to access Paper 2: spelling
• will take Paper 1: questions

If the application is approved, the pupil should be marked absent (A) on the test attendance register for Paper 2: spelling. The pupil should still take Paper 1: questions. If the spelling paper is administered to a pupil who is unable to access the test, their script must be sent for marking. The pupil will be awarded a test outcome based on their achievements in the test and will not be eligible for compensatory marks.

There is a step-by-step video tutorial on how to make an application for compensatory marks for spelling on STA’s YouTube playlist:

Make an application for compensatory marks for spelling

3. Arrangements requiring a notification

Schools do not need to make applications for the following access arrangements, but they must notify STA about their use before submitting the ‘KS2 headteacher declaration form’ on the PAG .

At the end of each test, test administrators should inform the headteacher about:

• any pupils who used a scribe, transcript, word processor or other technical or electronic aid
• who acted as the scribe or transcriber, if applicable
• whether the aid was used for all or part of the test

Schools must submit ‘Notification of aid’ forms on the PAG from Monday 13 May to Friday 24 May.

Schools do not need to wait until all test scripts have been collected before submitting a notification of aid on the PAG .

Schools must not send copies of notification of aid forms, or any other correspondence with the test scripts, as this will slow down the marking process.

3.1 Scribes

A scribe is a writing assistant who writes out answers dictated by the pupil during the test. Schools can provide a scribe if other options to enable the pupil to work independently are not appropriate, and the use of a scribe reflects normal classroom practice.

A scribe can be used when a pupil is:

• unable to use a word processor
• unable to write or has difficulty writing
• known to experience fatigue

The scribe must:

• work at the pupil’s pace and not hurry them if they need time for reflection, rest or reading
• have a working knowledge of the subject
• follow the pupil’s instructions precisely to draw or add to diagrams, charts and graphs in the mathematics tests
• write precisely what the pupil instructs and only make a correction on a test script if asked to do so by the pupil

If a pupil is eligible for up to 25% additional time solely because they have difficulty writing, they may be given either the additional time or a scribe, but not both.

English grammar, punctuation and spelling

In Paper 1: questions, the scribe must pause for the pupil to dictate relevant spellings and all language, punctuation and phrasing must be the pupil’s own.

Correct spelling is required for questions assessing:

• contracted forms
• prefixes and suffixes

In Paper 2: spelling, the scribe must pause for each spelling to be dictated by the pupil.

English reading and mathematics

The scribe should not pause for the pupil to dictate spellings of words in the English reading and mathematics tests unless the pupil usually works in this way.

3.2 Transcribes

If it will be difficult for a marker to read the pupil’s writing, schools should make a transcript at the end of the test, but before the pupil leaves the test room. Schools can transcribe all or part of a pupil’s test script. If the marker can read the pupil’s writing, they will mark the original work.

When transcribing a pupil’s work, schools must:

• keep the pupil under test conditions and separate from the rest of the cohort until the transcript is complete
• use a different coloured pen from the pupil, but not red

transcribe alongside the pupil’s answers if only part of the test paper needs transcribing, not on the pupil’s work and return in the bag for modified scripts

• make extensive or full transcripts on a new test paper and return the pupil’s original test script with the transcript attached and return in the bag for modified scripts
• not change the pupil’s original answers, including the positioning of commas and decimal places in the mathematics tests
• ensure that the spelling reflects the pupil’s original answer

Braille test scripts should not be transcribed as STA will make appropriate marking arrangements.

3.3 Word processors or other technical or electronic aids

Pupils must use equipment, for example a screen reader, independently.

Schools must test the functionality of the equipment by using the previous KS2 practice materials . If equipment has functionality that would provide the pupil with an advantage and this cannot be turned off, the pupil must not use the equipment in the test. Schools may arrange for the test to be read to the pupil or for a scribe to record the pupil’s answers instead.

Schools should ensure that pupils regularly save their work. Pupils cannot restart a test, and STA will not compensate or give special consideration if any work is lost. Any partially completed test scripts must be sent for marking.

After the test, the pupil’s work should be printed and attached to their test script and returned in the bag for modified scripts. Schools should ensure that any test content is removed from the equipment.

English grammar, punctuation and spelling and mathematics

The equipment must not:

• read mathematical symbols in the mathematics test
• read punctuation in the English grammar, punctuation and spelling test
• have any spell-check, grammar check or predictive text functionality turned on

English reading

Word processors or other technical or electronic aids may be used to record pupils’ answers in the English reading test. They must not be used to provide reading support, other than to read the general instructions on page 3 of the reading answer booklet. For example, a screen reader should not be used in the English reading test.

