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Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

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A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Home Market Research Case Studies

What is a Case Study, and how to conduct it? + Free Questionnaire

Do you know what a case study is and what advantages it holds for your business? As a marketing strategy, it’s highly effective to rely on your customers and their positive testimonials to convert other prospects.

Writing a case study is one of the best ways to do so. More comprehensive than a simple testimonial, it explains in detail how your company managed to find solutions to a specific client’s problems, thereby demonstrating its commitment and generating trust.

Let’s learn more about the characteristics of a case study and what you should consider when creating one.

What is a case study?

A case study is a detailed examination of a specific subject. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research .

The research design of a case study often involves qualitative methods , but sometimes quantitative methods are also utilized.

Case studies serve to describe, compare, evaluate, and understand different aspects of a research problem .

Steps to conduct a case study

A case study is an appropriate research design when you aim to obtain concrete, contextual, and in-depth knowledge about a specific subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies keep your project focused and manageable when you lack time or resources for large-scale research.

You can use a single complex case study to delve deep into a single topic or conduct multiple case studies to compare and shed light on different aspects of your research problem.

Now that we know what a case study is, let’s explore the steps to conduct one:

Step 1: Select a case

Once you have developed the problem statement and research questions, you should choose the specific case to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

Provide new or unexpected information about the subject. Propose practical measures to solve a problem. Open up new avenues for research . If you are conducting a case study on your customers, check with the relevant department, whether it’s customer service or customer success, to identify potential customers with whom you could work to obtain their testimonials.

Step 2: Gather the data

There are various research methods you can employ to collect data for your case study.

Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., press articles, photographs, and official records).

Sometimes, a case study also collects quantitative data , for example, through online surveys where you can incorporate open-ended questions to obtain the qualitative insights you require.

LEARN ABOUT:  Testimonial Questions

Case study questionnaire sample

Here is an example of a survey that can be useful in gathering data for your case study:

• Contact Information:

How did you hear about QuestionPro?

• By recommendation from a friend or colleague
• From a co-worker
• Through a Google search
• Through social media
• From a website unrelated to QuestionPro
• I met them at an event
• Other (Please specify)

What tool or process did you use before QuestionPro? Check all that apply

• Pen and paper or other traditional tools
• Another survey software
• A different software (not for surveys)
• Secondary information

What limitations did you face with the tool(s) or process(es) you used before?

How has QuestionPro helped you overcome your challenges?

How has QuestionPro impacted your objectives and those of your company?

What do you consider the most successful project you have done with QuestionPro?

What results did you achieve, and what did you do with them?

What is your favorite part about using QuestionPro, and why?

On a scale of 1 to 10, how likely are you to recommend QuestionPro to others in your industry? 1 Very unlikely to 10 Very likely Very unlikely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Very likely

How can we improve?

Step 3: Write a summary

Always keep in mind that internet users are busy people: not everyone will have the time to read your entire case study (or at least not right away). An executive summary is essential to give everyone a vague idea of what your case study is about and, more importantly, the results.

You can even create downloadable material where there is more information that can be consulted.

Step 4: Introduce the client

While the case study is intended to serve your company, you should not steal the spotlight from the client whose story you are telling. Present the client in the best possible way, even if it’s just to thank them for agreeing to contribute to your content.

Step 5: Show the challenges to overcome

This step is crucial: It’s about describing, in 2 or 3 paragraphs, the context in which the client was placed and the reasons why they turned to you. Ideally, this section should give the floor to the main stakeholder, who can directly explain the problems they encountered before resorting to your services or products.

This is also an opportunity to mention the objectives the client wanted to achieve (e.g., increase sales by 10%, increase blog traffic, etc.).

This is one of the main reasons to understand what a case study is and implement it as reference content for your other prospects or clients.

Step 6: Showcase the provided solutions

Now is the time to talk about what you actually did to help your client. This is precisely the most important part: knowing how you have solved a problem that others may have. This is an opportunity to present, with evidence, the advantages of your products or services and how they solved the client’s problem.

Explain how you implemented your solution and overcame challenges and limitations.

Step 7: Share the obtained results

Now that you have explained your approach and highlighted the qualities of your solution, you need to demonstrate that it really works: This is where you can truly showcase your expertise. List all the positive effects your products or services have had on your clients, with testimonials from them that support your claims.

And most importantly, evaluate how well you have met or exceeded expectations by achieving even better results. It is essential to demonstrate your ability to fulfill the objectives you have set.

Step 8: Create a great conclusion

You can take advantage of the conclusion of your case study to thank the client who kindly agreed to participate but also to review the main points of the study and your accomplishments.

Even better, invite your readers to contact you if they find themselves in a similar situation to the client you have written about.

QuestionPro’s Case Studies

Now that you know what a case study is and the advantages of obtaining feedback from your clients, start by making a list of clients with whom you have a good relationship and gathering relevant aspects that will help provide a comprehensive view of your relationship.

I would like to share some of QuestionPro’s Case Studies . In our cases, we gather information from our clients through a survey and conduct small interviews with the help of our customer success team. After collecting the information, we create the content, which is then reviewed and validated by our clients before being published on our website.

This type of content is very useful for building trust with new prospects. It’s a tool that provides assurance to new clients and helps us demonstrate the solutions we have available.

Make the decision to start a relationship that will contribute to the growth of your business. We are confident that we have the solution you are looking for.

Start by creating a free account or request a demonstration of our survey software. We will address all your questions about using our platform and the services we offer.

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What is case study research?

Last updated

8 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Suppose a company receives a spike in the number of customer complaints, or medical experts discover an outbreak of illness affecting children but are not quite sure of the reason. In both cases, carrying out a case study could be the best way to get answers.

Organization

Case studies can be carried out across different disciplines, including education, medicine, sociology, and business.

Most case studies employ qualitative methods, but quantitative methods can also be used. Researchers can then describe, compare, evaluate, and identify patterns or cause-and-effect relationships between the various variables under study. They can then use this knowledge to decide what action to take. 

Another thing to note is that case studies are generally singular in their focus. This means they narrow focus to a particular area, making them highly subjective. You cannot always generalize the results of a case study and apply them to a larger population. However, they are valuable tools to illustrate a principle or develop a thesis.

Analyze case study research

Dovetail streamlines case study research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What are the different types of case study designs?

Researchers can choose from a variety of case study designs. The design they choose is dependent on what questions they need to answer, the context of the research environment, how much data they already have, and what resources are available.

Here are the common types of case study design:

Explanatory

An explanatory case study is an initial explanation of the how or why that is behind something. This design is commonly used when studying a real-life phenomenon or event. Once the organization understands the reasons behind a phenomenon, it can then make changes to enhance or eliminate the variables causing it. 

Here is an example: How is co-teaching implemented in elementary schools? The title for a case study of this subject could be “Case Study of the Implementation of Co-Teaching in Elementary Schools.”

Descriptive

An illustrative or descriptive case study helps researchers shed light on an unfamiliar object or subject after a period of time. The case study provides an in-depth review of the issue at hand and adds real-world examples in the area the researcher wants the audience to understand. 

The researcher makes no inferences or causal statements about the object or subject under review. This type of design is often used to understand cultural shifts.

Here is an example: How did people cope with the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami? This case study could be titled "A Case Study of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and its Effect on the Indonesian Population."

Exploratory

Exploratory research is also called a pilot case study. It is usually the first step within a larger research project, often relying on questionnaires and surveys . Researchers use exploratory research to help narrow down their focus, define parameters, draft a specific research question , and/or identify variables in a larger study. This research design usually covers a wider area than others, and focuses on the ‘what’ and ‘who’ of a topic.

Here is an example: How do nutrition and socialization in early childhood affect learning in children? The title of the exploratory study may be “Case Study of the Effects of Nutrition and Socialization on Learning in Early Childhood.”

An intrinsic case study is specifically designed to look at a unique and special phenomenon. At the start of the study, the researcher defines the phenomenon and the uniqueness that differentiates it from others. 

In this case, researchers do not attempt to generalize, compare, or challenge the existing assumptions. Instead, they explore the unique variables to enhance understanding. Here is an example: “Case Study of Volcanic Lightning.”

This design can also be identified as a cumulative case study. It uses information from past studies or observations of groups of people in certain settings as the foundation of the new study. Given that it takes multiple areas into account, it allows for greater generalization than a single case study. 

The researchers also get an in-depth look at a particular subject from different viewpoints.  Here is an example: “Case Study of how PTSD affected Vietnam and Gulf War Veterans Differently Due to Advances in Military Technology.”

Critical instance

A critical case study incorporates both explanatory and intrinsic study designs. It does not have predetermined purposes beyond an investigation of the said subject. It can be used for a deeper explanation of the cause-and-effect relationship. It can also be used to question a common assumption or myth. 

The findings can then be used further to generalize whether they would also apply in a different environment.  Here is an example: “What Effect Does Prolonged Use of Social Media Have on the Mind of American Youth?”

Instrumental

Instrumental research attempts to achieve goals beyond understanding the object at hand. Researchers explore a larger subject through different, separate studies and use the findings to understand its relationship to another subject. This type of design also provides insight into an issue or helps refine a theory. 

For example, you may want to determine if violent behavior in children predisposes them to crime later in life. The focus is on the relationship between children and violent behavior, and why certain children do become violent. Here is an example: “Violence Breeds Violence: Childhood Exposure and Participation in Adult Crime.”

Evaluation case study design is employed to research the effects of a program, policy, or intervention, and assess its effectiveness and impact on future decision-making. 

For example, you might want to see whether children learn times tables quicker through an educational game on their iPad versus a more teacher-led intervention. Here is an example: “An Investigation of the Impact of an iPad Multiplication Game for Primary School Children.” 

• When do you use case studies?

Case studies are ideal when you want to gain a contextual, concrete, or in-depth understanding of a particular subject. It helps you understand the characteristics, implications, and meanings of the subject.

They are also an excellent choice for those writing a thesis or dissertation, as they help keep the project focused on a particular area when resources or time may be too limited to cover a wider one. You may have to conduct several case studies to explore different aspects of the subject in question and understand the problem.

• What are the steps to follow when conducting a case study?

1. Select a case

Once you identify the problem at hand and come up with questions, identify the case you will focus on. The study can provide insights into the subject at hand, challenge existing assumptions, propose a course of action, and/or open up new areas for further research.

2. Create a theoretical framework

While you will be focusing on a specific detail, the case study design you choose should be linked to existing knowledge on the topic. This prevents it from becoming an isolated description and allows for enhancing the existing information. 

It may expand the current theory by bringing up new ideas or concepts, challenge established assumptions, or exemplify a theory by exploring how it answers the problem at hand. A theoretical framework starts with a literature review of the sources relevant to the topic in focus. This helps in identifying key concepts to guide analysis and interpretation.

3. Collect the data

Case studies are frequently supplemented with qualitative data such as observations, interviews, and a review of both primary and secondary sources such as official records, news articles, and photographs. There may also be quantitative data —this data assists in understanding the case thoroughly.

4. Analyze your case

The results of the research depend on the research design. Most case studies are structured with chapters or topic headings for easy explanation and presentation. Others may be written as narratives to allow researchers to explore various angles of the topic and analyze its meanings and implications.

In all areas, always give a detailed contextual understanding of the case and connect it to the existing theory and literature before discussing how it fits into your problem area.

• What are some case study examples?

What are the best approaches for introducing our product into the Kenyan market?

How does the change in marketing strategy aid in increasing the sales volumes of product Y?

How can teachers enhance student participation in classrooms?

How does poverty affect literacy levels in children?

Case study topics

Case study of product marketing strategies in the Kenyan market

Case study of the effects of a marketing strategy change on product Y sales volumes

Case study of X school teachers that encourage active student participation in the classroom

Case study of the effects of poverty on literacy levels in children

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Case Studies | January 15, 2020

How to a Create Compelling Case Study Using Surveys (+Examples)

There are things you can kill - a good story is certainly not one of them. Stories are immortal, particularly when they are captivating, insightful, and memorable. 

When Plato said, "those who tell stories rule the world," he certainly wasn't thinking about marketing, but nowhere could that quote be even more real and emphatic.

Seth Godin couldn't have put it better: "marketing is no longer about the stuff that you make, but about the stories you tell." That is why case studies are crucial to the growth of every business .

A case study is content that details the success story of a product or service. Typically, it outlines the problems the client had and how the service or product of a business resolved them. In this article you’ll learn:

• Know why your business needs to invest in case studies
• Learn how to prepare a case study 
• Learn how surveys can make your case more effective
• Different ways to use case studies for maximum impact

Featured Resource:

This guide shares a process for making compelling case studies to convert more prospects. To make the most out of it, we’ve prepared a case study template, checklist, and 13 examples you can use for inspiration. 

Table of Contents

Why should you invest in a case study?

Almost every business can improve its results by investing in case studies. Below are a few reasons case studies are invaluable for your business.

Shows prospective clients how you work

Sometimes, leads don’t realize they have a certain problem that your product or service can resolve. A case study can provide a clear overview of the value you bring to the table. This is particularly useful for business and marketing consultants , where the outcomes may not be as visible.

It establishes your authority

Case studies are particularly effective for companies offering a product or service focused on a certain niche. They show how a company like theirs benefitted from your service. Ninja Outreach is a good example of this.

It has gathered case studies that focus on the problems of their various customer personas. This ranges from a firm running a PR campaign to an eCommerce store doing email outreach to land guest post placements. Each case study is designed to resonate with a specific customer persona to help them see the value of the product.

It Shows Prospective Clients How you Work

A good case study illustrates how you work and approach a problem. For example, if one of your unique selling points is excellent customer service, a case study can highlight this through the words of an existing client.

A good case study can also help set expectations. For example, your case study might explain how you start every project with a two week review period. Or your company works in sprints. Again, it clarifies what a customer should expect when working with you. 

It’s an Excellent Lead Generation Tool

When you’ve dialed in your messaging, you’re attracting the right type of visitor and they believe your service is right for them. The only thing left is proof of results and a case study can serve that purpose. When you use it for lead generation and require prospects to download it, you know they’re qualified and can follow up with them confidently. 

People researching a company often look for social endorsements before making a purchase or investing in a service. It is part of the customer journey . Social proof, like that offered in the form of a case study, can help convert a warm lead into a customer.

