how to write a social sciences research paper

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Writing in the Social Sciences

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A Handbook on writing Research Paper in Social Sciences

• August 2015
• Edition: First
• Publisher: Bharti Publications, New Delhi
• Editor: Sher Singh Bhakar
• ISBN: 9789385000270

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Field Report

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the observation of people, places, and/or events and to analyze that observation data in order to identify and categorize common themes in relation to the research problem underpinning the study. The content represents the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data that has been gathered during one or more observational events.

Flick, Uwe The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Collection . London: SAGE Publications, 2018.

How to Approach Writing a Field Report

How to Begin

Field reports are most often assigned in disciplines of the applied social sciences [e.g., social work, anthropology, gerontology, criminal justice, education, law, the health care professions] where it is important to build a bridge of relevancy between the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom and the practice of actually doing the work you are being taught to do. Field reports are also common in certain science disciplines [e.g., geology] but these reports are organized differently and serve a different purpose than what is described below.

Professors will assign a field report with the intention of improving your understanding of key theoretical concepts through a method of careful and structured observation of, and reflection about, people, places, or phenomena existing in their natural settings. Field reports facilitate the development of data collection techniques and observation skills and they help you to understand how theory applies to real world situations. Field reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence through methods of observing professional practice that contribute to or challenge existing theories.

We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however, your responsibility when writing a field report is to create a research study based on data generated by the act of designing a specific study, deliberate observation, a synthesis of key findings, and an interpretation of their meaning. When writing a field report you need to:

• Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation . Always approach your field study with a detailed protocol about what you will observe, where you should conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect and record your data.
• Continuously analyze your observations . Always look for the meaning underlying the actions you observe. Ask yourself: What's going on here? What does this observed activity mean? What else does this relate to? Note that this is an on-going process of reflection and analysis taking place for the duration of your field research.
• Keep the report’s aims in mind while you are observing . Recording what you observe should not be done randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to details. Enter the observation site [i.e., "field"] with a clear plan about what you are intending to observe and record while, at the same time, being prepared to adapt to changing circumstances as they may arise.
• Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a theoretical framework . This is what separates data gatherings from simple reporting. The theoretical framework guiding your field research should determine what, when, and how you observe and act as the foundation from which you interpret your findings.

Techniques to Record Your Observations Although there is no limit to the type of data gathering technique you can use, these are the most frequently used methods:

Note Taking This is the most commonly used and easiest method of recording your observations. Tips for taking notes include: organizing some shorthand symbols beforehand so that recording basic or repeated actions does not impede your ability to observe, using many small paragraphs, which reflect changes in activities, who is talking, etc., and, leaving space on the page so you can write down additional thoughts and ideas about what’s being observed, any theoretical insights, and notes to yourself that are set aside for further investigation. See drop-down tab for additional information about note-taking.

Photography With the advent of smart phones, high quality photographs can be taken of the objects, events, and people observed during a field study. Photographs can help capture an important moment in time as well as document details about the space where your observation takes place. Taking a photograph can save you time in documenting the details of a space that would otherwise require extensive note taking. However, be aware that flash photography could undermine your ability to observe unobtrusively so assess the lighting in your observation space; if it's too dark, you may need to rely on taking notes. Also, you should reject the idea that photographs are some sort of "window into the world" because this assumption creates the risk of over-interpreting what they show. As with any product of data gathering, you are the sole instrument of interpretation and meaning-making, not the object itself. Video and Audio Recordings Video or audio recording your observations has the positive effect of giving you an unfiltered record of the observation event. It also facilitates repeated analysis of your observations. This can be particularly helpful as you gather additional information or insights during your research. However, these techniques have the negative effect of increasing how intrusive you are as an observer and will often not be practical or even allowed under certain circumstances [e.g., interaction between a doctor and a patient] and in certain organizational settings [e.g., a courtroom]. Illustrations/Drawings This does not refer to an artistic endeavor but, rather, refers to the possible need, for example, to draw a map of the observation setting or illustrating objects in relation to people's behavior. This can also take the form of rough tables or graphs documenting the frequency and type of activities observed. These can be subsequently placed in a more readable format when you write your field report. To save time, draft a table [i.e., columns and rows] on a separate piece of paper before an observation if you know you will be entering data in that way.

NOTE:   You may consider using a laptop or other electronic device to record your notes as you observe, but keep in mind the possibility that the clicking of keys while you type or noises from your device can be obtrusive, whereas writing your notes on paper is relatively quiet and unobtrusive. Always assess your presence in the setting where you're gathering the data so as to minimize your impact on the subject or phenomenon being studied.

ANOTHER NOTE :  Techniques of observation and data gathering are not innate skills; they are skills that must be learned and practiced in order to achieve proficiency. Before your first observation, practice the technique you plan to use in a setting similar to your study site [e.g., take notes about how people choose to enter checkout lines at a grocery store if your research involves examining the choice patterns of unrelated people forced to queue in busy social settings]. When the act of data gathering counts, you'll be glad you practiced beforehand.

Examples of Things to Document While Observing

• Physical setting . The characteristics of an occupied space and the human use of the place where the observation(s) are being conducted.
• Objects and material culture . This refers to the presence, placement, and arrangement of objects that impact the behavior or actions of those being observed. If applicable, describe the cultural artifacts representing the beliefs--values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions--used by the individuals you are observing.
• Use of language . Don't just observe but  listen to what is being said, how is it being said, and, the tone of conversation among participants.
• Behavior cycles . This refers to documenting when and who performs what behavior or task and how often they occur. Record at which stage is this behavior occurring within the setting.
• The order in which events unfold . Note sequential patterns of behavior or the moment when actions or events take place and their significance.
• Physical characteristics of subjects. If relevant, note age, gender, clothing, etc. of individuals being observed.
• Expressive body movements . This would include things like body posture or facial expressions. Note that it may be relevant to also assess whether expressive body movements support or contradict the language used in conversation [e.g., detecting sarcasm].

Brief notes about all of these examples contextualize your observations; however, your observation notes will be guided primarily by your theoretical framework, keeping in mind that your observations will feed into and potentially modify or alter these frameworks.

Sampling Techniques

Sampling refers to the process used to select a portion of the population for study . Qualitative research, of which observation is one method of data gathering, is generally based on non-probability and purposive sampling rather than probability or random approaches characteristic of quantitatively-driven studies. Sampling in observational research is flexible and often continues until no new themes emerge from the data, a point referred to as data saturation.

All sampling decisions are made for the explicit purpose of obtaining the richest possible source of information to answer the research questions. Decisions about sampling assumes you know what you want to observe, what behaviors are important to record, and what research problem you are addressing before you begin the study. These questions determine what sampling technique you should use, so be sure you have adequately answered them before selecting a sampling method.

Ways to sample when conducting an observation include:

Ad Libitum Sampling -- this approach is not that different from what people do at the zoo--observing whatever seems interesting at the moment. There is no organized system of recording the observations; you just note whatever seems relevant at the time. The advantage of this method is that you are often able to observe relatively rare or unusual behaviors that might be missed by more deliberate sampling methods. This method is also useful for obtaining preliminary observations that can be used to develop your final field study. Problems using this method include the possibility of inherent bias toward conspicuous behaviors or individuals and that you may miss brief interactions in social settings.

Behavior Sampling -- this involves watching the entire group of subjects and recording each occurrence of a specific behavior of interest and with reference to which individuals were involved. The method is useful in recording rare behaviors missed by other sampling methods and is often used in conjunction with focal or scan methods. However, sampling can be biased towards particular conspicuous behaviors.

Continuous Recording -- provides a faithful record of behavior including frequencies, durations, and latencies [the time that elapses between a stimulus and the response to it]. This is a very demanding method because you are trying to record everything within the setting and, thus, measuring reliability may be sacrificed. In addition, durations and latencies are only reliable if subjects remain present throughout the collection of data. However, this method facilitates analyzing sequences of behaviors and ensures obtaining a wealth of data about the observation site and the people within it. The use of audio or video recording is most useful with this type of sampling.