There is a step-by-step video tutorial on how to make a notification of aid on STA’s YouTube playlist:

How to make a notification of aid

4. School-delegated arrangements

The following access arrangements may be used without prior approval, or the need to notify STA, providing they reflect normal classroom practice. Schools must have evidence to show that the pupil routinely receives this support in case of a monitoring visit.

Schools should note the name of the translator, reader or prompter used by each pupil in the tests for their own records.

4.1 Written or oral translations

STA does not provide translations of the tests, but schools can prepare written or oral translations of the mathematics tests to meet an individual pupil’s needs if a pupil is working at the standard of the mathematics tests.

If schools use an electronic or a web-based translation service to prepare a translation, they must ensure it is secure and any data or content placed there must not be shared with, or visible to, any other party. Schools are responsible for checking the security of translation services before use.

Mathematics

Translators should take care to ensure that any translation does not provide additional support or explanation of mathematical terms.

Pupils may write their responses in English or in their own language. If a pupil’s answers are not in English, the translator should make a transcript of the pupil’s answers into English after the test before the pupil leaves the test room. The pupil’s original test script must be attached to the translated test script and returned in the bag for modified scripts. Alternatively, pupils may answer orally and the translator can scribe the answers in English.

Written translations of the mathematics tests can be made one hour before the test is due to start. If it will take longer, schools must make an application for early opening.

Oral translations may be given by a translator at the time of the tests. Translators must work with pupils on a one-to-one basis. If several pupils require a translator but only one is available, the school should administer the test in multiple sittings or apply for a timetable variation to administer the test on a different day. Translators may want to review the test papers before the test is administered to check for any unfamiliar vocabulary.

If the translator acts as a scribe or makes a transcript, the headteacher must complete and submit the notification of aid form once the pupil has completed the test.

English grammar, punctuation and spelling and English reading

Translations can only be made to directions or instructions that are not part of the test questions. No help may be given with reading or understanding the questions or passages of text.

4.2 Readers

Pupils who have difficulty reading may be supported in the English grammar, punctuation and spelling and mathematics tests by having text read to them by a reading assistant. In most cases, these pupils will have a reading age that is considerably lower than their actual age. Readers must not be used by pupils who can read the test materials themselves.

Readers must be used on a one-to-one basis. Test administrators must consider the individual needs of the pupils to ensure they are not disadvantaged by the pace at which any text is read. If a pupil requests it, the reader may also read back any part of a pupil’s written response to a question.

• do not need to be specialists in the subject being tested
• must understand the test format
• must know what may or may not be read to a pupil in particular tests
• must understand any subject-specific issues that might occur
• may also act as a scribe if the pupil is not writing for themselves (see section 3.1)

If a pupil is eligible for up to 25% additional time solely because they have difficulty reading, they may be given either additional time or a reader, but not both.

The notes for readers in the English grammar, punctuation and spelling test give examples of how to read particular types of questions aloud to a pupil. Readers should ensure they understand the guidance so that they read each question type correctly, particularly for questions with multiple choice answers. This is so they do not give pupils an advantage by reading questions in a particular way.

As the English reading test is designed to allow pupils to demonstrate reading skills and comprehension, readers may only help pupils read the general instructions.

This includes information on the front cover of the test paper and any directions that are not part of the actual questions. For example, readers may say ‘Questions 1 to 15 are about The Panda Bear (pages 4 to 5)’. Readers must not read the texts, questions or any part of a pupil’s response back to the pupil. Specific instructions are included in the test pack.

A reader may help a pupil to read the mathematics tests. They may:

• clarify instructions, as long as no additional information is given which could give the pupil an advantage
• read, but not clarify, subject-specific vocabulary

If a mathematics question is read to a pupil, the reader may read words and numbers, but not mathematical symbols. This is so the function of a mathematical symbol is not inadvertently explained by reading its name.

Further instructions will be given in the test administration instructions, as appropriate, if there are certain questions that need specific guidance in terms of what can and cannot be read.

4.3 Rest breaks

Most pupils should be able to complete the tests without a break. However, supervised rest breaks may be appropriate for pupils who find it difficult to concentrate or experience fatigue. Rest breaks may also be beneficial to pupils using modified versions of the tests.

Schools must supervise pupils and keep them under test conditions during the rest break. There must be no contact with pupils who have taken the test and no opportunity to discuss test content.

