fill in the blank. a research abstract should range from

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An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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Module 8: APA Citations

Apa abstract page.

The abstract acts as the second major section of the document and typically begins on the second page of the paper. It follows directly after the title page and precedes the main body of the paper.

The abstract is a succinct, single-paragraph summary of your paper’s purpose, main points, method, findings, and conclusions, and is often recommended to be written after the rest of your paper has been completed.

General Format

How should the abstract page be formatted.

The abstract’s length should be a minimum of 150 words and a maximum of 250 words; it should be confined within a single paragraph. Unlike in other paragraphs in the paper, the first line of the abstract should not be indented five spaces from the left margin.

Like the rest of the paper, the pages of the abstract should be double-spaced and typed in Times New Roman, 12 pt. The margins are set at 1” on all sides. While the running head is flush with the upper left-hand corner of every page, the page number is flush with the upper right-hand corner of every page. Note that all letters of the running head should be capitalized and should not exceed 50 characters, including punctuation, letters, and spaces.

The title of the abstract is centered at the top of the page; there is no extra space between the title and the paragraph. Avoid formatting the title with bold, italics, underlining, or quotation marks, or mislabeling the abstract with the title of the research paper.

When writing the abstract, note that the APA recommends using two spaces after sentences that end in a period; however, sentences that end in other punctuation marks may be followed by a single space. Additionally, the APA recommends using the active voice and past tense in the abstract, but the present tense may be used to describe conclusions and implications. Acronyms or abbreviated words should be defined in the abstract.

How should the list of keywords be formatted?

According to your professor’s directives, you may be required to include a short list of keywords to enable researchers and databases to locate your paper more effectively. The list of keywords should follow after the abstract paragraph, and the word Keywords should be italicized, indented five spaces from the left margin, and followed by a colon. There is no period at the end of the list of keywords.

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Abstracts - A Guide to Writing

What is an abstract.

Abstracts act as concise surrogates or representations of research projects. Abstracts precede papers in research journals and appear in programs of scholarly conferences. They should be brief, concise, and use clear language. A researcher reading an abstract should have a clear idea of what the research project is about after reading an abstract. 

Abstracts allow readers to grasp the purpose and major ideas of a paper, poster, or presentation. A great abstract will be packed with information on the research project and will let other researchers know whether reading the entire paper or attending a presentation is worthwhile.

Why write an abstract?

Abstracts often serve as the advertisement of a research project. They allow readers to quickly scan a small amount of text and to make a decision as to whether the work will satisfy their information needs. If a researcher is interested, he or she will continue on to read the entire document or attend the session.

Many online databases use abstracts to index larger research projects. Using keywords from your research project in your abstract will ensure your project is easily searched.

Types of abstracts

Different academic disciplines have different research methods and requirements.  For example, social sciences or hard science abstracts will typically include the parts of a research experiment; whereas abstracts in the humanities will often discuss the hypothesis being investigated and the conclusion.  Conferences and journals may have specific requirements for abstract submissions, so be sure to review the requirements prior to writing an abstract for your project.

Informative abstracts

Informative abstracts are generally used for documents pertaining to experimental investigations, inquiries, or surveys. The original document is condensed reflecting its form and content and provides quantitative and qualitative information.

Informative Example

Daidzic, N. E. (2015). Efficient general computational method for estimation of standard atmosphere parameters.  International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace, 2 (1).  https://doi.org/10.15394/ijaaa.2015.1053

Knowledge of standard air temperature, pressure, density, speed of sound, and viscosity as a function of altitude is essential information in aircraft design, performance testing, pressure altimeter calibration, and several other aeronautical engineering and aviation science applications. A new efficient computational method for rapid calculations of standard atmospheric parameters up to 86 orthometric km is presented. Additionally, mass and weight of each standard atmospheric layer were calculated using a numerical integration method. The sum of all fractional masses and weights represents the total mass and weight of Earth’s atmosphere. The results obtained here agree well with measurements and models of the real atmosphere. Various ISA scale heights were estimated from numerical integration of atmospheric masses and weights. The nature of the geopotential and the orthometric heights and the definition of MSL have been explained. Essential thermodynamic considerations of still and dry air were highlighted. In addition to general working equations for air pressure and density vertical distribution for each atmospheric layer an extensive table of calculated values up to 86 km has been provided in appendix. Several models of air viscosity were also compared. It was found that simple Granger’s model agrees well with the widely accepted Sutherland-type viscosity equation. All computations were performed with the fourteen significant-digits accuracy although only seven significant digits were typically presented in tables.

Indicative abstracts

Indicative abstracts simply describe what the research project is about.

Indicative Example

Porter, L. (2014). Benedict Cumberbatch, transition completed: Films, fame, fans . MX Publishing. Abstract retrieved from https://works.bepress.com/lynnette_porter/3/

Star Trek: Into Darkness, The Fifth Estate, 12 Years a Slave, August: Osage County, The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug—these would be milestones in most actors’ entire career. For Benedict Cumberbatch, roles in these films are merely a year’s additions to his already-vast resume. 2013 proved to be the final step in Cumberbatch’s transition from respected working actor to bona fide worldwide celebrity and recipient of BAFTA Los Angeles’ Britannia Award for British Artist of the Year. Like its predecessor, Benedict Cumberbatch, In Transition (MX Publishing, 2013), Benedict Cumberbatch, Transition Completed: Films, Fame, Fans explores the nature of Cumberbatch’s fame and fandom while analysing his most recent roles. This in-depth performance biography does more than critique the actor’s radio, stage, film, and television performances—especially his star turn in the long-awaited yet controversial third series of Sherlock. It also analyses how and why the actor’s work is so memorable in each role, a perspective unique to this performance biography. Cumberbatch’s role in popular culture, as much as his acting in multiple media, is well worth such scrutiny to illustrate that Benedict Cumberbatch represents both the best of acting and of the power of celebrity.

Best practices

Additional resources.

• Eagle Writer ​​​​Eagle Writer is a writing and research resource you can use throughout your time at ERAU. The skills discussed here will help you write at the college level, which is applicable to courses across the university.
• Virtual Communication Lab (VCL) The Virtual Communication Lab offers free tutoring, workshops, and online resources to support students with speech and writing help.

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• How to Write an Abstract

Expedite peer review, increase search-ability, and set the tone for your study

The abstract is your chance to let your readers know what they can expect from your article. Learn how to write a clear, and concise abstract that will keep your audience reading.

How your abstract impacts editorial evaluation and future readership

After the title , the abstract is the second-most-read part of your article. A good abstract can help to expedite peer review and, if your article is accepted for publication, it’s an important tool for readers to find and evaluate your work. Editors use your abstract when they first assess your article. Prospective reviewers see it when they decide whether to accept an invitation to review. Once published, the abstract gets indexed in PubMed and Google Scholar , as well as library systems and other popular databases. Like the title, your abstract influences keyword search results. Readers will use it to decide whether to read the rest of your article. Other researchers will use it to evaluate your work for inclusion in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It should be a concise standalone piece that accurately represents your research. 

What to include in an abstract

The main challenge you’ll face when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND fitting in all the information you need. Depending on your subject area the journal may require a structured abstract following specific headings. A structured abstract helps your readers understand your study more easily. If your journal doesn’t require a structured abstract it’s still a good idea to follow a similar format, just present the abstract as one paragraph without headings. 

Background or Introduction – What is currently known? Start with a brief, 2 or 3 sentence, introduction to the research area. 

Objectives or Aims – What is the study and why did you do it? Clearly state the research question you’re trying to answer.

Methods – What did you do? Explain what you did and how you did it. Include important information about your methods, but avoid the low-level specifics. Some disciplines have specific requirements for abstract methods. 

• CONSORT for randomized trials.
• STROBE for observational studies
• PRISMA for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Results – What did you find? Briefly give the key findings of your study. Include key numeric data (including confidence intervals or p values), where possible.

Conclusions – What did you conclude? Tell the reader why your findings matter, and what this could mean for the ‘bigger picture’ of this area of research. 

Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your abstract is keeping it concise AND convering all the information you need to.