Focal Sampling -- this involves observing one individual for a specified amount of time and recording all instances of that individual's behavior. Usually you have a set of predetermined categories or types of behaviors that you are interested in observing [e.g., when a teacher walks around the classroom] and you keep track of the duration of those behaviors. This approach doesn't tend to bias one behavior over another and provides significant detail about a individual's behavior. However, with this method, you likely have to conduct a lot of focal samples before you have a good idea about how group members interact. It can also be difficult within certain settings to keep one individual in sight for the entire period of the observation.

Instantaneous Sampling -- this is where observation sessions are divided into short intervals divided by sample points. At each sample point the observer records if predetermined behaviors of interest are taking place. This method is not effective for recording discrete events of short duration and, frequently, observers will want to record novel behaviors that occur slightly before or after the point of sampling, creating a sampling error. Though not exact, this method does give you an idea of durations and is relatively easy to do. It is also good for recording behavior patterns occurring at a specific instant, such as, movement or body positions.

One-Zero Sampling -- this is very similar to instantaneous sampling, only the observer records if the behaviors of interest have occurred at any time during an interval instead of at the instant of the sampling point. The method is useful for capturing data on behavior patterns that start and stop repeatedly and rapidly, but that last only for a brief period of time. The disadvantage of this approach is that you get a dimensionless score for an entire recording session, so you only get one one data point for each recording session.

Scan Sampling -- this method involves taking a census of the entire observed group at predetermined time periods and recording what each individual is doing at that moment. This is useful for obtaining group behavioral data and allows for data that are evenly representative across individuals and periods of time. On the other hand, this method may be biased towards more conspicuous behaviors and you may miss a lot of what is going on between observations, especially rare or unusual behaviors. It is also difficult to record more than a few individuals in a group setting without missing what each individual is doing at each predetermined moment in time [e.g., children sitting at a table during lunch at school].

Alderks, Peter. Data Collection . Psychology 330 Course Documents. Animal Behavior Lab. University of Washington; Emerson, Robert M. Contemporary Field Research: Perspectives and Formulations . 2nd ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2001; Emerson, Robert M. et al. “Participant Observation and Fieldnotes.” In Handbook of Ethnography . Paul Atkinson et al., eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 352-368; Emerson, Robert M. et al. Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes . 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2011; Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Hazel, Spencer. "The Paradox from Within: Research Participants Doing-Being-Observed." Qualitative Research 16 (August 2016): 446-457; Pace, Tonio. Writing Field Reports . Scribd Online Library; Presser, Jon and Dona Schwartz. “Photographs within the Sociological Research Process.” In Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers . Jon Prosser, editor (London: Falmer Press, 1998), pp. 115-130; Pyrczak, Fred and Randall R. Bruce. Writing Empirical Research Reports: A Basic Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . 5th ed. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2005; Report Writing . UniLearning. University of Wollongong, Australia; Wolfinger, Nicholas H. "On Writing Fieldnotes: Collection Strategies and Background Expectancies.” Qualitative Research 2 (April 2002): 85-95; Writing Reports . Anonymous. The Higher Education Academy.

Structure and Writing Style

How you choose to format your field report is determined by the research problem, the theoretical perspective that is driving your analysis, the observations that you make, and/or specific guidelines established by your professor. Since field reports do not have a standard format, it is worthwhile to determine from your professor what the preferred organization should be before you begin to write. Note that field reports should be written in the past tense. With this in mind, most field reports in the social sciences include the following elements:

I.  Introduction The introduction should describe the research problem, the specific objectives of your research, and the important theories or concepts underpinning your field study. The introduction should describe the nature of the organization or setting where you are conducting the observation, what type of observations you have conducted, what your focus was, when you observed, and the methods you used for collecting the data. You should also include a review of pertinent literature related to the research problem, particularly if similar methods were used in prior studies. Conclude your introduction with a statement about how the rest of the paper is organized.

II.  Description of Activities

Your readers only knowledge and understanding of what happened will come from the description section of your report because they have not been witness to the situation, people, or events that you are writing about. Given this, it is crucial that you provide sufficient details to place the analysis that will follow into proper context; don't make the mistake of providing a description without context. The description section of a field report is similar to a well written piece of journalism. Therefore, a helpful approach to systematically describing the varying aspects of an observed situation is to answer the "Five W’s of Investigative Reporting." These are:

• What -- describe what you observed. Note the temporal, physical, and social boundaries you imposed to limit the observations you made. What were your general impressions of the situation you were observing. For example, as a student teacher, what is your impression of the application of iPads as a learning device in a history class; as a cultural anthropologist, what is your impression of women's participation in a Native American religious ritual?
• Where -- provide background information about the setting of your observation and, if necessary, note important material objects that are present that help contextualize the observation [e.g., arrangement of computers in relation to student engagement with the teacher].
• When -- record factual data about the day and the beginning and ending time of each observation. Note that it may also be necessary to include background information or key events which impact upon the situation you were observing [e.g., observing the ability of teachers to re-engage students after coming back from an unannounced fire drill].
• Who -- note background and demographic information about the individuals being observed e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, and/or any other variables relevant to your study]. Record who is doing what and saying what, as well as, who is not doing or saying what. If relevant, be sure to record who was missing from the observation.
• Why -- why were you doing this? Describe the reasons for selecting particular situations to observe. Note why something happened. Also note why you may have included or excluded certain information.

III.  Interpretation and Analysis

Always place the analysis and interpretations of your field observations within the larger context of the theories and issues you described in the introduction. Part of your responsibility in analyzing the data is to determine which observations are worthy of comment and interpretation, and which observations are more general in nature. It is your theoretical framework that allows you to make these decisions. You need to demonstrate to the reader that you are looking at the situation through the eyes of an informed viewer, not as a lay person.

Here are some questions to ask yourself when analyzing your observations:

• What is the meaning of what you have observed?
• Why do you think what you observed happened? What evidence do you have for your reasoning?
• What events or behaviors were typical or widespread? If appropriate, what was unusual or out of ordinary? How were they distributed among categories of people?
• Do you see any connections or patterns in what you observed?
• Why did the people you observed proceed with an action in the way that they did? What are the implications of this?
• Did the stated or implicit objectives of what you were observing match what was achieved?
• What were the relative merits of the behaviors you observed?
• What were the strengths and weaknesses of the observations you recorded?
• Do you see connections between what you observed and the findings of similar studies identified from your review of the literature?
• How do your observations fit into the larger context of professional practice? In what ways have your observations possibly changed or affirmed your perceptions of professional practice?
• Have you learned anything from what you observed?

NOTE:   Only base your interpretations on what you have actually observed. Do not speculate or manipulate your observational data to fit into your study's theoretical framework.

IV.  Conclusion and Recommendations

The conclusion should briefly recap of the entire study, reiterating the importance or significance of your observations. Avoid including any new information. You should also state any recommendations you may have. Be sure to describe any unanticipated problems you encountered and note the limitations of your study. The conclusion should not be more than two or three paragraphs.

V.  Appendix

This is where you would place information that is not essential to explaining your findings, but that supports your analysis [especially repetitive or lengthy information], that validates your conclusions, or that contextualizes a related point that helps the reader understand the overall report. Examples of information that could be included in an appendix are figures/tables/charts/graphs of results, statistics, pictures, maps, drawings, or, if applicable, transcripts of interviews. There is no limit to what can be included in the appendix or its format [e.g., a DVD recording of the observation site], provided that it is relevant to the study's purpose and reference is made to it in the report. If information is placed in more than one appendix ["appendices"], the order in which they are organized is dictated by the order they were first mentioned in the text of the report.

VI.  References

List all sources that you consulted and obtained information from while writing your field report. Note that field reports generally do not include further readings or an extended bibliography. However, consult with your professor concerning what your list of sources should be included. Be sure to write them in the preferred citation style of your discipline [i.e., APA, Chicago, MLA, etc.].