Pupils using rest breaks should be given the same overall time as the rest of the cohort. Schools may want to split a test into sections for pupils who are known to need a rest break. If a school decides to split a test, they should:

• divide the test into sections, or plan when the pupil will have a break, during the hour before it is due to start
• keep the questions in the same order
• give the pupil an opportunity to attempt all parts of a paper, so that the outcome of the test accurately reflects their knowledge and understanding

For the English reading test, schools might want to consider stopping the test for a rest break once the pupil has completed each passage of text and answered the questions related to that text.

The test must be completed on the same day that it was started. Any partially completed tests must be sent for marking.

4.4 Keeping pupils focussed

A pupil who is unable to focus independently, or who loses concentration easily, may be supported by someone known to them who can keep them on task. They will keep the pupil’s attention on the test paper but not help them answer any questions. They may tap on the desk or say the pupil’s name, depending on what is normal classroom practice, to remind the pupil to focus on the question they are working on.

To enable pupils to stay focussed you should:

• agree the best way to focus the pupil before the test begins (this includes ways to draw the pupil’s attention back to the task)
• be known to the pupil
• support the pupil on a one-to-one basis

You must not:

• do anything that could be interpreted as over-aiding the pupil
• advise the pupil which questions to answer or when to move on to the next question
• advise or guide the pupil about the order in which they should attempt the questions

If a pupil finds it difficult to focus on individual questions, schools could use adhesive notes or stickers to cover other questions on the page. In these circumstances, the whole question the pupil is working on should remain uncovered until the pupil indicates when they want to move on.

4.5 Accessibility objects in the mathematics test

If a pupil is known to have difficulty accessing two-dimensional diagrams, schools may show them real objects that look like those illustrated in the mathematics test, so they understand the context of the question.

Number apparatus, counters or number squares must not be used.

Schools must not explain any subject-specific terminology. If any context or words related to a question are unfamiliar to a pupil, you may show them related objects or pictures, or describe the context. Test administrators may indicate on the test papers where real objects are available for pupils to look at.

The arrangement must reflect normal classroom practice. Schools may consider making use of early opening arrangements (see section 2.2).

4.6 Squared paper

Mathematics test papers include space for working out, with gridlines included where these are useful to pupils. STA discourages the use of additional squared paper, as pupils may lose marks if they make an error or omission when they transfer their working to the test paper.

However, if using squared paper is part of normal classroom practice, it can be used as an access arrangement and must be attached to the pupil’s test script. If squared paper is used, ensure the pupil’s name, school’s name and school’s DfE number are written on the additional paper and returned in the bag for modified scripts.

4.7 Highlighter pens

Pupils may highlight passages of text, in any of the tests, provided this reflects normal classroom practice. Pupils must not write their answers with a highlighter pen. Test administrators should not:

• highlight text, unless instructed by the pupil
• draw the pupil’s attention to the correct response

4.8 Administering the tests at an alternative location

Schools can administer the tests at an alternative location to the rest of the cohort away from the school. This may include administering at a pupil referral unit or the pupil’s home, as long as the pupil is in a fit state.

The headteacher is responsible for ensuring that the integrity, security and confidentiality of the tests is maintained, including the transporting of test papers to and from the alternative location and the tests are administered according to the test administration guidance .

If schools need specific advice or additional information on administering the tests at an alternative location, they should contact STA using the ‘Message us – access arrangements’ form on the PAG .

5. Illness or injury at the time of the tests

Schools should not administer a test to a pupil who is ill. If a pupil is not fit to take the test, the school should consider applying for a timetable variation for permission to administer the test on another day. Pupils who were ill while taking a test will not qualify for special consideration.

If a pupil becomes ill during a test, the school should stop the test and make a note of the time. The pupil can be given a supervised rest break in school and can continue the test with the remaining amount of time when they are feeling better. If the pupil is not able to continue, or is sent home, the partially completed test script must be sent for marking. If the pupil leaves the school premises, they will have left test conditions and must not be allowed to continue or restart the test when they return to school.

If the pupil sustains an injury that impacts their ability to write, they may use a scribe. If the injury occurred within one week of the tests, the school may also allow up to 25% additional time because the pupil is unfamiliar working with a scribe. In these situations, an application for additional time is not required, but the school should be prepared to explain their arrangements in case of a monitoring visit. If the pupil is already familiar with working with a scribe, additional time must not be given. The scribe must follow the guidance in section 3.1 and the school must submit a notification of aid form on the PAG .

