how to write a non academic essay

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Writing Tips

How to Write for a Non-Academic Audience

4-minute read

10th March 2019

If you are passionate about your subject area, you may want to share your knowledge with the public. Getting your work read by a wider audience looks great on your resume, too. But writing for a non-academic audience is not like most academic writing , so we have some tips to help you start out:

Think about your audience and tailor your writing style accordingly.
Hook the reader from the opening lines (e.g., by posing a question).
Focus on your main topic and avoid tangents. Think, too, about what you want to achieve with your writing and let this guide you.
Keep your language simple, but don’t talk down to your readers.
Have you article proofread before you submit it to the publisher.

Read on for more advice on writing for a non-academic audience.

1. Know Who Are You Writing For

Remember that your readers may not be familiar with your subject area. As such, you will need to think about who you are writing for and what your audience knows about the topic of the article.

You can do this by reading other articles from the publication you are writing for, which will give you a sense of who it is aimed at and its general tone. You may also want to read articles on similar topics from other publications to gauge the overall level of public knowledge.

If you have an idea for an article without a specific publication in mind, meanwhile, try visiting your school’s media relations department to see if they have advice or contacts to share.

2. Hooking the Reader

When writing for a non-academic audience, you need to hook your reader. You can do this by posing a question. For example, we might begin an article about artificial intelligence by asking:

Could a computer do your job? And what does the rise of AI in the workplace mean for the humans that are being replaced by technology?

As well as setting up what the article will address, this makes the issue personal for the reader. Alternatively, you could begin with an anecdote or structure your article around a personal experience. The aim is to provide an emotional core that readers can relate to.

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3. Keep It Focused

The best articles for non-academic audiences discuss a single issue or idea in clear, focused terms. If you stray too far from your main topic, on the other hand, you risk losing your reader.

Think, too, about what you want to achieve with the article. Is it meant to explain a complicated issue for a non-specialist audience? Or is it an opinion piece where you are seeking to convince readers of something? Whatever your aim, let this guide your writing.

4. Simple, Not Simplistic

Your writing style may depend on the publication (ask if they have a style sheet or author instructions). As a rule, though, you should keep your writing fairly simple and informal. This may mean:

Using everyday language when possible, avoiding unnecessary jargon.
Using shorter sentences and paragraphs than you would in an academic paper . Remember that clarity and concision are vital.
Defining any technical terms you use.
Using subheadings to structure the article and guide the reader.
Using bullet points and formatting to highlight key details.

Remember, too, that using simple language is not the same as dumbing down. You may need to avoid the complex justifications, technical language, and endless footnotes of standard academic writing, but this does not mean you should talk down to your audience.

Instead, treat your readers like undergraduate students. They might not know much about the subject right now, but they are intelligent and eager to learn. Your job is help them do this!

5. Find a Proofreader

Finally, make sure to have your article proofread by someone from outside your field of study. As well as making sure your writing is free from typos, this gives you a “test” reader who can highlight any passages that may be too technical or complex for a non-academic audience. You can then clarify these passages, if required, before you submit your article for publication.

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Writing for General, Non-Academic Audiences: Benefits, Opportunities, Issues

September 12, 2017

Scott Montgomery

First Things

1. why write for the public .

Social scientists investigate and write about society. It therefore makes sense that they share this important work with those whom they study, including decision-makers. In truth, the public is very interested in what social science disciplines have to say—about politics, foreign policy, history, economics, area studies, studies of society, culture, and language. People are more aware of how relevant and important knowledge is in these fields than ever before.

A key reason is that they know or sense the world has entered a period of major uncertainty. Major challenges to liberal democracy, for example, have risen in many western nations, including the U.S., even as issues related to terrorism, immigration, climate change, religion, and more have appeared as daily headlines. It is clear that the news media aren’t able to do justice to the complexity of the real world without relying on academics with real expertise in related areas. The internet is also a factor. People spend far more time reading online material than print. Online venues of information are where the public now seeks answers.

This has meant a growing realm of new publishing opportunities. As members of the academia, we have spent years researching, debating, and communicating at the highest levels of knowledge. We are experts in our chosen subjects and are very often the best ones to inform the public about the background and substance to certain issues and to provide it with opinions that have depth and logic. Some might say we have the obligation to do this; others would disagree. But either way, the reality is that there are more avenues than ever before to share our expertise in a greater arena. In short, there are concrete reasons to write for the public. What are they?

Such writing confirms and legitimizes the importance of your work (and you).
It creates and or expands your presence as a worthy, knowledgeable source both nationally and internationally–even globally.
It generates influence and therefore opportunities to make new connections and collaborations, as well as representing your work further.
It helps you think about your work in new ways, suggesting new areas of research.
It will raise your level of confidence, as a scholar and representative of your field.
It can produce valuable ideas for a book or a new course
It will attract the notice of grad students (apprentices)
It is a way to defend against intellectual malfeasance

2. What are the Proven Benefits?

Writing for a general audience develops a powerful new skill. You don’t have to be John Stuart Mill to understand that an ability to communicate with the greatest number provides you with something of considerable utility. But it helps to make this concrete. What specific, proven benefits can it yield?

By creating a track record of publication, scholars have made themselves more attractive to book publishers. It shows you can write well enough and already have an audience. These are actually very important things for a publisher.
By urging (or forcing) you to think about and work on your writing, the stylistic and vocabulary choices you make, it will improve your scholarly writing.
If you work in an area that is controversial or focused on conflict, your research may be misinterpreted or misused by others who write for the public. Representing your own research for general readers is the best way to defend against this or correct it.
Comments from readers can be valuable, suggesting new areas to research or write about; other articles, papers, reports, etc. you may have missed; issues related to your work you may have overlooked; possible collaborators in other countries or other fields. You will also receive compliments from thankful readers—a true and sincere reward.
As your readership will inevitably include other academics, the range and number of citations to your work in journal articles and books may well increase.
Establishing a respected online presence—demonstrating a concern for public understanding—has helped some scholars gain research funding, including from private sources (foundations, institutions, donors).

A common worry holds that non-academic writing won’t count toward tenure or promotion and may even count against them. The first part of this remains true in a significant number of universities, though the second part is less often the case today than in the past. Anyone seeking tenure, of course, must satisfy the requirements their department has set. Yet such requirements are not always fixed or inflexible: there is growing recognition that material published for a broad readership can bring positive attention to a department and institution. Old school bias against writing for the public is eroding today.

It’s also true that not all social scientists decide to remain within the halls of academia. Outside this realm, any publication you do for general audiences is likely to count in your favor, possibly quite strongly. If you work for an NGO, think tank, research institute, foundation, or even a government entity, the ability to communicate with broad audiences could advance your career no small degree.

3. Facts and Knowledge Matter

The title of this section should require little explanation or argument. Yet we know that isn’t the case. It is all too clear that if the most well-informed people don’t come forward to help guide public debate, others will. As is also clear, some of these “others” may have only tentative loyalty to the facts on a particular subject. Social scientists, by adding their voice on subjects directly relevant to their expertise, can help ensure that actual research and knowledge have a solid position in related discussion and debate. These are not small achievements.

Again, this isn’t to argue for any obligation or necessity of activism. The point, instead, is that the national and global conversations about many important issues and topics remain much poorer without the informed participation of social scientists.

This applies not only to the public as a whole but to policy-makers and their staffs. If you have done research on something like the psychological state of people involved in natural disasters, the rise in the number of felons not allowed to vote in the U.S., or the history of Russian nationalism since 1917, you may well have important, helpful things to say about a situation or event that is a focus of international interest.

4. You, Your Institution, and Your Field

We hinted at this above: anytime you publish something online, you expand your presence in the one medium that matters most today. Some call this your intellectual “brand.” As an academic, you may find this term uncomfortable, due to its marketing aroma. Yet “brand” is today applied to any entity that can benefit from a larger scale of recognition, e.g. companies, neighborhoods, cities, activist groups, political parties, celebrities, and institutions, and so on. In the digital universe, “brand” has become synonymous with “recognition.”

Such being the case, whenever you publish online with your affiliation after your name (nearly always, in other words), attention goes to your institution and, if mentioned, your department as well. Because many such publications are now being picked up by other journals, blogs, tweets, and more, this benefit is often multiplied. Indeed, it gains an exponent.

Universities are coming to recognize this advantage. A growing number have begun to encourage it. This is not limited to departments of political science or international studies, whose subjects are often in the news. It can apply to most social science, since departments and colleges not only take pride in their faculty adding to public conversations about important subjects but understand that this kind of activity can increase possibilities for concrete benefits: funding (from both public and private sources), attracting new faculty and graduate students, and also raising the overall level of status and influence of the institution itself.

Beyond yourself, your department, and the institution you work for, it is your chosen field that benefits from your online publication. The historian who writes a piece about textbook changes, the anthropologist who examines American cultural forms in China, the Gender Studies prof who looks at the role of young mothers in the migrations from Syria, all draw attention through their commentary to their background and training. Adding to the perceived legitimacy and value of your discipline is no trivial thing.

5. General Audiences: Who are They and What Do They Want?

Writing for general audiences used to mean making your material as simple as possible. The rule of thumb held that the average reading level of the public was equal to an eighth grader. No more. Such may approximate the truth in some areas of science (molecular genetics?); it is decidedly not the case for social science material.

Today, the overwhelming majority of people who want to read articles, essays, op-eds, commentary, and more about topics related to the larger world is made up of college-educated individuals and students. In broad terms, they are not merely interested in the society around them. They are eager to make sense of it. They are hungry for information, interpretations, ideas, conclusions, and opinion. These are not neatly defined categories, to be sure; they are meant only to provide some notion of the range of material involved. Informal surveys of academic authors who write for the public suggest that the more of these elements you include in a single piece of writing, the more appreciative your audience will be.

6. Policy Makers: A Special Market

Depending on your subject and message, your writing may reach a special subset of educated readers: decision makers, especially in government. If this is one of your goals in writing for non-academic audiences—to inform or sway opinion on matters you feel strongly about or that affect your field or the nation—then by all means seek to join the ranks of those who are doing so. Here are some realities to keep in mind.

Trying to publish an article on a major policy issue in the news will be difficult, unless you already have a proven track record related to the subject. No matter how knowledgeable you may be, if you haven’t published a book or several articles (or both), or if you don’t hail from one of the world’s most elite universities, you’ll be competing against people who have these “qualifications,” including people who may already be known to the editor as competent and reliable. The editorial world, in fact, is fairly conservative when it comes to selecting writers; a particular journal or other venue usually wants to avoid as much risk as possible on a big issue topic. You can sometimes get around this by taking a unique angle on the subject (e.g. using data or information that you have special purview over), or choosing a smaller, corollary issue that you can then use as a basis for advancing your larger point of view.

Of course, think tanks of varied stripe can be a source of competition. Swaying decision makers’ minds is what they attempt to do for a living. Policy makers and their staffs are familiar with the better known among think tanks but also understand that each has its own (limited) point of view. Think tanks purposely choose issue areas and topics highly relevant to government and military concerns. Of course, some places lean heavily right, others left, and still others aim somewhere near the center. If you have the opportunity to write for these places, your work will most likely be read by some people with input to the policy making process. But few, if any, policy makers or their staff rely on think tank material alone.

Here’s an example. You write an article about research you’re doing on a fishing grounds disagreement between Malaysia and Indonesia near the Kepulauan Anambas islands. This article is shared around by some readers and ends up in other publications that cover Southeast Asia. It ends up on the “must read” list for naval staff members of the U.S. 7 th Fleet (Pacific) and a senator on the Armed Services Committee concerned with Chinese territorial claims in the South China Sea. Such interest in your piece is even more likely if you make the connection to regional territorial concerns part of the article. This works on a local level, too. A short piece where you introduce sociological research on life expectancy for certain professions in a particular state, province, or city will be of immediate interest to any government representative (national or provincial) for this area.

Two key points are worth noting. First, people involved in policy making always want the most current, high-quality information available. Second, government staff members and even intelligence agencies, no matter how thorough they may be, do not have a monopoly on such information. As an academic researcher, your work involves generating new knowledge and interpretations that others might utilize. This can put you in a special position to impact debate and opinion and, thereby, in some measure, policy decisions too.

Style and Content

1. familiar territory.