• Keep it concise and to the point. Most journals have a maximum word count, so check guidelines before you write the abstract to save time editing it later.
• Write for your audience. Are they specialists in your specific field? Are they cross-disciplinary? Are they non-specialists? If you’re writing for a general audience, or your research could be of interest to the public keep your language as straightforward as possible. If you’re writing in English, do remember that not all of your readers will necessarily be native English speakers.
• Focus on key results, conclusions and take home messages.
• Write your paper first, then create the abstract as a summary.
• Check the journal requirements before you write your abstract, eg. required subheadings.
• Include keywords or phrases to help readers search for your work in indexing databases like PubMed or Google Scholar.
• Double and triple check your abstract for spelling and grammar errors. These kind of errors can give potential reviewers the impression that your research isn’t sound, and can make it easier to find reviewers who accept the invitation to review your manuscript. Your abstract should be a taste of what is to come in the rest of your article.

Don’t

• Sensationalize your research.
• Speculate about where this research might lead in the future.
• Use abbreviations or acronyms (unless absolutely necessary or unless they’re widely known, eg. DNA).
• Repeat yourself unnecessarily, eg. “Methods: We used X technique. Results: Using X technique, we found…”
• Contradict anything in the rest of your manuscript.
• Include content that isn’t also covered in the main manuscript.
• Include citations or references.

Tip: How to edit your work

Editing is challenging, especially if you are acting as both a writer and an editor. Read our guidelines for advice on how to refine your work, including useful tips for setting your intentions, re-review, and consultation with colleagues.

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
• How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

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How to Write an Abstract

How to write an abstract for a conference, what is an abstract and why is it important, an abstract is a brief summary of your research or creative project, usually about a paragraph long (250-350 words), and is written when you are ready to present your research or included in a thesis or research publication..

For additional support in writing your abstract, you can contact the Office of URSA at [email protected]  or schedule a time to meet with a Writing and Research Consultant at the OSU Writing Center 

Main Components of an Abstract: 

The opening sentences should summarize your topic and describe what researchers already know, with reference to the literature. 

A brief discussion that clearly states the purpose of your research or creative project. This should give general background information on your work and allow people from different fields to understand what you are talking about. Use verbs like investigate, analyze, test, etc. to describe how you began your work. 

In this section you will be discussing the ways in which your research was performed and the type of tools or methodological techniques you used to conduct your research. 

This is where you describe the main findings of your research study and what you have learned. Try to include only the most important findings of your research that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions. If you have not completed the project, talk about your anticipated results and what you expect the outcomes of the study to be. 

Significance

This is the final section of your abstract where you summarize the work performed. This is where you also discuss the relevance of your work and how it advances your field and the scientific field in general.

• Your word count for a conference may be limited, so make your abstract as clear and concise as possible.
• Organize it by using good transition words found on the lef so the information flows well.
• Have your abstract proofread and receive feedback from your supervisor, advisor, peers, writing center, or other professors from different disciplines. 
• Double-check on the guidelines for your abstract and adhere to any formatting or word count requirements.
• Do not include bibliographic references or footnotes. 
• Avoid the overuse of technical terms or jargon. 

Feeling stuck? Visit the OSU ScholarsArchive for more abstract examples related to your field

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Abstract Writing: A Step-by-Step Guide With Tips & Examples

Table of Contents

Introduction

Abstracts of research papers have always played an essential role in describing your research concisely and clearly to researchers and editors of journals, enticing them to continue reading. However, with the widespread availability of scientific databases, the need to write a convincing abstract is more crucial now than during the time of paper-bound manuscripts.

Abstracts serve to "sell" your research and can be compared with your "executive outline" of a resume or, rather, a formal summary of the critical aspects of your work. Also, it can be the "gist" of your study. Since most educational research is done online, it's a sign that you have a shorter time for impressing your readers, and have more competition from other abstracts that are available to be read.

The APCI (Academic Publishing and Conferences International) articulates 12 issues or points considered during the final approval process for conferences & journals and emphasises the importance of writing an abstract that checks all these boxes (12 points). Since it's the only opportunity you have to captivate your readers, you must invest time and effort in creating an abstract that accurately reflects the critical points of your research.

With that in mind, let’s head over to understand and discover the core concept and guidelines to create a substantial abstract. Also, learn how to organise the ideas or plots into an effective abstract that will be awe-inspiring to the readers you want to reach.

What is Abstract? Definition and Overview

The word "Abstract' is derived from Latin abstractus meaning "drawn off." This etymological meaning also applies to art movements as well as music, like abstract expressionism. In this context, it refers to the revealing of the artist's intention.

Based on this, you can determine the meaning of an abstract: A condensed research summary. It must be self-contained and independent of the body of the research. However, it should outline the subject, the strategies used to study the problem, and the methods implemented to attain the outcomes. The specific elements of the study differ based on the area of study; however, together, it must be a succinct summary of the entire research paper.

Abstracts are typically written at the end of the paper, even though it serves as a prologue. In general, the abstract must be in a position to:

• Describe the paper.
• Identify the problem or the issue at hand.
• Explain to the reader the research process, the results you came up with, and what conclusion you've reached using these results.
• Include keywords to guide your strategy and the content.

Furthermore, the abstract you submit should not reflect upon any of  the following elements:

• Examine, analyse or defend the paper or your opinion.
• What you want to study, achieve or discover.
• Be redundant or irrelevant.

After reading an abstract, your audience should understand the reason - what the research was about in the first place, what the study has revealed and how it can be utilised or can be used to benefit others. You can understand the importance of abstract by knowing the fact that the abstract is the most frequently read portion of any research paper. In simpler terms, it should contain all the main points of the research paper.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

Abstracts are typically an essential requirement for research papers; however, it's not an obligation to preserve traditional reasons without any purpose. Abstracts allow readers to scan the text to determine whether it is relevant to their research or studies. The abstract allows other researchers to decide if your research paper can provide them with some additional information. A good abstract paves the interest of the audience to pore through your entire paper to find the content or context they're searching for.

Abstract writing is essential for indexing, as well. The Digital Repository of academic papers makes use of abstracts to index the entire content of academic research papers. Like meta descriptions in the regular Google outcomes, abstracts must include keywords that help researchers locate what they seek.

Types of Abstract

Informative and Descriptive are two kinds of abstracts often used in scientific writing.

A descriptive abstract gives readers an outline of the author's main points in their study. The reader can determine if they want to stick to the research work, based on their interest in the topic. An abstract that is descriptive is similar to the contents table of books, however, the format of an abstract depicts complete sentences encapsulated in one paragraph. It is unfortunate that the abstract can't be used as a substitute for reading a piece of writing because it's just an overview, which omits readers from getting an entire view. Also, it cannot be a way to fill in the gaps the reader may have after reading this kind of abstract since it does not contain crucial information needed to evaluate the article.

To conclude, a descriptive abstract is:

• A simple summary of the task, just summarises the work, but some researchers think it is much more of an outline
• Typically, the length is approximately 100 words. It is too short when compared to an informative abstract.
• A brief explanation but doesn't provide the reader with the complete information they need;
• An overview that omits conclusions and results

An informative abstract is a comprehensive outline of the research. There are times when people rely on the abstract as an information source. And the reason is why it is crucial to provide entire data of particular research. A well-written, informative abstract could be a good substitute for the remainder of the paper on its own.

A well-written abstract typically follows a particular style. The author begins by providing the identifying information, backed by citations and other identifiers of the papers. Then, the major elements are summarised to make the reader aware of the study. It is followed by the methodology and all-important findings from the study. The conclusion then presents study results and ends the abstract with a comprehensive summary.

In a nutshell, an informative abstract:

• Has a length that can vary, based on the subject, but is not longer than 300 words.
• Contains all the content-like methods and intentions
• Offers evidence and possible recommendations.

Informative Abstracts are more frequent than descriptive abstracts because of their extensive content and linkage to the topic specifically. You should select different types of abstracts to papers based on their length: informative abstracts for extended and more complex abstracts and descriptive ones for simpler and shorter research papers.

What are the Characteristics of a Good Abstract?

• A good abstract clearly defines the goals and purposes of the study.
• It should clearly describe the research methodology with a primary focus on data gathering, processing, and subsequent analysis.
• A good abstract should provide specific research findings.
• It presents the principal conclusions of the systematic study.
• It should be concise, clear, and relevant to the field of study.
• A well-designed abstract should be unifying and coherent.
• It is easy to grasp and free of technical jargon.
• It is written impartially and objectively.

What are the various sections of an ideal Abstract?

By now, you must have gained some concrete idea of the essential elements that your abstract needs to convey . Accordingly, the information is broken down into six key sections of the abstract, which include:

An Introduction or Background

Research methodology, objectives and goals, limitations.

Let's go over them in detail.