6. Further information

6.1 modified tests.

Full details about which modified tests are available are included in the KS2 assessment and reporting arrangements (ARA) .

6.2 Help and support

There are step-by-step video guides on how to apply and notify STA of your pupil’s access arrangements on STA’s YouTube playlist .

Instructions on packing test scripts for marking are provided in the guidance for returning test scripts .

For general enquiries about access arrangements, contact the national curriculum assessments helpline on 0300 303 3013 or email [email protected] .

For enquiries relating to KS2 access arrangements to meet a pupil’s specific needs, schools can use the ‘Message us – access arrangements’ form which can be found on the PAG .

Is this page useful?

• Yes this page is useful
• No this page is not useful

Help us improve GOV.UK

Don’t include personal or financial information like your National Insurance number or credit card details.

To help us improve GOV.UK, we’d like to know more about your visit today. Please fill in this survey .

Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

Read our research on:

Full Topic List

Regions & Countries

• Publications
• Our Methods
• Short Reads
• Tools & Resources

Read Our Research On:

Changing Partisan Coalitions in a Politically Divided Nation

5. party identification among religious groups and religiously unaffiliated voters, table of contents.

• What this report tells us – and what it doesn’t
• Partisans and partisan leaners in the U.S. electorate
• Party identification and ideology
• Education and partisanship
• Education, race and partisanship
• Partisanship by race and gender
• Partisanship across educational and gender groups by race and ethnicity
• Gender and partisanship
• Parents are more Republican than voters without children
• Partisanship among men and women within age groups
• Race, age and partisanship
• The partisanship of generational cohorts
• Religion, race and ethnicity, and partisanship
• Party identification among atheists, agnostics and ‘nothing in particular’
• Partisanship and religious service attendance
• Partisanship by income groups
• The relationship between income and partisanship differs by education
• Union members remain more Democratic than Republican
• Homeowners are more Republican than renters
• Partisanship of military veterans
• Demographic differences in partisanship by community type
• Race and ethnicity
• Age and the U.S. electorate
• Education by race and ethnicity
• Religious affiliation
• Ideological composition of voters
• Acknowledgments
• Overview of survey methodologies
• The 2023 American Trends Panel profile survey methodology
• Measuring party identification across survey modes
• Adjusting telephone survey trends
• Appendix B: Religious category definitions
• Appendix C: Age cohort definitions

The relationship between partisanship and voters’ religious affiliation continues to be strong – especially when it comes to whether they belong to any organized religion at all.

The gap between voters who identify with an organized religion and those who do not has grown much wider in recent years.

Protestants mostly align with the Republican Party. Protestants remain the largest single religious group in the United States. As they have for most of the past 15 years, a majority of Protestant registered voters (59%) associate with the GOP, though as recently as 2009 they were split nearly equally between the two parties.

Partisan identity among Catholics had been closely divided, but the GOP now has a modest advantage among Catholics. About half of Catholic voters identify as Republicans or lean toward the Republican Party, compared with 44% who identify as Democrats or lean Democratic.

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints remain overwhelmingly Republican. Three-quarters of voters in this group, widely known as Mormons, identify as Republicans or lean Republican. Only about a quarter (23%) associate with the Democratic Party.

Jewish voters continue to mostly align with the Democrats. About seven-in-ten Jewish voters (69%) associate with the Democratic Party, while 29% affiliate with the Republican Party. The share of Jewish voters who align with the Democrats has increased 8 percentage points since 2020.

Muslims associate with Democrats over Republicans by a wide margin. Currently, 66% of Muslim voters say they are Democrats or independents who lean Democratic, compared with 32% who are Republicans or lean Republican. (Data for Muslim voters is not available for earlier years because of small sample sizes.)

Democrats maintain a wide advantage among religiously unaffiliated voters. Religious “nones” have become more Democratic over the past few decades as their size in the U.S. population overall and in the electorate has grown significantly. While 70% of religiously unaffiliated voters align with the Democratic Party, just 27% identify as Republicans or lean Republican.

Related: Religious “nones” in America: Who they are and what they believe

Over the past few decades, White evangelical Protestant voters have moved increasingly toward the GOP.

• Today, 85% of White evangelical voters identify with or lean toward the GOP; just 14% align with the Democrats.

• Over the past three decades, there has been a 20 percentage point rise in the share of White evangelicals who associate with the GOP – and a 20-point decline in the share identifying as or leaning Democratic. 