Writing is a skill, and like any skill, it comes from training and practice. But it can be greatly helped by recognizing that this skill is something you are entirely familiar with. You know from your own reading, years of it in fact, what kind of discourse you’re aiming at for a general audience. You’ve read hundreds, perhaps thousands, of op-eds, news items, non-scholarly articles, professional blogs, and much more. You know a good article, well-written and well put together, when you see it.

No less, you already have some skill communicating with non-expert audiences—your teaching, especially to undergraduates. You have real experience with explaining scholarly knowledge to the uninitiated. These days, moreover, with so many foreign students studying in English-speaking countries, you may have revisited your explanatory powers (consciously or otherwise) and adjusted them further.

Like many academics, you may sometimes weave in little stories to your teaching, biographical or historical material, touches of humor, a striking aside or a powerful image, even a bit (if you’re truly daring) of personal experience. Such elements increase your familiarity with communicating to general audiences. If you are at all successful in your teaching, you know a good deal about how to do this.

Fortified with this realization, you may feel a surge of capability to forge ahead and begin writing and publishing brilliant pieces that will inevitably elevate la condition humaine . However possible, this isn’t likely just yet

2. Examples: Useful Comparisons

A good way to show the truth of what has just been said is to compare the difference between an academic piece of writing and its re-written form for general readers. Here, then, is the scholarly piece:

In the social sciences, post-colonial thinkers have done much to overturn standard positive ideas of “civilization” by showing that it was routinely associated with Western imperialism and its promotion of racism, slavery, genocide, genderism, and other such iniquities. 1 However, it is possible to maintain that the term was not always employed in colonial times to reinforce such points of view or to extend them and deepen them further. 1,2 Indeed, historical study reveals that Western attitudes toward colonialism were quite diverse and complex. While a majority of thinkers embraced colonial “adventures” and the profits it brought to the home country, there were others who rejected and even denounced colonialism in various forms, including bitter literary satire.

And here, the non-scholarly version:

What does the term “civilization” mean today? For much of the modern era, it was a positive word, associated with things Western. But for exactly this reason, scholars have recast it as embodying the evils of colonialism, particularly racism, slavery, and genocide. This new view may itself be incomplete. It turns out that European attitudes towards the colonial seizing of territories were complex. While many thinkers did celebrate it, some found it odious and expressed their reaction as bitter satire. Irish author Oliver Goldsmith was one of these.

We can see what has been done here. If we were asked to make a list of the changes that have taken place between paragraphs 1 and 2, it might look like this:

Sentences are shorter.
They also vary in length.
The first sentence poses a question to engage and even intrigue the reader. This is one way to begin.
The style of paragraph 2 is more colloquial (“for exactly this reason,” “It turns out”).
There is a clear logic and flow in the language, with transitions.
Words with more charge have been substituted (“evils,” “seizing,” “hateful,” “angry”).
The message is not dumbed down too much. The style is not condescending; it does not say, in effect: “readers of this article are probably not aware that…”).
Paragraph 2 does not include everything in paragraph 1 (“genderism,” “historical study”), but has enough to convey the essential meaning.
Paragraph 2 is shorter.
No footnote or reference citations are included.
A specific person has been added.

Here, for variety’s sake, is another version, still shorter and more concise. Some publication opportunities demand a piece that is 800 words or less, in which case you’ll need to evaporate a large part of whatever original paper, essay, or thesis you’re translating.

What does “civilization” mean today? Many scholars maintain that, as epitomized by Europe, it has an inerasable bond with colonialism, therefore racism, genocide, and slavery. Accurate as this is, it may not be the whole story. In fact, there were Europeans who didn’t celebrate the colonial “adventure” but saw it deserving of bitter satire. Irish author Oliver Goldsmith was one of these.

As scholars of social reality, we really do know things that can help the general public better understand and even navigate the contemporary world. But to do this, we need to make our knowledge and research accessible. We need to do this in ways that are recognized as credible but also interesting . At some level, we need to make our readers want to know what we know.

3. Tips to Think About

Some important tips emerge from our brief comparison above. They are things to think about as you read general interest articles that have to do with your field or related fields (you should do this kind of reading, if you want to write this kind of material).

The introduction should be brief, about 4-6 lines. It should not simply state something but create interest. It also needs to at least hint at what comes next.
The main body of an article, together with its conclusion, must be able to defeat the worst question directed at any published writing: “So what?” So you need to tell the reader why your material is important and interesting.
But not so important that you deserve to brag in some fashion or trash the work of others in your field. As the author, you are as much a representative as an individual.
To engage readers, it often helps to have one or more people in your narrative, who are involved in doing something, whether in the past, present, or future.
In contrast to academic writing, an article for the general reader needs to have emotion in it. There are a number of ways to do this: using charged words (as shown in paragraph 2 above); adding a bit of human detail; adding emphasis (“this striking idea/discovery/finding”).
If you are arguing a position, briefly mention arguments against it or else possible weaknesses. If relevant, also note the work of others in the field. Being humble and generous is attractive to readers and will generate good will towards your material.

Writing Skill and How to Acquire It

1. good models are good mentors.

All good writers learn their craft from other writers. This is true no matter what type of authorship is involved, whether non-fiction or poetry. Apprenticeship takes place through disciplined emulation, by absorbing and adapting quality work that has been published.

The first step is to identify and save models of excellent writing in your own area or areas you wish to write in. Ask yourself whenever reading an article: is this something I wish I had written? If so, save it to re-read and study later on. Just one or two examples aren’t enough; think in terms of five or more. Think also of replacing early choices with later ones that seem better.

It’s best to expose yourself to a range of articles for a couple of reasons. Quality writing can’t be produced by formulae; there are a number of effective ways to compose any specific article. Also, choosing a fair number allows you to go through them with an even more critical eye and choose the best three or four.

What to look for? An article is divided into:

opening (paragraph 1), starting with the first sentence (readable in 7-10 secs)
conclusion (last paragraph), ending with powerful closing sentence

Examine your models in terms of these parts. The workshop presentations included on this website provide some examples to help you do this. It is a good idea at this point to look through these samples to help sharpen your skill at judging what works best.

Consider asking these kinds of questions: How well does each part work? How do the different parts fit and flow together? Does the opening engage your interest while revealing what the article is about? Does the body follow this up, developing it, adding interesting details while keeping you engaged? Does the conclusion bring everything to a meaningful end, with an effective final sentence? If your answer to any of these questions is “no” or “sort of,” then you need a better model.

2. How to Use Your “Mentors”

Once you’ve chosen several or more model articles, you need to study them. A major goal is to absorb from these temporary “mentors” an awareness of what sounds good and what doesn’t. Another aim is to learn different approaches for writing each section of an article. Ultimately, repeated study of excellence can build over time a kind of internal voice or guide that is able to continually produce options for the next phrase or sentence, for the arrangement of details, and for other aspects of structure and expression.

There are more than a few ways to study your models with these goals in mind. Some are mentioned below, but you may have methods of your own or know of others from friends or writing guides that you feel are more suitable. The key is to find one or more approaches that work well or best for you. This may require some experimenting, which is never a waste of time in this context. Trying out different methods will almost inevitably teach you important things about your own proclivities as a writer. Overall, your models provide material to adapt, emulate, and personalize.

Here, then, are some approaches to consider:

Method 1: Choose one article to work with and simply read it over slowly and carefully, one sentence and paragraph at a time, paying close attention to the style (word choice, sentence length) and to how well each part follows what came before.

Method 2: Either copy the article out, perhaps one part at a time, perhaps selected paragraphs, or recite it in your head. The goal here is to actually reproduce its language and flow. This method has been used by many fiction and non-fiction writers to “try on” the style of a great author and to absorb some of its structures, sounds, and vocabulary.

Method 3: Go one step further and memorize parts of an article so that you have them ready in mind. This approach would focus on specific sentences and paragraphs that you find particularly good. These are pieces that you can use in your own writing by imitating their syntax while using different words. This last—different wording—is important, of course. Plagiarism must be avoided; nothing said here should be understood to suggest that copying is justified. It isn’t. Note that software used to check for plagiarism today is sometimes programmed to identify a succession of as few as 6-8 words as probable stealing from an older publication.

3. Tips and Techniques

The following are a final series of ideas to help you move forward with writing for a general audience.

Assume your audience will know very little about your topic. You’ll need to explain any concepts or theories you want to include. Avoid using any jargon if possible, or else use only one or two terms and define them in the text.
If you are writing about a series of events, the development of a theory, or some other topic with a historical dimension, be sure to “honor chronology,” as the saying goes. Putting things in order this way encourages you to create a story-like narrative, which will be more engaging and successful for a non-academic audience.
If your subject is your own research, keep in mind that a general interest piece is not the place to stake a claim. This is not really the place to demonstrate and demand you be recognized as priority discoverer or developer of something entirely new. You are writing about your work, somewhat similar to a jounalist, except that unlike a third party observer you can’t successfully praise and admire yourself.
Depending on your topic, you might find it helpful to begin with a brief anecdote, vignette, or description of a scene as your opening. You can then follow this with an explanation of what it means or suggests in terms of your main topic, an easy way to move into the body of the article.
As your models show, sentences in general interest articles are generally shorter, often much shorter, than in academic writing. They also use the active tense more often—the subject performs the action of the verb, e.g. “Ruth Coyer, a sociologist at Drake University, wondered about this and decided…”, “Her findings revealed that…”, “Today, most sociologists reject Coyer’s work, but my own research suggests it may have been too easily dismissed.”
One way to think about the body of an article is this: supposing the opening engages the reader’s interest, whatever follows must answer the question “So what?” or, still more blunt, “Tell me why should I care?” These may seem rather brutal questions (and they are), but they accurately convey what’s at stake for you, as the writer.
Pay attention in your models and other quality articles to the use of questions. These are powerful, rhetorically speaking, in terms of engaging the reader. They can be employed in a number of places too—in the title (“Can Christians Truly Understand the Qu’ran?”), as the opening sentence (“Why has the U.S. never signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty for nuclear weapons, a key part of the non-proliferation landscape?”), as a transition within the body (“So what might this tell us about how language is used by teenagers in Singapore?”), and in some cases as the ending (“At present, we still have no final answer to how many species of hominids may have existed in Central Asia.”). Questions can be used several times in a single article, but they can be over-used too. Be aware that they are a rhetorical device with a specific purpose.
Most online journals and other venues want you to pitch an article first. This is helpful, because it can prevent you from wasting much time writing something that isn’t wanted. Some journals ask for a brief (100-150 words) description of the topic, why it’s important, and what your expertise is to write about it. Others provide boxes for you to fill in with this information. Such a pitch is often quite valuable, as it forces you to condense and clarify your subject in as few words as possible (no windy descriptions allowed).
In all cases, your subject will have a much better chance of being accepted by an editor if you tie it to something that is in the news or otherwise a recent or ongoing event. Timeliness is above godliness.
It is very common for editors in general interest online journals to make changes insubmitted articles. They may substitute their own title, delete whole paragraphs, reorganize section, add or erase subtitles, and ask for more information. You should be ready for such hands-on treatment and not take offense. But make sure that important things are not warped or lost and that accuracy is maintained. Editors are not tyrants; they want articles to be as high quality and appropriate to the audience as possible. But they aren’t experts and can make errors of judgment, just as writers can. You want a good relationship with them, so if you need to reject any of their changes it’s best to be direct and friendly and to explain why their suggested change shouldn’t be used.
Last but certainly not least, if you work at a college, university, or research institution, it is very likely they have a media relations office. This will be staffed by knowledgeable, experienced people who know the publishing world quite well and would like nothing better than to help you get an article written and placed. They have other work to do and cannot serve as your mentor, but they can often be good guides and can help jump start your own efforts. By all means, check out this office and what it has to offer. You may want to do this even before you begin to write, to discuss your topic idea and how to approach it. But don’t expect anyone to do your work for you. Moreover, people who work in media relations do not know everything. The landscape of online, general interest publication is highly dynamic and constantly evolving. Exploring it yourself, specifically in relation to your own field, is a good idea. You may well discover resources the media relations people don’t yet know about and will thank you for communicating to them.

This publication was made possible in part by a grant from Carnegie Corporation of New York. The statements made and views expressed are solely the responsibility of the author.