How to Prepare Your Case Study

We’ve covered some of the reasons why a case study can be such an essential element of your business development strategy . Now, let’s focus on how to create a case study that engages and converts a lead and plays a role in turning them into a customer.

Start with a Clear Objective

Ultimately, the objective of your case study is the same; to help turn a warm lead into a paying customer. To do that with case studies, you should understand who you’re targeting . 

A customer persona will make this easier. It should reflect the different types of people or companies that seek your service and your case studies should be created to appeal to them.

Find the right candidate for your case study

If you have delivered value, finding clients for case studies should be easy. A case study doesn’t only benefit you; the client being featured receives several benefits including backlinks and exposure of their brand. 

You don’t always have to wait until the end of the contract to ask a client to be your case study. You can ask for a case study as soon as you deliver a solution that works. However, this should be determined on a case-by-case basis. 

Select Medium(s)

While most people are familiar with written case studies, there are many other ways to share your message. These days podcasts shows , platforms like Pinterest, and video channels have a huge say in marketing. Choose as many mediums as you can so you’re creating content the way your visitor wants to consume it.

Though this article is mainly for people who are writing a case study, it can be used during the research process for a video testimonial. 

Why Use Surveys When Creating a Case Study?

The effectiveness of a case study is based on the insights you get from the client. While you probably have the outcomes clearly defined before you start the process, the little details make your content engaging.

When preparing a case study, you should collect two types of data; quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data refers to that which can be measured. This covers things like profit, traffic to the website, leads, conversions, etc.

Qualitative data refers to opinions and sentiments about a product or service. Essentially, it’s about what the client has to say about your product or service.

Questionnaires help you extract accurate quantitative and qualitative information. This will put you in the best position to create case studies that are valuable resources for your business.

What Questions Should You Ask in a Survey?

The questions in a case study survey should revolve around the following:

• The challenge or problem the client was facing
• How the challenge was addressed
• The benefits the client experienced or is experiencing

You should ask a mixture of closed (yes or no questions) as well as open-ended questions . Your questions should be simple and straight to the point. Some simple questions you can ask include:

• How was the problem you faced affecting your business?
• If you didn’t find our solution, where would you be now?
• Did you seek other solutions? Were they any help?
• Why did you choose us over our competitors?
• What was your most memorable moment working with us?
• How has our solution transformed your business?

Don’t overburden the client with a truckload of questions: 20 questions or less should suffice.

Your survey will help you prepare for a follow-up interview where you can ask clarifying questions based on the information you received. Read more about choosing the right type of surveys in this article .

The importance of storytelling

Let’s dig deeper into the importance of storytelling. Dr. Howard Gardner, a professor at Harvard University aptly remarked: “Stories constitute the single most powerful weapon in a leader’s arsenal.”

Data, insights, and statistics from surveys and interviews are critical, but an engaging study will have its roots in a story. Rob Walker and Joshua Glenn put the power of stories to the test by purchasing various “insignificant” objects each for $1.25 on average. 

They engaged about 200 writers to help put a narrative to the objects on eBay. Each item had a heartfelt short story written underneath. Guess what? The items, on average, sold for  2,700% above their original price.

People make emotional decisions regarding purchases, and that is why stories can ramp the value of your products. Our brains are hardwired for stories . Here are simple ways to inject storytelling in your case study.

• Make your client the hero: Everybody loves heroes. Imagine Superman was killed right at the beginning of the movie. There would undoubtedly be a money-back hashtag immediately trending. 
• Let the client tell the story: Focus on the client’s story because yours naturally supports it.
• Write in an engaging way: Don’t write in a boring, dry, and monotonous style. Give life to your content by writing in a conversational tone. If you can’t then hire someone from one of the popular freelancing websites  who is well-versed in case studies.
• Give evidence : That’s the name of the game: evidence. Then, back up your client’s claims with screenshots, pictures, infographics, etc. 

4 Ways to use a case study in your sales funnel

Sales funnels are crucial to the bottom line. With a well-laid-out sales funnel, businesses can plan, strategize, and optimize their customer’s buying journey. Here’s a general idea of what a sales funnel looks like.

Here are some ways to integrate case studies into your sales funnel.

Make it accessible on your website

Case studies should be readily accessible on your website because they help your visitor learn more about your company and move down the sales funnel.

Make your case studies, particularly recent ones, prominent on your website. Consider placing it on your home page or within your main navigation. Many companies have a dedicated case study page or section on their site like this:

Source: crazyegg.com

Take out some quotes from your case studies, have your designers add a touch to it, and put it on your website, along with a link to the case study posts. You can also link to your case studies from landing pages.

Incorporate Your Case Study in an Email Marketing Campaign

When a person signs up to your email list, they are open to learning more about your company. You can use your email marketing software to introduce the prospect to your brand, familiarize them with your service, and generate revenue.

It is natural to incorporate case studies within your email campaigns. Particularly so if you are an agency selling a service.

The case study forms a natural reference point as the prospect learns about your company and the products and services you offer. Check out this insightful article on email marketing to learn more about the topic.

Use it for Cold Email Outreach

Cold emails are a powerful sales approach for generating leads and getting conversions. Businesses often cold pitch to leads that have little knowledge of the company approaching them.

A case study attached to a professional email , as a PDF, is a logical way to introduce them to the service you deliver. Alternatively, you could insert extracts from a case study into the email you are sending to a lead.

Here’s an example:

Use your case study in your sales meetings

Researching, writing, and creating a case study is a time-consuming process. However, through this process, you learn a lot about the pain points your customers faced and the benefits they accrued.

All of this information is useful when pitching to a prospect. You can draw on this knowledge to better align the product or service you are providing with the problems a lead faces. This ability to empathize can help you make a sale. It’s particularly important in B2B sales because there’s a lot of money on the line. You can incorporate case studies into your business proposal and use them to illustrate your process and the value you bring to the table.

Of course, a case study is a useful prop for a sales meeting. Provided in the form of a brochure, they give people something to leaf through after a meeting. You can also use it in a meeting when making a point.

According to Global Trust in Advertising and Brand Messages , a report by Nielsen, online consumer reviews are the second most trusted source of brand recommendation. Case studies are, in essence, strong peer recommendations. 

This lends credence to your business. People are more likely to believe claims from consumers like them, who share their problems. 

When fleshed out, the best case studies are based on the information you glean from clients. That is where surveys are crucial. Use the points listed above to give your case studies an X-factor that’ll help you drum up more revenue.

Owen Baker is a content marketer for Voila Norbert, an online email verification tool . He’s spent over a decade in online marketing. He enjoys sharing his knowledge of content marketing across a range of websites.

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Qualitative study design: Surveys & questionnaires

• Qualitative study design
• Phenomenology
• Grounded theory
• Ethnography
• Narrative inquiry
• Action research
• Case Studies
• Field research
• Focus groups
• Observation
• Surveys & questionnaires
• Study Designs Home

Surveys & questionnaires

Qualitative surveys use open-ended questions to produce long-form written/typed answers. Questions will aim to reveal opinions, experiences, narratives or accounts. Often a useful precursor to interviews or focus groups as they help identify initial themes or issues to then explore further in the research. Surveys can be used iteratively, being changed and modified over the course of the research to elicit new information. 

Structured Interviews may follow a similar form of open questioning.  

Qualitative surveys frequently include quantitative questions to establish elements such as age, nationality etc. 

Qualitative surveys aim to elicit a detailed response to an open-ended topic question in the participant’s own words.  Like quantitative surveys, there are three main methods for using qualitative surveys including face to face surveys, phone surveys, and online surveys. Each method of surveying has strengths and limitations.

Face to face surveys  

• Researcher asks participants one or more open-ended questions about a topic, typically while in view of the participant’s facial expressions and other behaviours while answering. Being able to view the respondent’s reactions enables the researcher to ask follow-up questions to elicit a more detailed response, and to follow up on any facial or behavioural cues that seem at odds with what the participants is explicitly saying.
• Face to face qualitative survey responses are likely to be audio recorded and transcribed into text to ensure all detail is captured; however, some surveys may include both quantitative and qualitative questions using a structured or semi-structured format of questioning, and in this case the researcher may simply write down key points from the participant’s response.

Telephone surveys

• Similar to the face to face method, but without researcher being able to see participant’s facial or behavioural responses to questions asked. This means the researcher may miss key cues that would help them ask further questions to clarify or extend participant responses to their questions, and instead relies on vocal cues.

Online surveys

• Open-ended questions are presented to participants in written format via email or within an online survey tool, often alongside quantitative survey questions on the same topic.
• Researchers may provide some contextualising information or key definitions to help ‘frame’ how participants view the qualitative survey questions, since they can’t directly ask the researcher about it in real time. 
• Participants are requested to responses to questions in text ‘in some detail’ to explain their perspective or experience to researchers; this can result in diversity of responses (brief to detailed).
• Researchers can not always probe or clarify participant responses to online qualitative survey questions which can result in data from these responses being cryptic or vague to the researcher.
• Online surveys can collect a greater number of responses in a set period of time compared to face to face and phone survey approaches, so while data may be less detailed, there is more of it overall to compensate.

Qualitative surveys can help a study early on, in finding out the issues/needs/experiences to be explored further in an interview or focus group. 

Surveys can be amended and re-run based on responses providing an evolving and responsive method of research. 

Online surveys will receive typed responses reducing translation by the researcher 

Online surveys can be delivered broadly across a wide population with asynchronous delivery/response. 

Limitations

Hand-written notes will need to be transcribed (time-consuming) for digital study and kept physically for reference. 

Distance (or online) communication can be open to misinterpretations that cannot be corrected at the time. 

Questions can be leading/misleading, eliciting answers that are not core to the research subject. Researchers must aim to write a neutral question which does not give away the researchers expectations. 

Even with transcribed/digital responses analysis can be long and detailed, though not as much as in an interview. 

Surveys may be left incomplete if performed online or taken by research assistants not well trained in giving the survey/structured interview. 

Narrow sampling may skew the results of the survey. 

Example questions

Here are some example survey questions which are open ended and require a long form written response:

• Tell us why you became a doctor? 
• What do you expect from this health service? 
• How do you explain the low levels of financial investment in mental health services? (WHO, 2007) 

Example studies

• Davey, L. , Clarke, V. and Jenkinson, E. (2019), Living with alopecia areata: an online qualitative survey study. British Journal of Dermatology, 180 1377-1389. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.ezproxy-f.deakin.edu.au/doi/10.1111%2Fbjd.17463    
• Richardson, J. (2004). What Patients Expect From Complementary Therapy: A Qualitative Study. American Journal of Public Health, 94(6), 1049–1053. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.deakin.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s3h&AN=13270563&site=eds-live&scope=site  
• Saraceno, B., van Ommeren, M., Batniji, R., Cohen, A., Gureje, O., Mahoney, J., ... & Underhill, C. (2007). Barriers to improvement of mental health services in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 370(9593), 1164-1174. Retrieved from https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy-f.deakin.edu.au/science/article/pii/S014067360761263X?via%3Dihub  

Below has more detail of the Lancet article including actual survey questions at: 

• World Health Organization. (2007.) Expert opinion on barriers and facilitating factors for the implementation of existing mental health knowledge in mental health services. Geneva: World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44808
• Green, J. 1961-author., & Thorogood, N. (2018). Qualitative methods for health research. SAGE. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.deakin.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat00097a&AN=deakin.b4151167&authtype=sso&custid=deakin&site=eds-live&scope=site   
• JANSEN, H. The Logic of Qualitative Survey Research and its Position in the Field of Social Research Methods. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung, 11(2), Retrieved from http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1450/2946  
• Neilsen Norman Group, (2019). 28 Tips for Creating Great Qualitative Surveys. Retrieved from https://www.nngroup.com/articles/qualitative-surveys/     
• << Previous: Documents
• Next: Interviews >>
• Last Updated: Jul 3, 2024 11:46 AM
• URL: https://deakin.libguides.com/qualitative-study-designs

Case Study vs. Survey

What's the difference.

Case studies and surveys are both research methods used in various fields to gather information and insights. However, they differ in their approach and purpose. A case study involves an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or situation, aiming to understand the complexities and unique aspects of the subject. It often involves collecting qualitative data through interviews, observations, and document analysis. On the other hand, a survey is a structured data collection method that involves gathering information from a larger sample size through standardized questionnaires. Surveys are typically used to collect quantitative data and provide a broader perspective on a particular topic or population. While case studies provide rich and detailed information, surveys offer a more generalizable and statistical overview.

Further Detail

Introduction.

When conducting research, there are various methods available to gather data and analyze it. Two commonly used methods are case study and survey. Both approaches have their own unique attributes and can be valuable in different research contexts. In this article, we will explore the characteristics of case study and survey, highlighting their strengths and limitations.

A case study is an in-depth investigation of a particular individual, group, or phenomenon. It involves collecting detailed information about the subject of study through various sources such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. Case studies are often used in social sciences, psychology, and business research to gain a deep understanding of complex issues.

One of the key attributes of a case study is its ability to provide rich and detailed data. Researchers can gather extensive information about the subject, including their background, experiences, and perspectives. This depth of data allows for a comprehensive analysis and interpretation of the case, providing valuable insights into the phenomenon under investigation.

Furthermore, case studies are particularly useful when studying rare or unique cases. Since case studies focus on specific individuals or groups, they can shed light on situations that are not easily replicated or observed in larger populations. This makes case studies valuable in exploring complex and nuanced phenomena that may not be easily captured through other research methods.

However, it is important to note that case studies have certain limitations. Due to their in-depth nature, case studies are often time-consuming and resource-intensive. Researchers need to invest significant effort in data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Additionally, the findings of a case study may not be easily generalized to larger populations, as the focus is on a specific case rather than a representative sample.

Despite these limitations, case studies offer a unique opportunity to explore complex issues in real-life contexts. They provide a detailed understanding of individual experiences and can generate hypotheses for further research.

A survey is a research method that involves collecting data from a sample of individuals through a structured questionnaire or interview. Surveys are widely used in social sciences, market research, and public opinion studies to gather information about a larger population. They aim to provide a snapshot of people's opinions, attitudes, behaviors, or characteristics.

One of the main advantages of surveys is their ability to collect data from a large number of respondents. By reaching out to a representative sample, researchers can generalize the findings to a larger population. Surveys also allow for efficient data collection, as questionnaires can be distributed electronically or in person, making it easier to gather a wide range of responses in a relatively short period.