Alderks, Peter. Data Collection . Psychology 330 Course Documents. Animal Behavior Lab. University of Washington; Emerson, Robert M. Contemporary Field Research: Perspectives and Formulations . 2nd ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2001; Emerson, Robert M. et al. “Participant Observation and Fieldnotes.” In Handbook of Ethnography . Paul Atkinson et al., eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 352-368; Emerson, Robert M. et al. Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes . 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2011; Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Pace, Tonio. Writing Field Reports . Scribd Online Library; Pyrczak, Fred and Randall R. Bruce. Writing Empirical Research Reports: A Basic Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . 5th ed. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2005; Report Writing . UniLearning. University of Wollongong, Australia; Wolfinger, Nicholas H. "On Writing Fieldnotes: Collection Strategies and Background Expectancies.” Qualitative Research 2 (April 2002): 85-95; Writing Reports . Anonymous. The Higher Education Academy.

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Literature Reviews in the Social Sciences

• Get started
• Search tips
• Select Databases
• Organize your sources
• Evaluate your sources
• Structure your literature review

This guide is designed to help you as you get started on a literature review in the social sciences.  It contains search tips, advice on where to look for sources, and information on how to organize and evaluate the sources you find.   

Doing a Literature Review

What's a Literature Review?

A literature review is the systematic written analysis of previously published research on a specific topic or subject. A literature review is not merely a summary of another scholar's articles or books. Instead, it provides a contextual analysis of the data, ideas, or theoretical concepts presented in the article, book, or other publication.

Why is a literature review important?

All scholars recognize the importance of the literature review. It provides the foundation for all scholarly research papers, theses, and dissertations. You can't write intelligently about a subject if you are unfamiliar with the existing literature. Therefore, the literature review is meant to showcase what has already been discussed or discovered in your topical area.

What types of resources should be used for a literature review?

 A literature review should be written using "credible" academic sources of information. This means using peer-reviewed, scholarly articles, books, and other publications in your subject area. You should avoid using popular magazines, unpublished works, blogs, or other resources deemed non-scholarly.

What other things should I consider while reading the source material?

Take careful notes of important ideas, concepts, or facts you find that are relevant to your overall topic or thesis. Most importantly, keep track of all the sources used. This will keep you from needing to relocate them later. If your paper is large in scope, use electronic bibliographic tools such as Endnote or RefWorks to keep track of all your citations while you write.

What about writing the literature review itself?

When you are prepared to begin writing your literature review, you should not simply summarize the articles and books you find. You should carefully consider the research and the author's interpretation of the subject matter. Then show how their research relates to your specific topic, from your unique point of view.

Annual Reviews / Dissertations & Theses

Many scholarly journals, dissertations, and theses also publish long and extremely detailed literature reviews. 

The Annual Reviews series of publications offer articles that analyze the most significant scholarly research published within the preceding year. Written by leading scholars and academics, the articles cover over 40 different subject disciplines in the social and hard sciences.

To search directly for a literature review, go to a library database and search for:

    "literature review" AND [your research topic] .

• Annual Reviews This link opens in a new window Annual Reviews offers comprehensive, timely collections of critical reviews written by leading scientists. Annual Reviews volumes are published each year for 29 focused disciplines within the Biomedical, Physical, and Social Sciences.
• Dissertations & Theses Global This link opens in a new window Dissertations and Theses Global contains indexes, dissertations and some theses. Full-text is available for many dissertations and theses, including those from NYU.

Books on Writing Literature Reviews

Sage Research Methods - Videos on Doing Literature Reviews

• Sage Research Methods - Literature Reviews Professor Eric Jensen and Dr. Charles Laurie explain how to write a literature review, and why researchers need to do so. Literature reviews can be stand-alone research or part of a larger project. They communicate the state of academic knowledge on a given topic, specifically detailing what is still unknown.
• How to Conduct an Effective Literature Review Claire White, an Associate professor from California State University Northridge, explains how to conduct an effective literature review using a literature review sketch.
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Essays and Short Answer Prompts

The Penn application process includes a personal essay —which is sent to most schools you apply to—as well as a few short answer prompts . We read your words carefully, as they are yet another window into how you think, what you value, and how you see the world. Through your writing, we get a glimpse of what you might bring to our community—including your voice and creativity. 

Remember, you are the expert on your story. This is an opportunity for you to reflect and understand who you are now, and who you want to be in the future. You have the agency to choose the information you want to share. This is your story: your experiences, your ideas, your perspective.   

A Few Writing Tips

• Review the prompts thoroughly.  Be sure you’re answering the question or prompt being asked. Topics are chosen because the Admissions Committee wants to know specific things about you. If you don’t address them directly, we are left to make decisions regarding your application with incomplete information. 
• Consider your response carefully.  We understand that you may be writing responses for different schools and you may want to reuse material, but be sure to read through your response to make sure it is relevant to the prompt. 
• Double-check your writing.  Give yourself time to revisit your response. Try to avoid rushing your writing process so you have time to revise your work. Ultimately, it is up to you to polish and proofread your writing before you submit. 
• Do your research. Are there classes you’re eager to take? Research opportunities you’d love to pursue? A group or club you want to be a part of? This kind of specificity shows us you’re serious about Penn and have thought about how you’d spend your time here. 

2024-25 Short Answer and Essay Prompts

When answering these prompts, be precise when explaining both why you are applying to Penn and why you have chosen to apply to that specific undergraduate school. Some of our specialized programs will have additional essays to complete, but the  Penn short answer prompts should address your single-degree or single-school choice.  

• Write a short thank-you note to someone you have not yet thanked and would like to acknowledge. (We encourage you to share this note with that person, if possible, and reflect on the experience!) (150-200 words, only required for first-year applicants) 
• How will you explore community at Penn? Consider how Penn will help shape your perspective, and how your experiences and perspective will help shape Penn. (150-200 words) 
• The school-specific prompt is unique to the school to which you are applying. (For example, all applicants applying to the College of Arts and Sciences will respond to the prompt under the “College of Arts and Sciences” section). Considering the undergraduate school you have selected for your single-degree option, please respond to your school-specific prompt below.  

Transfer Essay (required for all transfer applicants): Please explain your reasons for transferring from your current institution and what you hope to gain by transferring to another institution. (4150 characters) 

Undergraduate School-Specific Short Answer Prompts

For students applying to coordinated dual-degree and specialized programs, please answer this question about your single-degree school choice; your interest in the coordinated dual-degree or specialized program may be addressed through the program-specific essay.  

Penn Nursing intends to meet the health needs of a global, multicultural world by preparing its students to impact healthcare through advancing science. How will you contribute to our mission of promoting equity in healthcare and how will Penn Nursing contribute to your future nursing goals? (150-200 words)

To help inform your response, applicants are encouraged to learn more about Penn Nursing’s mission and how we promote equity in healthcare here . This information will help you develop a stronger understanding of our values and how they align with your own goals and aspirations.

The flexible structure of The College of Arts and Sciences’ curriculum is designed to inspire exploration, foster connections, and help you create a path of study through general education courses and a major. What are you curious about and how would you take advantage of opportunities in the arts and sciences? (150-200 words) 

To help inform your response, applicants are encouraged to learn more about the  academic offerings within the College of Arts and Sciences .  This information will help you develop a stronger understanding of how the study of the liberal arts aligns with your own goals and aspirations. 

Wharton prepares its students to make an impact by applying business methods and economic theory to real-world problems, including economic, political, and social issues.  Please reflect on a current issue of importance to you and share how you hope a Wharton education would help you to explore it.  (150-200 words) 

To help inform your response, applicants are encouraged to learn more about  the foundations of a Wharton education . This information will help you better understand what you could learn by studying at Wharton and what you could do afterward. 

Penn Engineering prepares its students to become leaders in technology by combining a strong foundation in the natural sciences and mathematics with depth of study in focused disciplinary majors. Please share how you plan to pursue your engineering interests at Penn. (150-200 words)

To help inform your response, applicants are encouraged to learn more about Penn Engineering and its mission to prepare students for global leadership in technology here . This information will help you develop a stronger understanding of academic pathways within Penn Engineering and how they align with your goals and interests.

Coordinated Dual Degree and Specialized Program Essay Prompts

For students applying to coordinated dual-degree and specialized programs, please answer the program-specific essay below. 