About the Author

Scott L. Montgomery is an author, geoscientist, and affiliate faculty member in the Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington. He writes and lectures on a wide variety of topics... More

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8 Chapter 8 (Non-academic Writing)

Beyond the Essay

While research-based academic arguments are the focal point of college composition courses, there are other forms of writing that students should be familiar with in general. One key thing that should be remembered about written communication is that it frequently has legal significance, serving as a record of the thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs of the creator at the time of its creation. What this can mean is that a well-intentioned joke or aside comment could become part of a legal record, with deep significance for a business or individual. This chapter will outline two forms of non-academic writing that require at least some degree of research, argumentation, and audience-awareness. However, many other forms of non-academic writing have the same sorts of requirements.

Although formal memos and proposals still do exist in business, emails between parties is a low-pressure, highly accessible way to communicate with others. One of the most important things to remember when composing emails is that audience is frequently not the person who receives the first message.

Emails get forwarded to other members of a business, often times to draw attention to ideas or to pass responsibility for a reply on to others. Emails get attached to replies to others, or other participants get “looped in” on conversations. The result is that sometimes a message that was intended to be between two peers ends up being seen by supervisors and subordinates, all with the original author’s name attached inside the document history.

Even someone who deletes an email from their own files does not remove it from the files of everyone else who has received it. In some cases, deleting an email actually breaks legal and company policies. Ultimately, then, an email needs to represent the originator well.

In the terms that have been used throughout this book, that frequently means that an email needs to focus on the claims, elaborations, and concessions of the argument. Background is typically shared between all parties or can be reconstructed if necessary. However, a simple comment (e.g. “we need to have the new hire in place by Thursday”) followed by an explanation of reasoning that serves as the warrant (e.g. “we are going live with a new project on Friday and we need the extra help”) and any covering or limiting comments (e.g. “unless we don’t think that’s possible”) will often suffice.

Alternately, sometimes an email chain constructs the parts of the argument collectively. One author offers a proposal, another adds a complaint or concern that leads to a limitation, and a third party provides background on why such proposals have not been followed in the past. Every step of the way, the author of each link in the chain is forming an impression in the minds of the other recipients.

When writing an email, professionals in the workplace often provide evidence in the form of attachments (e.g. “these numbers show we have a problem in shipping”), not as explicit data quoted in the body of the text itself. Additionally, many times people in a workplace will want to initiate a conversation in writing that they then conclude in person. Frequently, there will be those who are reluctant to commit ideas to writing–while at the same time there will be others who insist that everything must be written down. Balancing these forces requires that people pay careful attention to the specific demands of their different audiences.

Businesses and government agencies thrive on structure. This, inevitably, means forms . New patients need to have their medical histories taken and documented in a consistent fashion that allows all parties to find the information they need for that patient’s health in a short amount of time without errors. Insurance companies need to be able to examine which party was responsible for a car accident and to what extent the damage being repaired matches the nature of the crash as reported. Team leaders need to know which deadlines exist and what funding is available as they make requests for personnel or resources.

Ultimately, forms are typically not documents like essays. They are often presented to the user as a series of options and a small handful of written sections–and often these written sections are minimal but unavoidable. What that means is that the obligation of the person filling out the form is to provide as much information as possible with as few words as possible, and to do so without personal interpretation except where specifically asked for–a driver might have exceeded the posted speed limit (not “floored it like a maniac”) or a patient might have presented with a sore throat (not “acted like he has the flu”).

Forms seldom acknowledge personal opinion, artistic expression, or the convenience of the person completing them. Instead, they are about fulfilling a function that seems essential to someone in a position of authority. In this way, they are very similar to academic arguments. Likewise, forms do not put the person writing the form at the center of the document. Forms make the information itself a priority. This is, once again, like academic writing. However, academic writing puts a much greater priority on explaining reasoning and providing analysis, whereas many forms want simple data reporting.

Other Workplace Communication

There are always exceptions to the general guidelines included here. Presentations using slides represent a form of writing, but that skillset is specific enough to be best handled in the context of speech courses or technical writing courses. Likewise, grant proposals, findings reports, and even engineering surveys are all forms of writing that require research in their creation and that are shaped by their specific audiences that they no longer resemble college essays.

The reality is that using research to inform a decision is not even limited to writing. Buying a car, taking a job, and even picking a class can all benefit from learning more about the situation, looking at that knowledge critically, and drawing conclusions from that research.

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How to drive impact: writing for a non-academic audience

Sharing your research with audiences outside the traditional academic sphere has excellent potential to raise awareness of your findings, maximize their usefulness, and drive impact. Oftentimes, however, it’s the people outside of academia that have the potential to put your research findings into action. It’s crucial to remember that non-academic audiences, such as the public, policymakers, or industry practitioners, are unlikely to be as familiar with your research topic as you are. So, how do you communicate your findings to this audience in an easily digestible, engaging way? Read on to uncover three essential tactics for connecting with the hearts and minds of non-academic audiences.

Header image for how to write for a non-academic audience blog

Why should you write for non-academics?

The answer to this question is pretty simple: communicating your research to a non-academic audience paves the way for increased readership and a broader potential impact .

Reaching out to non-academics often means sharing your work and engaging with important stakeholders and decision-makers, including policymakers. Such audiences can use and translate your research into actionable changes and improvements for society at large.

But policymakers aren’t the only stakeholders to keep in mind when presenting your research findings. Getting in touch with and building relations with journalists, media outlets, or the press can help attract media attention and coverage for your research. This is another way to get your work discovered, achieve greater reach, and establish your presence as a credible and experienced researcher in your field.

In addition, interacting with different audiences can support opportunities for connections and collaborations with other stakeholders, such practitioners in the field. Your work can interest, engage, or inspire communities beyond active scientists resulting in further representation of your work through new ideas or discoveries.

When writing for a non-academic audience, it’s really important to think about who you are writing for , how your research will help them , and why they should keep reading and engage with your work.

Tactic #1: Understand who your audience are and what they need

There are two main audience groups outside academia you should consider sharing your research with as they can apply your findings in a variety of ways in their daily work: (a) professionals and practitioners, and (b) policymakers, science writers, journalists, and the public. To effectively communicate your research implications and increase the chances of making an impact , it is essential to understand the different needs of these two important groups.

Professionals and practitioners need to get answers to practical questions and make informed decisions while at their desks, onsite, in the field, or with patients to improve practice. This specialist audience has some understanding of subject-specific terminology, but also limited time to make decisions and take action. When communicating with this group, you should highlight the practical implications of your research.

Policymakers, science writers, journalists, and the public require clear information on the decisions, steps, and actions that can be taken, or pitfalls that can be avoided to make positive change. To effectively communicate with this non-specialist audience, you will need to share the key takeaways of your work using simple language and supporting content, such as videos, infographics, or social media posts.

Tactic #2: Help your audience relate to your research through storytelling

After identifying your audience and their needs, the next step is to understand how they can benefit from your research. Some key things to reflect on are whether your work relates to a current policy issue or if it has relevance to your local community. Plus, you can think about whether your research could help reassess existing practices or aid decision making.

To bring your research to life and help audiences identify with your work, you can employ storytelling techniques. There is evidence to suggest that narratives and storytelling are easier to digest and non-expert audiences find them more engaging than traditional scientific communication.

Following a narrative structure can help your research facts and findings flow more eloquently from one element to the next. This will make it easier for your non-academic audience to understand what your key messages are.

Yet, numbers and data cannot persuade an audience in full on their own. Your research also needs to speak to your audience’s emotions. You can incorporate your research participants’ voices into the narrative or include your own experience as a researcher to make your findings and implications more human. Such individual perspectives can appeal to your audience’s emotions, and support identification and engagement with your research.

Tactic #3: Be concise and add a plain language summary

Communicating your research to a non-academic audience is like talking about your work to a member of your family—you need to keep things simple and clear. Here are some key elements to consider:

What’s more important—what you say or how you say it? When it comes to non-academic audiences, the answer is both. Develop a writing style that is specific and concise. Shorter articles are much easier to absorb. Use active language and definitive statements, and choose an interesting and brief title that clearly describes your research. Moreover, avoid jargon and academic buzzwords that can easily cause confusion. You should also spell out any acronyms—especially in your title—so your research is easy to understand and discover.

You can consider adding a plain language summary (PLS) , especially if your research topic is particularly complex. PLSs are clear, short, standalone documents that summarize the contents of scientific and medical research for non-specialist audiences, including patients, the public, non-native English speaking professionals, media and science communicators, or policymakers. A study analyzing article metrics found that 60% of articles with a PLS were accessed significantly more than those without one.

You should write your plain language summary in a way that is accessible and understandable to a broad, non-expert audience. Plus, your summary should reflect the same scientific messages and conclusions as your scientific paper. You can also consider alternative formats other than text, such as infographics, visual or video abstracts. For instance, there is evidence to suggest that articles with video abstracts have 82% more full-text downloads.

Writing for non-academics can be challenging regardless of your discipline as it requires using a different language style and set of principles. Yet, communicating your research in a way that speaks to the needs of different groups can lead to a more significant impact beyond academia.

Use these strategies to increase the impact of your research

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Academic Writing vs. Non-Academic Writing

Introduction.

Academic writing is typically found in a post-secondary setting where experts have produced works based on research and used others’ work to validate their findings. These also tend to be peer-reviewed works that are reliable and can be proven. On the other hand, non-academic writing would typically appear in a “magazine-like” work that is usually written by non-experts for the purpose to entertain, inform or persuade you to believe in something or buy something. For this course, you will be producing academic writing by including various other peer-reviewed materials to support your point.

Watch It: What is Academic Writing?

Watch What is academic writing? (3 minutes) on YouTube to review the characteristics of academic writing:

Video source : Lund University. (September 19, 2016). What is academic writing [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/1pE-ohVy9e0

Attribution & References

Except where otherwise noted, “Academic Writing vs. Non-Academic Writing” by Academic and Career Prep, Georgian College, is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 .

English for Degree Entrance (EDE) Copyright © by Carrie Molinski and Sue Slessor is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Feb 28, 2023

Academic vs Non-Academic Writing: Understanding the Differences and How to Use Them Effectively

Updated: Jul 17, 2023

Academic writing and non-academic writing are two distinct styles of writing that are used for different purposes and audiences. Understanding the differences between these two styles can help you become a more effective writer, whether you are writing a research paper or a blog post.

One of the main differences between academic and non-academic writing is their purpose. Academic writing is typically used for scholarly purposes, such as in research papers, dissertations, and theses. Its primary purpose is to convey information and ideas in a formal, objective manner. In contrast, non-academic writing is used for more general, everyday purposes and is often more personal and subjective in nature.

Another difference between the two styles is their audience. Academic writing is typically written for a specialized, professional audience of experts in a particular field. Non-academic writing, on the other hand, is often intended for a more general, lay audience.

The tone and language used in academic and non-academic writing also differ significantly. Academic writing is typically more formal and objective in tone, using technical language and jargon specific to the field. Non-academic writing, on the other hand, is often more personal and subjective, using colloquial language and a more conversational tone.

The structure of academic and non-academic writing also varies. Academic writing follows a more structured, formal format, with clear introduction, body, and conclusion sections. Non-academic writing is often more flexible in its structure, with a more casual approach to organization.

Finally, the citation style used in academic and non-academic writing differs. Academic writing typically follows specific citation styles, such as APA or MLA, to properly credit sources and avoid plagiarism. Non-academic writing, on the other hand, may not follow any specific citation style or may not require citations at all.

In conclusion, understanding the differences between academic and non-academic writing styles is important for effective communication. Whether you are writing a research paper or a blog post, being aware of these differences can help you craft your message in a way that is clear, effective, and appropriate for your intended audience.

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Research to Action

The Global Guide to Research Impact

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Making your research accessible

Referencing sources – making it work for non-academic audiences

By Kas Sempere 14/08/2018

Referencing our sources of evidence when writing for academic audiences is common practice. Yet, for the average reader of research outside academia, references are often a nuisance. As a research advisor in a development NGO, I am trying to work with a referencing model that simplifies referencing while not making it simplistic.

Referencing and bibliographies can be time-consuming for the busy researcher and reader, take up precious writing space, and shade attractive communication formats. And yet referencing is key to give rigour, history, fairness, and efficacy to our research pieces.