The introduction, also known as background, is the most concise part of your abstract. Ideally, it comprises a couple of sentences. Some researchers only write one sentence to introduce their abstract. The idea behind this is to guide readers through the key factors that led to your study.

It's understandable that this information might seem difficult to explain in a couple of sentences. For example, think about the following two questions like the background of your study:

• What is currently available about the subject with respect to the paper being discussed?
• What isn't understood about this issue? (This is the subject of your research)

While writing the abstract’s introduction, make sure that it is not lengthy. Because if it crosses the word limit, it may eat up the words meant to be used for providing other key information.

Research methodology is where you describe the theories and techniques you used in your research. It is recommended that you describe what you have done and the method you used to get your thorough investigation results. Certainly, it is the second-longest paragraph in the abstract.

In the research methodology section, it is essential to mention the kind of research you conducted; for instance, qualitative research or quantitative research (this will guide your research methodology too) . If you've conducted quantitative research, your abstract should contain information like the sample size, data collection method, sampling techniques, and duration of the study. Likewise, your abstract should reflect observational data, opinions, questionnaires (especially the non-numerical data) if you work on qualitative research.

The research objectives and goals speak about what you intend to accomplish with your research. The majority of research projects focus on the long-term effects of a project, and the goals focus on the immediate, short-term outcomes of the research. It is possible to summarise both in just multiple sentences.

In stating your objectives and goals, you give readers a picture of the scope of the study, its depth and the direction your research ultimately follows. Your readers can evaluate the results of your research against the goals and stated objectives to determine if you have achieved the goal of your research.

In the end, your readers are more attracted by the results you've obtained through your study. Therefore, you must take the time to explain each relevant result and explain how they impact your research. The results section exists as the longest in your abstract, and nothing should diminish its reach or quality.

One of the most important things you should adhere to is to spell out details and figures on the results of your research.

Instead of making a vague assertion such as, "We noticed that response rates varied greatly between respondents with high incomes and those with low incomes", Try these: "The response rate was higher for high-income respondents than those with lower incomes (59 30 percent vs. 30 percent in both cases; P<0.01)."

You're likely to encounter certain obstacles during your research. It could have been during data collection or even during conducting the sample . Whatever the issue, it's essential to inform your readers about them and their effects on the research.

Research limitations offer an opportunity to suggest further and deep research. If, for instance, you were forced to change for convenient sampling and snowball samples because of difficulties in reaching well-suited research participants, then you should mention this reason when you write your research abstract. In addition, a lack of prior studies on the subject could hinder your research.

Your conclusion should include the same number of sentences to wrap the abstract as the introduction. The majority of researchers offer an idea of the consequences of their research in this case.

Your conclusion should include three essential components:

• A significant take-home message.
• Corresponding important findings.
• The Interpretation.

Even though the conclusion of your abstract needs to be brief, it can have an enormous influence on the way that readers view your research. Therefore, make use of this section to reinforce the central message from your research. Be sure that your statements reflect the actual results and the methods you used to conduct your research.

Good Abstract Examples

Abstract example #1.

Children’s consumption behavior in response to food product placements in movies.

The abstract:

"Almost all research into the effects of brand placements on children has focused on the brand's attitudes or behavior intentions. Based on the significant differences between attitudes and behavioral intentions on one hand and actual behavior on the other hand, this study examines the impact of placements by brands on children's eating habits. Children aged 6-14 years old were shown an excerpt from the popular film Alvin and the Chipmunks and were shown places for the item Cheese Balls. Three different versions were developed with no placements, one with moderately frequent placements and the third with the highest frequency of placement. The results revealed that exposure to high-frequency places had a profound effect on snack consumption, however, there was no impact on consumer attitudes towards brands or products. The effects were not dependent on the age of the children. These findings are of major importance to researchers studying consumer behavior as well as nutrition experts as well as policy regulators."

Abstract Example #2

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women’s body image concerns and mood. The abstract:

"The research conducted in this study investigated the effects of Facebook use on women's moods and body image if the effects are different from an internet-based fashion journal and if the appearance comparison tendencies moderate one or more of these effects. Participants who were female ( N = 112) were randomly allocated to spend 10 minutes exploring their Facebook account or a magazine's website or an appearance neutral control website prior to completing state assessments of body dissatisfaction, mood, and differences in appearance (weight-related and facial hair, face, and skin). Participants also completed a test of the tendency to compare appearances. The participants who used Facebook were reported to be more depressed than those who stayed on the control site. In addition, women who have the tendency to compare appearances reported more facial, hair and skin-related issues following Facebook exposure than when they were exposed to the control site. Due to its popularity it is imperative to conduct more research to understand the effect that Facebook affects the way people view themselves."

Abstract Example #3

The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use and Academic Performance in a Sample of U.S. College Students

"The cellphone is always present on campuses of colleges and is often utilised in situations in which learning takes place. The study examined the connection between the use of cell phones and the actual grades point average (GPA) after adjusting for predictors that are known to be a factor. In the end 536 students in the undergraduate program from 82 self-reported majors of an enormous, public institution were studied. Hierarchical analysis ( R 2 = .449) showed that use of mobile phones is significantly ( p < .001) and negative (b equal to -.164) connected to the actual college GPA, after taking into account factors such as demographics, self-efficacy in self-regulated learning, self-efficacy to improve academic performance, and the actual high school GPA that were all important predictors ( p < .05). Therefore, after adjusting for other known predictors increasing cell phone usage was associated with lower academic performance. While more research is required to determine the mechanisms behind these results, they suggest the need to educate teachers and students to the possible academic risks that are associated with high-frequency mobile phone usage."

Quick tips on writing a good abstract

There exists a common dilemma among early age researchers whether to write the abstract at first or last? However, it's recommended to compose your abstract when you've completed the research since you'll have all the information to give to your readers. You can, however, write a draft at the beginning of your research and add in any gaps later.

If you find abstract writing a herculean task, here are the few tips to help you with it:

1. Always develop a framework to support your abstract

Before writing, ensure you create a clear outline for your abstract. Divide it into sections and draw the primary and supporting elements in each one. You can include keywords and a few sentences that convey the essence of your message.

2. Review Other Abstracts

Abstracts are among the most frequently used research documents, and thousands of them were written in the past. Therefore, prior to writing yours, take a look at some examples from other abstracts. There are plenty of examples of abstracts for dissertations in the dissertation and thesis databases.

3. Avoid Jargon To the Maximum

When you write your abstract, focus on simplicity over formality. You should  write in simple language, and avoid excessive filler words or ambiguous sentences. Keep in mind that your abstract must be readable to those who aren't acquainted with your subject.

4. Focus on Your Research

It's a given fact that the abstract you write should be about your research and the findings you've made. It is not the right time to mention secondary and primary data sources unless it's absolutely required.

Conclusion: How to Structure an Interesting Abstract?

Abstracts are a short outline of your essay. However, it's among the most important, if not the most important. The process of writing an abstract is not straightforward. A few early-age researchers tend to begin by writing it, thinking they are doing it to "tease" the next step (the document itself). However, it is better to treat it as a spoiler.

The simple, concise style of the abstract lends itself to a well-written and well-investigated study. If your research paper doesn't provide definitive results, or the goal of your research is questioned, so will the abstract. Thus, only write your abstract after witnessing your findings and put your findings in the context of a larger scenario.

The process of writing an abstract can be daunting, but with these guidelines, you will succeed. The most efficient method of writing an excellent abstract is to centre the primary points of your abstract, including the research question and goals methods, as well as key results.

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Types of Essays in Academic Writing - Quick Guide (2024)

Abstracts are formal summaries writers prepare of their completed work. Abstracts are important tools for readers, especially as they try to keep up with an explosion of information in print and on the Internet.

Definition of Abstract

Abstracts, like all summaries, cover the main points of a piece of writing. Unlike executive summaries written for non-specialist audiences, abstracts use the same level of technical language and expertise found in the article itself. And unlike general summaries which can be adapted in many ways to meet various readers' and writers' needs, abstracts are typically 150 to 250 words and follow set patterns.

Because readers use abstracts for set purposes, these purposes further define abstracts.

Purposes for Abstracts

Abstracts typically serve five main goals:

Help readers decide if they should read an entire article

Readers use abstracts to see if a piece of writing interests them or relates to a topic they're working on. Rather than tracking down hundreds of articles, readers rely on abstracts to decide quickly if an article is pertinent. Equally important, readers use abstracts to help them gauge the sophistication or complexity of a piece of writing. If the abstract is too technical or too simplistic, readers know that the article will also be too technical or too simplistic.