Moreover, surveys offer a structured approach to data collection, ensuring consistency in the questions asked and the response options provided. This allows for easy comparison and analysis of the data, making surveys suitable for quantitative research. Surveys can also be conducted anonymously, which can encourage respondents to provide honest and unbiased answers, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored.

However, surveys also have their limitations. One of the challenges is the potential for response bias. Respondents may provide inaccurate or socially desirable answers, leading to biased results. Additionally, surveys often rely on self-reported data, which may be subject to memory recall errors or misinterpretation of questions. Researchers need to carefully design the survey instrument and consider potential biases to ensure the validity and reliability of the data collected.

Furthermore, surveys may not capture the complexity and depth of individual experiences. They provide a snapshot of people's opinions or behaviors at a specific point in time, but may not uncover the underlying reasons or motivations behind those responses. Surveys also rely on predetermined response options, limiting the range of possible answers and potentially overlooking important nuances.

Case studies and surveys are both valuable research methods, each with its own strengths and limitations. Case studies offer in-depth insights into specific cases, providing rich and detailed data. They are particularly useful for exploring complex and unique phenomena. On the other hand, surveys allow for efficient data collection from a large number of respondents, enabling generalization to larger populations. They provide structured and quantifiable data, making them suitable for statistical analysis.

Ultimately, the choice between case study and survey depends on the research objectives, the nature of the research question, and the available resources. Researchers need to carefully consider the attributes of each method and select the most appropriate approach to gather and analyze data effectively.

Comparisons may contain inaccurate information about people, places, or facts. Please report any issues.

How to use surveys to improve the impact of your case studies

• Written July 4, 2019
• by Nico Prins

Case studies are one of the most effective ways to turn hesitant leads into customers. Some people even go as far as saying that a good case study is as effective as a personal recommendation.

Yet the problem is that because case studies are a chance for you to shout about your results, most companies end up producing the same sort of content. This is often along the lines of ‘‘ Here’s How we Saved this Client a Million Dollars ”. 

The stats are one part of a case study that almost everyone gets. Most case studies struggle to get past the headline number. As a result, they miss out on the customer journey. In this guide, I’ll share with you how to write a long-form case study that tells a story and is relevant to potential clients. I’ll cover why you need to do this, and how, in the sections below.

What type of case studies you need

If you are running a company, you probably have a diverse client base. For example, the marketing agency that I consult for does  content marketing  and SEO consultancy work with a number of banks, Software as a Service companies, and enterprise level bricks and mortar companies. These clients operate in different verticals. While the overarching problem they face is often the same, their pain points are different.

The case studies you create for your business should reflect the range of clients you work with. To make them as relevant as possible they need to incorporate these different pain points within the copy. The closer you can align the case study with the problems a certain type of client is facing, the more impactful the case study will be.

Ultimately it is this relevancy that can be the difference between you winning a contract or losing it. For this reason, I strongly recommend creating a range of case studies that reflect the diversity of your clients.

You can see how Hubspot have taken this approach with the case studies they have on their site. The case studies cross eight different niches. The number of verticals reflects the diversity of their client base.

How to prepare your case study

Now, case studies obviously require a little bit of research on the client. The most powerful case studies mirror the customer journey of a client from consideration through to purchase. This means looking at the following:

• The problem they were facing when they contacted you
• What it was like to work together with you
• What was the impact of your work

Your aim is to get past the headline figures. For example, the end result of your work together might be a headline figure – $100,000 saved. But how that revenue is used, for example enabling a company to hire another employee, is a fact that could resonate with other potential clients. It is this combination of data and insights that provide a powerful case study.

The best way to get this information is a combination of surveys and interviews. A good survey will help you build a picture of the clients experience working together with you. The interview is where you ask pertinent questions that help fill in the finer details.

The kind of information you are looking to collect through your survey is a mixture of qualitative and quantitative data. Quantitative, which is all that numerical stuff. Things like money saved, money earned, or additional traffic brought to a website.

Qualitative data is wordier. This includes things like clients’  sentiments, personal experiences and lessons learned. To collect this information you need to ask the right questions.

You can loosely divide your survey questions into open or closed-ended. Closed-ended questions usually end up with ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers. Asking someone to rate something on a scale of 1-5 is also a closed-ended question.

Open-ended questions are much more unpredictable. This looks like something along the lines of ‘How do you feel about …?’ The person on the other end could really come out with anything.

Ideally, you want less than 20 questions in your survey. They should be a mixture of open-ended questions and close-ended questions. The aim of these questions, as I mentioned previously, is to build the framework for your story. You want to collect the key facts and get insights you can use for the follow-up interview.

What questions to ask in your survey

When creating your survey questions you want to ask questions that follow the outline of the user journey. This essentially means covering those three points that I listed above and using a mixture of closed and open-ended questions.

The questions you pose in your survey should be specific. Break down big points into multiple questions. This is useful for customer satisfaction survey because each question provides insights into a different aspect of your business.

So, for example, you might break down the question, “ why did you choose to work with our company? ” to:

• What problem were you facing before you started working with us?
• What would have happened if you couldn’t solve the problem?
• What factor convinced you to choose our company over a competitor?

You can see how these three questions dig a little deeper. You could, of course, use the same approach with close-ended questions. Using this approach you can acquire information you can then use in the follow-up interview.

How to turn your case study into a story

It’s a generally agreed fact in copywriting circles that the amount of copy you need is proportional to the cost of the product or service you are selling. The more expensive the product or service the more you have to explain, show, educate and convince a prospect to make a purchase.

If you’re going to write a long piece of content you need to make it interesting. This is where storytelling comes into play.

Our lives are based on stories. We read stories in magazines, online, in the newspapers and watch made up stories on TV. Stories draw you in. Research by Jenifer Aaker , a professor of marketing at Stanford Business School, found that a story is significantly more memorable than facts alone.

Moreover, setting a case study within the framework of a story provides you with an opportunity to tap into emotional triggers. This is important given the fact that we make decisions based on both emotional and rational factors.

So you can think of it a bit like a glowing review from a customer, except you’re in control. That’s not to mention a whole range of extra benefits. Case studies are inherently good for natural keyword targeting. They’re also a great way to build client relationships.

Pulling it all together

Once you’ve got all of your data lined up, writing your case study is a breeze. Like all content, the first thing you need is a compelling headline. The example I gave at the start of this article were obviously jokes, but they’re also a pretty good indication of what you want to aim for.

The goal is to draw people in, so it’s good to try and squeeze in the kind of results they can expect from you. Even if it’s not a million dollars. Utilise the framework of a story to lead them towards your end goal. Finally, you hit them with a call to action.

You can see how I used this formula for a case study that I created to promote the software promos that my partner and I run.

• Start with a headline figure
• Place the case study within the context of a story
• Include insights from the person you worked with
• Provide proof in the form of screenshots
• Finish with a call to action

I link to this case study in the postscript of emails when I’m pitching my service. The majority of people I subsequently speak to read the piece. I know from discussing it with people I’ve worked with that the case study played an important role in their final decision.

Hubspot utilizes a similar approach. Their case study for  Rock & Roll Hall of Fame  is a good example. They have an above the fold synopsis of the case study, followed by the headline figures and an extended piece of copy. It’s a nice format that satisfies the needs of scan readers and people who like to investigate before they make a decision.

Remember that design can play an important part in your case study. You want to highlight the key facts for people who are just going to scan read your content. You can do this with a well laid out case study. Below is an example of a custom page design that I created for a previous client that highlights all of the key facts above the fold.

The core part of the case study is for people who want to have access to as much information as possible before they make a decision. Don’t be afraid to have 1,000 words or so of content. Just make sure that you apply copywriting principles, like using heading to break up the text, if you do so.

Wrapping up

We said earlier that surveys and case studies tie together nicely because one generates data and the other presents it. This a pretty straightforward relationship, but it seems like not everybody has gotten the memo.

I’m sure you’ve seen any number of boring case studies which say next to nothing. This happens when people know they’re supposed to write case studies, but they’re not really sure what to include. Or they might know what they want to say, but they don’t have any compelling quotes or statistics to back it up, so their case studies have very little real-world impact. This is why surveys and first-hand data is so crucial to creating a compelling case study.

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Questionnaire for Case Studies

I - Introduction:

As mentioned by Yochai Benkler in the Wealth of Networks, the word commons refers to a particular form of structuring rights to access, use and control resources. This coding system, through a set of questions, will focus on understanding how the chosen case studies (Case) in the relevant fields of research‚ educational materials, biotechnology and alternative energy‚ structure access, use and control of resources in the axis of participation and regulation. The intent is to begin to categorize the commons in a more rigorous fashion, so that we might understand its different implementations in different fields, its constituent parts, and perhaps even arrive at an atlas of the commons that we can use in future design and evaluation.

Most of the cases we will examine are knowledge resources (ranging from explicit knowledge like textbooks to tacit knowledge encoded in biological tools). As such, understanding their usage systems requires an understanding of the forces that governed their creation, since this frequently influences how the structure of access, use and control of resources get settled. Thus, we expanded the macro-categories to deal with the creation moment of a certain resource or pool of resources. Finally, this coding also present more basic questions related to Case identity.

The objective of this Coding system is to systematize the emerging institutions and practices from commons-based Cases and map each of these Cases into the framework retreated in the graphic below.

The Axis of Participation deals with the question of how open it is to join either as a creator or a user. From Closed to Limited to Open, participation is the measure of the constituency it deals with the person herself and not the issue of the person's freedoms.

The Axis of Regulation deals with deals with the quantity and quality of norms that frame the rights of a user in any certain Case. In this sense, any thing, from norms, to contract, to law, to the practice of non-enforcement are measures as elements that constitute and determines how a certain an environment will behave. It may vary from Regulated to Limited to Unregulated levels.

The questions are focused on finding metrics through objective answers that are later rearranged in groups that denote characteristics such as symmetry, freedom, predictability, openness, transparency, collaboration, user-integration and autonomy.

II - Structure Overview:

A Testing the Initial Perception of the Case

Before people start the Coding per se, we ask a small number of questions about the Case. This will let us see how people feel about the Case - do they think they are open or closed? We can also ask them the same questions after the survey to see if the survey changes their opinion.

B Case Identity (What?)

This section is focused capturing the identity of the Case, which can be understood by what actors are involved, if a case is local, national or global, the field from what the Case emerged from, how many actors are involved, among other issues that give us a finger print of the case. This will let us over the long term begin to correlate aspects of identity with aspects of participation and regulation.

C Participation (Who?)

This section is focused on Who participates in a certain Case, from the creation of a resource through to its access, use and control. We developed questions for coding these actions in order to understand how open or closed a Case is in terms of ease of participation of a diversity of actors (as Creators or Users).

C.1 Creation

C.4 Control

D Regulation (How? And What? Systems of governance)

This section is focused on how rules are settled in a certain Case and what rules emerged from the regulation process. Questions will be asked also around the four crucial moments of a Case in order to understand the de juris and de facto stage of a Case.

D.1 Creation

D.4 - Control

E Testing the final Perception of the Case

After the coding is done, questions from Section B will be asked again to see if the coding process changes their opinion.

III Coding Questions

Instructions:

Using the data collection spreadsheet/web-form, answer all of the following questions about the Cases from the relevant fields chosen for analysis.

Institutional Cooperation Project (ICP) Researchers should answer Code sections B, C and D. Participants from a Case community should answer the whole questionnaire. Researchers can also use the Perception section as part of an interview process with Case Participants.

Many questions provide space for additional comments. You should use that space when necessary to give a more detailed answer or to indicate relevant documents and/or links.

The web version of this questionnaire will allow pop-ups with explanations of tricky questions and terms of art (e.g. substitute products).

A Perception

1) What level are the entry barriers in terms of cost of participation to become a creator/user within the Case?

( ) very high

2) If there is some level of regulation on participation, is the right to participation granted neutrally (i.e., evenly available to all interested parties)?

3) Is the organizational governance structure transparently communicated to creators/users?

4) Do the community of Creators and Users obey the rules?

( ) most of times

5) Are the rules enforced?

( ) most part of the time

6) Is there a sense of a common purpose?

7) Is there a sense of a shared vision?

8) Are Users seen as:

( ) Necessary Contributors?

( ) Possible Contributors?

( ) Pure Consumers?

( ) Free-riders?

9) What are the Community main motivations to participate in the Case? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) Advancing the learning curve (Know-How development)

( ) Lowering costs

( ) Improving quality of manufactures

( ) First to Market strategy

( ) Develop strong marketing relations

( ) Make money from exclusive rights (licensing or blocking competition)

( ) Make money from information production but not by exercising exclusive rights (ex.: Adds in journals, AVS);

( ) Status and reputational motivations

( ) Securing government funding

( ) Securing government status

( ) Feedback before publication/sale/etc

( ) Learning Network

( ) Dealing with externalities

( ) Dealing with uncertainty

( ) "Learning to code" (Access to, and sharing of knowledge/education/removing information asymmetries)

( ) "Gaining a reputation of trustable"

( ) "Scratching an itch" (Inventing something that meets your own needs)

( ) "Contributing to the commons" (actively being altruistic)

( ) Work towards replacing obsolete and closed systems with open systems.

B - Case Identity

( ) Educational materials

( ) Biotechnology

( ) Alternative Energy

( ) Other. List: ____________________________________________________

2) Name: ___________________________________________________________

3) URL: ___________________________________________________________

4) Types of actors involved: (Check all applicable answers)

( ) Government

( ) University(ies)

( ) For-Profit Corporation(s)

( ) Individual(s) producers

( ) Individual(s) consumers

( ) Informal social collaboration enable by the network (Here Wikipedia is seen as an actor, e.g.)

( ) Foundation(s)

( ) Non-Governmental Organization (Civil Society organization)

( ) For profit do good company

Additional comments to your answer:

5) What is the expressly stated reason (e.g.: in the Mission of the Project) for the existence of the Case? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) Funder mandate

( ) Experimentation

( ) Solicit new ideas

( ) Develop consensus

( ) Develop standards

( ) Achieve interoperability

( ) Contribute to the commons

( ) Other. List: _______________________________________________________________

6) What are the types of in-put resource actors are asked to contribute for the Case? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) Computing storage capacity

( ) Computing processing capacity

( ) Physical infrastructure rooms, buildings, etc.