Quality and transparency – Whether it is what others have written or our own collected data – referencing is a self-check to ensure we are not making up claims or offering an unsupported opinion. Referencing helps our readers trace back, and check on the strength of our claims. We should be proud to let everyone know that we know where the information came from.
Research memory – Stating the sources of previous work gives solidity and personality to a text. It gives the research piece some history as part of something bigger, building on what is already there.
Inclusion and acknowledgment – There is a social justice dimension to referencing. For instance, the word ‘intersectionality’ was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw and originated in the black feminist movement . By omitting that detail we hide that history. Audiences may even think the term is ours – not fair!
Time management – Referencing makes life easier for others to trace back our arguments, and use them for their own purposes. Referencing supports us in not reinventing the wheel – isn’t it better to clarify how others defined intersectionality and see if it works for us rather than trying to define it from scratch?

We can try out a more optimal, inclusive, and unobtrusive model of referencing for non-academic audiences:

Optimal referencing – Not every claim we make needs to be referenced. If it is a widely held view, e.g. education is important for child development, or climate change is happening, it doesn’t need to be backed up – even if research exists to support that claim. However, if we are quoting statistics (e.g. ‘the adult female literacy rate in country X is…’) or making a claim that could be externally verified or raises further questions (e.g. ‘Y district was hit particularly hard by the floods’), then we should provide references.

At a minimum, we should reference quotations, historic concepts, facts based on another writer’s original research, references to published documents, and controversial statements (see Oxfam’s guide to referencing , 2012). Importantly, you can select one or two key single references in your research blog, news or summary where further info is given.

Inclusive referencing – We must pay special attention to referencing minority, excluded, and non-academic voices. We can also draw on sources beyond academic articles and books to make our sources more inclusive such as policy, practice, and media referencing. We can also ensure accessibility, for instance by prioritising open access references and giving URLs when possible. All this can be seen as part of ethical researching and communications.
Unobtrusive referencing – Lots of hints on this front to avoid formal referencing and bibliographies. At a minimum, we should always know who said what and the year it was published (United Nations, 2018). If that still sounds too formal, we can avoid putting source and date in brackets at the end of a sentence, as in the previous example, and include it in the prose, ‘…according to the United Nation in 2018’ or ‘In 2018 the United Nations noted that…’. We can also use smaller fonts for the references, hyperlink them, or put them at the end of the report where they are less distracting.

Many of the documents I review in my NGO job could gain from using this ‘light referencing’ protocol – from donor proposals to evaluations, policy documents, media outputs, corporate annual reports, and research pieces. All this should help ensure that audiences and communications colleagues are happy while we still achieve our evidencing and ethical mission. Readers are right to ask us for a referencing that is inspirational, creating documents that have personality, history, and depth.

With thanks to Hilary Cornish and Louisa Johnson for their contributions

This blog was originally shared internally at Christian Aid by the Centre for Excellence in Research, Evidence and Learning www.christianaid.org.uk/our-work/research

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The Critical Turkey

Essay Writing Hacks for the Social Sciences

Can I use non-academic sources in my essay?

One issue that can be confusing in social science essay writing is whether or not, and under what circumstances, you can use non-peer-reviewed, non-academic sources such as news articles, blogs, podcasts or youtube videos. Your lecturers and tutors are quick to point out that you shouldn’t, but then there always seem to be exceptions. This blog post looks in more detail at what these exceptions are, how to make use of them, and what pitfalls to avoid.

How academic sources are different

The first thing to be aware of, however, is that academic sources should always form the backbone of your discussion. Non-academic sources should only ever be an addition to this, and should never replace them. This should be reflected in your bibliography. There should be no reduction of academic sources at the expense of non-academic ones.

This is due to one of the principles of academic writing: The starting point of any study, book, journal article or student essay is always to look at what already exists on the topic. What have other scholars written on it, and how does your book/article/essay build on this existing body of knoweldge? In the hierarchy of knowledge claims (at least as academics see it), academic studies, that is ones that were conducted by university-trained staff, usually within the institutional framework of a university, and peer-reviewed before publication, are considered of the highest quality. And it is only on these foundations that your essay or dissertation will be considered a sound and trustworthy piece of writing.

[Quick explainer: ‘Peer-review’ refers to a process that academic journal articles (and to some extent books) need to go through before publication. They are reviewed and validated by ‘peers’, experts in the particular field of study. Many such articles never make it through that process, and most are amended according to the suggestions of the reviewers. This is a method of quality control, and makes sure (at least in theory. It’s not like this method doesn’t have its critics) that whatever data and whatever knowledge claims are published are sound and reliable.]

The use and non-use of non-academic sources

There are essentially three legitimate ways in which you can use non-academic sources. The first is for illustration. This is when you take examples reported in the news that serve as an illustration of a topic you are discussing. This can be a powerful addition to your essay, especially if it adds timely and current examples, and in a way helps contextualise your essay with what is currently going on in the world. However, there are some guidelines you should follow here. First, make sure your news sources are good quality, and, while of course not peer-reviewed-reliable, they should at least be ‘reliable-enough’, reputable sources. Good quality journalism such as The Times, Guardian, Economist etc. are fine. Steer away from the more tabloidy publications. And follow the referencing guidelines outlined below. If you want to cite statistics or other data discussed in the news article, you should always trace this data back to the actual study that was conducted, and cite this study rather than the news article.

The second instance is when you use non-academic sources as the object of your analysis. At its most developed, this can be a systematic discourse analysis, in which you examine the way, for example, social class is discussed in newspaper publications, or how neoliberal ideas were embedded in the political speeches and texts of New Labour (a famous study by Norman Fairclough, this quick 4-page review article (JSTOR) gives a good impression of what such a systematic discourse analysis can look like). My own PhD was a discourse analysis of how corruption was discussed in the formative periods of the modern nation state in Germany and the UK, in newspapers, legal documents, and parliamentary debates. In a more scaled-down version, you can do something similar, even in a short 1,500 word essay, by looking at a few examples of, say, how race is discussed in political speeches, class is discussed in tabloid newspapers, or gender is represented in advertisements [PDF of Goffman’s study] . In this case the quality of the source is not important, and you might even be interested specifically in how low-quality tabloidy news sources represent a specific theme. The difference to the above usage as illustration is that in the above, you observe what is going on in the world (illustration of, for example, racist incidents). Here, you observe the observors, examine how they represent specific topics, and question their motives for doing so in the way they are doing it.

The third, somewhat less common instance of using non-academic sources in your essay is when you want to discuss a claim or hypothesis made in, for example, an editorial of a newspaper, a political speech, or a blog or podcast of a renowned academic. This last example is indeed where it can become confusing, as the person making claims here is an academic (hence this is kind of an academic source), but the format in which it is made is non-academic, and not peer-reviewed. The short answer is that this should be treated like a non-academic source, as the peer-review process trumps the university affiliation. The longer answer, however, is that some sources can be considered more trustworthy than others, and in the hierarchy of trustworthiness, academics tend to be pretty high up. Use your own judgment, though. There are some academics that bullshit their way through the world wide web. You might have heard of Jordan Peterson.

Using such claims or hypothesis from non-academic sources is not very common, as usually academic sources provide us with plenty of such claims and hypothesis. Indeed, their use case tends to be on topics that have not been extensively researched (yet). An example here could be a claim about the impact of some new technology or social media platform, or the effect that a certain new policy has had. The way these hypotheses are then used in an academic essay or research paper is usually to examine whether these claims are true or not, which indeed is what a hypothesis is, a claim to be tested. The same goes for hypotheses that you probably already know you will disagree with, such as a politician’s claim that ‘people are fed up of experts’ or that ‘if you believe you are a citizen of the world, you are a citizen of nowhere’ (sounds like a 1930s Nazi slogan, but was actually Theresa May). These can be used as a linchpin in your essay, where you use this claim in your introduction, and the essay then goes on to show, using evidence and critical reasoning, how this is not the case.

How to reference non-academic sources

In all the above cases, it is important to make explicit in the text of your essay that these are indeed non-academic sources. This could be something like ‘As Monbiot claims in the Guardian’ or ‘The way this is framed in some right-wing media’ or ‘Giddens further discusses this in a blog article’. Explicitly signpost this, as these sources should not appear like the standard academic standard sources (no typo). A less benevolent reader/marker of your essay might otherwise suspect you of trying to sneak non-academic sources into the discussion, and of suggesting rigour when there isn’t.

Final thoughts

I hope this blog post clears up some of the vagaries and confusions regarding the use of non-academic sources in academic essay writing. Are there any examples or usage cases that I have overlooked, though? What is your strategy in using them? What has worked for you, and when has if backfired? Let me know in the comments below.

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What Are Some Examples of Non-Academic Text?

In the modern world, non-academic texts are far more common than their academic counterparts.

Examples of non-academic text include news articles, blog posts, personal essays, literature, poetry, scripts, and much, much more.

While there are strict requirements for what can be considered academic writing, non-academic text essentially encompasses everything that does not fall under the academic umbrella.

The average person reads non-academic information from a wide variety of sources every day, primarily via their computer or phone.

In order to understand what non-academic text is really defined as it’s important to know what defines academic works.

Table of Contents

What is academic text?

Academic writing refers explicitly to works that are written by a professional (or group of professionals) in a specific field and discusses a clearly defined subject within or related to that field.

The text often appears in a scholarly journal, but it may be published by any academic source and often undergoes years of revisions and peer reviews.

It’s also worth noting that the intended audience consists of other people in the academic field, including professors, researchers, and students.

Academic text is strict when it comes to style, and “flowery” writing is not generally acceptable because the point is the factual subject matter and findings rather than any underlying message or creative storytelling.

Any outside sources used will be clearly referenced and listed in a specially-designated format used by other academics (like MLA or APA style).

The work itself will often go on to be cited as a source for future research papers and other academic texts.

How is non-academic text different from academic text?

Non-academic text is virtually anything that does not meet academic standards. This is particularly true when it comes to being a scholarly article published in an academic journal, as non-academic works may still contain properly cited sources in a similar fashion to academic writing.

They may also cover a niche topic but may or may not be the work of a professional researcher in that subject.

Nevertheless, academic text varies greatly in tone, length, subject, and research extent. Most news and blog posts cover more general subjects and come from people who write on a wide variety of topics that they are not experts on (though experts may be quoted).

These articles also typically fall between 500 and 2,000 words, whereas academic writing tends to be significantly longer.

What is the purpose of non-academic writing?

While academic writing is published to inform (usually on new discoveries or a reinforced hypothesis), non-academic writing’s primary purpose is to entertain and/or persuade the reader.

It can, however, still be informative, and it is often designed to have more visual appeal than academic text.

What kinds of subjects does non-academic text cover?

Non-academic writing can theoretically cover any topic. Articles can even be written about academic publications and use published research as sources, but they will still be considered non-academic because the language is more colloquial, and the audience is general rather than strictly professional or scholarly.

What is the writing style of non-academic text?

Non-academic text has a wide range when it comes to writing style, and it largely all depends on where it is being published.

Social media posts, for example, don’t require any specific writing style (aside from minimum or maximum word counts on some platforms).

News articles, meanwhile, follow AP style in most publications (like newspapers and online renditions) and Chicago style in others (like magazines).

Compared to academic writing, non-academic text is considered informal.

What are examples of non-academic publications?

There are many thousands of non-academic publications that are active today. Some widespread mainstream examples include the following:

Time Magazine
The New Yorker
Cosmopolitan
Men’s Health

For comparison, an example of an academic publication would be The American Journal of Public Health .

As a general rule, any newspaper or religious text (like the Bible and the Torah) are considered non-academic sources.

What are examples of unpublished non-academic text?

Non-academic writing isn’t just limited to publications. There’s a good chance you see it every day in other forms. Some examples include:

Business letters and memos
Text messages
Diary entries
Press releases
Public online reviews

Some legal documents may also be considered non-academic writing. However, legal writing is considered its own specialization, and the text may be considered academic if published in a legal journal or used for scholarly pursuits.

Can non-academic text be a reliable source?

There’s a lot of debate over what kinds of non-academic texts may be considered reliable sources.

Social media posts and creative works rely primarily on personal opinions, for example, blog and news articles that do claim to be heavily researched and “non-biased” are often still written with pre-meditated angles.

This is in direct contradiction to academic writing, which depends on study data and research results for its information.

As a result, non-academic text is not generally considered a reliable source for scholarly articles or publications in academic journals.

However, they may be used as a reference in other non-academic works if deemed reliable by the writer.

Likewise, some academic collegiate papers may cite news articles if they support the subject argument and are considered sufficiently researched.