** Numbers marked with double asterisks indicate a character count that only applies to transfer students applying through Common App.  

Discuss how your interests align with the Digital Media Design (DMD) program at the University of Pennsylvania? (400-650 words / 3575 characters**)

We encourage you to learn more about the DMD: Digital Media Design Program .

The Huntsman Program supports the development of globally minded scholars who become engaged citizens, creative innovators, and ethical leaders in the public, private, and non-profit sectors in the United States and internationally. What draws you to a dual-degree program in business and international studies, and how would you use what you learn to contribute to a global issue where business and international affairs intersect? (400-650 words) 

The LSM program aims to provide students with a fundamental understanding of the life sciences and their management with an eye to identifying, advancing, and implementing innovations. What issues would you want to address using the understanding gained from such a program? Note that this essay should be distinct from your single degree essay. (400-650 words) 

• Explain how you will use the M&T program to explore your interest in business, engineering, and the intersection of the two. (400-650 words) 
• Describe a problem that you solved that showed leadership and creativity. (250 words) 

Discuss your interest in nursing and health care management. How might Penn's coordinated dual-degree program in nursing and business help you meet your goals? (400-650 words) 

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How to Write a Science Fiction Novel: A Comprehensive Guide

• by Andrea Feccomandi
• July 31, 2024

Do you dream of creating new worlds and futuristic adventures? Science fiction can take readers beyond the stars and into the unknown .

Science fiction holds a special place in literature. It explores what could be, pushing the boundaries of our imagination. Through its lens, we tackle important questions about humanity, technology, and the future . Writing science fiction means joining a tradition of authors who inspire and provoke thought.

But how do you start writing a science fiction novel? This guide on how to write a science fiction novel will cover the essential steps to bring your vision to life.

Let’s start!

Sci-fi Novel Meaning

To master how to write a science fiction novel, you need to first understand what science fiction is. Science fiction explores imaginative concepts, often based on scientific principles or futuristic settings. It asks big questions about what is possible and what the future might hold.

SCIENCE FICTION NOVEL DEFINITION What is a Science Fiction Novel? A science fiction novel is a type of fiction that explores imaginative and futuristic concepts, often grounded in scientific principles or advanced technology. These novels often address themes like space exploration, time travel, artificial intelligence, and extraterrestrial life. By creating speculative worlds, science fiction novels examine the potential impact of science and technology on society and individuals.

Science fiction is a broad genre with many subgenres. Each has its own unique focus and style. Here are a few key subgenres:

Hard Sci-Fi

This subgenre focuses on scientific accuracy and technical detail . Stories often revolve around real scientific principles and theories. For example, Arthur C. Clarke’s 2001: “ A Space Odyssey ” explores space travel with great scientific detail.

Soft Sci-Fi

Soft sci-fi emphasizes human elements rather than scientific accuracy . It explores social sciences like psychology, sociology, and politics. Ursula K. Le Guin’s “ The Left Hand of Darkness ” is a great example, focusing on social and political issues on an alien planet.

Cyberpunk features a high-tech, low-life world . It often involves hackers, artificial intelligence, and cybernetic enhancements. William Gibson’s “ Neuromancer ” is a classic cyberpunk novel depicting a dark and gritty future dominated by technology.

Space Opera

Space opera is grand and epic, set in space with large-scale battles and complex plots . It focuses more on adventure and drama than scientific accuracy. “ Star Wars ” is a well-known example, with its vast interstellar conflicts and heroic characters.

Biopunk focuses on biotechnology and genetic engineering . It explores the implications of manipulating living organisms. Margaret Atwood’s “ Oryx and Crake ” delves into a future where genetic engineering has drastically altered life on Earth, raising ethical and moral questions.

Military Sci-Fi

Military science fiction centers on armed conflict in futuristic or space settings . It often features detailed descriptions of battles and military technology. “ Starship Troopers ” by Robert A. Heinlein is a notable example, portraying a future society where citizens earn their rights through military service.

Post-Apocalyptic

Post-apocalyptic sci-fi explores life after a catastrophic event that has destroyed civilization . These stories often focus on survival and rebuilding. “ The Road ” by Cormac McCarthy is a well-known post-apocalyptic novel, following a father and son in a devastated world.

The saddest aspect of life right now is that science fiction gathers knowledge faster than society gathers wisdom. Isaac Asimov

How to Write a Science Fiction Novel: Developing Your Concept

When learning how to write a science fiction novel, developing your central idea is crucial. The central idea drives your story and keeps readers engaged. It’s the main theme or question that your novel explores . This idea will guide your plot , characters , and setting.

For example, in Mary Shelley’s “ Frankenstein ,” the central idea revolves around the consequences of playing God. This theme shapes every part of the novel.

Finding inspiration for the central idea can sometimes be the hardest part, but science and technology offer endless possibilities. Consider how modern technology or scientific discoveries could evolve in the future . For instance, reading about advancements in artificial intelligence might inspire a story about AI gaining consciousness.

Think about space exploration, genetic engineering, or climate change. How might these areas change our world? Isaac Asimov’s “ Foundation ” series explores the idea of predicting and shaping the future through mathematics, inspired by his interest in science.

Don’t even ignore your dreams and imagination . Many great science fiction ideas come from asking: “ What if? ” What if humans could travel faster than light? What if we discovered a parallel universe? Use these questions to spark your creativity.

Structuring the Main Idea into a Clear and Intriguing Concept

Once you have your central idea, you need to structure it into a clear and intriguing concept. Start by summarizing your idea in one sentence . For example, “ In a future where humans have colonized Mars, a young scientist discovers a hidden alien civilization .”

Next, expand this sentence into a paragraph . Introduce your main characters and their goals. Describe the setting and the main conflict . This is the premise and will help you see how your idea can develop into a full story.

For instance, “ Dr. Jane Carter, a brilliant but isolated scientist, works on Mars terraforming projects. When she stumbles upon an ancient alien city, she must decide whether to reveal her discovery and risk interplanetary conflict or keep it secret to protect humanity. ”

World-Building in a Science Fiction Novel

When writing a science fiction novel, building a believable and detailed setting is essential.

Start with the basics. Where does your story take place? Is it on Earth, in a distant galaxy, or on a newly discovered planet? Describe the environment. Is it lush and green, barren and rocky, or filled with towering futuristic cities?

For example, in Frank Herbert’s “ Dune ,” the desert planet Arrakis is harsh and arid. Its environment shapes the culture and lifestyle of its inhabitants. Similarly, your setting should influence your characters and their actions.

World-Building Techniques

To build a rich and believable world, consider its history, geography, politics, society, and technology. Here’s how to approach each aspect.

History . Create a backstory for your world. What significant events shaped it? In “ The War of the Worlds ” by H.G. Wells, the Martian invasion is a pivotal event that alters the course of human history and society. The panic, destruction, and eventual human resilience against the Martians add depth and context to the story. Your world’s history should add depth and context to your narrative.

Geography. Map out your world. Include continents, oceans, mountains, and cities. Describe the climate and natural resources. For example, the floating mountains in James Cameron’s “ Avatar ” create a unique and memorable setting.

Politics . Define the political landscape. Who holds power, and how do they govern? Are there tensions or alliances between different groups? In “ Ender’s Game ” by Orson Scott Card, the government and military hold significant power, training young children for war against alien invaders. This creates a complex dynamic of control, manipulation, and rebellion.

Society . Think about the culture and social structure. What are the customs, traditions, and beliefs? How do people interact with each other? In “The Left Hand of Darkness” by Ursula K. Le Guin, the society on the planet Gethen is unique in its fluid approach to gender, deeply influencing social interactions and cultural norms.

Technology . Consider the level of technological advancement. What inventions and devices are common? How do they affect daily life? In Isaac Asimov’s “Foundation” series, advanced technology like psychohistory shapes the story’s events.

Balancing Realism and Imagination

A successful science fiction novel balances realism and imagination. Ground your world in details that make it feel real, but don’t be afraid to stretch the limits of what’s possible . For instance, in “ Star Trek ,” the concept of warp drive is based on real scientific theories, but it’s pushed beyond our current understanding to create exciting possibilities.