Help readers and researchers remember key findings on a topic

Even after reading an article, readers often keep abstracts to remind them of which sources support conclusions. Because abstracts include complete bibliographic citations, they are helpful when readers begin writing up their research and citing sources.

Help readers understand a text by acting as a pre-reading outline of key points

Like other pre-reading strategies, reading an abstract before reading an article helps readers anticipate what's coming in the text itself. Using an abstract to get an overview of the text makes reading the text easier and more efficient.

Index articles for quick recovery and cross-referencing

Even before computers made indexing easier, abstracts helped librarians and researchers find information more easily. With so many indexes now available electronically, abstracts with their keywords are even more important because readers can review hundreds of abstracts quickly to find the ones most useful for their research. Moreover, cross-referencing through abstracts opens up new areas of research that readers might not have known about when they started researching a topic.

Allow supervisors to review technical work without becoming bogged down in details

Although many managers and supervisors will prefer the less technical executive summary, some managers need to keep abreast of technical work. Research shows that only 15% of managers read the complete text of reports or articles. Most managers, then, rely on the executive summary or abstract as the clearest overview of employees' work.

Types of Abstracts

Although you'll see two types of abstracts—informative and descriptive—most writers now provide informative abstracts of their work.

Descriptive Abstract

A descriptive abstract outlines the topics covered in a piece of writing so the reader can decide whether to read the entire document. In many ways, the descriptive abstract is like a table of contents in paragraph form. Unlike reading an informative abstract, reading a descriptive abstract cannot substitute for reading the document because it does not capture the content of the piece. Nor does a descriptive abstract fulfill the other main goals of abstracts as well as informative abstracts do. For all these reasons, descriptive abstracts are less and less common. Check with your instructor or the editor of the journal to which you are submitting a paper for details on the appropriate type of abstract for your audience.

Informative Abstract

An informative abstract provides detail about the substance of a piece of writing because readers will sometimes rely on the abstract alone for information. Informative abstracts typically follow this format:

• Identifying information (bibliographic citation or other identification of the document)
• Concise restatement of the main point, including the initial problem or other background
• Methodology (for experimental work) and key findings
• Major conclusions

Informative abstracts usually appear in indexes like Dissertation Abstracts International ; however, your instructor may ask you to write one as a cover sheet to a paper as well.

A More Detailed Comparison of Descriptive vs. Informative

The typical distinction between descriptive and informative is that the descriptive abstract is like a table of contents whereas the informative abstract lays out the content of the document. To show the differences as clearly as possible, we compare a shortened Table of Contents for a 100-page legal argument presented by the FDA and an informative abstract of the judge's decision in the case.

Related Information: Informative Abstract of the Decision

Summary of Federal District Court's Ruling on FDA's Jurisdiction Over, and Regulation of, Cigarettes and Smokeless Tobacco

May 2, 1997

http://www.fda.gov/opacom/backgrounders/bg97-9.html

On April 25, 1997, Judge William Osteen of the Federal District Court in Greensboro, North Carolina, ruled that FDA has jurisdiction under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act to regulate nicotine-containing cigarettes and smokeless tobacco. The Court held that "tobacco products fit within the FDCA's definitions of drug and device, and that FDA can regulate cigarettes and smokeless tobacco products as drug delivery devices under the combination product and restricted device provisions of the Act.

With respect to the tobacco rule, the Court upheld all restrictions involving youth access and labeling, including two access provisions that went into effect Feb. 28: (1) the prohibition on sales of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco products to children and adolescents under 18, and (2) the requirement that retailers check photo identification of customers who are under 27 years of age.

The Court also upheld additional access and labeling restrictions originally scheduled to go into effect Aug. 28, 1997, including a prohibition on self-service displays and the placement of vending machines where children have access to them. The Court also upheld the ban on distribution of free samples, the sale of so-called kiddie packs of less than 20 cigarettes, and the sale of individual cigarettes. However, the Court delayed implementation of the provisions that have not yet gone into effect pending further action by the Court.

The Court invalidated on statutory grounds FDA's restrictions on the advertising and promotion of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco. Judge Osteen found that the statutory provision relied on by FDA, section 520(e) of the Act (21 U.S.C. 360j(e)), does not provide FDA with authority to regulate the advertising and promotion of tobacco products. Specifically, the Court found that the authority in that section to set "such other conditions" on the sale, distribution, or use of a restricted device does not encompass advertising restrictions. Because Judge Osteen based his ruling on the advertising provisions on purely statutory grounds, he declined to consider the First Amendment challenge to those parts of the rule. The government is appealing the advertising portion of the ruling.

(accessed January 26, 1998)

Related Information: Sample Descriptive Abstract

"Bonanza Creek LTER [Long Term Ecological Research] 1997 Annual Progress Report" http://www.lter.alaska.edu/pubs/1997pr.html

We continue to document all major climatic variables in the uplands and floodplains at Bonanza Creek. In addition, we have documented the successional changes in microclimate in 9 successional upland and floodplain stands at Bonanza Creek (BNZ) and in four elevational locations at Caribou-Poker Creek (CPCRW). A sun photometer is operated cooperatively with NASA to estimate high-latitude atmospheric extinction coefficients for remote-sensing images. Electronic data are collected monthly and loaded into a database which produces monthly summaries. The data are checked for errors, documented, and placed on-line on the BNZ Web page. Climate data for the entire state have been summarized for the period of station records and krieged to produce maps of climate zones for Alaska based on growing-season and annual temperature and precipitation.

Related Information: Sample Informative Abstract based on Experimental Work

Palmquist, M., & Young, R. (1992). The Notion of Giftedness and Student Expectations About Writing. Written Communication, 9(1), 137-168.

Research reported by Daly, Miller, and their colleagues suggests that writing apprehension is related to a number of factors we do not yet fully understand. This study suggests that included among those factors should be the belief that writing ability is a gift. Giftedness, as it is referred to in the study, is roughly equivalent to the Romantic notion of original genius. Results from a survey of 247 postsecondary students enrolled in introductory writing courses at two institutions indicate that higher levels of belief in giftedness are correlated with higher levels of writing apprehension, lower self-assessments of writing ability, lower levels of confidence in achieving proficiency in certain writing activities and genres, and lower self-assessments of prior experience with writing instructors. Significant differences in levels of belief in giftedness were also found among students who differed in their perceptions of the most important purpose for writing, with students who identified "to express your own feelings about something" as the most important purpose for writing having the highest mean level of belief in giftedness. Although the validity of the notion that writing ability is a special gift is not directly addressed, the results suggest that belief in giftedness may have deleterious effects on student writers.

Related Information: Sample Informative Abstract based on Non-experimental Work

Environmental Impact Statement. Federal Register: December 11, 1997 (Volume 62, Number 238). "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Revision of Special Regulations for the Gray Wolf." Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior.

http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-SPECIES/1997/December/Day-11/e32440.htm

On November 22, 1994, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published special rules to establish nonessential experimental populations of gray wolves (Canis lupus) in Yellowstone National Park and central Idaho. The nonessential experimental population areas include all of Wyoming, most of Idaho, and much of central and southern Montana. A close reading of the special regulations indicates that, unintentionally, the language reads as though wolf control measures apply only outside of the experimental population area. This proposed revision is intended to amend language in the special regulations so that it clearly applies within the Yellowstone nonessential experimental population area and the central Idaho nonessential experimental population area. This proposed change will not affect any of the assumptions and earlier analysis made in the environmental impact statement or other portions of the special rules. (accessed January 26, 1998)

Related Information: Table of Contents of the Argument

Court Brief (edited Table of Contents) Filed Dec. 2, 1996, by the Department of Justice in defense of FDA's determination of jurisdiction over cigarettes and smokeless tobacco products and its regulations restricting those products to protect children and adolescents. http://www.usdoj.gov/civil/cases/tocnts.htm Statement of the matter before the court; statement of material facts

• The health effects of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco
• The evidence that nicotine in cigarettes and smokeless tobacco "affect[s] the structure or any function of the body"
• The evidence that the pharmacological effects of nicotine in cigarettes and smokeless tobacco are "intended"
• The evidence that cigarettes and smokeless tobacco are "combination products"
• Cigarettes and smokeless tobacco as combination products
• The regulatory goal
• Youth access restrictions
• Advertising and promotion restrictions

Questions Presented

Congress has not precluded FDA from regulating cigarettes and smokeless tobacco under the FDCA.