How can readers spot non-academic text that is reliable?

Non-academic text will never be considered as reliable as academic articles. However, those that strive to be accurate and informative will include clear sources (usually with in-text links, if published online) and explore different sides of an argument.

The writer will also be open about any potential conflicting interests.

Nevertheless, what one reader deems reliable, another may decide isn’t. Because non-academic text is often written to persuade (and may come from a publication known to promote certain opinions), individual articles may be judged first by their publisher and second by their actual content.

Does SEO affect non-academic text?

Search Engine Optimization (SEO) is another thing that sets non-academic text apart from its academic counterparts.

While academic publications will never be written for SEO purposes (even if published online), non-academic text often is.

This has a direct effect on the wording choices used throughout the work and its structural organization, making it easier for search engines like Google to decipher.

SEO is the reason that list-format articles have become so prominent across the world of non-academic publications.

It is also why photos tend to be more common in non-academic works (though scholarly articles will use images if relevant to the information being explained).

Can non-academic text still come from scholarly sources?

Scholarly publications do not publish non-academic articles. However, non-academic texts may include academic ones as primary sources.

If an interesting discovery is published in a science journal, for instance, a journalist may adapt it for wider audiences via a features article.

It is not uncommon to see blog posts and news articles linked to both scholarly sources and other non-academic sources.

Is this article academic or non-academic text?

While reading this, you might wonder what writing category this article falls into. While it does use a variety of sources and strives to be as informative as possible, what you are reading is still an example of non-academic text.

It is written for a general audience rather than an academic one, and it discusses a broad subject rather than a highly specific one.

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How to Write the “Overcoming Challenges” Essay + Examples

What’s covered:.

What is the Overcoming Challenges Essay?
Real Overcoming Challenges Essay Prompts
How to Choose a Topic
Writing Tips

Overcoming Challenges Essay Examples

Where to Get Your Essay Edited

While any college essay can be intimidating, the Overcoming Challenges prompt often worries students the most. Those students who’ve been lucky enough not to experience trauma tend to assume they have nothing worth saying. On the other hand, students who’ve overcome larger obstacles may be hesitant to talk about them.

Regardless of your particular circumstances, there are steps you can take to make the essay writing process simpler. Here are our top tips for writing the overcoming challenges essay successfully.

What is the “Overcoming Challenges” Essay?

The overcoming challenges prompt shows up frequently in both main application essays (like the Common App) and supplemental essays. Because supplemental essays allow students to provide schools with additional information, applicants should be sure that the subject matter they choose to write about differs from what’s in their main essay.

Students often assume the overcoming challenges essay requires them to detail past traumas. While you can certainly write about an experience that’s had a profound effect on your life, it’s important to remember that colleges aren’t evaluating students based on the seriousness of the obstacle they overcame.

On the contrary, the goal of this essay is to show admissions officers that you have the intelligence and fortitude to handle any challenges that come your way. After all, college serves as an introduction to adult life, and schools want to know that the students they admit are up to the task.

Real “Overcoming Challenges” Essay Prompts

To help you understand what the “Overcoming Challenges” essay looks like, here are a couple sample prompts.

Currently, the Common Application asks students to answer the following prompt in 650 words or less:

“The lessons we take from obstacles we encounter can be fundamental to later success. Recount a time when you faced a challenge, setback, or failure. How did it affect you, and what did you learn from the experience?”

For the past several years, MIT has prompted students to write 200 to 250 words on the following:

“Tell us about the most significant challenge you’ve faced or something important that didn’t go according to plan. How did you manage the situation?”

In both cases, the prompts explicitly ask for your response to the challenge. The event itself isn’t as important as how it pushed you to grow.

How to Choose a Topic for an Essay on Overcoming Challenges

When it comes to finding the best topic for your overcoming challenges essays, there’s no right answer. The word “challenge” is ambiguous and could be used to reference a wide range of situations from prevailing over a bully to getting over your lifelong stage fright to appear in a school musical. Here are some suggestions to keep in mind when selecting an essay subject.

1. Avoid trivial or common topics

While there aren’t many hard-and-fast rules for choosing an essay topic, students should avoid overdone topics.

These include:

Working hard in a challenging class
Overcoming a sports injury
Moving schools or immigrating to the US
Tragedy (divorce, death, abuse)

Admissions officers have read numerous essays on the subject, so it’s harder for you to stand out (see our full list of cliché college essay topics to avoid ). If events like these were truly formative to you, you can still choose to write about them, but you’ll need to be as personal as possible.

It’s also ideal if you have a less traditional storyline for a cliché topic; for example, if your sports injury led you to discover a new passion, that would be a more unique story than detailing how you overcame your injury and got back in the game.

Similarly, students may not want to write about an obstacle that admissions committees could perceive as low stakes, such as getting a B on a test, or getting into a small fight with a friend. The goal of this essay is to illustrate how you respond to adversity, so the topic you pick should’ve been at least impactful on your personal growth.

2. Pick challenges that demonstrate qualities you want to highlight

Students often mistakenly assume they need to have experienced exceptional circumstances like poverty, an abusive parent, or cancer to write a good essay. The truth is that the best topics will allow you to highlight specific personal qualities and share more about who you are. The essay should be less about the challenge itself, and more about how you responded to it.

Ask yourself what personality traits you want to emphasize, and see what’s missing in your application. Maybe you want to highlight your adaptability, for example, but that isn’t clearly expressed in your application. In this case, you might write about a challenge that put your adaptability to the test, or shaped you to become more adaptable.

Here are some examples of good topics we’ve seen over the years:

Not having a coach for a sports team and becoming one yourself
Helping a parent through a serious health issue
Trying to get the school track dedicated to a coach
Having to switch your Model UN position last-minute

Tips for Writing an Essay About Overcoming Challenges

Once you’ve selected a topic for your essays, it’s time to sit down and write. For best results, make sure your essay focuses on your efforts to tackle an obstacle rather than the problem itself. Additionally, you could avoid essay writing pitfalls by doing the following:

1. Choose an original essay structure

If you want your overcoming challenges essay to attract attention, aim to break away from more traditional structures. Most of these essays start by describing an unsuccessful attempt at a goal and then explain the steps the writer took to master the challenge.

You can stand out by choosing a challenge you’re still working on overcoming, or focus on a mental or emotional challenge that spans multiple activities or events. For example, you might discuss your fear of public speaking and how that impacted your ability to coach your brother’s Little League team and run for Student Council.

You can also choose a challenge that can be narrated in the moment, such as being put on the spot to teach a yoga class. These challenges can make particularly engaging essays, as you get to experience the writer’s thoughts and emotions as they unfold.

Keep in mind that you don’t necessarily need to have succeeded in your goal for this essay. Maybe you ran for an election and lost, or maybe you proposed a measure to the school board that wasn’t passed. It’s still possible to write a strong essay about topics like these as long as you focus on your personal growth. In fact, these may make for even stronger essays since they are more unconventional topics.

2. Focus on the internal

When writing about past experiences, you may be tempted to spend too much time describing specific people and events. With an Overcoming Challenges essay though, the goal is to focus on your thoughts and feelings.

For example, rather than detail all the steps you took to become a better public speaker, use the majority of your essay to describe your mental state as you embarked on the journey to achieving your goals. Were you excited, scared, anxious, or hopeful? Don’t be afraid to let the reader in on your innermost emotions and thoughts during this process.

3. Share what you learned

An Overcoming Challenges essay should leave the reader with a clear understanding of what you learned on your journey, be it physical, mental, or emotional. There’s no need to explicitly say “this experience taught me X,” but your essay should at least implicitly share any lessons you learned. This can be done through your actions and in-the-moment reflections. Remember that the goal is to show admissions committees why your experiences make you a great candidate for admission.

Was I no longer the beloved daughter of nature, whisperer of trees? Knee-high rubber boots, camouflage, bug spray—I wore the g arb and perfume of a proud wild woman, yet there I was, hunched over the pathetic pile of stubborn sticks, utterly stumped, on the verge of tears. As a child, I had considered myself a kind of rustic princess, a cradler of spiders and centipedes, who was serenaded by mourning doves and chickadees, who could glide through tick-infested meadows and emerge Lyme-free. I knew the cracks of the earth like the scars on my own rough palms. Yet here I was, ten years later, incapable of performing the most fundamental outdoor task: I could not, for the life of me, start a fire.

Furiously I rubbed the twigs together—rubbed and rubbed until shreds of skin flaked from my fingers. No smoke. The twigs were too young, too sticky-green; I tossed them away with a shower of curses, and began tearing through the underbrush in search of a more flammable collection. My efforts were fruitless. Livid, I bit a rejected twig, determined to prove that the forest had spurned me, offering only young, wet bones that would never burn. But the wood cracked like carrots between my teeth—old, brittle, and bitter. Roaring and nursing my aching palms, I retreated to the tent, where I sulked and awaited the jeers of my family.

Rattling their empty worm cans and reeking of fat fish, my brother and cousins swaggered into the campsite. Immediately, they noticed the minor stick massacre by the fire pit and called to me, their deep voices already sharp with contempt.

“Where’s the fire, Princess Clara?” they taunted. “Having some trouble?” They prodded me with the ends of the chewed branches and, with a few effortless scrapes of wood on rock, sparked a red and roaring flame. My face burned long after I left the fire pit. The camp stank of salmon and shame.

In the tent, I pondered my failure. Was I so dainty? Was I that incapable? I thought of my hands, how calloused and capable they had been, how tender and smooth they had become. It had been years since I’d kneaded mud between my fingers; instead of scaling a white pine, I’d practiced scales on my piano, my hands softening into those of a musician—fleshy and sensitive. And I’d gotten glasses, having grown horrifically nearsighted; long nights of dim lighting and thick books had done this. I couldn’t remember the last time I had lain down on a hill, barefaced, and seen the stars without having to squint. Crawling along the edge of the tent, a spider confirmed my transformation—he disgusted me, and I felt an overwhelming urge to squash him.

Yet, I realized I hadn’t really changed—I had only shifted perspective. I still eagerly explored new worlds, but through poems and prose rather than pastures and puddles. I’d grown to prefer the boom of a bass over that of a bullfrog, learned to coax a different kind of fire from wood, having developed a burn for writing rhymes and scrawling hypotheses.

That night, I stayed up late with my journal and wrote about the spider I had decided not to kill. I had tolerated him just barely, only shrieking when he jumped—it helped to watch him decorate the corners of the tent with his delicate webs, knowing that he couldn’t start fires, either. When the night grew cold and the embers died, my words still smoked—my hands burned from all that scrawling—and even when I fell asleep, the ideas kept sparking—I was on fire, always on fire.

This essay is an excellent example because the writer turns an everyday challenge—starting a fire—into an exploration of her identity. The writer was once “a kind of rustic princess, a cradler of spiders and centipedes,” but has since traded her love of the outdoors for a love of music, writing, and reading.

The story begins in media res , or in the middle of the action, allowing readers to feel as if we’re there with the writer. One of the essay’s biggest strengths is its use of imagery. We can easily visualize the writer’s childhood and the present day. For instance, she states that she “rubbed and rubbed [the twigs] until shreds of skin flaked from my fingers.”

The writing has an extremely literary quality, particularly with its wordplay. The writer reappropriates words and meanings, and even appeals to the senses: “My face burned long after I left the fire pit. The camp stank of salmon and shame.” She later uses a parallelism to cleverly juxtapose her changed interests: “instead of scaling a white pine, I’d practiced scales on my piano.”

One of the essay’s main areas of improvement is its overemphasis on the “story” and lack of emphasis on the reflection. The second to last paragraph about changing perspective is crucial to the essay, as it ties the anecdote to larger lessons in the writer’s life. She states that she hasn’t changed, but has only shifted perspective. Yet, we don’t get a good sense of where this realization comes from and how it impacts her life going forward.

The end of the essay offers a satisfying return to the fire imagery, and highlights the writer’s passion—the one thing that has remained constant in her life.

“Getting beat is one thing – it’s part of competing – but I want no part in losing.” Coach Rob Stark’s motto never fails to remind me of his encouragement on early-morning bus rides to track meets around the state. I’ve always appreciated the phrase, but an experience last June helped me understand its more profound, universal meaning.