Over the past 15 years, the GOP also has made gains among White nonevangelical and White Catholic voters.

About six-in-ten White nonevangelicals (58%) and White Catholics (61%) align with the GOP.    Voters in both groups were equally divided between the two parties in 2009.

Partisanship among Hispanic voters varies widely among Catholics and Protestants.

• 60% of Hispanic Catholic voters identify as Democrats or lean Democratic, but that share has declined over the past 15 years.
• Hispanic Protestant voters are evenly divided: 49% associate with the Republican Party, while 45% identify as Democrats or lean Democratic.

A large majority of Black Protestants identify with the Democrats (84%), but that share is down 9 points from where it was 15 years ago (93%).

Atheists and agnostics, who make up relatively small shares of all religiously unaffiliated voters, are heavily Democratic.

Among those who identify their religion as “nothing in particular” – and who comprise a majority of all religious “nones” – Democrats hold a smaller advantage in party identification.

• More than eight-in-ten atheists (84%) align with the Democratic Party, as do 78% of agnostics.
• 62% of voters who describe themselves as “nothing in particular” identify as Democrats or lean Democratic, while 34% align with the GOP.

Voters who regularly attend religious services are more likely to identify with or lean toward the Republican Party than voters who attend less regularly.

In 2023, 62% of registered voters who attended religious services once a month or more aligned with Republicans, compared with 41% of those who attend services less often.

This pattern has been evident for many years. However, the share of voters who identify as Republicans or lean Republican has edged up in recent years.

For White, Hispanic and Asian voters, regular attendance at religious services is linked to an increase in association with the Republican Party.

However, this is not the case among Black voters.

Only about one-in-ten Black voters who are regular attenders (13%) and a similar share (11%) of those who attend less often identify as Republicans or Republican leaners.

Higher GOP association among regular attenders of religious services is seen across most denominations.

For example, among Catholic voters who attend services monthly or more often, 61% identify as Republicans or lean toward the Republican Party.

Among less frequent attenders, 47% align with the GOP.

Black Protestants are an exception to this pattern: Black Protestant voters who attend religious services monthly or more often are no more likely to associate with the Republican Party than less frequent attenders.

Sign up for our weekly newsletter

Fresh data delivery Saturday mornings

Sign up for The Briefing

Weekly updates on the world of news & information

• Education & Politics
• Election 2024
• Gender & Politics
• Political Parties
• Race, Ethnicity & Politics
• Religion & Politics
• Rural, Urban and Suburban Communities
• Voter Demographics

In Tight Presidential Race, Voters Are Broadly Critical of Both Biden and Trump

Key facts about hispanic eligible voters in 2024, key facts about black eligible voters in 2024, key facts about asian american eligible voters in 2024, republican gains in 2022 midterms driven mostly by turnout advantage, most popular, report materials.

• Party Identification Detailed Tables, 1994-2023

1615 L St. NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036 USA (+1) 202-419-4300 | Main (+1) 202-857-8562 | Fax (+1) 202-419-4372 |  Media Inquiries

Research Topics

• Age & Generations
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Economy & Work
• Family & Relationships
• Gender & LGBTQ
• Immigration & Migration
• International Affairs
• Internet & Technology
• Methodological Research
• News Habits & Media
• Non-U.S. Governments
• Other Topics
• Politics & Policy
• Race & Ethnicity
• Email Newsletters

ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of  The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Copyright 2024 Pew Research Center

Terms & Conditions

Privacy Policy

Cookie Settings

Reprints, Permissions & Use Policy

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

The Loneliness Curve

New research suggests people tend to be lonelier in young adulthood and late life. But experts say it doesn’t have to be that way.

By Christina Caron

When Surgeon General Vivek Murthy went on a nationwide college tour last fall, he started to hear the same kind of question time and again: How are we supposed to connect with one another when nobody talks anymore?

In an age when participation in community organizations , clubs and religious groups has declined, and more social interaction is happening online instead of in person, some young people are reporting levels of loneliness that, in past decades, were typically associated with older adults.

It’s one of the many reasons loneliness has become a problem at both the beginning and end of our life span. In a study published last Tuesday in the journal Psychological Science, researchers found that loneliness follows a U-shaped curve: Starting from young adulthood, self-reported loneliness tends to decline as people approach midlife only to rise again after the age of 60, becoming especially pronounced by around age 80.