• Standard of review: Chevron, U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.
• Chevron, step one
• Chevron, step two: FDA's application of the FDCA to cigarettes and smokeless tobacco is "based on a permissible construction of the statute"
• No statute, or combination of statutes, can override the FDCA in the absence of express preclusion or other clearly expressed Congressional intent
• Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act
• Comprehensive Smokeless Tobacco Health Education Act
• Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration Reorganization Act
• The separation of powers doctrine does not prohibit FDA's regulation of tobacco products

Nicotine in cigarettes and smokeless tobacco is a drug, and cigarettes and smokeless tobacco are drug delivery devices under the FDCA.

• Cigarettes and smokeless tobacco "affect the structure or any function of the body"
• Nicotine's effects are intended by the manufacturers
• Cigarettes and smokeless tobacco are combination drug/device products and may be regulated under the Act's device authorities
• FDA's application of device provisions to cigarettes and smokeless tobacco is reasonable

The restrictions imposed by FDA on advertising and other promotion of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco are fully consistent with the first amendment.

• The Central Hudson standard and the proper First Amendment analysis
• Recent rulings by the Supreme Court in 44 Liquormart, and by the Fourth Circuit in Anheuser-Busch and Penn Advertising
• In applying the Central Hudson test, the Court's decision should be based on the record created by the Agency, and the reasonable determinations made by FDA are not to be disregarded
• The government's interest here is plainly substantial
• FDA has demonstrated that advertising affects tobacco use by minors, to the detriment of the public health, and that the agency's restrictions on advertising of these products should alleviate that problem to a material degree
• The restrictions are designed to preserve the flow of information to lawful consumers
• The availability of non-Speech related regulatory alternatives does not invalidate FDA's regulations
• Each of FDA's individual advertising restrictions is narrowly tailored

Bibliographic Citation or Identification

As more and more databases are stored and accessed electronically, abstracts are more frequently reproduced apart from the entire article or document. In a large corporation or government entity, for instance, an abstract of a progress report might be circulated and stored in a dozen offices or on multiple computers even though the report itself is filed in only one location. Clear identification is crucial so that readers who want to review the entire text can locate it from the information given with the abstract.

Depending on where your writing is printed and stored, you'll need to include different kinds of identifying information with your abstract:

Bibliographic Citation

If your writing will be printed and disseminated as a book, part of a book, or an article in a journal or magazine, give a full bibliographic citation that includes all the publication information so that readers can find print copies of the article (even if your abstract will appear in unrelated electronic databases). For example, an abstract for a journal article begins with this citation:

Harris, L.D., & Wambeam, C.A. (1996). The Internet-Based Composition Classroom: A Study in Pedagogy. Computers and Composition , 13(3), 353-372.

Organizational Identification

If your abstract is part of a corporate or government document that will not be printed or disseminated outside the organization, you need only include your name, the title of the document, its completion date, a project name (if you produced the document as part of the work on a larger project), and an authorization or organizational number (if there is one).

If your abstract will be circulated outside your organization (for instance, if you work for a consulting company that writes reports for other companies), add to the information above: your company or organization name, the name of the organization that commissioned the document, a contract number (if there is one), a security classification (as appropriate for government documents), and key words to help in cataloguing your abstract.

Internet Citation

If you're "publishing" your own work on the World Wide Web or if your writing will appear on the Internet as part of a full-text electronic database, you can save readers time by citing the Internet address for the full text. Typically, writers note both print publication information and the URL (universal resource locator)--the http or www address--with the abstract.

For example, one of the abstracts cited in this module has this citation that includes both bibliographic information and the Internet address:

Environmental Impact Statement. "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Revision of Special Regulations for the Gray Wolf." Federal Register: December 11, 1997 (Volume 62, Number 238). Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior. http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-SPECIES/1997/December/Day-11/e32440.htm

Processes for Writing Abstracts

Unless you work for an abstracting service, you'll usually write abstracts of your own finished work. This section explores some strategies for drafting your abstract.

Cut and Paste Method

Beginning with reading may seem odd since you wrote the paper, but it can frequently be the fastest way to write an abstract because it allows you to "lift" as much of the abstract from your original paper as possible.

• As you read through your own paper, highlight or copy sentences which summarize the entire paper or individual sections or sub-points of your main argument.
• Write (or copy) a sentence that summarizes the main point.
• Add sentences that summarize sections (or write new sentences for sections that lack a concise summary sentence).
• If you're writing a descriptive abstract, you're ready to begin revising.
• If you're writing an informative abstract, look through your paper for details, particularly of key findings or major supporting arguments and major conclusions. Paste these into your abstract and proceed to editing for consistency and length--frequently in the original "cuts" you will still have more detail than is necessary in an abstract.

Outlining Method

Frequently, the best place to start writing an abstract is to first make an outline of the paper to serve as a rough draft of your abstract. The most efficient way to do this is to write what Kenneth Bruffee calls a descriptive or "backwards" outline.

Backwards Outline Instructions

• Read through each paragraph of your paper and write one phrase or sentence that answers the question "what does this paragraph do?"
• Take your list of descriptions for each paragraph and look for connections: i.e., do these 3 or 5 paragraphs do something similar? What is it?
• When you've reduced your outline to 4 or 5 accurate generalizations, you most likely have a descriptive abstract.
• If you're writing an informative abstract, fill in key details about your content.

Detailed Backwards Outline

Because informative abstracts need more detail, the regular backwards outline may not be as useful a strategy for this type of abstract. Instead, do a backwards outline on the left-hand side of a piece of paper. Then, on the right-hand side, answer the question "what does this paragraph say?" for each paragraph in the paper. Then complete the steps below:

• Take your first column and generalize down to 4-5 sentences about what the paper does.
• Use these sentences as topic sentences for the paragraphs in your abstract.
• Now, go to your second column and choose appropriate content for each section you outlined in #2. In other words, use the right-hand column to fill in details about what your paper says on each point outlined in #2.

Key Issues in Preparing Abstracts

Concise, accurate statement of the main idea.

Abstracts begin with a one-sentence summary of the main point of your paper and often introduce the problem the paper explores. Especially for papers based on research, the first sentence (or two) of the abstract announces the subject and scope of the research as well as the problem and your thesis. That's quite a bit of information to condense into a sentence or two, and so the concise statement of the main idea often takes careful revision.

Condensing Information for Non-research Papers

Most non-research papers can be summed up in a nutshell statement—a single sentence that boils down a paper to its essential main point and doesn't aim to capture details, supporting arguments, or types of proof.

One-sentence Summaries for Different Types of Papers Each of these non-research papers summarizes its main point based on its overall purpose:

This paper argues that the "saving democracy" rhetoric surrounding the Gulf War was merely a mask for the U.S.'s interest in keeping oil prices down. (From a political science paper whose purpose was to construct an argument .)

Ethnography and ethnology are the preferred research methods of many anthropologists. (From an anthropology paper whose purpose was to inform others about a research methodology.)

Condensing Information for Research Papers

In addition to stating the main point of the paper, research-based papers often need to set up the context and scope of the research as well. Setting the context includes stating the subject of your work as well as the problem that prompted your research. You might also refer to major researchers who have already done work on your topic as a way of setting the context. Remember, too, that your abstract must always include the main point of your paper, so don't neglect that focus as you work on stating the problem and context. Click on the following links to view examples of condensed statements in research papers:

Related Information: Example 1

In this example, note that the writer uses the names of key researchers to set the context and then focuses on what researchers don't yet know. After setting up the problem he's addressing in the research, the writer then announces the scope and focus of the paper in the second sentence:

Research reported by Daly, Miller, and their colleagues suggests that writing apprehension is related to a number of factors we do not yet fully understand. This study suggests that included among those factors should be the belief that writing ability is a gift. . . .

Related Information: Example 2

In this example, the writer announces the subject and scope of the research although he doesn't set context or suggest the problem that prompted the research. Depending on your ultimate goals for the abstract, you may be more successful with this approach that states the main point of your research paper even without setting context:

This report examines the changes in photosynthesis with an energy-producing carnivorous plants, specifically the Venus Fly Trap. (From a botany research report which involved original lab research.)

Beware of Focusing too Narrowly

No one who has ever written a concise restatement of a complex point will claim that the work was easy or straightforward. Usually, a writer needs to work back and forth between revising the restatement and re-reading the paper to be sure the main idea is stated accurately and clearly. Having worked so hard on that point, though, don't assume that you don't need to revise other parts of your abstract. In this example, the writer restates only the main point and dismisses key information from the 15-page document that should be included in the abstract.