( ) Narratives

( ) Tools and/or material

( ) Know How

( ) Dedicated staff

7) What are the out-put resource result of the Case? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) Data and/or Databases (Foundation and/or observational)

( ) Tools and/or materials

8) Where in the value chain does the Case happen?/What is the stage in the value chain? (Check the most relevant answer)

( ) Basic Research

( ) Translational Research

( ) Development / Optimization

( ) Production / Manufacture

( ) Commercialization

9) What are the formal community management tools in use? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) Mailing list

( ) Social Network Platforms

( ) P2P Network

( ) Repository

( ) Web-site

( ) Conference calls

10) Are there real-world community management tools implemented in parallel to the online tools to support the Case? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) conferences

( ) association-related activities

( ) private meetings

( ) staff training

( ) participation in standards setting-bodies

11) What is the Case funding structure? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) Governmental Funding. List: _________________________________________________

( ) Individual Philanthropy grants or individual donations

( ) Foundation grant. List: ______________________________________________________

( ) Membership-related fee

( ) Access-related fee

( ) Use-related fee

( ) Rent from sales of goods

( ) Rent from sales of services

( ) Rent from advertisement

( ) Rent from merchandising

( ) Rent from added value services. List: ___________________________________________

( ) None of the above. Other: ____________________________________________________

12) What are the Intellectual Property rights available for the resource? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) None resource in public domain

( ) Copyright

( ) Patents

( ) Trade Secrets

( ) Trademark

13) Is the resource that is the Case's out-come is:

( ) a substitute good?

( ) a complementary good?

14) Does the Case allow incubation of derivative projects?

( ) not addressed

C Participation

1) Are there rules on who can participate in the creation stage?

( ) yes, informally transmitted

( ) yes, formally transmitted

( ) by a physical letter

( ) by an e-mail

( ) published on the Case web page. List URL: ___________________________________

3) Who can participate in the creation of a resource or input-process in the Case?

( ) funded creator

( ) invited-only creator

( ) membership-only creator

( ) any creator

If anything different from any creator, please describe:

4) Do creators have to sign a contract in order to take part in the Case?

( ) yes, physical

( ) yes, digital / digital signature

( ) yes, digital / one-click

5) Is there a terms of use document regulating the creators' actions within the Case?

( ) yes. List URL, if digital: _____________________________________________________

6) How many steps does it take to become a creator (e.g. screens to click through, forms to sign, terms to accept)?

( ) 5 or more

7) Does a creator require an institutional affiliation (e.g. university or research institute) to participate?

( ) sometimes

( ) regularly

1) Are there clear rules on who can access the resource?

3) Is anonymous access to the resource allowed?

If yes, skip to question 9.

4) Is user-registration needed?

5) If registration is needed, can anyone register?

6) If registration is needed, is there an authentication process?

7) If registration is needed, does the user need an invitation or previous permission to register?

8) If registration is needed, does anyone approve the user-registrations?

( ) the process is transparent, meaning that the user know what are the criteria for acceptation or rejection of registration, and who is making the decision

( ) the process is not transparent

9) Does a user require an institutional affiliation (e.g. university or research institute) to access the resource?

10) Does the user have to pay to register?

( ) yes. Specify payment: _______________________________________________________

11) Is there tracking of access measures?

( ) yes. Specify how tracking is done: ______________________________________________

12) Is there a privacy policy?

( ) yes. Specify URL: ___________________________________________________________

1) Are there rules on who can use the resource?

2) Does everybody that has access to the resource have rights to use the resource (or can they only view the resource)?

3) If no, are there different types of users that emerge from different rights attributed?

4) Does a user require an institutional affiliation (e.g. university or research institute) to use the resource?

1) Is there governance?

2) What is the governance structure? (Check the most relevant answer)

( ) hierarchical governance

( ) centralized governance

( ) club governance

( ) distributed governance

3) Is there the figure of a leader?

4) What are the types of leadership? (Check the most relevant answer)

( ) organic/hegemonic leader

( ) elected leader

( ) organic/hegemonic moderator

( ) elected moderator

D Regulation

1) Are there rules on how a Creator can participate?

( ) by a (physical or digital) contract

( ) by a Terms of Use published on the Case web page. List URL: _______________________________

2) Are these rules modular, meaning: Does the creator have to agree with the rules or can the Creator agree partially with the rules?

( ) rules not modular, creator has to accept all the rules set in advance by founders/managers of the Case

( ) rules modular, creator can intervene in the rule-set process

3) Are there rules regulating the Intellectual Property rights of Creators?

( ) yes, but not expressed in the Case. Creators assume general IP laws are applied.

( ) yes, expressed in the Case and they are transmitted:

( ) by (physical or digital) contract

( ) inserted in a general Terms of Use published on the Case web page. List URL: ________________________________

( ) published in a specific Intellectual Property Notice or Terms on the Case web page. List URL: __________________________________

4) What are the rules adopted for Creators if resource is de juris in public domain? (Check all applicable answers)

( ) just public domain

( ) resource in public domain, but community rules exist:

( ) to regulate form of creation

( ) to regulate input of resources

( ) to regulated interoperability of resources

( ) to regulated future freedom of use by Creators

( ) to set the obligation that if use and create something else (derivatives), contribute back

( ) to regulate publication rights of Creators

( ) to regulate citation rights

( ) in the public domain, but the Case has a contract for use inspired by Free or Open Source Software licenses

( ) Attribution / Citation clauses

( ) Non Commercial clauses

( ) Viral / Copyleft-inspired clauses

Specify rules:

5) What are the rules adopted for Creators if resource is de juris copyrightable?

( ) All rights reserved

( ) Some rights reserved, with express-communicated license

( ) Creative Commons

( ) CC-BY-NC

( ) CC-BY-NC-ND

( ) CC-BY-NC-SA

( ) CC-BY-ND

( ) CC-BY-SA

( ) Other. List: __________________________________________

( ) Declaration of resources in Open Access, but no express-communicated license

( ) Regulations on publication rights

( ) Regulations on citation rights

( ) No kind of assertion is made

6) What are the rules adopted for Creators if resource is de juris patentable?

( ) Some rights reserved, with express-communicated license (check all applicable)

( ) research exemption

( ) socially responsible license

( ) UAEM model

( ) Berkley model

( ) other List: __________________________________________

( ) in the patentable sphere, but the Case has a contract for use inspired by Free or Open Source Software licenses

( ) Patent covenant / non-assertion commons

( ) Patent pool

7) What are the rules adopted for Creators if resource is de juris not IP protected, but traditionally regulated by a contract, such as Material Transfer Contracts?

( ) Material Transfer Agreement is negotiated case by case

( ) the Case has a standard Material Transfer Agreement

( ) Simple Letter Agreement (SLA)

( ) Uniform Biological Material Transfer Agreement (UMBTA)

( ) Science Commons MTA

( ) Subject to standard property and title laws, but the Case has a contract for use inspired by Free or Open Source Software licenses

1) Are there rules on how a User can access the resource?

2) Are the rules of access for Users different from the rules applied to Creators?

3) Can User's right of access be withdrawn at any moment?

4) Are the reasons for withdrawal of an User communicated?

( ) by a (physical or digital) end-of-contract term

( ) by a public communication notice

1) Are there rules on how a User can use the resource?

2) Are these rules modular, meaning: does the user have to agree with the rules or can the user agree partially with the rules?

( ) rules not modular, user has to accept all the rules set in advance by founders/creators of the Case

( ) rules modular, user can intervene in the rule-set process

3) Are the regulations on the use of a resource by users different from the regulations of use for Creators?

If yes, jump to section D-4. If no, keep answering in sequence.

4) Are there rules regulating the Intellectual Property rights of Users?

( ) yes, but not expressed in the Case. Users assume general IP laws are applied.

5) What are the rules adopted if resource is de juris in public domain? (Check all applicable answers)

6) What are the rules adopted if resource is de juris copyrightable?

7) What are the rules adopted if resource is de juris patentable?

8) What are the rules adopted if resource is de juris not IP protected, but traditionally regulated by a contract, such as a Material Transfer Agreement?

( ) Viral / Copyleft-inspired clauses( ) No kind of assertion is made

1) Is the control over the resource symmetric among Creators and users?

2) If no, does anybody in the Case's community has any veto power?

( ) Funders

( ) Community Manager

( ) Community Leader

( ) Creator(s)

( ) User(s)

Specify veto-power system:

3) Do the Case regulations reserve the rights to the Creators or Managers of the Case to change the rules at any given moment?

( ) yes and this power is expressly communicated to the Community

( ) yes, but this power is not expressly communicated to the Community

4) If regulation changes, is the change process communicated to the Case Community?

( ) yes, but informally.

( ) yes, and expressly transmitted:

( ) by (physical or digital) contract-change

( ) by a pre-communicated change of the Terms of Use

( ) by a non-pre-communicated change of the Terms of Use

( ) published in a specific Notice

5) Is there a reward system for the Case Community?

Specify reward system:

E Perception

(Same questions of section A)

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When and How to Use a Case Study for Research

May 17, 2021 (Updated: May 4, 2023)

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What Is Case Study Research?

Types of case studies, when should you use a case study, case study benefits, case study limitations, how to write a case study.

Imagine your company receives a string of negative reviews online. You notice a few common themes among the complaints, but you still aren’t quite sure what went wrong. Or suppose an old blog post suddenly went viral, and you’d like to know why and how to do it again. In both of these situations, a case study could be the best way to find answers.

A case study is a process whereby researchers examine a specific subject in a thorough, detailed way. The subject of a case study could be an individual, a group, a community, a business, an organization, an event, or a phenomenon. Regardless of the type of subject, case studies are in-depth investigations designed to identify patterns and cause-and-effect relationships. Case studies are often used by researchers in the field of psychology , medicine, business, social work, anthropology, education, or political science.

Because they are singular in their focus and often rely on qualitative data, case studies tend to be highly subjective. The results of a single case study cannot always be generalized and applied to the larger population. However, case studies can be valuable tools for developing a thesis or illustrating a principle. They can help researchers understand, describe, compare, and evaluate different aspects of an issue or question.

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Case studies can be classified according to their purpose or their subject. For instance, a case study can focus on any of the following:

• A person:  Some case studies focus on one particular person. Often, the subject will be an individual with some rare characteristic or experience.
• A group:  Group case studies could look at a family, a group of coworkers, or a friend group. It could be people thrown together by circumstance or who share some bond or relationship. A group case study could even focus on an entire community of people.
• An organization:  An organizational case study could focus on a business, a nonprofit, an institution, or any other formal entity. The study could look at the people in the organization, the processes they use, or an incident at the organization.
• A location:  An event case study focuses on a specific area. It could be used to study environmental and population changes or to examine how people use the location.
• An event:  Event case studies can be used to cover anything from a natural disaster to a political scandal. Often, these case studies are conducted retrospectively, as an investigation into a past event.

In addition to different types of subjects, case studies often have different designs or purposes. Here are a few of the most common types of case studies:

• Explanatory:  An explanatory case study tries to explain the why or how behind something. This type of case study works well when studying an event or phenomenon, like an airplane crash or unexpected power outage.
• Descriptive:  A descriptive, or illustrative, case study is designed to shed light on an unfamiliar subject. Case studies like this provide in-depth, real-world examples of whatever the researcher wants to help the audience understand. For instance, a descriptive case study could focus on the experience of a mother with postpartum depression or on a young adult who has aged out of the foster care system.
• Exploratory:  An exploratory case study, or pilot case study, often serves as the first step in a larger research project. Researchers may use a case study to help them narrow their focus, draft a specific research question, and guide the parameters of a formal, large-scale study.
• Intrinsic:  An intrinsic case study has no goal beyond a deeper understanding of its subject. In this type of study, researchers are not trying to make generalized conclusions, challenge existing assumptions, or make any compare-and-contrast connections. The most interesting thing about the study is the subject itself.
• Critical Instance:  A critical instance case study is similar to an explanatory or intrinsic study. Like an intrinsic study, it may have no predetermined purpose beyond investigating the subject. Like an explanatory study, it may be used to explain a cause-and-effect relationship. A critical instance case study may also be used to call into question a commonly held assumption or popular theory.
• Instrumental:  An instrumental case study is the opposite of an intrinsic study because it serves a purpose beyond understanding the immediate subject. In this type of study, researchers explore a larger question through an individual case or cases. For instance, researchers could use a handful of case studies to investigate the relationship between social media use and happiness.
• Cumulative:  A cumulative, or collective, case study uses information from several past studies as the basis for a new study. Because it takes into account multiple case studies, a cumulative study allows for greater generalization than a single case study. It can also be a more time- and cost-effective option since it makes use of existing research.

Case studies are often used in the exploratory phase of research to gather qualitative data. They can also be used to create, support, or refute a hypothesis and guide future research. For instance, a marketing professional might conduct a case study to discover why a viral ad campaign was so successful . They can then take any lessons they glean from the case study and apply them to future marketing efforts. A psychologist could use a case study to form a theory about the best way to treat a specific disorder. That theory could then be tested later through a large-scale controlled study.

Case studies are a good way to explore a real-world topic in-depth, illustrate a point, discuss the implications or meaning of an event, or compare the experiences of different individuals. A trainer may use a case study to bring to life what would otherwise be an abstract series of recommended action steps or to spark a conversation about how to respond in a specific scenario. Similarly, professors can use case studies to highlight key concepts from a lecture and pose questions to test students’ understanding of the material.

In some situations, case studies are the only way to compile quantitative data in an ethical manner. For instance, many of the recommendations that doctors make regarding what is or is not safe during pregnancy are based on case studies. It wouldn’t be ethical to conduct a controlled study that exposes pregnant women to potentially harmful substances, so doctors rely on the anecdotal evidence provided by case studies to find correlations and draw their conclusions.

Case studies can also be used to gather data that would be otherwise impossible or impractical to obtain. Students often use case studies for their thesis or dissertation when they lack the time or resources to conduct large-scale research. Zoologists might use existing case studies to determine the success rate of reintroducing rehabilitated animals into the wild. A historian could use case studies to explore the strategies used by dictators to gain and maintain power.

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Case studies can be used on their own or as a complement to other research methods, depending on the situation. The examples above are just a few instances where case studies can be useful. Case studies also work well for the following:

Providing Insight Through Qualitative Data

Case studies generally provide more qualitative data as opposed to quantitative data , and that makes them an invaluable tool for gathering insight into complex topics. Psychologists, for instance, use case studies to better understand human behavior. Crafting theories on the motives behind human actions would be difficult with quantitative data alone. The information gleaned through case studies may be subjective, but so is much of what makes us human. As individuals, we each have a unique blend of emotions, attitudes, opinions, motivations, and behaviors. Objective quantitative data is rarely the best way to identify and explain these nuances.