While anyone can experience loneliness, including middle-aged adults , people in midlife may feel more socially connected than other age groups because they are often interacting with co-workers, a spouse, children and others in their community — and these relationships may feel stable and satisfying, said Eileen K. Graham, an associate professor of medical social sciences at the Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and the lead author of the study.

As people get older, those opportunities can “start to fall away,” she said. In the study, which looked at data waves spanning several decades, starting as early as the 1980s and ending as late as 2018, participants at either end of the age spectrum were more likely to agree with statements such as: “I miss having people around me” or “My social relationships are superficial.”

“We have social muscles just like we have physical muscles,” Dr. Murthy said. “And those social muscles weaken when we don’t use them.”

When loneliness goes unchecked, it can be dangerous to our physical and mental health, and has been linked to problems like heart disease, dementia and suicidal ideation.

Dr. Graham and other experts on social connection said there were small steps we could take at any age to cultivate a sense of belonging and social connection.

Do a relationship audit.

“Don’t wait until old age to discover that you lack a good-quality social network,” said Louise Hawkley, a research scientist who studies loneliness at NORC, a social research organization at the University of Chicago . “The longer you wait, the harder it gets to form new connections.”

Studies suggest that most people benefit from having a minimum of four to six close relationships, said Julianne Holt-Lunstad, a professor of psychology and neuroscience and the director of the Social Connection and Health Lab at Brigham Young University.

But it’s not just the quantity that matters, she added, it’s also the variety and the quality.

“Different relationships can fulfill different kinds of needs,” Dr. Holt-Lunstad said. “Just like you need a variety of foods to get a variety of nutrients, you need a variety of types of people in your life.”

Ask yourself: Are you able to rely on and support the people in your life? And are your relationships mostly positive rather than negative?

If so, it’s a sign that those relationships are beneficial to your mental and physical well-being, she said.

Join a group.

Research has shown that poor health, living alone and having fewer close family and friends account for the increase in loneliness after about age 75.

But isolation isn’t the only thing that contributes to loneliness — in people both young and old, loneliness stems from a disconnect between what you want or expect from your relationships and what those relationships are providing.

If your network is shrinking — or if you feel unsatisfied with your relationships — seek new connections by joining a community group, participating in a social sports league or volunteering , which can provide a sense of meaning and purpose, Dr. Hawkley said.

And if one type of volunteering is not satisfying, do not give up, she added. Instead try another type.

Participating in organizations that interest you can offer a sense of belonging and is one way to accelerate the process of connecting in person with like-minded people.

Cut back on social media.

Jean Twenge, a social psychologist and the author of “Generations,” found in her research that heavy social media use is linked to poor mental health — especially among girls — and that smartphone access and internet use “ increased in lock step with teenage loneliness .”

Instead of defaulting to an online conversation or merely a reaction to someone’s post, you can suggest bonding over a meal — no phones allowed.

And if a text or social media interaction is getting long or involved, move to real-time conversation by texting, “Can I give you a quick call?” Dr. Twenge said.

Finally, Dr. Holt-Lunstad suggested asking a friend or family member to go on a walk instead of corresponding online. Not only is taking a stroll free, it also has the added benefit of providing fresh air and exercise.

Take the initiative.

“Oftentimes when people feel lonely, they may be waiting for someone else to reach out to them,” Dr. Holt-Lunstad said. “It can feel really hard to ask for help or even just to initiate a social interaction. You feel very vulnerable. What if they say no?”

Some people might feel more comfortable contacting others with an offer to help, she added, because it helps you focus “outward instead of inward.”

Small acts of kindness will not only maintain but also solidify your relationships, the experts said.

For example, if you like to cook, offer to drop off food for a friend or family member, Dr. Twenge said.

“You’ll not only strengthen a social connection but get the mood boost that comes from helping,” she added.

Christina Caron is a Times reporter covering mental health. More about Christina Caron

Managing Anxiety and Stress

Stay balanced in the face of stress and anxiety with our collection of tools and advice..

How are you, really? This self-guided check-in will help you take stock of your emotional well-being — and learn how to make changes .

These simple and proven strategies will help you manage stress , support your mental health and find meaning in the new year.

First, bring calm and clarity into your life with these 10 tips . Next, identify what you are dealing with: Is it worry, anxiety or stress ?

Persistent depressive disorder is underdiagnosed, and many who suffer from it have never heard of it. Here is what to know .

If you notice drastic shifts in your mood during certain times of the year, you could have seasonal affective disorder. Here are answers to your top questions about the condition .

How much anxiety is too much? Here is how to establish whether you should see a professional about it .