Sample Abstract with Overly Narrow Focus

Community Right-to-Know Notice. Federal Register : January 23, 1998 (Volume 63, Number 15). "Phosphoric Acid; Toxic Chemical Release Reporting." Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-WASTE/1998/January/Day-23/f1644.htm

EPA is denying a petition to delete phosphoric acid from the reporting requirements under section 313 of the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986 (EPCRA) and section 6607 of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (PPA). This action is based on EPA's conclusion that phosphoric acid does not meet the deletion criteria of EPCRA section 313(d)(3). Specifically, EPA is denying this petition because EPA's review of the petition and available information resulted in the conclusion that phosphoric acid meets the listing criterion in EPCRA section 313(d)(2)(C) in that the phosphates that result from the neutralization of phosphoric acid may cause algal blooms. Algal blooms result in deoxygenation of the water and other effects that may ultimately lead to a number of serious adverse effects on ecosystems, including fish kills and changes in the composition of animal and plant life.

Test Your Ability to Judge Conciseness

The biggest problem writers run into when beginning an abstract is providing enough accurate information to convey an article's main idea without providing more detail than is needed. To test your ability to judge conciseness, read the detailed summary below, and then judge sample restatements of the main idea.

A Detailed Summary

A summary of: Jaime O'Neill, No Allusions in the Classroom, Newsweek , September 23, 1985.

Author Jaime O'Neill's article, "No Allusions in the Classroom," emphasizes the communication problem between teachers and students due to the students' lack of basic knowledge. The author supports this assertion by using a combination of personal experience, evidence obtained from recent polls, other professors' opinions, and the results of an experiment he conducted in his own classroom. The experiment O'Neill conducted was an ungraded eighty-six question "general knowledge" test issued to students on the first day of classes. On this test, "most students answered incorrectly far more often than they answered correctly." Incorrect answers included fallacies such as: "Darwin invented gravity" and "Leningrad was in Jamaica." Compounding the problem, students don't ask questions. This means that their teachers assume they know things that they do not. O'Neill shows the scope of this problem by showing that, according to their teachers, this seems to be a typical problem across the United States. O'Neill feels that common knowledge in a society is essential to communicate. Without this common knowledge, learning is made much more difficult because teacher and student do not have a common body of knowledge from which to draw. The author shows the deterioration of common knowledge through poll results, personal experience, other teachers' opinions, and his own experiment's results.

Related Information: Restatement Test Answers

• Yes - This sentence is inaccurate. While O'Neill was frustrated that his students didn't understand his allusions, the reason he was frustrated is because this lack of knowledge led to a communication problem. The problem of communication in the classroom is O'Neill's main point. The students' misunderstanding of allusions only illustrates this point.
• style="color:#0000ff;"> No - While O'Neill was frustrated that his students didn't understand his allusions, the reason he was frustrated is because this lack of knowledge led to a communication problem. The problem of communication in the classroom is O'Neill's main point. The students' misunderstanding of allusions only illustrates this point.
• Yes - While part of what O'Neill does is expose his students lack of knowledge, he is trying to demonstrate how that lack of knowledge leads to miscommunication. This sentence ignores the communication aspect of his main point.
• style="color:#0000ff;"> No - While part of what O'Neill does is expose his students lack of knowledge, he is trying to demonstrate how that lack of knowledge leads to miscommunication. This sentence ignores the communication aspect of his main point.
• style="color:#ff0000;"> Yes - While this statement is the most accurate so far (because it includes O'Neill's main point that a lack of common knowledge leads to miscommunication in the education process), it fails to show the connection between the two parts of the main point. Nor is it concise, because it separates those two parts of the main point with irrelevant information.
• No - While this statement is the most accurate so far (because it includes O'Neill's main point that a lack of common knowledge leads to miscommunication in the education process), it fails to show the connection between the two parts of the main point. Nor is it concise, because it separates those two parts of the main point with irrelevant information.
• style="color:#ff0000;"> Yes - Though this is the best we've seen so far, it could still be improved slightly by combining the two sentences to make it more concise.
• style="color:#0000ff;"> No - Though this is the best we've seen so far, it could still be improved slightly by combining the two sentences to make it more concise.
• style="color:#ff0000;"> Yes - This is an accurate and concise portrayal of O'Neill's main idea.
• style="color:#0000ff;"> No - This is an accurate and concise portrayal of O'Neill's main idea.

Related Information: Sample Restatements of Main Idea

To test your ability to find a balance between insufficient/inaccurate information and too much information, judge these sample restatements of the main idea of Jaime O'Neill's article.

Organization of Subpoints

After a summary of the main topic/problem/point of your paper or report, the abstract provides some detail on how you reached this point. The information provided in the abstract should follow the organization of the paper/report itself, almost like providing an outline for the reader in text form.

Related Information: Abstracts of Papers With Sub-Headings

When abstracting a paper that has headings and sub-headings, use those to help you identify key parts of the paper for your abstract. The following sample abstract, based on a research paper, uses the introduction, subjects, methods, results, and discussion headings from the original paper.

Note : The numbers in this abstract are for illustration purposes only. Number 1 designates a concise statement of the main point and "problem" prompting the research. Number 2 designates a summary of the selection of research subjects. Numbers 3 and 4 correspond to summaries of research methods and results, respectively, and Number 5 designates a summary of conclusions.

(1) "Students in networked classrooms" examines the question of whether students in a computer classroom are more likely to engage in peer review than students in traditional classrooms. (2) To test this question, two classes in each environment were studied. (3) An observer participated in all four classes for the duration of a semester, noting the nature of the interaction between students. Further, the observer interviewed both students and teachers about the nature of peer interaction and review. (4) Based on this sample, the study finds that students in computer classrooms are more likely, by a ratio of 2:1, to engage in peer review. (5) As a result of this finding, the paper concludes that for this one variable, computer classrooms are a more effective environment in which to teach writing.

Related Information: Abstracts of Papers Without Headings

When abstracting a paper that doesn't have headings and sub-headings, you must depend on your sense of major "chunks" in the text. As you'll see in the following example, this writer followed his concise statement of the main point with two sentences that focus on the two main arguments presented in the paper.

Note: The numbers in this abstract are for illustration purposes only. Number 1 designates a concise statement of the main point. Number 2 designates a summary statement of the first major argument and its support (five pages in the original article). Number 3 corresponds to a summary of the second major argument (two pages in the original), and Number 4 corresponds to the second argument's support (two pages).

(1) This paper argues that the "saving democracy" rhetoric surrounding the Gulf War was merely a mask for the U.S.'s interest in keeping oil prices down. (2) Such an argument is made by first describing the ways in which OPEC controlled oil prices by limiting sales, pointing specifically to how Kuwait was producing more oil than allowed by current OPEC agreements. (3) Second, the paper examines why the U.S. was invested in keeping good relations with the only two OPEC nations--Kuwait and Saudi Arabia--which frequently made trade agreements that benefited the U.S. (4) Finally, the paper does a close reading of the newspaper coverage of the Gulf War, examining how an early recognition of the monetary incentive changed to a democratic one when Bush ordered trOops to Saudi Arabia.

Use of Details

Details should be used judiciously in abstracts. Determining the amount of detail to provide depends a great deal on what type of abstract you are writing (informative or descriptive), the complexity of the paper, the word limit for the abstract, and the purposes you imagine readers of your abstract have for reading.

Complexity of the Paper

An abstract of a five-page progress report is likely to be shorter than an abstract for a 100-page Master's thesis, mainly because a long paper will include more main ideas, not just details. Keep in mind your readers and their reasons for reading your abstract. Focus your abstract on main ideas and provide only those details that are crucial for readers to understand your main points.

Word Limit for the Abstract

Some publications limit the length of abstracts to no more than 75 words. Others allow abstracts of complex documents to run up to 350 words. Be sure to check the publication's guidelines. If it has a low word limit, concentrate on capturing only main ideas from your paper. Don't try to cut a 200-word abstract down to 125 words by simply cutting connecting words, articles, etc. Even the shortest abstracts need to be readable, not telegraphic.

Readers' Purposes

If you're abstracting a report for technical managers, more detail is probably better. But if you're abstracting for a publication, readers will probably skim the abstract to see if they should read the article. Don't give readers more detail than you imagine they'll need to suit their primary goal in reading your abstract.