By their very nature, case studies allow more more intensive, in-depth study than other research methods. Rather than aiming for a large sample size, case studies follow a single subject. Often case studies are conducted over a longer period of time, and the narrow focus allows researchers to gather more detail than would be possible in a study of thousands of people. The information gleaned may not be representative of the broader population, but it does provide richer insight into the subject than other research methods.

Identifying Avenues for Future Research

Case studies are often used as the first step in a larger research project. The results of a case study cannot necessarily be generalized, but they can help researchers narrow their focus. For instance, researchers in the medical field might conduct a case study on a patient who survived an injury that typically proves fatal.

Over the course of the study, researchers may identify two or three ways in which this patient’s situation differed from others they have seen. Perhaps they identify something unique in the patient’s DNA or lifestyle choices or in the steps doctors took to treat the injury. Letting that information guide them, researchers could use other methods to deepen their understanding of those factors and perhaps develop new treatments or preventative recommendations.

Case studies can also be used in the fields of social work, politics, and anthropology to draw attention to a widespread problem and spur more research. A detailed narrative about one person’s experience will inspire more compassion than an academic paper filled with quantitative data. Stories often have a greater impact than statistics.

Challenging, Testing, or Developing Theories

Case studies can be particularly useful in the process of forming and testing theories. A case study may lead researchers to form a new theory or call into a question an existing one. They are an invaluable tool for identifying exceptions to a rule or disproving conventional wisdom.

For instance, a medical professional may write a case study about a patient who exhibited atypical symptoms to assert that the list of symptoms for a condition should be expanded. A psychologist could use a case study to determine whether the new treatment they devised for depression is effective, or to demonstrate that existing treatment methods are flawed. As the result of a case study, a marketing professional could suggest that consumers values have changed and that marketing best practices should be updated accordingly.

Enabling the Study of Unique Subjects

Some subjects would be impossible, impractical, or unethical to study through other research methods. This is true in the case of extremely rare phenomenon, many aspects of human behavior, and even some medical conditions.

Suppose a medical professional would like to gather more information about multiple-birth pregnancies with four or more fetuses. More information would be helpful because we have less information about them, but the reason we have less information is because they are so rare. Conducting case studies of a few women who are currently pregnant with multiples or have given birth to multiples in the past may be the only practical way to research them.

Case studies can also be used to gain insight into historical events and natural phenomenon — things we are not able to repeat at will. Case studies have also been used to study subjects such as a feral child , child prodigies, rare psychological conditions, crisis response, and more.

Helping People Better Understand Nuanced Concepts

Educators incorporate case studies into their lectures for a reason. Walking students through a detailed case study can make the abstract seem more real and draw out the nuances of a concept. Case studies can facilitate engaging discussions, spark thoughtful questions, and give students a chance to apply what they have learned to real-world situations.

Outside the classroom, case studies can be used to illustrate complex ideas. For instance, a well-constructed case study can highlight the unintended consequences of a new piece of legislation or demonstrate that depression does not always manifest in an obvious way. Case studies can help readers and listeners understand and care about an issue that does not directly affect them.

Despite their benefits, case studies do come with a few limitations. Compared to other research methods, case studies are often at a disadvantage in terms of the following:

Replicability

In most cases, scientists strive to create experiments that can be repeated by others. That way, other scientists can perform their own research and compare their results to those of the initial study. Assuming these other scientists achieve similar results, the replicability of the experiment lends credibility to the findings and theories of the original researchers.

One limitation of case studies is that they are often difficult, if not impossible, to replicate. Although this fact does not diminish the value of case studies, it does demonstrate that case studies are not a good fit for every research problem — at least, not on their own. Additional research would have to be performed to corroborate the results and prove or disprove any generalized theories generated by a case study.

Generalization

Generalization is another area in which case studies cannot match other research methods. A case study can help us challenge existing theories and form new ones, but its results cannot necessarily be generalized. The data we gather from a case study is only valid for that specific subject, and we cannot assume that our conclusions apply to the broader population.

Researchers or readers can attempt to apply the principles from a particular case to similar situations or incorporate the results into a more comprehensive theory. However, a case study by itself can only prove the existence of certain possibilities and exceptions, not a general rule.

Reliability

The reliability of case studies may be called into question for two reasons. The first objection centers on the fallibility of human memory and the question of whether subjects are being honest. Many case studies rely on subjects to self-report biographical details, their state of mind, their thoughts and feelings, or their behaviors.

The second issue is the Hawthorne effect, which refers to the tendency of individuals to modify their behavior when they know they are being observed. This effect makes it nearly impossible for researchers to ensure that the observations and conclusions of their case study are reliable.

Researcher Bias

Researcher bias is another potential issue with case studies. The results of a case study are by nature subjective and qualitative rather than objective and qualitative, and any findings rely heavily on the observations and narrative provided by the researcher. Even the best researchers are still human, and no matter how hard they try to remain objective, they will not be able to keep their findings completely free of bias.

Researchers may have biases they are not even aware of. A researcher may over-identify with the subject and lose the benefit of a dispassionate outside perspective. If the researcher already has an opinion on the subject, they may subconsciously overlook or discount facts that contradict their pre-existing assumptions. Researcher bias can affect what the researcher observes and records, as well as how they interpret and apply their observations.

Case studies can be time-consuming and expensive to conduct. Crafting a thorough case study can be a lengthy project due to the intensive, detailed nature of this type of research. Plus, once the information has been gathered, it must be interpreted. Between the observation and analysis, a case study could take months or even years to complete. Researchers will need to be heavily involved in every step of the process, putting in a lot of time, energy, focus, and effort to ensure that the case study is as informative as possible.

Now that you understand the benefits, limitations, and types of case studies, you can follow these steps to write your own:

• Determine your objective.  Write out your research problem, question, or goal. If you aren’t sure, ask yourself questions like, “What am I trying to accomplish? What do I need to know? What will success look like?” Be clear and specific. Your answers will help you choose the right type of case study for your needs.
• Review the research.  Before delving into your case study, take some time to review the research that is already available. The information you gather during this preliminary research can help guide your efforts.
• Choose a subject.  Decide what or who the subject of your case study will be. For instance, if you are conducting a case study to find out how businesses have been affected by new CDC guidelines, you will need to choose a specific restaurant or retailer. In some cases, you may need to draft a release form for the subject to sign so that you will be able to publish your study.
• Gather information.  Case studies about a person, organization, or group may rely on questionnaires or interviews to gather information. If you are studying an event, you might use a combination of academic research and witness interviews. In some cases, you will record your own observations as part of the study.
• Write a report.  Most case studies culminate in a written report, similar to a research paper. Most case studies include five sections : an introduction, a literature review, an explanation of your methods, a discussion of your findings and the implications, followed by a conclusion.
• Publish your findings.  Once you’ve written your case study, consider the most engaging way to present your findings. A well-written research article is a good place to start, but going a step further will maximize the impact of your research. For instance, you could design an infographic to highlight key findings or commission an animated video to turn your case study into a visual narrative.

Whether research is your primary occupation or only an incidental part of your job, you can benefit from a solid understanding of what case studies are, how they work, and when to use them. Use the information and steps above to design and write a case study that will provide the answers you’re looking for.

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• Centre for Higher Education Research and Scholarship
• Research and Innovation
• Educational research methods
• Methods in educational research

Questionnaires

Questionnaires can be used qualitatively or quantitatively. As with all other methods, the value of the questionnaire depends on its ability to provide data which can answer the research question, and the way that a questionnaire is designed and worded can be significant in this. A questionnaire designed to capture levels of student satisfaction may well provide information to this end, but for researchers interested in more than this, such measures could amount to little more than superficial data. Careful consideration needs to be given to what the questionnaire is intended to elicit, and so – depending on their study – some researchers might find it more useful to use pre-existing standardised questionnaires based on validated scales such as those used to measure self-efficacy (Bandura, 2006) or agency (Tapal et al., 2017).

Guidance for developing questionnaires using self-efficacy scales [pdf]

"The questionnaire is a widely used and useful instrument for collecting survey information, providing structured – often numerical – data, able to be administrated without the presence of the researcher and often comparatively straightforward to analyse. These attractions have to be counterbalanced by the time taken to develop, pilot and refine the questionnaire, by the possible unsophistication and limited and superficial scope of the data that are collected […]. The researcher will have to judge the appropriateness of using a questionnaire for data collection, and, if so, what kind of questionnaire it should be." Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2018, p.471

Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018) provide a comprehensive overview of the different issues and stages involved in questionnaire design and it is important that each of these is given full consideration from the outset. These issues include:

• Intended population/sample – as this can influence the form, wording and means of administrating the questionnaire
• Intended method of data analysis – to ensure that questions are framed appropriately
• Type of questionnaire: structured/closed, semi-structured or “unstructured”
• Question/response types – e.g. dichotomous questions, multiple choice, Likert/rating scales, constant sum, rank ordering, open ended
• Wording of questions – e.g. need for clarity, risk of leading responses
• Opportunity to pilot and revise questionnaire

As with all educational research, attention must be given to the particular ethical and practical considerations involved in this particular type of research. For many researchers, online survey tools such as Qualtrics provide a convenient means of administering questionnaires but these require attention to particular considerations – which Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018) provide further detailed guidance on in Chapter 18.

Quantitative questionnaire design

A key priority with quantitative questionnaire design is to be clear from the outset exactly what it is you want to measure, why you want to do this and whether your proposed design is actually going to generate the sort of data you need. Do you want, for instance, to generate inferential or just descriptive statistics? Different question types lend themselves to different scales of data (rating scales to ordinal data, for instance) so thinking ahead to the analysis is an essential part of the design phase. Equally, if a pre- and post- study design is deemed appropriate, then the essential principles of experimental design need to be factored into the design and administration of the questionnaires.

Qualitative questionnaire design

If your area of research renders it necessary to obtain qualitative data, it might be worth considering in the first instance if interviews or focus groups might provide a more appropriate means of eliciting this. Self-completion questionnaires do not provide scope for probing further if questions are left unanswered or incomplete, and participants can vary enormously in terms of the time they are prepared to devote and the amount they are prepared to write in completing open text questionnaires. If questionnaires are most appropriate, however, then the general principles of good questionnaire design (layout, wording, ordering and so on) need to be considered alongside the practicality and feasibility of completing the questionnaire from the participants’ point of view.

Dissertation Format and Submission

• Dissertation Submission
• Getting Survey Permissions
• Help Videos

Download a PDF of this FAQ  

Download the template permission letter, instrument permissions faq, permissions to use and reproduce instruments in a thesis/dissertation frequently asked questions, why might i need permission to use an instrument in my thesis/dissertation.

• Determine whether you need permission
• Identify the copyright holder
• Ask for permission
• Keep a record
• What if I can't locate the copyright holder?

If you want to use surveys, questionnaires, interview questions, tests, measures, or other instruments created by other people, you are required to locate and follow usage permissions. The instrument may be protected by copyright and/or licensing restrictions.

Copyright Protection

Copyright provides authors of original creative work with limited control over the reproduction and distribution of that work. Under United States law, all original expressions that are “fixed in a tangible medium” are automatically protected by copyright at the time of their creation. In other words, it is not necessary to formally state a declaration of copyright, to use the © symbol, or to register with the United States Copyright Office.

Therefore, you must assume that any material you find is copyrighted, unless you have evidence otherwise. This is the case whether you find the instrument openly on the web, in a library database, or reproduced in a journal article. It is your legal and ethical responsibility to obtain permission to use, modify, and/or reproduce the instrument.

If you use and/or reproduce material in your thesis/dissertation beyond the limits outlined by the “fair use” doctrine, which allows for limited use of a work, without first gaining the copyright holder’s permission, you may be infringing copyright.

Licensing/Terms of Use

Some instruments are explicitly distributed under a license agreement or terms of use. Unlike copyright, which applies automatically, users must agree to these terms in order to use the instrument. In exchange for abiding by the terms, the copyright holder grants the licensee specific and limited rights, such as the right to use the instrument in scholarly research, or to reproduce the instrument in a publication.

When you ask a copyright holder for permission to use or reproduce an instrument, you are in effect asking for a license to do those things.

How do I know if I need permission to use instruments in my thesis/dissertation research? (Adapted from Hathcock & Crews )

Follow the four-step process below:

1. Determine whether you need permission

There are different levels of permissions for using an instrument:

a)  No permission required

i. The copyright holder has explicitly licensed the use of instrument for any purpose, without requiring you to obtain permission.

ii. If you are only using a limited portion of the instrument, your use may be covered under the Fair Use Doctrine. See more here:  https://uhcl.libguides.com/copyright/fairuse .

iii. If the instrument was developed by the federal government or under a government grant it may be in the public domain, and permission is therefore not required.

iv. If the document was created before 1977, it may be in the public domain, and permission is therefore not required. See the Stanford Public Domain Flowchart at https://fairuse.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/publicdomainflowchart.png .

b)  Non-commercial/educational use: The copyright holder has licensed the instrument only for non-commercial research or educational purposes, without requiring you to obtain the permission of the copyright holder. Any other usage requires permission.

Sample Permission for Educational Use:

Test content may be reproduced and used for non-commercial research and educational purposes without seeking written permission. Distribution must be controlled, meaning only to the participants engaged in the research or enrolled in the educational activity. Any other type of reproduction or distribution of test content is not authorized without written permission from the author and publisher. Always include a credit line that contains the source citation and copyright owner when writing about or using any test.

Source: Marta Soto, “How Permissions Work in PsycTests,” APA Databases & Electronic Resources Blog. American Psychological Association. http://blog.apapubs.org/2016/12/21/how-permissions-work-in-psyctests/ .

Even if you are not required to obtain permission to use the instrument, consider contacting the author for ideas on how to administer and analyze the test. Authors often welcome further use of their work, and may request you send them a copy of your final work.

c)  Permission required:  Instruments that require you to obtain the permission of the copyright holder, regardless of whether the use is for educational or commercial purposes. This may be because the copyright holder

• has important directions for how the test must be administered and analyzed
• wants to make sure the most current version is being used
• charges users a fee in order to administer the test

If you cannot locate the permissions, you are required to identify the copyright holder and contact them to ask about permission to use the instrument.