Stark, as we affectionately call him, has coached track at my high school for 25 years. His care, dedication, and emphasis on developing good character has left an enduring impact on me and hundreds of other students. Not only did he help me discover my talent and love for running, but he also taught me the importance of commitment and discipline and to approach every endeavor with the passion and intensity that I bring to running. When I learned a neighboring high school had dedicated their track to a longtime coach, I felt that Stark deserved similar honors.

Our school district’s board of education indicated they would only dedicate our track to Stark if I could demonstrate that he was extraordinary. I took charge and mobilized my teammates to distribute petitions, reach out to alumni, and compile statistics on the many team and individual champions Stark had coached over the years. We received astounding support, collecting almost 3,000 signatures and pages of endorsements from across the community. With help from my teammates, I presented this evidence to the board.

They didn’t bite.

Most members argued that dedicating the track was a low priority. Knowing that we had to act quickly to convince them of its importance, I called a team meeting where we drafted a rebuttal for the next board meeting. To my surprise, they chose me to deliver it. I was far from the best public speaker in the group, and I felt nervous about going before the unsympathetic board again. However, at that second meeting, I discovered that I enjoy articulating and arguing for something that I’m passionate about.

Public speaking resembles a cross country race. Walking to the starting line, you have to trust your training and quell your last minute doubts. When the gun fires, you can’t think too hard about anything; your performance has to be instinctual, natural, even relaxed. At the next board meeting, the podium was my starting line. As I walked up to it, familiar butterflies fluttered in my stomach. Instead of the track stretching out in front of me, I faced the vast audience of teachers, board members, and my teammates. I felt my adrenaline build, and reassured myself: I’ve put in the work, my argument is powerful and sound. As the board president told me to introduce myself, I heard, “runners set” in the back of my mind. She finished speaking, and Bang! The brief silence was the gunshot for me to begin.

The next few minutes blurred together, but when the dust settled, I knew from the board members’ expressions and the audience’s thunderous approval that I had run quite a race. Unfortunately, it wasn’t enough; the board voted down our proposal. I was disappointed, but proud of myself, my team, and our collaboration off the track. We stood up for a cause we believed in, and I overcame my worries about being a leader. Although I discovered that changing the status quo through an elected body can be a painstakingly difficult process and requires perseverance, I learned that I enjoy the challenges this effort offers. Last month, one of the school board members joked that I had become a “regular” – I now often show up to meetings to advocate for a variety of causes, including better environmental practices in cafeterias and safer equipment for athletes.

Just as Stark taught me, I worked passionately to achieve my goal. I may have been beaten when I appealed to the board, but I certainly didn’t lose, and that would have made Stark proud.

While the writer didn’t succeed in getting the track dedicated to Coach Stark, their essay is certainly successful in showing their willingness to push themselves and take initiative.

The essay opens with a quote from Coach Stark that later comes full circle at the end of the essay. We learn about Stark’s impact and the motivation for trying to get the track dedicated to him.

One of the biggest areas of improvement in the intro, however, is how the essay tells us Stark’s impact rather than showing us: His care, dedication, and emphasis on developing good character has left an enduring impact on me and hundreds of other students. Not only did he help me discover my talent and love for running, but he also taught me the importance of commitment and discipline and to approach every endeavor with the passion and intensity that I bring to running.

The writer could’ve helped us feel a stronger emotional connection to Stark if they had included examples of Stark’s qualities, rather than explicitly stating them. For example, they could’ve written something like: Stark was the kind of person who would give you gas money if you told him your parents couldn’t afford to pick you up from practice. And he actually did that—several times. At track meets, alumni regularly would come talk to him and tell him how he’d changed their lives. Before Stark, I was ambivalent about running and was on the JV team, but his encouragement motivated me to run longer and harder and eventually make varsity. Because of him, I approach every endeavor with the passion and intensity that I bring to running.

The essay goes on to explain how the writer overcame their apprehension of public speaking, and likens the process of submitting an appeal to the school board to running a race. This metaphor makes the writing more engaging and allows us to feel the student’s emotions.

While the student didn’t ultimately succeed in getting the track dedicated, we learn about their resilience and initiative: I now often show up to meetings to advocate for a variety of causes, including better environmental practices in cafeterias and safer equipment for athletes.

Overall, this essay is well-done. It demonstrates growth despite failing to meet a goal, which is a unique essay structure. The running metaphor and full-circle intro/ending also elevate the writing in this essay.

Where to Get Your Overcoming Challenges Essay Edited

The Overcoming Challenges essay is one of the trickier supplemental prompts, so it’s important to get feedback on your drafts. That’s why we created our free Peer Essay Review tool , where you can get a free review of your essay from another student. You can also improve your own writing skills by reviewing other students’ essays.

If you want a college admissions expert to review your essay, advisors on CollegeVine have helped students refine their writing and submit successful applications to top schools. Find the right advisor for you to improve your chances of getting into your dream school!

Essay and dissertation writing skills

Planning your essay

Writing your introduction

Structuring your essay

Writing essays in science subjects
Brief video guides to support essay planning and writing
Writing extended essays and dissertations
Planning your dissertation writing time

Structuring your dissertation

Top tips for writing longer pieces of work

Advice on planning and writing essays and dissertations

University essays differ from school essays in that they are less concerned with what you know and more concerned with how you construct an argument to answer the question. This means that the starting point for writing a strong essay is to first unpick the question and to then use this to plan your essay before you start putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard).

A really good starting point for you are these short, downloadable Tips for Successful Essay Writing and Answering the Question resources. Both resources will help you to plan your essay, as well as giving you guidance on how to distinguish between different sorts of essay questions.

You may find it helpful to watch this seven-minute video on six tips for essay writing which outlines how to interpret essay questions, as well as giving advice on planning and structuring your writing:

Different disciplines will have different expectations for essay structure and you should always refer to your Faculty or Department student handbook or course Canvas site for more specific guidance.

However, broadly speaking, all essays share the following features:

Essays need an introduction to establish and focus the parameters of the discussion that will follow. You may find it helpful to divide the introduction into areas to demonstrate your breadth and engagement with the essay question. You might define specific terms in the introduction to show your engagement with the essay question; for example, ‘This is a large topic which has been variously discussed by many scientists and commentators. The principle tension is between the views of X and Y who define the main issues as…’ Breadth might be demonstrated by showing the range of viewpoints from which the essay question could be considered; for example, ‘A variety of factors including economic, social and political, influence A and B. This essay will focus on the social and economic aspects, with particular emphasis on…..’

Watch this two-minute video to learn more about how to plan and structure an introduction:

The main body of the essay should elaborate on the issues raised in the introduction and develop an argument(s) that answers the question. It should consist of a number of self-contained paragraphs each of which makes a specific point and provides some form of evidence to support the argument being made. Remember that a clear argument requires that each paragraph explicitly relates back to the essay question or the developing argument.

Conclusion: An essay should end with a conclusion that reiterates the argument in light of the evidence you have provided; you shouldn’t use the conclusion to introduce new information.
References: You need to include references to the materials you’ve used to write your essay. These might be in the form of footnotes, in-text citations, or a bibliography at the end. Different systems exist for citing references and different disciplines will use various approaches to citation. Ask your tutor which method(s) you should be using for your essay and also consult your Department or Faculty webpages for specific guidance in your discipline.

Essay writing in science subjects

If you are writing an essay for a science subject you may need to consider additional areas, such as how to present data or diagrams. This five-minute video gives you some advice on how to approach your reading list, planning which information to include in your answer and how to write for your scientific audience – the video is available here:

A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.

Short videos to support your essay writing skills

There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing, including:

Approaching different types of essay questions
Structuring your essay
Writing an introduction
Making use of evidence in your essay writing
Writing your conclusion

Extended essays and dissertations

Longer pieces of writing like extended essays and dissertations may seem like quite a challenge from your regular essay writing. The important point is to start with a plan and to focus on what the question is asking. A PDF providing further guidance on planning Humanities and Social Science dissertations is available to download.

Planning your time effectively

Try not to leave the writing until close to your deadline, instead start as soon as you have some ideas to put down onto paper. Your early drafts may never end up in the final work, but the work of committing your ideas to paper helps to formulate not only your ideas, but the method of structuring your writing to read well and conclude firmly.

Although many students and tutors will say that the introduction is often written last, it is a good idea to begin to think about what will go into it early on. For example, the first draft of your introduction should set out your argument, the information you have, and your methods, and it should give a structure to the chapters and sections you will write. Your introduction will probably change as time goes on but it will stand as a guide to your entire extended essay or dissertation and it will help you to keep focused.

The structure of extended essays or dissertations will vary depending on the question and discipline, but may include some or all of the following:

The background information to - and context for - your research. This often takes the form of a literature review.
Explanation of the focus of your work.
Explanation of the value of this work to scholarship on the topic.
List of the aims and objectives of the work and also the issues which will not be covered because they are outside its scope.

The main body of your extended essay or dissertation will probably include your methodology, the results of research, and your argument(s) based on your findings.

The conclusion is to summarise the value your research has added to the topic, and any further lines of research you would undertake given more time or resources.

Tips on writing longer pieces of work

Approaching each chapter of a dissertation as a shorter essay can make the task of writing a dissertation seem less overwhelming. Each chapter will have an introduction, a main body where the argument is developed and substantiated with evidence, and a conclusion to tie things together. Unlike in a regular essay, chapter conclusions may also introduce the chapter that will follow, indicating how the chapters are connected to one another and how the argument will develop through your dissertation.

For further guidance, watch this two-minute video on writing longer pieces of work .

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Example of a great essay | Explanations, tips & tricks

Example of a Great Essay | Explanations, Tips & Tricks

Published on February 9, 2015 by Shane Bryson . Revised on July 23, 2023 by Shona McCombes.

This example guides you through the structure of an essay. It shows how to build an effective introduction , focused paragraphs , clear transitions between ideas, and a strong conclusion .

Each paragraph addresses a single central point, introduced by a topic sentence , and each point is directly related to the thesis statement .

As you read, hover over the highlighted parts to learn what they do and why they work.

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Other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about writing an essay, an appeal to the senses: the development of the braille system in nineteenth-century france.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from social participation (Weygand, 2009). While disabled people in general suffered from discrimination, blindness was widely viewed as the worst disability, and it was commonly believed that blind people were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through culture (Weygand, 2009). This demonstrates the importance of reading and writing to social status at the time: without access to text, it was considered impossible to fully participate in society. Blind people were excluded from the sighted world, but also entirely dependent on sighted people for information and education.

In France, debates about how to deal with disability led to the adoption of different strategies over time. While people with temporary difficulties were able to access public welfare, the most common response to people with long-term disabilities, such as hearing or vision loss, was to group them together in institutions (Tombs, 1996). At first, a joint institute for the blind and deaf was created, and although the partnership was motivated more by financial considerations than by the well-being of the residents, the institute aimed to help people develop skills valuable to society (Weygand, 2009). Eventually blind institutions were separated from deaf institutions, and the focus shifted towards education of the blind, as was the case for the Royal Institute for Blind Youth, which Louis Braille attended (Jimenez et al, 2009). The growing acknowledgement of the uniqueness of different disabilities led to more targeted education strategies, fostering an environment in which the benefits of a specifically blind education could be more widely recognized.

Several different systems of tactile reading can be seen as forerunners to the method Louis Braille developed, but these systems were all developed based on the sighted system. The Royal Institute for Blind Youth in Paris taught the students to read embossed roman letters, a method created by the school’s founder, Valentin Hauy (Jimenez et al., 2009). Reading this way proved to be a rather arduous task, as the letters were difficult to distinguish by touch. The embossed letter method was based on the reading system of sighted people, with minimal adaptation for those with vision loss. As a result, this method did not gain significant success among blind students.

Louis Braille was bound to be influenced by his school’s founder, but the most influential pre-Braille tactile reading system was Charles Barbier’s night writing. A soldier in Napoleon’s army, Barbier developed a system in 1819 that used 12 dots with a five line musical staff (Kersten, 1997). His intention was to develop a system that would allow the military to communicate at night without the need for light (Herron, 2009). The code developed by Barbier was phonetic (Jimenez et al., 2009); in other words, the code was designed for sighted people and was based on the sounds of words, not on an actual alphabet. Barbier discovered that variants of raised dots within a square were the easiest method of reading by touch (Jimenez et al., 2009). This system proved effective for the transmission of short messages between military personnel, but the symbols were too large for the fingertip, greatly reducing the speed at which a message could be read (Herron, 2009). For this reason, it was unsuitable for daily use and was not widely adopted in the blind community.