The five main purposes for abstracts are discussed elsewhere in this guide.

Revising and Editing

When you work from your own texts, abstracts are usually easy to draft. After all, most writers begin by cutting and pasting from the text itself. But abstracts can be tricky to revise and edit, particularly if you need to reach a low word count. In this section, we offer some advice on strategies for moving from a first draft of an abstract to a polished finished version.

Being Concise

When you cut and paste parts of your paper into your draft abstract, you may find that you initially include words and phrases that clarify the meaning in the paper but that simply add extra words in the abstract. Read your drafts carefully to cut unnecessary words. Note that the italicized words in the example can be cut without any loss of meaning in the abstract.

Palmquist, M. (1995). "Students in Networked Classrooms." Computers and Composition, 10 (4), 25-57.

"Students in networked classrooms" examines the question of whether students in a computer classroom are more likely to engage in peer review than students in traditional classrooms. To test this question , two classes in each environment were studied. An observer participated in all four classes for the duration of a semester, noting the nature of the interaction between students. Further, the observer interviewed both students and teachers about the nature of peer interaction and review. Based on this sample , the study finds that students in computer classrooms are more likely, by a ratio of 2:1, to engage in peer review. As a result of this finding , the paper concludes that, for this one variable, computer classrooms are a more effective environment in which to teach writing.

Smoothing out Connections

After you revise for conciseness, you will also want to be sure that each sentence in your abstract leads smoothly into the next. Sometimes you need to add or change transitional words and phrases. Sometimes you need to repeat key words. And sometimes, you need to combine sentences so that the connections between ideas are logically clear.

In our example, we combine what were sentences 2 and 3 and the last two sentences.

This paper examines whether students in a computer classroom are more likely to engage in peer review than students in a traditional classroom. Two classes in each environment were observed, with the participant-observer noting interactions between students. Further, the observer interviewed both students and teachers about peer interaction and review. The study finds that students in computer classrooms are twice as likely to engage in peer review and concludes that, for this one variable, computer classrooms are a more effective environment in which to teach writing.

Avoiding Telegraphic Abstracts

A highly condensed style can save money when you send a telegram but can make abstracts too dense. Don't cut articles ( a, an, the ) or connecting words that show relationships among ideas. Do repeat key words that show the content of your paper. Abstracts may be short, but they are meant to be readable.

Polishing Style

A reader looks at a summary for the sole purpose of getting a quick glimpse of the article. As a result, she doesn't want to waste time with a lot of phrases and words that do not further the meaning, nor is she interested in the summary writer's opinion. Accounting for audience needs, there are three generalizable principles about the style of summaries:

Use of "I"

Although use of "I" or "we" is acceptable in some disciplines, many frown on its use in abstracts. Read several abstracts in the publication you're submitting to or the databases you expect to include your abstract. When in doubt, do not use "I." Instead, use the following strategies:

Substitute for "I" Most abstracts make the paper/report/study the focus of the abstract and the grammatical subject of sentences in the abstract. Try these sentence openers:

• This paper explores. . .
• This study suggests. . .
• The report investigates. . . .

Passive Voice In combination with substitutes for "I," passive voice helps writers focus on the paper/report/study. Instead of, "I propose that ethnography is a better research method than case study" (active voice), the abstract might use: "Ethnography is proposed as a better research method than case study." (passive voice) Be sure to combine substitutes for "I" with passive voice to avoid overusing the passive.

Use of Quotes

When using your own sentences, you don't need to put them in quotation marks. For example, if your methods section begins with "Three methods were used to investigate this question: case study, surveys, and observational research," feel free to repeat the sentence in its entirety in the abstract. Remember, however, the following points:

• Revise the sentence so it makes sense in the abstract (i.e., if you have not summarized "this question" in the abstract, omit substitute for that phrase).
• Do not "lift" sentences which are not your own (i.e., quotes from other people's work).

Use of Literary Present Tense

Abstracts use the present tense because we assume texts speak to the present even if their authors are dead and/or wrote the words in the past. As a result, write about the text and/or author as if they were composing the words at the moment. For example:

• Hemingway describes Paris as......
• The Declaration of Independence states that all men are created equal.

Caution: This rule varies from discipline to discipline.

Abstracts in Specific Disciplines

Abstracts have common elements and uses, but read enough abstracts in your field to be aware of their specific details or differences. Choose from the examples to see additional sample abstracts. The abstract from Civil Engineering includes instructor comments.

Civil Engineering

MASK Engineering has designed a performing arts center for the CSU campus in order to provide a complex that will better serve the campus and the community. This facility will not only improve the performing arts programs on campus but will encourage students and community members to attend more cultural events in Fort Collins. The capacity of the new facility will exceed that of existing structures on campus, and the quality of sound and aesthetics will be improved. Some of the features included are a large performing hall, a coffee shop, a banquet hall, and a recording studio. The total area of the complex is 56,500 square feet split into three levels.

Instructor Comments

This abstract summarizes the accomplishments of the project and what it will do. It also summarizes some of the actual design and indicates that it's going to include a performing hall, coffee shop, banquet hall, and recording studio.

The writing, however, could be a little tighter in my opinion. The first sentence looks like it's around 20 words long. First of all, the expression "will better service the campus and the community" doesn't mean anything. What does "better serve" mean? A better choice might be, "MASK Engineering has designed a new Performing Arts Center that will meet the needs of the theater community," or something more specific.

The second sentence is typical. It gives the particular vehicle for doing the programs. However, it implies that the facility improves programs, and I'm not sure that's quite the right subject for this sentence. Furthermore, there's no point to the word "but" here. There's no contrast here, so this is a grammatical problem. This kind of problem can be avoided through careful reading, asking what each sentence accomplishes.

The abstract gets stronger after this. "The capacity of the new facility will exceed that" is very specific. "The quality, sound and aesthetics will be improved. Some of the features included are this..." The writers are very good at being descriptive. I think engineering students are more comfortable with the descriptive aspect of their material than with the lead-in.

LeCourt, D. (1996. Composition's Theoretical Irony: WAC as Uncritical Pedagogy. Journal of Advanced Composition, 16 (3), 389-406.

This paper argues that writing across the curriculum has failed to consider how its practices and theories serve to inscribe students within normalized discourses. As scholars such as Susan McLeod, Anne Herrington and Charles Moran begin to re-think the way writing-across-the-curriculum programs have situated themselves within composition theory, an intriguing disparity has presented itself between writing-to-learn and learning-to-write. As McLeod points out, these two approaches to WAC, which she designates the "cognitive" and the "rhetorical," respectively, exist in most programs simultaneously despite their radically different epistemological assumptions. This paper suggests, however, that despite the two approaches' seeming epistemological differences, they work toward a similar goal: the accommodation or inscription of (student) subjects into the various disciplinary strands of academic discourse. From a poststructural perspective, the goals of both these models function as a coherent technology of subject production. Writing to learn exercises provide a discursive space in which students learn to write themselves as subjects of the discourse, using the writing space to "practice" an integration of self with a disciplinary subjectivity. The rhetorical model reinforces such an integration even more strongly, providing explicit instruction in how the discursive subject must write herself in order to produce "effective" prose which mirrors the texts of other "speaking" subjects of the discourse. In sum, both approaches to WAC are subject to the same description and critique of how academic discourse seeks to inscribe students as subjects that has been forged against composition instruction in English departments (e.g., Schilb, Clifford, Faigley). Ironically, in WAC, we have presumed a clear mission for writing instruction that is not nearly so evident in our own approach to advanced literacy. The paper concludes, then, by offering yet a third model of WAC, one which suggests that students, as well as their instructors, engage in the investigative process of discovering how discursive conventions relate to their discipline's epistemology and consider how that connection limits what can be said or thought within that discourse.

Neurobiology

High Performance Computing Applications in Neurobiological Research; Muriel D. Ross, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035; Kevin Montgomery, Sterling Software, Palo Alto, CA 94303; David G. Doshay, Sterling Software, Palo Alto, CA 94303; Thomas C. Chimento, Sterling Software, Palo Alto, CA 94303; Bruce R. Parnas, National Research Council Research Associate, Biocomputation Center, NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035

The human nervous system is a massively parallel processor of information. The vast numbers of neurons, synapses and circuits is daunting to those seeking to understand the neural basis of consciousness and intellect. Pervading obstacles are lack of knowledge of the detailed, three-dimensional (3-D) organization of even a simple neural system and the paucity of large scale, biologically relevant computer simulations. We use high performance graphics workstations and supercomputers to study the 3-D organization of gravity sensors as a prototypic architecture foreshadowing more complex systems. Scaled-down simulations run on a Silicon Graphics workstation and scaled-up, three-dimensional versions run on the Cray Y-MP and CM5 supercomputers.