2. Identify the copyright holder  (Adapted from Crews )

The next step is to identify who owns the copyright. The copyright holder is usually the creator of the work. If the copyright owner is an individual, you will need to do the usual Internet and telephone searches to find the person. Be ready to introduce yourself and to explain carefully what you are seeking.

Some authors transfer copyright to another entity, such as a journal publisher or an organization. In these cases, you must obtain permission from that entity to use or reproduce the instrument. You can often identify the owner by locating a © copyright notice, but as mentioned above, not all copyrighted works have a notice.

Check the following sources to locate instruments, their copyright holders, and their permission statements:

• Mental Measurements Yearbook: https://uhcl.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?authtype=ip,uid&profile=ehost&defaultdb=mmt
• PsycTESTS: https://uhcl.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?authtype=ip,uid&profile=ehost&defaultdb=pst
• Neumann Library Tests & Measures help: https://uhcl.libguides.com/PSYC/tests
• Library assistance e-mail: [email protected]

​You may need to contact the author or publisher directly to find out who owns the copyright. Publishers often have websites that prescribe a method for contacting the copyright owner, so search the publisher website for a permissions department or contact person. Be sure to confirm the exact name and address of the addressee, and call/e-mail the person or publishing house to confirm the copyright ownership.

• The copyright owner may prefer or require that permission requests be made using a certain medium (i.e. fax, mail, web form, etc.). If you do not follow instructions, you may not get a reply.
• Telephone calls may be the quickest method for getting a response from the owner, but they should be followed up with a letter or e-mail in order to document the exact scope of the permission. E-mail permissions are legally acceptable in most cases, but getting a genuine signature is usually best.
• The request should be sent to the individual copyright holder (when applicable) or permissions department of the publisher in question. Be sure to include your return address, telephone and fax numbers, e-mail address, and the date at the top of your letter or message. If you send the permission request by mail, include a self-addressed, stamped return envelope.
• Make the process easy for the copyright owner. The less effort the owner has to put forth, the more likely you will get the permission you need. If you are using conventional mail, include a second copy of your request for the owner’s records.
• State clearly who you are, your institutional affiliation (e.g., University of Houston-Clear Lake), and the general nature of your thesis/dissertation research.

Do not send permissions letters to all possible rightsholders simultaneously. Taking the time to find the person who most likely holds the copyright will better yield success. If you do not have much information about who actually owns the copyright, be honest with your contacts, and they may be able to help you find the right person.

3. Ask for permission  (Adapted from  Crews )

Once you have identified the copyright holder, you must determine the scope of your permission request. Some copyright owners furnish their own permission form that you may download from their website.

If the copyright owner does not provide a permission agreement form, you may write your own letter ( click here to download a template ). Requests should be made in writing; e-mail is fine for this purpose. A most effective letter will include detailed information concerning your request for permission to use the work. Include the following information:

• Who: Introduce yourself. Tell who you are, your degree program, and a brief overview of your research.
• Why: Tell why you are contacting that person or entity for permission.
• What: Be as specific as possible when you cite and describe the instrument you wish to use. Include whether you plan to use the entire instrument, or if you plan on modifying or adapting any of the questions.
• How: Tell how you plan to use the instrument. Specify the parameters of your research study, and include any important information about the way you will administer the instrument and/or analyze the results.
• When: Expected length of the project and time to complete the thesis/dissertation.

Important : Obtaining permission to use an instrument is not the same as obtaining permission to reproduce the instrument in your appendix. If you intend on providing a copy of the instrument in an appendix, ask for separate permissions to do that.

Click here to download a template letter . Feel free to modify and adapt this template for your purposes.

4. Keep a record

After securing permission to use and/or reproduce the instrument, save a copy of the correspondence and the agreement. Documentation allows you to demonstrate to others that you have the legal right to use the owner's work. In the unlikely event that your use of the work is ever challenged, you will need to demonstrate your good faith efforts. That challenge could arise far in the future, so keep a permanent file of the records. Moreover, you might need to contact that same copyright owner again for a later use of the work, and your notes from the past will make the task easier.

Upload a copy of your permission letter in Vireo with your thesis/dissertation, or include it as an appendix in the document itself.

What if I can't locate the copyright holder?  (Adapted from Hathcock  & Crews & Pantalony )

In some cases, you may never get a response from the copyright holder or you may never even be able to identify who they are or how to contact them. It can be difficult to know how to proceed when you reach a dead end. Unfortunately, no matter how diligently you have tried to get permission, these efforts cannot completely eliminate the risk of infringement should you proceed to use the work.

Assuming you have diligently investigated your alternatives, do not want to change your project, and remain in need of the elusive copyright permission, the remaining alternative is to explore a risk-benefit analysis. You need to balance the benefits of using that particular material in your given project against the risks that a copyright owner may see your project, identify the materials, and assert the owner’s legal claims against you. Numerous factual circumstances may be important in this evaluation. The “benefit” may depend upon the importance of your project and the importance of using that particular material. The “risks” may depend upon whether your project will be published or available on the Internet for widespread access—as theses and dissertations will. You ought to investigate whether the work is registered with the U.S. Copyright Office and weigh the thoroughness of your search for the copyright owner and your quest for appropriate permission.

Undertaking this analysis can be sensitive and must be advanced with caution and with careful documentation. You may be acting to reduce the risk of liability, but you have not eliminated liability. A copyright owner may still hold rights to the material. Members of the University of Houston-Clear Lake community should consult with their chair or the Neumann Library to discuss their options.

Portions of this FAQ are used and adapted from:

Crews, Kenneth and Rina Elster Pantalony. “Special Cases.” Columbia University Copyright Advisory Services. https://copyright.columbia.edu/basics/special-cases.html . Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).

Crews, Kenneth. “Asking for Permission.” Columbia University Advisory Services. https://copyright.columbia.edu/basics/permissions-and-licensing.html . Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).

Hathcock, April. “Getting Permission.” NYU Libraries Copyright Library Guide, https://guides.nyu.edu/c.php?g=276785&p=1845968 . Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0).

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• How it works

Qualitative Research Questionnaire – Types & Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 19th, 2024 , Revised On August 20, 2024

Before you start your research, the first thing you need to identify is the research method . Depending on different factors, you will either choose a quantitative or qualitative study.

Qualitative research is a great tool that helps understand the depth and richness of human opinions and experiences. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data , qualitative research allows exploring and interpreting the experiences of the subject. Questionnaires, although mostly associated with quantitative research, can also be a valuable instrument in qualitative studies. Let’s explore what qualitative research questionnaires are and how you can create one.

What Is A Qualitative Research Questionnaire

Qualitative research questionnaires are a structured or semi-structured set of questions designed to gather detailed, open-ended participant responses. It allows you to uncover underlying reasons and opinions and provides insights into a particular phenomenon.

While quantitative questionnaires often have closed-ended questions and numerical responses, a qualitative questionnaire encourages participants to express themselves freely. Before you design your questionnaire, you should know exactly what you need so you can keep your questions specific enough for the participants to understand.

For example:

• Describe your experience using our product.
• How has technology impacted your work-life balance?

Types of Qualitative Research Questions With Examples

Now that you are familiar with what qualitative research questions are, let’s look at the different types of questions you can use in your survey .

Descriptive Questions

These are used to explore and describe a phenomenon in detail. It helps answer the “what” part of the research, and the questions are mostly foundational.

Example: How do students experience online learning?

Comparative Questions

This type allows you to compare and contrast different groups or situations. You can explore the differences and similarities to highlight the impact of specific variables.

Example: How do the study habits of first-year and fourth-year university students differ?

Interpretive Questions

These questions help you understand the meanings people attach to experiences or phenomena by answering the “how” and “why”.

Example: What does “success” mean to entrepreneurs?

Evaluative Questions

You can use these to assess the quality or value of something. These allow you to understand the outcomes of various situations.

Example: How effective is the new customer service training program?

Process-Oriented Questions

To understand how something happens or develops over time, researchers often use process-oriented questions.

Example: How do individuals develop their career goals?

Exploratory Questions

These allow you to discover new perspectives on a topic. However, you have to be careful that there must be no preconceived notions or research biases to it.

Example: What are the emerging trends in the mobile gaming industry?

How To Write Qualitative Research Questions?

For your study to be successful, it is important to consider designing a questionnaire for qualitative research critically, as it will shape your research and data collection. Here is an easy guide to writing your qualitative research questions perfectly.

Tip 1: Understand Your Research Goals

Many students start their research without clear goals, and they have to make substantial changes to their study in the middle of the research. This wastes time and resources.

Before you start crafting your questions, it is important to know your research objectives. You should know what you aim to discover through your research, or what specific knowledge gaps you are going to fill. With the help of a well-defined research focus, you can develop relevant and meaningful information.

Tip 2: Choose The Structure For Research Questions

There are mostly open-ended questionnaires in qualitative research. They begin with words like “how,” “what,” and “why.” However, the structure of your research questions depends on your research design . You have to consider using broad, overarching questions to explore the main research focus, and then add some specific probes to further research the particular aspects of the topic.

Tip 3: Use Clear Language

The more clear and concise your research questions are, the more effective and free from ambiguity they will be. Do not use complex terminology that might confuse participants. Try using simple and direct language that accurately conveys your intended meaning.

Here is a table to explain the wrong and right ways of writing your qualitative research questions.

Tip 4: Check Relevance With Research Goals

Once you have developed some questions, check if they align with your research objectives. You must ensure that each question contributes to your overall research questions. After this, you can eliminate any questions that do not serve a clear purpose in your study.

Tip 5: Concentrate On A Single Theme

While it is tempting to cover multiple aspects of a topic in one question, it is best to focus on a single theme per question. This helps to elicit focused responses from participants. Moreover, you have to avoid combining unrelated concepts into a single question.

If your main research question is complicated, you can create sub-questions with a “ladder structure”. These allow you to understand the attributes, consequences, and core values of your research. For example, let’s say your main broad research question is:

• How do you feel about your overall experience with our company?

The intermediate questions may be:

• What aspects of your experience were positive?
• What aspects of your experience were negative?
• How likely are you to recommend our company to a friend or colleague?

Types Of Survey Questionnaires In Qualitative Research

It is important to consider your research objectives, target population, resources and needed depth of research when selecting a survey method. The main types of qualitative surveys are discussed below.

Face To Face Surveys

Face-to-face surveys involve direct interaction between the researcher and the participant. This method allows observers to capture non-verbal cues, body language, and facial expressions, and helps adapt questions based on participant responses. They also let you clarify any misunderstandings. Moreover, there is a higher response rate because of personal interaction.

Example: A researcher conducting a study on consumer experiences with a new product might visit participants’ homes to conduct a detailed interview.

Telephone Surveys

These type of qualitative research survey questionnaires provide a less intrusive method for collecting qualitative data. The benefits of telephone surveys include, that it allows you to collect data from a wider population. Moreover, it is generally less expensive than face-to-face interviews and interviews can be conducted efficiently.

Example: A market research firm might conduct telephone surveys to understand customer satisfaction with a telecommunication service.

Online Surveys

Online survey questionnaires are a convenient and cost-effective way to gather qualitative data. You can reach a wide audience quickly, and participants may feel more comfortable sharing sensitive information because of anonymity. Additionally, there are no travel or printing expenses.

Example: A university might use online surveys to explore students’ perceptions of online learning experiences.

Strengths & Limitations Of Questionnaires In Qualitative Research

Questionnaires are undoubtedly a great data collection tool. However, it comes with its fair share of advantages and disadvantages. Let’s discuss the benefits of questionnaires in qualitative research and their cons as well.

Qualitative Research Questionnaire Example

Here is a concise qualitative research questionnaire sample for research papers to give you a better idea of its format and how it is presented.

Thank you for participating in our survey. We value your feedback on our new mobile app. Your responses will help us improve the applications and better meet your needs.

Demographic Information

• Occupation:
• How long have you been using smartphones:
• How would you describe your overall experience with the new mobile app?
• What do you like most about the app?
• What do you dislike most about the app?
• Are there any specific features you find particularly useful or helpful? Please explain.
• Are there any features you think are missing or could be improved? Please elaborate.
• How easy is the app to navigate? Please explain any difficulties you encountered.
• How does this app compare to other similar apps you have used?
• What are your expectations for future updates or improvements to the app?
• Is there anything else you would like to share about your experience with the app?

Are questionnaires quantitative or qualitative research?

A survey research questionnaire can have both qualitative and quantitative questions. The qualitative questions are mostly open-ended, and quantitative questions take the form of yes/no, or Likert scale rating. 

Can we use questionnaires in qualitative research?

Yes, survey questionnaires can be used in qualitative research for data collection. However, instead of a Likert scale or rating, you can post open-ended questions to your respondents. The participants can provide detailed responses to the questions asked.

Why are questionnaires good for qualitative research?

In qualitative research, questionnaires allow you to collect qualitative data. The open-ended and unstructured questions help respondents present their ideas freely and provide insights. 

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Questionnaires

Questionnaires can be classified as both, quantitative and qualitative method depending on the nature of questions. Specifically, answers obtained through closed-ended questions (also called restricted questions) with multiple choice answer options are analyzed using quantitative methods. Research findings in this case can be illustrated using tabulations, pie-charts, bar-charts and percentages.

Answers obtained to open-ended questionnaire questions (also known as unrestricted questions), on the other hand, are analyzed using qualitative methods. Primary data collected using open-ended questionnaires involve discussions and critical analyses without use of numbers and calculations.

There are following types of questionnaires:

Computer questionnaire . Respondents are asked to answer the questionnaire which is sent by mail. The advantages of the computer questionnaires include their inexpensive price, time-efficiency, and respondents do not feel pressured, therefore can answer when they have time, giving more accurate answers. However, the main shortcoming of the mail questionnaires is that sometimes respondents do not bother answering them and they can just ignore the questionnaire.

Telephone questionnaire .  Researcher may choose to call potential respondents with the aim of getting them to answer the questionnaire. The advantage of the telephone questionnaire is that, it can be completed during the short amount of time. The main disadvantage of the phone questionnaire is that it is expensive most of the time. Moreover, most people do not feel comfortable to answer many questions asked through the phone and it is difficult to get sample group to answer questionnaire over the phone.