Nevertheless, Barbier’s military dot system was more efficient than Hauy’s embossed letters, and it provided the framework within which Louis Braille developed his method. Barbier’s system, with its dashes and dots, could form over 4000 combinations (Jimenez et al., 2009). Compared to the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, this was an absurdly high number. Braille kept the raised dot form, but developed a more manageable system that would reflect the sighted alphabet. He replaced Barbier’s dashes and dots with just six dots in a rectangular configuration (Jimenez et al., 2009). The result was that the blind population in France had a tactile reading system using dots (like Barbier’s) that was based on the structure of the sighted alphabet (like Hauy’s); crucially, this system was the first developed specifically for the purposes of the blind.

While the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind students at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted before its adoption throughout France. This support was necessary because sighted teachers and leaders had ultimate control over the propagation of Braille resources. Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth resisted learning Braille’s system because they found the tactile method of reading difficult to learn (Bullock & Galst, 2009). This resistance was symptomatic of the prevalent attitude that the blind population had to adapt to the sighted world rather than develop their own tools and methods. Over time, however, with the increasing impetus to make social contribution possible for all, teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system (Bullock & Galst, 2009), realizing that access to reading could help improve the productivity and integration of people with vision loss. It took approximately 30 years, but the French government eventually approved the Braille system, and it was established throughout the country (Bullock & Galst, 2009).

Although Blind people remained marginalized throughout the nineteenth century, the Braille system granted them growing opportunities for social participation. Most obviously, Braille allowed people with vision loss to read the same alphabet used by sighted people (Bullock & Galst, 2009), allowing them to participate in certain cultural experiences previously unavailable to them. Written works, such as books and poetry, had previously been inaccessible to the blind population without the aid of a reader, limiting their autonomy. As books began to be distributed in Braille, this barrier was reduced, enabling people with vision loss to access information autonomously. The closing of the gap between the abilities of blind and the sighted contributed to a gradual shift in blind people’s status, lessening the cultural perception of the blind as essentially different and facilitating greater social integration.

The Braille system also had important cultural effects beyond the sphere of written culture. Its invention later led to the development of a music notation system for the blind, although Louis Braille did not develop this system himself (Jimenez, et al., 2009). This development helped remove a cultural obstacle that had been introduced by the popularization of written musical notation in the early 1500s. While music had previously been an arena in which the blind could participate on equal footing, the transition from memory-based performance to notation-based performance meant that blind musicians were no longer able to compete with sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997). As a result, a tactile musical notation system became necessary for professional equality between blind and sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997).

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.

Bullock, J. D., & Galst, J. M. (2009). The Story of Louis Braille. Archives of Ophthalmology , 127(11), 1532. https://doi.org/10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.286.

Herron, M. (2009, May 6). Blind visionary. Retrieved from https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2009/05/blind-visionary/.

Jiménez, J., Olea, J., Torres, J., Alonso, I., Harder, D., & Fischer, K. (2009). Biography of Louis Braille and Invention of the Braille Alphabet. Survey of Ophthalmology , 54(1), 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.survophthal.2008.10.006.

Kersten, F.G. (1997). The history and development of Braille music methodology. The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education , 18(2). Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/40214926.

Mellor, C.M. (2006). Louis Braille: A touch of genius . Boston: National Braille Press.

Tombs, R. (1996). France: 1814-1914 . London: Pearson Education Ltd.

Weygand, Z. (2009). The blind in French society from the Middle Ages to the century of Louis Braille . Stanford: Stanford University Press.

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An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates.

In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills.

Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence, analysis and interpretation.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main point of a paragraph . Everything else in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bryson, S. (2023, July 23). Example of a Great Essay | Explanations, Tips & Tricks. Scribbr. Retrieved April 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/example-essay-structure/

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How to Write an Academic Essay in 6 Simple Steps

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Are you wondering how to write an academic essay successfully? There are so many steps to writing an academic essay that it can be difficult to know where to start.

Here, we outline how to write an academic essay in 6 simple steps, from how to research for an academic essay to how to revise an essay and everything in between.

Our essay writing tips are designed to help you learn how to write an academic essay that is ready for publication (after academic editing and academic proofreading , of course!).

Your paper isn't complete until you've done all the needed proofreading. Make sure you leave time for it after the writing process!

Download Our Pocket Checklist for Academic Papers. Just input your email below!

Types of academic writing.

With academic essay writing, there are certain conventions that writers are expected to follow. As such, it's important to know the basics of academic writing before you begin writing your essay.

Step 1: Preparing to Write Your Essay

The essay writing process involves a few main stages:

Researching

As such, in learning how to write an academic essay, it is also important to learn how to research for an academic essay and how to revise an essay.

Read More: Online Research Tips for Students and Scholars

To beef up your research skills, remember these essay writing tips from the above article:

Learn how to identify reliable sources.

Understand the nuances of open access.

Discover free academic journals and research databases.

Manage your references.

Provide evidence for every claim so you can avoid plagiarism .

Read More: 17 Research Databases for Free Articles

You will want to do the research for your academic essay points, of course, but you will also want to research various journals for the publication of your paper.

Different journals have different guidelines and thus different requirements for writers. These can be related to style, formatting, and more.

Knowing these before you begin writing can save you a lot of time if you also want to learn how to revise an essay. If you ensure your paper meets the guidelines of the journal you want to publish in, you will not have to revise it again later for this purpose.

After the research stage, you can draft your thesis and introduction as well as outline the rest of your essay. This will put you in a good position to draft your body paragraphs and conclusion, craft your bibliography, and edit and proofread your paper.

Step 2: Writing the Essay Introduction and Thesis Statement

When learning how to write academic essays , learning how to write an introduction is key alongside learning how to research for an academic essay.

Your introduction should broadly introduce your topic. It will give an overview of your essay and the points that will be discussed. It is typically about 10% of the final word count of the text.

All introductions follow a general structure:

Topic statement

Thesis statement

Step 3: Writing the Essay Body

When learning how to write academic essays, you must learn how to write a good body paragraph. That's because your essay will be primarily made up of them!

The body paragraphs of your essay will develop the argument you outlined in your thesis. They will do this by providing your ideas on a topic backed up by evidence of specific points.

These paragraphs will typically take up about 80% of your essay. As a result, a good essay writing tip is to learn how to properly structure a paragraph.

Each paragraph consists of the following:

A topic sentence

Supporting sentences

A transition

Step 4: Writing the Essay Conclusion

Your essay conclusion is the final paragraph of your essay and primarily reminds your reader of your thesis. It also wraps up your essay and discusses your findings more generally.

The conclusion typically makes up about 10% of the text, like the introduction. It shows the reader that you have accomplished what you intended to at the outset of your essay.

Here are a couple more good essay writing tips for your conclusion:

Don't introduce any new ideas into your conclusion.

Don't undermine your argument with opposing ideas.

Read More: How to Write a Conclusion Paragraph in 3 Easy Steps

Now that you know how to write an academic essay, it's time to learn how to write a bibliography along with some academic editing and proofreading advice.

Step 5: Writing the Bibliography or Works Cited

The bibliography of your paper lists all the references you cited. It is typically alphabetized or numbered (depending on the style guide).

Read More: How to Write an Academic Essay with References

When learning how to write academic essays, you may notice that there are various style guides you may be required to use by a professor or journal, including unique or custom styles.

Some of the most common style guides include:

Chicago style

For help organizing your references for academic essay writing, consider a software manager. They can help you collect and format your references correctly and consistently, both quickly and with minimal effort.

Read More: 6 Reference Manager Software Solutions for Your Research

As you learn how to research for an academic essay most effectively, you may notice that a reference manager can also help make academic paper editing easier.

Step 6: Revising Your Essay

Once you've finally drafted your entire essay . . . you're still not done!

That's because editing and proofreading are the essential final steps of any writing process .

An academic editor can help you identify core issues with your writing , including its structure, its flow, its clarity, and its overall readability. They can give you substantive feedback and essay writing tips to improve your document. Therefore, it's a good idea to have an editor review your first draft so you can improve it prior to proofreading.

A specialized academic editor can assess the content of your writing. As a subject-matter expert in your subject, they can offer field-specific insight and critical commentary. Specialized academic editors can also provide services that others may not, including:

Academic document formatting

Academic figure formatting

Academic reference formatting

An academic proofreader can help you perfect the final draft of your paper to ensure it is completely error free in terms of spelling and grammar. They can also identify any inconsistencies in your work but will not look for any issues in the content of your writing, only its mechanics. This is why you should have a proofreader revise your final draft so that it is ready to be seen by an audience.

Read More: How to Find the Right Academic Paper Editor or Proofreader

When learning how to research and write an academic essay, it is important to remember that editing is a required step. Don ' t forget to allot time for editing after you ' ve written your paper.

Set yourself up for success with this guide on how to write an academic essay. With a solid draft, you'll have better chances of getting published and read in any journal of your choosing.

Our academic essay writing tips are sure to help you learn how to research an academic essay, how to write an academic essay, and how to revise an academic essay.

If your academic paper looks sloppy, your readers may assume your research is sloppy. Download our Pocket Proofreading Checklist for Academic Papers before you take that one last crucial look at your paper.

About the Author

Scribendi's in-house editors work with writers from all over the globe to perfect their writing. They know that no piece of writing is complete without a professional edit, and they love to see a good piece of writing transformed into a great one. Scribendi's in-house editors are unrivaled in both experience and education, having collectively edited millions of words and obtained numerous degrees. They love consuming caffeinated beverages, reading books of various genres, and relaxing in quiet, dimly lit spaces.

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"The Complete Beginner's Guide to Academic Writing"

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How to Master the 4 Types of Academic Writing

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A Professor's Guide to Writing Essays: The No-Nonsense Plan for Better Writing

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A Professor's Guide to Writing Essays: The No-Nonsense Plan for Better Writing Paperback – November 3, 2016

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Print length 118 pages
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Publication date November 3, 2016
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ISBN-10 0692822526
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Publisher ‏ : ‎ Jacob Neumann; Standard Edition (November 3, 2016)
Language ‏ : ‎ English
Paperback ‏ : ‎ 118 pages
ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0692822526
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Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 7.2 ounces
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About the author

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Jacob Neumann has been teaching since 1996. He has taught at all levels, from early childhood to the university. He currently works as an associate professor at The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, where he teaches teacher education classes. He also publishes research on effective teaching methods, teacher knowledge, and educational theory. One of the main goals in his work is to help people become better writers and better teachers.

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Essay Writing as a Tool for Self-Reflection and Personal Growth

T raditionally, essay writing was seen as an academic exercise, but not anymore. An essay is a piece of writing that is written to convince someone of something or to inform the reader about a particular topic. As students write essays, they introspect and learn at the same time. They understand that the essay writing process is not just about forming arguments or persuading readers; it is also a powerful mechanism for self-discovery. By articulating thoughts and emotions on paper, you better understand your perspectives and experiences.

Writing essays encourages writers to confront their inner thoughts, beliefs, and values. This confrontation is not always comfortable. Many of you already know this fact. However, the process is invariably enlightening. Through the structured thinking that essay writing demands, individuals can explore and organize their thoughts in ways other forms of reflection might not allow.

This process often leads to a deeper understanding of oneself. And not just that; it’s crucial for personal development. A 2019 study found that expressive writing has been shown to improve emotional and physiological health. Besides, the iterative nature of writing, that is, drafting, revising, and refining, mirrors the iterative process of personal growth. What does this premise mean? Well, self-awareness leads to new insights, which then lead to further questions and exploration.

But not everyone can write a compelling essay. Even the most talented writers can struggle with some topics. However, did you know that professional essay writers can help you with your paper? These experts specialize in specific disciplines and can provide subject-specific, content-savvy papers that surpass your expectations. And if you are not very conversant with writing an essay, rest assured that they will convince you or be adequately informed.

All in all, an essay must include several important components to make it flow logically. Its main parts (or sections) are the introduction, body, and conclusion. In a standard short essay, five paragraphs can provide the reader with enough information in a short space. However, more than five paragraphs must be present for a research paper or dissertation to not overwhelm the reader with too much information in one section.