Use familiar elements to anchor your readers . Describing a bustling market with vendors selling exotic fruits can make an alien planet feel relatable. At the same time, let your imagination run wild. Invent unique creatures, landscapes, and technologies that surprise and intrigue.

As you build your world, think about how all these elements interact . A technologically advanced society might have different values and problems than a primitive one. A planet with scarce resources will shape its inhabitants’ behavior and culture differently than one with abundance.

Common Plot Structures in Sci-Fi Novels

If you want to learn how to write a science fiction novel, you have to understand the most common common plot structures. These structures provide a framework to guide your story and keep readers engaged.

Hero’s Journey

The Hero’s Journey is a classic plot structure . Your protagonist starts in an ordinary world, faces a call to adventure, and embarks on a quest. Along the way, they encounter challenges, gain allies , and confront a final ordeal. Think of Luke Skywalker in “Star Wars,” who leaves his home to battle the Empire. This structure works well in sci-fi by showcasing a character’s growth in the face of technological wonders and alien threats.

A quest involves a protagonist setting out to achieve a specific goal . This journey drives the plot. For example, in “ The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, ” Arthur Dent travels through space to discover the meaning of life. Sci-fi quests often involve interstellar travel, advanced technology, and the search for knowledge or power, highlighting humanity’s relentless pursuit of understanding.

In a rebellion plot, characters fight against an oppressive force . This structure often explores themes of freedom and justice. In “Ender’s Game” by Orson Scott Card, Ender Wiggin trains to battle an alien species that threatens Earth, dealing with internal and external conflicts against authority figures and military regimes. Sci-fi rebellions might feature dystopian futures , advanced surveillance, and the struggle against technologically superior oppressors, emphasizing the human spirit’s resistance.

First Contact

First contact stories revolve around humans meeting alien species for the first time . These plots explore themes of communication and understanding. “ Contact ” by Carl Sagan follows Dr. Ellie Arroway as she deciphers a message from an alien civilization. Sci-fi first contact plots often deal with the implications of encountering intelligent extraterrestrial life, cultural exchanges, and the potential for conflict or cooperation.

Time Travel

Time travel plots involve characters moving through different points in time . In “ The Time Machine ” by H.G. Wells, the protagonist explores distant futures. Sci-fi time travel stories often address the consequences of altering timelines, paradoxes, and the philosophical implications of time manipulation, showcasing complex narrative structures and speculative ideas.

Exploration

Exploration plots focus on discovering new worlds, societies, and technologies . In “2001: A Space Odyssey” by Arthur C. Clarke, humans explore space and encounter mysterious alien artifacts. Sci-fi exploration stories often highlight the sense of wonder and danger in the unknown, pushing the boundaries of human experience and knowledge.

How to write a Science Fiction Novel: Integrating Science and Technology

To write a compelling science fiction novel, you must integrate science and technology seamlessly. This adds depth and credibility to your story. How you present these elements can make or break the believability of your fictional world .

Scientific Research for Credibility

Research is crucial . Accurate science grounds your novel in reality. Read scientific journals, watch documentaries, and consult experts.

For instance, if your story involves space travel, understand the basics of astrophysics and propulsion systems. If your narrative explores genetic engineering, familiarize yourself with CRISPR technology and current advancements in biology.

By weaving accurate scientific details into your story, you create a foundation that readers can trust , even as you introduce speculative elements.

Imagine you are writing about a future where humans colonize other planets. Knowing the challenges of human physiology in space, like muscle atrophy and radiation exposure, allows you to construct a believable narrative. Or consider a plot centered around artificial intelligence; understanding machine learning and neural networks will enable you to depict AI interactions more convincingly.

How to Integrate Technology and Science into the Plot

Introduce technology and science naturally, by embedding them into the plot and character experiences.

You can incorporate technology as a tool that characters use to solve problems or achieve goals . For example, in “ Ready Player One ” by Ernest Cline, virtual reality technology is integral to the plot. The protagonist, Wade Watts, navigates a virtual world called the OASIS to find hidden Easter eggs, using advanced technology to overcome challenges and outsmart adversaries.

Consider also how technology can drive your plot. Technological failures or advancements can create tension and conflict . A malfunctioning life-support system in a space station can lead to a life-or-death situation, while a rogue AI developing consciousness can introduce ethical dilemmas and unexpected threats. These elements make technology integral to the plot rather than a mere backdrop.

When introducing new technology, think about its societal implications . How does it change daily life, power structures, or personal relationships? For instance, in “Dune” by Frank Herbert, the control of the spice Melange, a substance necessary for space travel, creates political and economic tensions. This illustrates the profound impact of science on society, driving the plot and character motivations.

Another example is in “ The Expanse ” series by James S.A. Corey, where the discovery of the protomolecule, an alien technology, triggers a race among Earth, Mars, and the Belt factions. This technology not only affects political alliances but also reshapes the future of humanity.

Use technology to reveal character traits and advance the story. How a character reacts to a technological crisis can show their resourcefulness, bravery, or desperation. For instance, in “ Altered Carbon ” by Richard K. Morgan, the protagonist Takeshi Kovacs navigates a world where consciousness can be transferred to different bodies, revealing his adaptability and resilience as he solves complex mysteries.

Balancing Technical Explanations and Narrative

Balance is key. Too much technical detail can overwhelm readers, while too little can make your story seem unconvincing.

You have to show technology in action rather than explaining it . In “ The Martian ,” Andy Weir uses the protagonist’s struggle for survival on Mars to explain scientific concepts. Mark Watney’s use of chemistry to produce water is woven into the narrative through his actions and thoughts.

In “Neuromancer” by William Gibson, the concept of cyberspace is introduced through the protagonist’s experiences rather than lengthy descriptions. This approach keeps the narrative engaging while still providing a sense of the technology’s scope and significance.

Another effective technique is use analogies and simple explanations . For example, instead of detailing how a spaceship’s engine works, describe it as “ powerful enough to cross the galaxy in days .”

Crafting Compelling Characters in a Science Fiction Novel

Creating engaging characters is crucial when learning how to write a science fiction novel. Your characters should be complex and relatable. They drive your story and connect with your readers on an emotional level.

Characteristics of Protagonists and Antagonists in Science Fiction

In science fiction, protagonists often face extraordinary challenges . They might be scientists, explorers, rebels, or ordinary people thrown into extraordinary situations. Think of Luke Skywalker from “Star Wars,” who starts as a farm boy and becomes a hero . Your protagonist should have clear goals, strong motivations, and a mix of strengths and weaknesses .

Antagonists in science fiction are equally important. They create conflict and drive the plot. They might be alien invaders, corrupt governments, rogue AI, or even a harsh environment. For example, HAL 9000 from “2001: A Space Odyssey” is a rogue AI that turns against the crew. Your antagonist should have clear reasons for their actions, making them more than just obstacles for the protagonist.

Developing the Background and Motivations of Characters

Backgrounds give depth to your characters. Where did they come from? What experiences shaped them? Consider a character’s upbringing, education, and significant life events. These elements influence their decisions and interactions .

Motivations are the driving forces behind your characters’ actions. Why do they do what they do? In “Ender’s Game” by Orson Scott Card, Ender Wiggin is driven by a desire to protect humanity, even as he struggles with the harsh training he undergoes. Motivations can be personal (revenge, love, survival) or broader (justice, freedom, knowledge). Ensure your characters have clear, compelling reasons for their actions.

Interactions Between Characters and How They Influence the Plot

Character interactions shape your plot . Relationships between characters can create tension, reveal secrets, or drive the story forward. Consider the dynamic between Rick Deckard and the replicants in “ Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? ” Their interactions explore themes of humanity and empathy, adding depth to the plot.

In science fiction, interactions often revolve around unique elements of the genre. How do characters respond to advanced technology or alien cultures ? In “The Left Hand of Darkness” by Ursula K. Le Guin, the protagonist’s interactions with an alien society that has a different approach to gender deeply influence the plot and his character development.