In-house survey .  This type of questionnaire involves the researcher visiting respondents in their houses or workplaces. The advantage of in-house survey is that more focus towards the questions can be gained from respondents. However, in-house surveys also have a range of disadvantages which include being time consuming, more expensive and respondents may not wish to have the researcher in their houses or workplaces for various reasons.

Mail Questionnaire . This sort of questionnaires involve the researcher to send the questionnaire list to respondents through post, often attaching pre-paid envelope. Mail questionnaires have an advantage of providing more accurate answer, because respondents can answer the questionnaire in their spare time. The disadvantages associated with mail questionnaires include them being expensive, time consuming and sometimes they end up in the bin put by respondents.

Questionnaires can include the following types of questions:

Open question questionnaires . Open questions differ from other types of questions used in questionnaires in a way that open questions may produce unexpected results, which can make the research more original and valuable. However, it is difficult to analyze the results of the findings when the data is obtained through the questionnaire with open questions.

Multiple choice question s. Respondents are offered a set of answers they have to choose from. The downsize of questionnaire with multiple choice questions is that, if there are too many answers to choose from, it makes the questionnaire, confusing and boring, and discourages the respondent to answer the questionnaire.

Dichotomous Questions .  Thes type of questions gives two options to respondents – yes or no, to choose from. It is the easiest form of questionnaire for the respondent in terms of responding it.

Scaling Questions . Also referred to as ranking questions, they present an option for respondents to rank the available answers to questions on the scale of given range of values (for example from 1 to 10).

For a standard 15,000-20,000 word business dissertation including 25-40 questions in questionnaires will usually suffice. Questions need be formulated in an unambiguous and straightforward manner and they should be presented in a logical order.

Questionnaires as primary data collection method offer the following advantages:

• Uniformity: all respondents are asked exactly the same questions
• Cost-effectiveness
• Possibility to collect the primary data in shorter period of time
• Minimum or no bias from the researcher during the data collection process
• Usually enough time for respondents to think before answering questions, as opposed to interviews
• Possibility to reach respondents in distant areas through online questionnaire

At the same time, the use of questionnaires as primary data collection method is associated with the following shortcomings:

• Random answer choices by respondents without properly reading the question.
• In closed-ended questionnaires no possibility for respondents to express their additional thoughts about the matter due to the absence of a relevant question.
• Collecting incomplete or inaccurate information because respondents may not be able to understand questions correctly.
• High rate of non-response

Survey Monkey represents one of the most popular online platforms for facilitating data collection through questionnaires. Substantial benefits offered by Survey Monkey include its ease to use, presentation of questions in many different formats and advanced data analysis capabilities.

Survey Monkey as a popular platform for primary data collection

There are other alternatives to Survey Monkey you might want to consider to use as a platform for your survey. These include but not limited to Jotform, Google Forms, Lime Survey, Crowd Signal, Survey Gizmo, Zoho Survey and many others.

My  e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step approach  contains a detailed, yet simple explanation of quantitative methods. The e-book explains all stages of the research process starting from the selection of the research area to writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as research philosophy, research approach, research design, methods of data collection and data analysis are explained in simple words.

John Dudovskiy

Evaluating the Usability Using USE Questionnaire: Mindboard System Use Case

• Conference paper
• First Online: 21 June 2016
• Cite this conference paper

• Tulio Vitor Machado Faria 22 ,
• Matheus Pavanelli 22 &
• João Luiz Bernardes Jr. 22  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Computer Science ((LNISA,volume 9753))

Included in the following conference series:

• International Conference on Learning and Collaboration Technologies

8157 Accesses

6 Citations

Currently, children and young people have more access and contact with digital technologies and they are also more present in schools. The aim of this study is to validate a set of functionalities proposed and implemented in an educational system, evaluating its usability and how it can be improved. The web-based system, called Mindboard, aims to facilitate collaboration in class and beyond it. The experiment involved students during a brief summer course to evaluate its use regarding collaboration and usability. After the last class, students answered a USE questionnaire about the system’s usability. This usability analysis showed that the system has, overall, good ease of use. Furthermore, the questions about positive points showed some advantages that we did not expect at first and lead us to interesting future works.

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download conference paper PDF

Similar content being viewed by others

A Usability Study with Children on an Online Educational Platform

A Prototype Design and Usability Evaluation of a Chinese Educational System

QUEST e-learning portal: applying heuristic evaluation, usability testing and eye tracking

1 introduction.

Currently, children and young people have more access and contact with digital technologies. Government programs in many countries are also promoting the availability of mobile devices, computers and Internet access to students and teachers in public schools. Students are also bringing their own devices to classrooms more and more often, in a trend known as “Bring Your Own Device” (BYOD), notebooks, tablets and smartphones are more present and used in class, and are also used to study after class. These devices could enrich the learning experience no matter in which place or time it occurs and not being restricted to in-class periods [ 1 ]. According to the Horizon Report [ 2 ], worldwide education institutions are gaining increasing quality and availability of internet access in their dependencies. With all these facts, a large ecosystem to support the use of technologies during classes and after them is being formed.

In this scenario, the aim of this study is to validate a set of functionalities proposed in an collaborative educational system, designed and developed with the intention of facilitating collaboration in class and beyond it but this relies, of course, on teachers pedagogical use of the tool. We will focus, then, in evaluating the usability of the system and how these results could be used to improve future versions.

This web-based educational system, named Mindboard, had a prototype developed with the chosen set of features. These features include allowing teachers and students to collaborate with each other during classes and outside them. During classes, teachers can share slides and source-code (or other forms of textual content generated during the class) and answer student questions in real-time. On the other hand, students can receive all shared content, annotate it and choose whether to share their notes and with whom, ask questions, answer questions from other students or from the teacher and supply anonymous feedback to teachers about their understanding of the class at each moment. All this information is logged and accessible to students and teachers later. Figure  1 shows a screenshot of Mindboard during a class.

Mindboard screen during class. Teachers can display a presentation ( left ) and the class history is shown ( right ) allowing to every user to jump to a specific point of the class.

Figure  2 shows another Mindboard feature: the display of textual content in real-time. In this example, the content was a Javascript source code.

Mindboard screen during class sharing textual contents in real-time. In this case, we are presenting a source code in Javascript.

Out of the class, users can watch classes again as video lessons, enriched with meta-data created during the class, such as the annotations, questions and answers, all synchronized with the content. During a programming online class, for instance, the video may show a piece of code and a note in the system is highlighted. Student can also ask questions and takes notes during online and asynchronous video lessons. The system can also be used in distance-only learning with these features.

After prototype development, Mindboard was used in an experiment with students in a summer course to evaluate its use regarding collaboration and usability.

In the next section we will talk about Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning and usability questionnaires. In Sect.  3 we discuss our experiment and in Sect.  4 we analyze its results. Later on, in Sect.  5 we leave our considerations and examine possible future work.

2 Background: CSCL and Usability Questionnaires

This paper describes an experiment using a computer system called Mindboard. Since it is a collaborative system, we need to understand the context in which it is inserted. Later in this section we describe the usability questionnaires that we considered and the USE Questionnaire, which was selected for use during the experiment.

2.1 Computer Supported Collaborative Learning

Educational systems are computational tools that aid in one or more of the processes involved in teaching and learning activities [ 3 ]. Their uses could serve one or more activities, such learning management, simulation, tutoring, or as a mean of communication and information exchange. When an educational system is used collaboratively it can be named as Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL).

CSCL is a special case of Computer Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW). CSCW as a way to supply a possible demand of the work market as early as 1985. By that time, researchers already saw a new scenario emerging in which workers could do their jobs collaboratively and not necessarily in the same place [ 4 ].

Mindboard is considered a CSCL system since it allows users to identify their role, share information with each other and allowing the users to discuss with each other about the class subject.

2.2 Usability Questionnaires and the USE Questionnaire

Usability analysis can be performed in many different ways such as interviews, behavior analysis and through questionnaires. Because mostly of time considerations and ease of recordability and data extraction, we choose to use questionnaires to study Mindboard’s usability. There are many already validated and well known questionnaires that could be used for this task. Some of those we considered for this work are described below.

The Questionnaire for User Interaction and Satisfaction (QUIS) is a tool created by a multidisciplinary team in human-computer interaction in lab of the Maryland University [ 5 ]. It is relatively long and attempts to break down usability in several specific aspects. In this work we opted for using a tool less focused in such details to get an overview of the question.

The questionnaire Computer System Usability Questionnaire (CSUQ) was designed by Jim Lewis and is licensed as public domain. It is reliable but it lacks for a standard [ 6 ].

The questionnaire Usefulness, Satisfaction and Ease of Use (USE), designed by Arnie Lund, has as its goal to analyze and summarize graphical interface usability using a model composed of three factors: usefulness, satisfaction and ease of use [ 7 ]. We believe these factors are the most important for our application, which should be used voluntarily, picked up quickly with as little training as possible or none whatsoever and be used transparently to avoid being an obstacle during classes or study time. It also gives an overview of these factors without going into very specific details in its questions, instead opting for providing ample opportunity for participants to make qualitative comments, which was our goal in this particular instance. It is also licensed as public domain and was the questionnaire we chose to use.

The USE questionnaire uses 27 questions with the Likert scale, with users answering questions split in 3 groups: Usefulness, Satisfaction and Ease of Use. For each question there is also a field where the user can enter some comment about it. At the end of the questionnaire, the user is prompted to name 3 positive and 3 negative points found in the system. In Sect.  3.1 we describe how we use and get the answers during the experiment and in Sect.  4 we discuss the results.

3 Experiment Description

The experiment was approved by USP’s Ethics Committee with protocol number 39888114.0.0000.5390.

3.1 Setting up the Course

The experiment was conducted during a programming course in another institution named “MEAN Stack in Practice”, in which students were introduced to web programming using NodeJS. The course was promoted online only, using local Facebook Groups about Information Technology and using the personal Facebook profile and contacts of one of the authors. After registration, we had 16 enrolled students, which were divided in two groups, one using the Mindboard system with 9 students and a control group not using it with 7 (the difference in the size of both groups happened mostly due to student schedules and other decisions outside our control).

The course took only four days and each group had classes in separate weeks. We conducted 3 classes in-locus and 1 online, using video-screen-casting. The course presented four main topics: MongoDB, ExpressJS, AngularJS and NodeJS. The main objective of the course was to introduce students to web programming using these technologies, allowing them to apply these subjects even during the classes. The two groups were exposed to the same content but in the Mindboard group we sent and presented all the material and source code using Mindboard, while the control group sometimes received class material via email. Students could access class content at any time after it was presented. Course registration was completely open to the public and only a small fee was charged to cover the costs of a coffee break during classes.

3.2 Data Collection

During the experiment a lot of usage and behavioral data was collected. Figure  3 shows the laboratory setup and how we captured the course in audio and video for posterior analysis. The web-cam used was a Logitech C920 and we captured the video in a resolution of 720p. These video records were used to count collaborations between students and with the teacher. We also used a survey to ask how the students collaborated with each other out of the classroom and without using Mindboard in both groups and to get a general idea how frequent this collaboration was. In the group that used Mindboard we also logged usage data using the system. After the last day of course, we presented participants in the Mindboard group with the USE questionnaire to inquire about the system’s usability. Google Forms was used as the medium for all questionnaires and surveys.

Laboratory capture setup. The left image shows the lab arrangement during classes and on the right shows the position of the camera used to capture the experiment for posterior analysis.

The experiment occurred during the planned period as expected, but we had some problems with the collected usage data. The main problem that we encountered was the lack of a good amount of participants. We expected at first around 40 students split in two equal groups, but we had 16 (7 students in the first group and 9 in the second one). When we combine this fact with the short duration of the course, we ended up collecting a relatively small amount of usage data for Mindboard, compared to what we planned. Another fact that created a bias in our experiment was that, in this small universe of users, some groups of students already knew each other, what led to collaboration between them more naturally. Collaboration was an important metric in the analysis of Mindboard because it had been designed to aid mainly in this activity. Finally, collaborations were counted using the audio and video streams recorded during classes, but only during the analysis did we discover that the audio was unusable (the room was too large to be captured using only one microphone). Another problem we faced was related to the use of a single camera, which was occluded in certain moments. These factors led to our collaboration count having less quantitative importance than we expected at first and to a more careful analysis of the qualitative feedback supplied by students (and, of course, to the USE questionnaire to evaluate Mindboard’s usability).

With those caveats in mind, the number of interactions per student recorded in both Mindboard’s group and the control group was approximately the same. Qualitative analysis of these interactions, however, considering mostly student feedback and also, to a smaller degree, teacher feedback, suggests that in the control group, between 20 % and 30 % of interactions occurred because of difficulties in seeing the content being projected on a screen during classes, particularly when showing code, while in the Mindboard group there were no instances of this problem since students could and did follow content in their own devices. Thus the Mindboard group reported having more interactions of higher quality, collaborating and discussing about the content itself instead trying to decode it from what was projected. Another situation in which we detected a lot of interactions of little relevance in the control group was when the teacher alternated between source code files during class. In this kind of situation, one student or another always asked to go back to the last file, while others were already thinking about the new file, which caused unproductive interruptions during classes and appeared to have a negative impact on the stream of thought for both teacher and students. The feature that allows students to go back and forth in content and review it as they wish in their own device during classes helped many students in this sort of situation.

Students also reported that they suffered less with lack of attention using Mindboard to navigate within the content than in conventional classes. Finally, we had a couple students with moderate visual impairment who were quite thankful and excited about the system for facilitating their access to the content during classes (Mindboard has options to control parameters such as font size that help in this situation, but we confess we had not foreseen this advantage in accessibility before the experiment since it was not our primary focus).

Analyzing the USE Questionnaire data we discovered some interesting things. Regarding the system’s usefulness, Mindboard averaged 5.6 out of 7. Table  1 shows each question with its average score.

The mean score of 5.6 suggests that students considered the system with a good level of utility. The lowest score in this set of questions is about whether the system does everything that students expect it to do. We believe this occurred because many students would like to see more specific features in the system, such as, some way to integrate the real time text sharing with an Integrated Development Environment (which was specifically mentioned in the comment section of this question).

The set of questions about Ease of Use aims to measure the experience of the user with the system. Mindboard scored well in this aspect too, with a mean of 5.76 of 7. Table  2 shows each question and its average score. The question with the highest score was about whether the user could easily learn how to use it without instructions, with a score of 6.2.