Moreover, essay writing is a tool for emotional intelligence. Yes, you read that right. It offers a safe space for writers to express and manage their feelings. You often find clarity and a sense of relief as you translate complex emotions into words. The reflective practice of writing helps individuals cope with past experiences and prepares them for future challenges by building resilience and adaptability. Thus, the benefits of essay writing are vast. The following is a list of how essay writing is a tool for self-reflection and personal growth.

How Essay Writing is a Tool for Self-Reflection and Personal Growth

Essay writing can be the bridge between internal exploration and external expression. But how so? This practice allows individuals to explore their thoughts and feelings, translating introspection into tangible form. As you articulate your experiences and viewpoints, you engage in a dialogue with yourself, which fosters emotional growth.

Enhances self-awareness : As previously mentioned, writing essays requires self-examination, which can significantly increase self-awareness. When you choose topics that resonate personally, you’re prompted to reflect on your beliefs, behaviors, and motivations. This process helps you understand yourself, highlights areas for improvement, and reaffirms your core values.
Cultivates empathy : A recent study on the importance of writing practice showed statistically significant increases in various aspects of empathy, such as reasoning, including multiple perspectives, expressing emotion, and proposals for action, and statistically significant increases in empathy as a latent construct. When crafting essays, writers often explore different perspectives and consider alternative viewpoints. This exercise can cultivate empathy, as it encourages them to understand and articulate feelings and situations from other people’s points of view.
Promotes critical thinking : Like any other form of academic writing, essay writing compels students to think critically about their experiences and the world around them. But the question is: how so? It involves analyzing one’s thoughts and questioning existing beliefs. This process can lead to new insights and a more informed perspective. Besides, critical examination helps you develop a more mature understanding of complex situations.
Improves communication skills : Strong writing skills contribute to effective communication. Regular essay writing hones one’s ability to convey thoughts clearly and effectively. In fact, this point is scientifically proven. Essay writing helps individuals learn how to express their ideas in a structured, coherent, and persuasive manner.
Facilitates emotional healing : We cannot emphasize this point enough. Writing about personal experiences, especially traumatic ones, can be therapeutic. Yes, you read that right. Putting emotions into words helps people process and make sense of their experiences.
Encourages mindfulness : Writing promotes mindfulness, or present-moment awareness, and its associated qualities of calm/relaxation, nonjudgment, and intentionality. The focus required in essay writing can promote mindfulness. By concentrating on the present moment and the task of articulating thoughts, you can experience a calming effect, reducing anxiety and enhancing your overall mental health.
Strengthens problem-solving abilities : Students’ problem-solving skill is heavily influenced by the learning process in the classroom. Essays often explore solutions to problems. They can involve real-world problems that trigger learning and optimize the power of problems to incorporate key learning processes. This aspect requires writers to think strategically about possible solutions, weighing pros and cons and considering outcomes.

Improve Your Writing Skills

For students, most of your assessments are done through writing. You will be asked to write essays for assignments and exams in most study areas. Accordingly, knowing how to write well is suitable for your grades. But there are other personal benefits as well. It can be a tool for personal growth and self-reflection. Essay writing can transform your understanding of yourself and the world around you.

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Traditionally, essay writing was seen as an academic exercise, but not anymore. An essay is a piece of writing that is written to convince someone of something or to inform the reader about a particular topic. As students write essays, they introspect and learn at the same time. They understand that the essay writing process […]

Essay writing services: Think we won’t know? Think again!

Group of students using laptops at a table

It may be tempting, in the midst of any assignment anxieties, to take advantage of companies promoting essay writing services. However, submitting an assignment in this way is an academic offence and can lead to serious repercussions, including possibly being asked to leave your course.

The Turnitin software used to submit assignments is designed to identify work which has been plagiarised or adapted from another source, and your tutors are experienced in spotting work that differs from your usual style of writing. Even with anonymous marking, tutors can tell changes in writing style within a piece and sometimes the essay might not directly address the question asked.

Any attempt to deceive the Turnitin software is itself a form of academic offence, and one BU students have faced penalties for in the past. The Turnitin software, as well as our staff members are trained on spotting suspicious submissions and will investigate suspected cases.

If you are struggling with your essay or how to reference correctly, we are here to support you. SUBU Advice share their tips to help you with assignment anxieties.

Firstly, don’t panic! I know this can be a worrying situation, but your programme team can help you. Contact your tutor or academic adviser if you need guidance around the assessment criteria or to find out exactly what they want you to deliver through the essay. Don’t be tempted to cheat. I know from my experience of advising students who have gone down that route that the outcome can be devastating. “If you need to brush up on your academic writing and study skills, I would really recommend that you take a look at the range of resources from the library team , which includes guides, study sheets and videos to help you. “If you are struggling balancing your workload, the library team is also there to help you and can support you to find the best way forward. Plus, don’t forget that the SUBU advice team can help with a wide range of concerns and provides independent advice.”

Avoid the most common form of academic offence: Plagiarism

Plagiarism offences can lead to serious repercussions, including possibly being asked to leave your course. It's important that you understand what is expected before submtting an assignment.

Why is academic integrity important?

We want to see that you practise academic integrity in your assignments. If you fail to do so, you could be committing an academic offence, which is taken very seriously at BU.

Don’t take the risk: selling lecture materials can lead to serious repercussions

If you are struggling with an assignment, or you find yourself needing additional support we are here to help.

Don’t take the risk – how to avoid the pitfalls that can lead to an academic offence

It may be tempting to take advantage of companies promoting essay writing services. However, before you consider taking any action, you should be aware of the consequences.

Oxford University Press's Academic Insights for the Thinking World

Walter W. Skeat and the Oxford English Dictionary

Origin Uncertain: Unraveling the Mysteries of Etymology

Anatoly Liberman's column on word origins, The Oxford Etymologist , appears on the OUPblog each Wednesday. Subscribe to Anatoly Liberman’s weekly etymology articles via email or RSS .

By Anatoly Liberman
April 17 th 2024

For many years, I have been trying to talk an old friend of mine into writing a popular book on Skeat. A book about such a colorful individual, I kept repeating, would sell like hotcakes. But he never wrote it. Neither will I (much to my regret), but there is no reason why I should not devote another short essay to Skeat. In 2016, Oxford University Press published Peter Gilliver’s book The Making of the Oxford English Dictionary , a work of incredible erudition. Skeat is mentioned in it many times, and I decided to glean those mentions, to highlight Skeat’s role in the production of the epoch-making work.

Twenty-six years separated the day on which the idea of the dictionary was made public and the appearance of the first fascicle. Countless people contributed to the production of the OED , but the public, if it knows anything about the history of this project, has heard only the name of James A. H. Murray , its first and greatest editor. This is perhaps as it should be, but in the wings we find quite a few actors waiting for broader recognition. One of them is Walter W. Skeat , a man of incredible erudition and inexhaustible energy. I have lauded him more than once (see, for example, the post for November 17, 2010 , reprinted in my book Origin Uncertain … .). However, today I’ll use only the material mentioned in or suggested by Peter Gilliver.

Skeat was not only the greatest English etymologist of his time (in a way, I think, of all times, despite the progress made by this branch of linguistics since 1912, the year he died). In 1873, he also founded the English Dialect Society and remained active in it as secretary and later director until 1896 (in 1897, after fulfilling its function, the society was dissolved). He edited the numerous book-length glossaries published by the society; attended its meetings wherever they were held, and without him Joseph Wright ’s work The English Dialect Dictionary (1898-1905), still a source of inspiration to students of English, would probably not have been completed.

Among very many other things (!), he was a founding member of The Early English Text Society , and in 1865, he became a member of its committee. Neither post was “ceremonial,” for it presupposed a lot of work. Last but not least, Skeat was a generous man, a rare quality in scholars. For instance, he contributed a large sum of money to the Dialect Society at its inception, and much earlier, in 1885, he loaned Murray £1,660 for the purchase of a house in Oxford, the location of the future famous Scriptorium . Curiously, to this day, it is often the philanthropists who subsidize historical linguistics.

In the early eighteen-seventies, some influential people suggested that Skeat should become the main figure in the production of what became the OED . Fortunately, he concentrated on editing medieval texts and writing his etymological dictionary. He would not have become a second Murray, but by way of compensation, no one else would have done so much for the study of word origins and early English literature. Amazingly, Murray, a wonder of erudition, had little formal education and no university degree, while the Reverend Skeat’s background was in the classics. As individuals, Skeat and Murray represented different psychological types. Skeat was impatient and ready to bring out a book, not yet quite perfect, in the hope of a revised version. He would have been satisfied with a much smaller OED , while Murray made no concessions to haste (his invariable goal was absolute perfection, a wagon hitched to a star) and advised Skeat to wait for the completion of the OED before publishing his etymological dictionary. Fortunately, his suggestion fell on deaf ears, but Skeat’s readiness to agree that the text of the OED might be shortened infuriated Murray. (The episode was the result of a misunderstanding, and Skeat apologized.)

At that time, all thick dictionaries appeared in fascicles, which presupposed a good deal of competition among the lexicographers, the more so as a relatively small circle of publishers was involved. The people whom we know only from the names on the covers of their works were often not only colleagues and even friends but also rivals. At a certain moment, Skeat concluded that the Clarendon Press had declined to take on the OED and turned to the Press with an offer of his own etymological dictionary. As it happened, the two projects ran concurrently and did not get into each other’s way. Skeat’s work appeared in 1882, two years before the first fascicle of the OED came out. Murray once commented on Skeat’s dependence on the research at the OED , but Skeat responded rather testily that the OED had also had access to his findings. Yet Skeat remained Murray’s trusted friend and often maneuvered among various projects, to prevent other publishers from interfering with the OED . Though also hot-tempered, he was more diplomatic than Murray, and the relations between the two men remained friendly and even warm for years. To James Murray, Skeat’s death in 1912 was a heavy blow. He survived Skeat by three years. (Skeat: 1835-1912, Murray: 1837-1915.)

Throughout his life, Skeat supported the OED by his reviews (today it seems incredible that once not everybody praised Murray’s work) and kept chastising his countrymen for their ignorance and stupidity when it came to philology. He never stopped complaining that people used to offer silly hypotheses of word origins, instead of consulting the greatest authority there was. He also tried to encourage Murray, who often felt exhausted and dispirited. This is the letter he wrote to Murray, when he was working on cu -words: “I could find enough talk to cumber you. You could come by a curvilinear railway. Bring a cudgel to walk with. We will give you culinary dishes. Your holiday will culminate in sufficient rest; we can cultivate new ideas, & cull new flowers of speech. We have cutlets in the cupboards , & currants , & curry , & custards , & (naturally) cups . […] Write & say you’ll CUM!” Nor did Skeat stay away from the least interesting part of the work connected with the OED and often read the proofs of the pages before they went into print.

Gilliver states that Skeat’s support for the Dictionary and its editors in so many ways places him alongside Furnivall and Henry Hucks Gibbs. Gibbs was “a wealthy merchant banker (and director of the bank of England) who would go on to become one of the Dictionary’s greatest supporters… He had been reading for the Dictionary at least since July 1860.” And the somewhat erratic Frederick James Furnivall (1825-1910) earned fame as a central figure in the philology of his day, even though today only specialists remember him.

A picture of Furnivall can be seen on p. 12. Gibbs appears sitting in a comfortable armchair on p. 43, and on p. 67, an entry for rebeck “a rude kind of fiddle” (among other senses), subedited by Skeat, is photographed. Quite a few more bagatelles of this type can be produced by an attentive reader of Peter Gilliver’s monumental book, but for the moment, I’ll stay with Skeat.

Header: James Murray photographed in the Scriptorium on 10 July 1915 with his assistants: (back row) Arthur Maling, Frederick Sweatman, F. A. Yockney, (seated) Elsie Murray, Rosfrith Murray. Reproduced by permission of the Secretary to the Delegates of Oxford University Press.

Anatoly Liberman is the author of Word Origins And How We Know Them , An Analytic Dictionary of English Etymology: An Introduction , and Take My Word For It: A Dictionary of English Idioms .

Anatoly's latest book, Origin Uncertain: Unraveling the Mysteries of Etymology (OUP, 2024), is available to pre-order.

His column on word origins, The Oxford Etymologist , appears on the OUPblog each Wednesday. Send your etymology question to him care of [email protected] ; he’ll do his best to avoid responding with “origin unknown.”

Subscribe to Anatoly Liberman’s weekly etymology articles via email or RSS .

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