To assist this research, we developed generalized computer-based methods for semiautomated, 3-D reconstruction of this tissue from transmission electron microscope (TEM) serial sections and for simulations of the reconstructed neurons and circuits. Sections are digitized directly from the TEM. Contours of objects are traced on the computer screen. Mosaicking images into sections, registration and visualization are automated. The same grids generated to connect contours for viewing objects provide tesselated surfaces for 1-D, 2-D and 3-D simulations of neuronal functioning. Finite element analysis of prism or segment volumes and color coding are used to track current spread after synapse activation. The biologically accurate simulation is reducible to a symbolic model that mimics the flow of information processing. Discharge patterns are displayed as spike trains. The symbolic model can be converted to an electronic circuit for potential implementation as a chip. The reconstructions can also be rendered in visual, sonic and tactile virtual media.

Using these methods, we demonstrated that gravity sensors are organized for parallel distributed processing of information. They have non-modular receptive fields that are organized into overlapping, dynamic cell assemblies. These provide a basis for functional degeneracy and graceful degradation. The sensors have two intrinsic microcircuits that are prototypic of more advanced systems. These microcircuits are highly channeled (type I cell to a nerve terminal called a calyx) and distributed modifying (type II cells and feedforward/feedback neural lOops). A circuit of extrinsic origin likely biases the intrinsic circuits. We use simulation methods to study the effects of intrinsic feedback-feedforward lOops and of extrinsically driven biases on discharge patterns. These and similar investigations into the functioning of huge assemblies of neurons require supercomputer capabilities and pave the way for studies of human brain functioning as a grand challenge in supercomputer applications.

http://biocomp.arc.nasa.gov/papers/hpc_abstract.94.html

(accessed February 3, 1998)

Department of the Interior - U.S. Geological Survey

Inventory of Landslides Triggered by the 1994 Northridge, California Earthquake Edwin L. Harp and Randall W. Jibson Open-File Report 95-213 USGS Denver, CO 80225 1995

The 17 January 1994 Northridge, California, earthquake (M=6.7) triggered more than 11,000 landslides over an area of about 10,000 km. Most of the landslides were concentrated in a 1,000-km area that includes the Santa Susana Mountains and the mountains north of the Santa Clara River valley. We mapped landslides triggered by the earthquake in the field and from 1:60,000-scale aerial photography provided by the U.S. Air Force and taken the morning of the earthquake; these were subsequently digitized and plotted in a GIS-based format, as shown on the accompanying maps (which also are accessible via Internet). Most of the triggered landslides were shallow (1-5 m), highly disrupted falls and slides in weakly cemented Tertiary to Pleistocene clastic sediment. Average volumes of these types of landslides were less than 1,000 m, but many had volumes exceeding 100,000 m. Many of the larger disrupted slides traveled more than 50 m, and a few moved as far as 200 m from the bases of steep parent slopes. Deeper ( >5 m) rotational slumps and block slides numbered in the hundreds, a few of which exceeded 100,000 m in volume. The largest triggered landslide was a block slide having a volume of 8X10E06 m. Triggered landslides damaged or destroyed dozens of homes, blocked roads, and damaged oil-field infrastructure. Analysis of landslide distribution with respect to variations in (1) landslide susceptibility and (2) strong shaking recorded by hundreds of instruments will form the basis of a seismic landslide hazard analysis of the Los Angeles area.

http://gldage.cr.usgs.gov/html_ files/ofr95-213/ABSTRAC2.html

LeCourt, Donna,  Kate Kiefer, Luann Barnes, Mike Palmquist, & Tom Siller. (2004). Abstracts. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=59

Writing an Abstract

An abstract serves as a brief summary (usually no more than 200 words) of the author’s research objective and key findings and it must be tailored to communicate with the anticipated audience. Consider, for instance, whether you will be speaking to the public, an educated layperson, or another expert in your field of study. The language you will use in your abstract will depend upon who will be listening. Advice on how to write an abstract or proposal varies widely among disciplines and authors.

When examined closely, however, there are six common threads that appear in most good examples:

Unlike the comparable section in a long paper or article, the introduction in an abstract need only briefly identify the topic or general area of study. Introductory statements in abstracts can be as short as one sentence.

What problem or question does your research address? Unlike the “inverted pyramid” approach you might follow in a longer paper, the research objective in an abstract should be stated up front and can be as short as one concise sentence.

Why does this research matter? Why do we care about the problem and the results? Why has no one else adequately answered the research question?

Explain how you addressed the problem or explored the question. Did your research use quantitative data collection and analysis, theoretical inquiry, or qualitative exploration?

Briefly explain summarize the study’s main findings and/or what can be done with these results once the data is collected or the project is completed.

In a single sentence, what is the key impact of your research? Answer the “so what” question. What is the significance of your findings? Why should other people care? Did you discover something that has not yet been discussed or reviewed?

For examples, see abstracts from the 2019  Auburn Research Student Symposium.

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Writing an Abstract

Writing an abstract is a skill like any other.  

Abstracts are short summaries of your research and, although the format may vary slightly depending on where they are being submitted, there are standard guidelines about what should be in an abstract. The purpose of an abstract is to provide readers a brief summary of your study so that they may determine if they want to learn more about the research. An abstract should use proper terminology but should also be geared toward a reader who may have only a cursory familiarity with the research area.

General Guidelines

• Omit all researcher names and affiliations from the body of the abstract.
• Avoid the use of new technical words, laboratory slang, words not defined in dictionaries or abbreviations and terminology not consistent with internationally accepted guidelines. If you do use abbreviations define them in body of the abstract the first time they are used .
• Eliminate jargon. Showing off your technical vocabulary will not demonstrate your research’s value. If you can’t avoid using a technical term, add a nontechnical synonym to help nonspecialists infer the term’s meaning.
• Brevity is the goal. Most abstracts have a word limit of around 250 to 300 words. Omit needless words, redundant modifiers, over-the-top diction, and excessive detail.
• An abstract should have the same structure a research article: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Conclusions . Depending on the required format you may be required to use these or similar headings within the body of the abstract but even if you do not use these headings the structure of the abstract should implicitly follow this format.
• Eliminate expressions such as “It is my opinion that,” “I have concluded,” “The main point supporting my view concerns” or “Certainly, there is little doubt as to.” Focus readers’ attention solely the findings, not on opinion.
• Examine other abstracts for examples of successful abstracts .  If you are submitting to a journal, look at the abstracts for papers recently published in that journal. If you are submitting to a conference, look at abstracts printed in past years’ meeting programs.
• Before submitting your abstract have a colleague who has limited knowledge of your research area read and comment on it to determine how understandable it is. Remember you will often know more about your research area than those who review your work so having someone with a similar knowledge base to the potential reviewers will help determine how well you have written the abstract.
• Remember an abstract is you telling a short story about your research.

Things To Ask Yourself When You Are Writing An Abstract

• Have I stated why my research is important to a larger problem?
• Have I stated the specific aims of my research project?
• Have I indicated the most important hypothesis(es)?
• Have I identified the type of study I conducted (experimental, clinical trial, non-experimental, survey, case study, etc).
• Have I clearly and precisely identified the sample being studied? Be specific. For example if you are studying veterans over 60 who are cardiology patients, state that rather than just stating cardiology patients. 
• Have I clearly identified the variables being examined? State explicitly what your independent and dependent variables are. Use general terms when possible and more specific terms when necessary.  
• Have I stated the most important finding clearly and in a way that someone without deep technical knowledge of the field can understand? 
• Do the results reflect what I actually did in terms of statistical analyses?   Be prudent in reporting statistical findings. You may provide statistics but don’t rely on them to completely tell the story of the findings. You also need to communicate the inferences from your statistical findings. If you conducted correlations or regressions do you describe the relationships between variables? If you examined naturally occurring groups or treatment groups (t-test, ANOVA), do you frame the results around how the groups were different on your dependent measure(s)?
• Are the findings reported directly related the hypothesis stated earlier? Are the findings consisted or inconsistent with prediction of the hypothesis?
• Are my conclusions simply a restating of the results?   Conclusions should not just be a restating of the results. The conclusions should be about the implications of the results and should refer back to the purpose of the study stated earlier in the abstract.