Dialogue is a key tool for showing interactions. It reveals character traits, builds relationships, and advances the story. Avoid using dialogue just for exposition . Instead, make it meaningful and character-driven.

Conflicts between characters are also crucial. They can be ideological, physical, or emotional. These conflicts create drama and keep readers engaged. For example, in “Dune,” the conflict between Paul Atreides and the Harkonnens drives much of the plot.

How Bibisco Novel Writing Software Can Help You Write a Science Fiction Novel

bibisco novel writing software offers many features to help you write a science fiction novel . It provides tools for organizing your thoughts and structuring your story.

bibisco allows you to outline your plot with clear, visual tools. You can break your story into chapters and scenes, making it easier to see the overall structure. This helps in maintaining a steady pace and logical progression.

bibisco provides a clean writing interface where you can write and edit your novel within the software. It tracks your progress and helps set writing goals, keeping you motivated and on track to complete your novel.

bibisco supports every aspect of writing a science fiction novel , from character development to world-building and plot organization, helping turn your creative ideas into a structured, compelling story.

Conclusion: How to Write a Science Fiction Novel

Science fiction sparks our imagination and pushes the boundaries of what we believe is possible. From exploring distant galaxies to envisioning futuristic technology, science fiction allows us to dream big and ask, “ What if? “

By writing science fiction, you join a tradition of authors who inspire and provoke thought, reflecting our hopes, fears, and questions about the future.

In this guide, we covered the basic concepts you need to know for writing your own science fiction novel. Now, it’s time to put your ideas into action. Start writing your science fiction novel and bring your unique vision of the future to life!

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Science, social studies classes can help young English-learning students learn to read and write in English

by Joey Pitchford, North Carolina State University

A new study finds that science and social studies classes may also help young students learn English, even when those classes include difficult and technical vocabulary. The paper is published in the Journal of Educational Psychology .

The study, which observed first- and second-grade students in 30 elementary schools in North Carolina, encouraged teachers to keep their English-learning students in class during science and social studies lessons. Science and social studies textbooks in those grades are often relatively technical and difficult for students, so traditional teaching methods in North Carolina encourage teachers to remove English-learning students from those content classes to focus on their language skills instead.

By creating a 10-week literacy program—known as a Tier 1 intervention—which kept English-learners in science and social studies classes, researchers found that those students saw improvements in their ability to write argumentative essays and use new academic vocabulary. The study highlights the importance of giving English-learners access to academic content, said Jackie Relyea, corresponding author of the study and assistant professor of literacy education at North Carolina State University.

"This study shows how important it is to provide equitable opportunities for English-learners to build knowledge in science and history, and to apply that knowledge through informational texts alongside their peers," Relyea said. "What we found was that when English-learners have access to content-rich literacy instruction, they develop content knowledge as well as language, reading comprehension, and writing skills."

The program used methods like interactive read-alouds, collaborative research and concept mapping to build students' vocabulary and understanding of complex topics. Concept mapping refers to using diagrams or similar visual aids to depict connections between ideas.

Significantly, the study found that English-learners had similar levels of improvement in science and social studies vocabulary and argumentative writing as their English-proficient classmates across the 10-week program. Notably, the intervention did not lead to negative results elsewhere, which supports the idea that English-learning students can attend more complex classes without falling behind. This further suggests that content-rich literacy instruction may help narrow the achievement gap between English-learners and their peers.

The intervention also modified classes to cover individual subjects for longer. That way, Relyea said, English-learners could get comfortable with a subject early on and then continue to get value from that knowledge later.

"One thing we noticed is the importance of using coherent text sets that focus on a single topic. In more traditional literacy instruction, our study found that topics tended to change quickly and there wasn't always a consistent throughline that the students could grab on to," she said.

"By focusing on similar subjects for longer, kids can dig deeper and develop more in-depth knowledge. It may be challenging at first, but when students encounter the same new words day after day, they become familiar with them and expand their vocabulary network. Staying on a thematic unit for longer periods also helps them become experts in the subject matter, which greatly enhances their vocabulary and comprehension skills."

The study challenges widely held assumptions about English-learners' academic capabilities, and highlights their readiness to engage with complex subject material despite their developing English proficiency. Relyea said that further research into incorporating small-group supplemental instruction could be valuable, potentially enhancing the effectiveness of the program even further.

Journal information: Journal of Educational Psychology

Provided by North Carolina State University

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Science, Social Studies classes can help young English-learning students learn to read and write in English

For Immediate Release

A new study finds that science and social studies classes may also help young students learn English, even when those classes include difficult and technical vocabulary.

The study, which observed first- and second-grade students in 30 elementary schools in North Carolina, encouraged teachers to keep their English-learning students in class during science and social studies lessons. Science and social studies textbooks in those grades are often relatively technical and difficult for students, so traditional teaching methods in North Carolina encourage teachers to remove English-learning students from those content classes to focus on their language skills instead.

By creating a 10-week literacy program – known as a Tier 1 intervention – which kept English-learners in science and social studies classes, researchers found that those students saw improvements in their ability to write argumentative essays and use new academic vocabulary. The study highlights the importance of giving English-learners access to academic content, said Jackie Relyea, corresponding author of the study and assistant professor of literacy education at North Carolina State University.

“This study shows how important it is to provide equitable opportunities for English-learners to build knowledge in science and history, and to apply that knowledge through informational texts alongside their peers,” Relyea said. “What we found was that when English-learners have access to content-rich literacy instruction, they develop content knowledge as well as language, reading comprehension, and writing skills.”

The program used methods like interactive read-alouds, collaborative research and concept mapping to build students’ vocabulary and understanding of complex topics. Concept mapping refers to using diagrams or similar visual aids to depict connections between ideas.

Significantly, the study found that English-learners had similar levels of improvement in science and social studies vocabulary and argumentative writing as their English-proficient classmates across the 10-week program. Notably, the intervention did not lead to negative results elsewhere, which supports the idea that English-learning students can attend more complex classes without falling behind. This further suggests that content-rich literacy instruction may help narrow the achievement gap between English-learners and their peers.

The intervention also modified classes to cover individual subjects for longer. That way, Relyea said, English-learners could get comfortable with a subject early on and then continue to get value from that knowledge later.

“One thing we noticed is the importance of using coherent text sets that focus on a single topic. In more traditional literacy instruction, our study found that topics tended to change quickly and there wasn’t always a consistent throughline that the students could grab on to,” she said. “By focusing on similar subjects for longer, kids can dig deeper and develop more in-depth knowledge. It may be challenging at first, but when students encounter the same new words day after day, they become familiar with them and expand their vocabulary network. Staying on a thematic unit for longer periods also helps them become experts in the subject matter, which greatly enhances their vocabulary and comprehension skills.”

The study challenges widely held assumptions about English-learners’ academic capabilities, and highlights their readiness to engage with complex subject material despite their developing English proficiency. Relyea said that further research into incorporating small-group supplemental instruction could be valuable, potentially enhancing the effectiveness of the program even further.

-pitchford-

Note to Editors: The study abstract follows.

“Effects of Tier 1 Content Literacy Intervention on Early-Grade English-learners’ Reading and Writing: Exploring the Mediating Roles of Domain-Specific Vocabulary and Oral Language Proficiency”

Authors: Jackie E. Relyea, NC State University; James S. Kim, Harvard Graduate School of Education; Patrick Rich, American Institutes for Research; Jill Fitzgerald, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Published: July 19, 2024

DOI: 10.1037/edu0000882

Abstract : This exploratory follow-up study to a randomized controlled trial examined (a) the differential impact of classroom-based (Tier 1) content literacy intervention on reading and argumentative writing outcomes among Grades 1 and 2 English-learners (ELs; n = 1,236) and their English- proficient peers (EPs; n = 4,161) and (b) the mechanisms determining how the intervention yielded effects on ELs. The study was conducted across 30 elementary schools in an urban U.S. school district. The 10-week intervention, comprised of 20 lessons in science and social studies thematic units, was delivered by classroom teachers. The core components were designed to build students’ content and vocabulary knowledge through informational texts and concept mapping and to transfer their schema to argumentative writing and research collaboration. Results show that while the intervention did not significantly improve reading proficiency (effect size [ES] = .01 for ELs and ES = -.02 for EPs) and basic literacy skills (ES = .04 for ELs and ES = -.02 for EPs), it significantly bolstered argumentative writing in science (ES = .25 for ELs and ES = .24 for EPs) and social studies (ES = .42 for ELs and ES = .44 for EPs). The treatment effect on reading proficiency among ELs was fully mediated by their improved domain-specific vocabulary knowledge and English oral proficiency. A significant indirect effect on social studies argumentative writing through domain-specific vocabulary knowledge was also evident. These findings corroborate the effectiveness of the content literacy intervention, providing insights into for whom and how the intervention was effective.

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While the COVID-19 pandemic has had widespread mental health impacts, some people are more likely to be affected than others. This includes people from racial and ethnic minority groups, mothers and pregnant people, people with financial and housing insecurity, children, people with disabilities, people with preexisting mental illnesses or substance use problems, and health care workers. 

How is NIMH research addressing this critical topic?

NIMH is supporting research to understand and address the impacts of the pandemic on mental health. This includes research to understand how COVID-19 affects people with existing mental illnesses across their entire lifespan. NIMH also supports research to help meet people’s mental health needs during the pandemic and beyond. This includes research focused on making mental health services more accessible through telehealth, digital tools, and community-based interventions.

NIMH is also working to understand the unique impacts of the pandemic on specific groups of people, including people in underserved communities and children. For example, NIMH supports research investigating how pandemic-related factors, such as school disruptions, may influence children’s brain, cognitive, social, and emotional development.

Where can I learn more about COVID-19 and mental health?

• NIMH video: Mental Illnesses and COVID-19 Risks
• NIMH Director’s Messages about COVID-19
• NIMH events about COVID-19
• NIMH news about COVID-19

Where can I learn more about Long COVID and COVID-19?

• NIH page on Long COVID 
• NIH RECOVER Initiative  
• CDC COVID-19 resources 

How can I find help for mental health concerns?

If you have concerns about your mental health, talk to a primary care provider. They can refer you to a qualified mental health professional, such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, or clinical social worker, who can help you figure out the next steps. Find tips for talking with a health care provider about your mental health.

You can learn more about getting help on the NIMH website. You can also learn about finding support  and locating mental health services  in your area on the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) website.

Last Reviewed:  May 2024

Unless otherwise specified, the information on our website and in our publications is in the public domain and may be reused or copied without permission. However, you may not reuse or copy images. Please cite the National Institute of Mental Health as the source. Read our copyright policy to learn more about our guidelines for reusing NIMH content.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Purpose of Guide

Purpose of guide.

• Writing a Research Proposal
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• The Research Problem/Question
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Is it Peer-Reviewed?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism [linked guide]
• Annotated Bibliography
• Grading Someone Else's Paper

In Progress

This guide was borrowed from the original USC guide . I am in the process of updating all of the links to Texas State resources and modifying it according to your class. I believe I've made all the corrections, but please let me know if you find any that still refer to USC. Please check the TXST University Libraries  website for any links to resources that refer you to USC resources.

This guide is intended to help students organize and write a quality research paper for classes taught in the social and behavioral sciences. Also included are recommendations concerning how to successfully manage and complete specific course assignments. Note that, if you have any questions about a writing assignment, you should always seek advice from your professor before you begin. Requirements set forth by your professor will always supersede instructions provided in these general guidelines.

Contibution

This guide was borrowed from the original usc guide . usc links are in the process of being updated to texas state resources and modifying in accordance to your class. please check our library website for any links to resources that refer you to usc resources..

• Next: Writing a Research Proposal >>
• Last Updated: Sep 8, 2023 12:19 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.txstate.edu/socialscienceresearch

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• The Research Problem/Question
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. In the social and behavioral sciences, studies are most often framed around examining a problem that needs to be understood and resolved in order to improve society and the human condition.

Bryman, Alan. “The Research Question in Social Research: What is its Role?” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 10 (2007): 5-20; Guba, Egon G., and Yvonna S. Lincoln. “Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 105-117; Pardede, Parlindungan. “Identifying and Formulating the Research Problem." Research in ELT: Module 4 (October 2018): 1-13; Li, Yanmei, and Sumei Zhang. "Identifying the Research Problem." In Applied Research Methods in Urban and Regional Planning . (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2022), pp. 13-21.

Importance of...

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

• Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied . The reader is oriented to the significance of the study.
• Anchors the research questions, hypotheses, or assumptions to follow . It offers a concise statement about the purpose of your paper.
• Place the topic into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated.
• Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information.

In the social sciences, the research problem establishes the means by which you must answer the "So What?" question. This declarative question refers to a research problem surviving the relevancy test [the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy]. Note that answering the "So What?" question requires a commitment on your part to not only show that you have reviewed the literature, but that you have thoroughly considered the significance of the research problem and its implications applied to creating new knowledge and understanding or informing practice.

To survive the "So What" question, problem statements should possess the following attributes:

• Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping generalizations and irresponsible pronouncements; it also does include unspecific determinates like "very" or "giant"],
• Demonstrate a researchable topic or issue [i.e., feasibility of conducting the study is based upon access to information that can be effectively acquired, gathered, interpreted, synthesized, and understood],
• Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words and terms,
• Identification of an overarching question or small set of questions accompanied by key factors or variables,
• Identification of key concepts and terms,
• Articulation of the study's conceptual boundaries or parameters or limitations,
• Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use,
• Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [i.e., regardless of the type of research, it is important to demonstrate that the research is not trivial],
• Does not have unnecessary jargon or overly complex sentence constructions; and,
• Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation.

Bryman, Alan. “The Research Question in Social Research: What is its Role?” International Journal of Social Research Methodology 10 (2007): 5-20; Brown, Perry J., Allen Dyer, and Ross S. Whaley. "Recreation Research—So What?" Journal of Leisure Research 5 (1973): 16-24; Castellanos, Susie. Critical Writing and Thinking. The Writing Center. Dean of the College. Brown University; Ellis, Timothy J. and Yair Levy Nova. "Framework of Problem-Based Research: A Guide for Novice Researchers on the Development of a Research-Worthy Problem." Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline 11 (2008); Thesis and Purpose Statements. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Thesis Statements. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Selwyn, Neil. "‘So What?’…A Question that Every Journal Article Needs to Answer." Learning, Media, and Technology 39 (2014): 1-5; Shoket, Mohd. "Research Problem: Identification and Formulation." International Journal of Research 1 (May 2014): 512-518.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types and Content

There are four general conceptualizations of a research problem in the social sciences:

• Casuist Research Problem -- this type of problem relates to the determination of right and wrong in questions of conduct or conscience by analyzing moral dilemmas through the application of general rules and the careful distinction of special cases.
• Difference Research Problem -- typically asks the question, “Is there a difference between two or more groups or treatments?” This type of problem statement is used when the researcher compares or contrasts two or more phenomena. This a common approach to defining a problem in the clinical social sciences or behavioral sciences.
• Descriptive Research Problem -- typically asks the question, "what is...?" with the underlying purpose to describe the significance of a situation, state, or existence of a specific phenomenon. This problem is often associated with revealing hidden or understudied issues.
• Relational Research Problem -- suggests a relationship of some sort between two or more variables to be investigated. The underlying purpose is to investigate specific qualities or characteristics that may be connected in some way.

A problem statement in the social sciences should contain :

• A lead-in that helps ensure the reader will maintain interest over the study,
• A declaration of originality [e.g., mentioning a knowledge void or a lack of clarity about a topic that will be revealed in the literature review of prior research],
• An indication of the central focus of the study [establishing the boundaries of analysis], and
• An explanation of the study's significance or the benefits to be derived from investigating the research problem.

NOTE:   A statement describing the research problem of your paper should not be viewed as a thesis statement that you may be familiar with from high school. Given the content listed above, a description of the research problem is usually a short paragraph in length.

II.  Sources of Problems for Investigation

The identification of a problem to study can be challenging, not because there's a lack of issues that could be investigated, but due to the challenge of formulating an academically relevant and researchable problem which is unique and does not simply duplicate the work of others. To facilitate how you might select a problem from which to build a research study, consider these sources of inspiration:

Deductions from Theory This relates to deductions made from social philosophy or generalizations embodied in life and in society that the researcher is familiar with. These deductions from human behavior are then placed within an empirical frame of reference through research. From a theory, the researcher can formulate a research problem or hypothesis stating the expected findings in certain empirical situations. The research asks the question: “What relationship between variables will be observed if theory aptly summarizes the state of affairs?” One can then design and carry out a systematic investigation to assess whether empirical data confirm or reject the hypothesis, and hence, the theory.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives Identifying a problem that forms the basis for a research study can come from academic movements and scholarship originating in disciplines outside of your primary area of study. This can be an intellectually stimulating exercise. A review of pertinent literature should include examining research from related disciplines that can reveal new avenues of exploration and analysis. An interdisciplinary approach to selecting a research problem offers an opportunity to construct a more comprehensive understanding of a very complex issue that any single discipline may be able to provide.

Interviewing Practitioners The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from formal interviews or informal discussions with practitioners who provide insight into new directions for future research and how to make research findings more relevant to practice. Discussions with experts in the field, such as, teachers, social workers, health care providers, lawyers, business leaders, etc., offers the chance to identify practical, “real world” problems that may be understudied or ignored within academic circles. This approach also provides some practical knowledge which may help in the process of designing and conducting your study.

Personal Experience Don't undervalue your everyday experiences or encounters as worthwhile problems for investigation. Think critically about your own experiences and/or frustrations with an issue facing society or related to your community, your neighborhood, your family, or your personal life. This can be derived, for example, from deliberate observations of certain relationships for which there is no clear explanation or witnessing an event that appears harmful to a person or group or that is out of the ordinary.

Relevant Literature The selection of a research problem can be derived from a thorough review of pertinent research associated with your overall area of interest. This may reveal where gaps exist in understanding a topic or where an issue has been understudied. Research may be conducted to: 1) fill such gaps in knowledge; 2) evaluate if the methodologies employed in prior studies can be adapted to solve other problems; or, 3) determine if a similar study could be conducted in a different subject area or applied in a different context or to different study sample [i.e., different setting or different group of people]. Also, authors frequently conclude their studies by noting implications for further research; read the conclusion of pertinent studies because statements about further research can be a valuable source for identifying new problems to investigate. The fact that a researcher has identified a topic worthy of further exploration validates the fact it is worth pursuing.

III.  What Makes a Good Research Statement?

A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your research is centered, gradually leading the reader to the more specific issues you are investigating. The statement need not be lengthy, but a good research problem should incorporate the following features:

1.  Compelling Topic The problem chosen should be one that motivates you to address it but simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study because this does not indicate significance. The problem that you choose to explore must be important to you, but it must also be viewed as important by your readers and to a the larger academic and/or social community that could be impacted by the results of your study. 2.  Supports Multiple Perspectives The problem must be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb in the social sciences is that a good research problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from a composite audience made up of reasonable people. 3.  Researchability This isn't a real word but it represents an important aspect of creating a good research statement. It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of investigating a complex research project and realize that you don't have enough prior research to draw from for your analysis. There's nothing inherently wrong with original research, but you must choose research problems that can be supported, in some way, by the resources available to you. If you are not sure if something is researchable, don't assume that it isn't if you don't find information right away--seek help from a librarian !

NOTE:   Do not confuse a research problem with a research topic. A topic is something to read and obtain information about, whereas a problem is something to be solved or framed as a question raised for inquiry, consideration, or solution, or explained as a source of perplexity, distress, or vexation. In short, a research topic is something to be understood; a research problem is something that needs to be investigated.

IV.  Asking Analytical Questions about the Research Problem

Research problems in the social and behavioral sciences are often analyzed around critical questions that must be investigated. These questions can be explicitly listed in the introduction [i.e., "This study addresses three research questions about women's psychological recovery from domestic abuse in multi-generational home settings..."], or, the questions are implied in the text as specific areas of study related to the research problem. Explicitly listing your research questions at the end of your introduction can help in designing a clear roadmap of what you plan to address in your study, whereas, implicitly integrating them into the text of the introduction allows you to create a more compelling narrative around the key issues under investigation. Either approach is appropriate.

The number of questions you attempt to address should be based on the complexity of the problem you are investigating and what areas of inquiry you find most critical to study. Practical considerations, such as, the length of the paper you are writing or the availability of resources to analyze the issue can also factor in how many questions to ask. In general, however, there should be no more than four research questions underpinning a single research problem.

Given this, well-developed analytical questions can focus on any of the following:

• Highlights a genuine dilemma, area of ambiguity, or point of confusion about a topic open to interpretation by your readers;
• Yields an answer that is unexpected and not obvious rather than inevitable and self-evident;
• Provokes meaningful thought or discussion;
• Raises the visibility of the key ideas or concepts that may be understudied or hidden;
• Suggests the need for complex analysis or argument rather than a basic description or summary; and,
• Offers a specific path of inquiry that avoids eliciting generalizations about the problem.

NOTE:   Questions of how and why concerning a research problem often require more analysis than questions about who, what, where, and when. You should still ask yourself these latter questions, however. Thinking introspectively about the who, what, where, and when of a research problem can help ensure that you have thoroughly considered all aspects of the problem under investigation and helps define the scope of the study in relation to the problem.

V.  Mistakes to Avoid

Beware of circular reasoning! Do not state the research problem as simply the absence of the thing you are suggesting. For example, if you propose the following, "The problem in this community is that there is no hospital," this only leads to a research problem where:

• The need is for a hospital
• The objective is to create a hospital
• The method is to plan for building a hospital, and
• The evaluation is to measure if there is a hospital or not.

This is an example of a research problem that fails the "So What?" test . In this example, the problem does not reveal the relevance of why you are investigating the fact there is no hospital in the community [e.g., perhaps there's a hospital in the community ten miles away]; it does not elucidate the significance of why one should study the fact there is no hospital in the community [e.g., that hospital in the community ten miles away has no emergency room]; the research problem does not offer an intellectual pathway towards adding new knowledge or clarifying prior knowledge [e.g., the county in which there is no hospital already conducted a study about the need for a hospital, but it was conducted ten years ago]; and, the problem does not offer meaningful outcomes that lead to recommendations that can be generalized for other situations or that could suggest areas for further research [e.g., the challenges of building a new hospital serves as a case study for other communities].

Alvesson, Mats and Jörgen Sandberg. “Generating Research Questions Through Problematization.” Academy of Management Review 36 (April 2011): 247-271 ; Choosing and Refining Topics. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; D'Souza, Victor S. "Use of Induction and Deduction in Research in Social Sciences: An Illustration." Journal of the Indian Law Institute 24 (1982): 655-661; Ellis, Timothy J. and Yair Levy Nova. "Framework of Problem-Based Research: A Guide for Novice Researchers on the Development of a Research-Worthy Problem." Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline 11 (2008); How to Write a Research Question. The Writing Center. George Mason University; Invention: Developing a Thesis Statement. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Problem Statements PowerPoint Presentation. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Procter, Margaret. Using Thesis Statements. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Shoket, Mohd. "Research Problem: Identification and Formulation." International Journal of Research 1 (May 2014): 512-518; Trochim, William M.K. Problem Formulation. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Thesis and Purpose Statements. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Thesis Statements. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Pardede, Parlindungan. “Identifying and Formulating the Research Problem." Research in ELT: Module 4 (October 2018): 1-13; Walk, Kerry. Asking an Analytical Question. [Class handout or worksheet]. Princeton University; White, Patrick. Developing Research Questions: A Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Palgrave McMillan, 2009; Li, Yanmei, and Sumei Zhang. "Identifying the Research Problem." In Applied Research Methods in Urban and Regional Planning . (Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing, 2022), pp. 13-21.

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