In the set of questions related to user satisfaction, Mindboard also scored well, with an average of 5.7 out of 7. Table  3 shows each question’s score. The question with the highest score was about whether the user could easily remember how to use the system, with a score of 6.7. Considered along with the answers showing high learnability discussed above this shows that Mindboard is both easy to learn without instructions and easy to use without much effort once its learned. Because the system is designed for use in education, these aspect of high learnability and memorability are considered very important (even more than efficiency and more than they would be for production software) [ 8 ], both to encourage users to adopt the system and so that its use does not take attention away from the learning process.

Besides these scores and the comments for each question, the USE Questionnaire has one feature that was very useful for our analysis of Mindboard: it asks participants about the positive and negatives points of the system. It may look like a simple question, but the results of it were quite important for us in gathering qualitative feedback, explaining some of the scores and to collect suggestions to improve the system or for future features.

The positive points that were mentioned most often were related to ease of use and learning and having a friendly, intuitive and functional user interface. Many other comments mentioned the real-time content sharing as an important positive point as well as the integration with between annotations and video.

Negative points included complaints about the long time it took to load the system (because we only found out too late, already during the experiment, that we would only have internet access with rather low bandwidth). Other negative points mentioned were related to integration with other systems, such as Integrated Development Environments (IDE) and the lack of a real-time chat. After this experiment, we do have plans to perhaps include IDE support in future versions, even if it is an improvement very specific to a particular area of teaching. Regarding chat, however, we designed Mindboard with the intent of being used along with other learning management systems already adopted by institutions, not to replace them, and many of these systems already have support to several features that we consider very interesting but do not plan to replicate, such as real-time chat, discussion forums etc. During the experiment, however, we opted to use Mindboard on its own, which explains this lack of certain features many users commented on.

Based on the above, we consider these 3 groups of questions and, particularly, the comments after each question and the positive and negative points at the end of the questionnaire provided us with a very good opportunity to analyze our system’s usability and to help us find where we could improve it. Having the qualitative comments to rely upon meant that even though USE’s questions were not as numerous and specific as, for instance, those in QUIS, we could still find very specific positive and negative aspects of the system, but it was made less complex by the fact that we only had a relatively small sample size. If we had to analyze hundreds of questionnaires, it would likely be easier to dispense with so many comments, which are more difficult to treat than the numeric answer data, and instead have more and more specific questions.

5 Conclusion

Except for some problems we had with the small amount of usage data collected, the experiment could show us some interesting things about Mindboard’s utility and ease of use of Mindboard in and out of classes. The USE Questionnaire proved to be the right choice for our context as well, providing us with a lot of information about which aspects of the system we could improve and with the collections of positive and negative points so we can create a better version of Mindboard. The qualitative comments encouraged by USE were very important for us and our amount of participants, but we believe that they would be considerably more difficult to treat if we had a much larger sample, for instance in the hundreds.

As future work, we would like to conduct more experiments so we can capture more data. The main thing we would like to change is the size of the class. We plan on running the next experiment in two classes, each with 40 to 60 students, and for a longer period of time instead of only 4 classes (one of which was online only). We also plan to test the system with more teachers, not only more students. Finally, we will discard the idea of trying to record the sound of interactions and attempt to work with them only through a combination of video records and self-reporting. Regarding video, we intend to record it with multiple cameras (at least two) to reduce the problem of occlusion.

For the next versions of Mindboard we plan to add a new set of features, such as: integrate it with development environments (for programming classes) and allow users to annotate with drawings instead of only with text. We also plan to show examples of integration between Mindboard and other systems already used in education, such as Moodle [ 9 ].

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Acknowledgments

Authors would like to thank CAPES - Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education within the Ministry of Education of Brazil for financing the scholarship that supported this work.

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Machado Faria, T.V., Pavanelli, M., Bernardes, J.L. (2016). Evaluating the Usability Using USE Questionnaire: Mindboard System Use Case. In: Zaphiris, P., Ioannou, A. (eds) Learning and Collaboration Technologies. LCT 2016. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 9753. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-39483-1_47

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Business Defamation: Analyzing Case Studies

Business defamation, a serious threat to a company's reputation and financial stability, occurs when false and damaging statements are made about a business or its products/services, resulting in financial loss, reputational harm, and erosion of customer trust. Online review sites, lacking accountability and fact-checking, can amplify the damage. To prove damages and liability, establishing a clear causal link between the defamatory statement and the resulting harm is vital. By analyzing case studies, businesses can better understand the risks and consequences of defamation and develop effective strategies to mitigate reputation damage and protect their brand.

Table of Contents

Defining Business Defamation

Business defamation refers to the act of making false and damaging statements about a business or its products/services, which can lead to financial loss, reputational harm, and erosion of customer trust. These false statements can be disseminated through various channels, including online reviews, social media, and word of mouth. When such statements are made, they can cause significant reputation damage, leading to a decline in customer loyalty and retention. In addition, business defamation can also result in financial losses, as potential customers may be deterred from engaging with the business due to the negative perceptions created by the false statements. It is vital for businesses to be aware of the risks of defamation and take proactive measures to protect their reputation. This includes monitoring online reviews, responding promptly to negative feedback, and addressing any inaccuracies or misinformation that may be circulating about the business. By doing so, businesses can mitigate the risks of reputation damage and maintain a positive public image.

Case Study: Online Review Sites

Online review sites, such as Yelp and Google Reviews, have become a breeding ground for business defamation, as they provide a platform for individuals to share their opinions, often without fact-checking or accountability. These review platforms have become an essential tool for consumers to make informed decisions, but they also create an environment where false and damaging information can spread quickly.

The rating systems used by these platforms can be particularly damaging, as a single negative review can significantly impact a business's overall rating. This can lead to a loss of credibility and revenue, even if the negative review is unfounded.

Some key issues with online review sites include:

• Lack of accountability : Reviewers may post false or misleading information without consequence.
• Inability to verify reviews : It can be difficult to determine whether a review is genuine or fake.
• Rating system flaws : Algorithms used to calculate ratings may be biased or easily manipulated.

Proving Damages and Liability

Establishing a clear causal link between the defamatory statement and the resulting harm is essential in proving damages and liability in business defamation cases. This requires demonstrating that the defamatory statement directly caused financial losses or reputational damage to the business. To achieve this, businesses must present concrete evidence that establishes a direct correlation between the defamatory statement and the resulting harm.

Financial records play a pivotal role in proving damages, as they can provide objective evidence of financial losses. Businesses should maintain detailed records of their financial performance before and after the defamatory statement was made, highlighting any significant changes in revenue, profits, or customer engagement. Expert testimony from financial analysts or industry experts can also be invaluable in interpreting these records and establishing a clear causal link between the defamatory statement and the resulting financial harm.

In addition to financial records, expert testimony from reputation management specialists or marketing experts can provide valuable insights into the impact of the defamatory statement on the business's reputation and brand value. By presenting a robust and well-documented case, businesses can increase their chances of successfully proving damages and liability in business defamation cases.

Legal Remedies for Businesses

Once liability and damages have been proven, the next step is to explore the legal solutions available to businesses seeking restitution for defamatory statements. In this regard, legal solutions serve as a pivotal component of reputation management, enabling companies to restore their tarnished image and mitigate financial losses.

The following legal solutions are available to businesses:

• Injunctions : A court-ordered injunction can force the defendant to retract or remove the defamatory statement, thereby preventing further harm to the business's reputation.
• Monetary Damages : Businesses can seek compensatory damages to cover financial losses resulting from the defamatory statement, as well as punitive damages to punish the defendant for their actions.
• Declaratory Relief : A declaratory judgment can be sought to establish the falsity of the defamatory statement, thereby clearing the business's name and reputation.

Effective litigation strategies are essential in securing these legal solutions. By working with experienced legal counsel, businesses can navigate the complex legal landscape and develop a tailored approach to address their specific needs and circumstances.

Preventing Defamation Attacks

Businesses can proactively shield themselves from defamation attacks by implementing robust reputation management strategies that identify and address potential vulnerabilities. This involves conducting regular reputation monitoring to detect early warning signs of potential defamation threats. By staying vigilant, businesses can respond promptly to mitigate the damage and prevent escalation. A vital aspect of reputation management is crisis management, which enables businesses to develop contingency plans and respond effectively in the event of a defamation attack. This includes having a crisis communication plan in place, designating a spokesperson, and establishing a rapid response team. Additionally, businesses should foster a culture of transparency and accountability, encouraging open communication and addressing customer complaints promptly. By taking a proactive approach to reputation management, businesses can reduce their exposure to defamation attacks and minimize the risk of reputational damage. By prioritizing reputation monitoring and crisis management, businesses can safeguard their reputation and maintain a competitive edge in the market.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can employees be held liable for defamatory statements about the company?.

In general, employees can be held liable for defamatory statements about their company, particularly if they intentionally spread false information or engage in malicious workplace gossip, which can lead to reputational harm and financial losses.

Is Defamation a Criminal or Civil Offense in Business Cases?

In general, defamation is a civil offense, as it typically involves private disputes over reputation and damages. However, in certain jurisdictions, statutory provisions may impose criminal liability if criminal intent is proven, such as intentional and malicious publication of defamatory content.

Can Businesses Sue for Defamation in Small Claims Court?

In determining whether businesses can sue for defamation in small claims court, consideration must be given to court jurisdiction and litigation strategy, as small claims courts typically have limited jurisdiction and simplified procedures, affecting the viability of defamation claims.

Are All Negative Online Reviews Considered Defamatory?

Not all negative online reviews are considered defamatory. To qualify as defamation, a review must contain a false statement of fact, not opinion, and be made with actual malice, which can be challenging to prove, especially when dealing with online trolls and reviewer anonymity.

Can Businesses Use Defamation Lawsuits to Silence Critics?

While defamation lawsuits can be a legitimate response to false statements, some businesses misappropriate them to silence critics, potentially violating Free Speech principles and sparking accusations of Corporate Intimidation.

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Health Insurance Audit Causes DC to Close Practice

What happens when a health insurance provider questions your coding? For one rural doctor, it meant the worst possible outcome.

Posted in Case Studies on Monday, August 19, 2024

Whether it's taxes or insurance, no one likes to be audited—and that's especially true for chiropractors and other health care providers, who are susceptible to insurance audits by the government (such as for Medicaid or Medicare) or by private insurance companies. 

The health care industry has seen an increasing trend in the number of audits conducted nationwide—and they're not optional. Broadly, these audits serve two purposes. First, they aim to root out fraud, abuse, and waste in the health care system. In so doing, they also seek to aid practitioners in fostering proper medical billing and charting practices in compliance with applicable laws.

There are two general forms of health insurance audits:

• Pre-payment review - the provider’s claims for payment by the insurer are reviewed before any payment is issued
• Post-payment review - the provider's claims are reviewed after issuance of payment

Often, a provider will be subject to a pre-payment review because of a prior unfavorable post-payment review decision.

Audits are often initiated through official correspondence notifying the practitioner of the insurer's intent to review a portion of the practitioner’s records concerning their insured. The most common risk areas insurers look for when auditing are the lack of medical necessity or documented corroboration for care, coding errors, and the failure to abide by the insurer’s specific policies and guidelines.

If the provider is found to have acted inconsistent with insurer guidelines, the insurer will seek to recoup the payment issued for the care. Government-led audits, such as for Medicare, provide a myriad of appeal processes which can result in federal judicial review. Private insurers also have an appeal process, but this review is likely conducted by an insurance-affiliated panel after an employee or team for the insurer conducted the audit. In either case, the at-fault provider is exposed to significant financial exposure and professional risk.

Dr. Livia Worrel owns her own practice in a rural community with limited access to chiropractic care. She employs a part-time receptionist, but otherwise operates her practice completely independently. Because of her rural location, she is frequently sought out by patients and is approved by various regional and national insurers, who she bills for payment of the care she provided.

Even with this steady referral and approval, market factors prevent Dr. Worrel from having a strong clientele, and any significant disruption to her stream of patients, or the fees she recovers for her care, could have a disproportionate impact on her business.

Dr. Worrel Gets Audited  

More than half of Dr. Worrel’s patients are insured by a regional insurer. The regional insurer has strict charting, coding, and reporting guidelines. Agreeing to treat patients insured by the regional insurer means Dr. Worrel has agreed to abide by these policies. As her practice continued to grow, the detail and clarity of her chart notes and patient records began to decline.

In August 2023, when she submitted claims for health insurance repayment, the insurer challenged her reporting and charting. Eventually, she received an audit notice from the insurer who then sent two investigators to her rural practice, seeking copies of select patient records. Specifically, auditors sought records of about 50 insured patients, which represented 2,000 claim lines for an 18-month period in 2022-2023. Dr. Worrel did not contact an attorney and did not organize her records as requested.

When the audit team arrived at her practice, Dr. Worrel was flustered and did not provide complete records. Those she did provide were inconsistent with the insurer's guidelines. For example:

• Failed to document a diagnosis in her chart notes
• Did not clearly indicate whether treatment rendered was “active” or “maintenance"
• Codes were inconsistently reported or applied
• Engaged in “chart cloning,” or reused the same entries for multiple appointments and patients

In sum, the insurer concluded Dr. Worrel inappropriately billed the insurer for the treatment rendered to these select patients.

Dr. Worrel Faces a $55,000 Penalty

Taking the data found from the select patient records, the insurer concluded the records contained violations significant enough that an overpayment clawback of $55,000 was necessary for payments made on all claims made to the insurer.

In other words, according to the insurer, the deficiencies and discrepancies in the charting of select patients led to questions about the authenticity and accuracy of claims for all patients resulting in a post-payment review and repayment penalty of nearly the entire amount paid to Dr. Worrel for her treatment.

A Pre-Payment Review Structure is Implemented

Additionally, issues with Dr. Worrel’s compliance with the recordkeeping requirements caused the insurer to conduct a weekly pre-payment review of all claims for the fourth quarter. The insurer continued to apply their guidelines, and Dr. Worrel continued to struggle with compliance, resulting in a nearly 53 percent reduction between Dr. Worrel's claims for payment to the insurer, and the amount paid by the insurer.

Ramifications

Dr. Worrel only contacted an attorney after the audit findings were shared, and only to aid in an appeal of their findings. While she was within her rights to appeal, the severity of the initial penalty was likely too significant to overcome; once auditors reach their conclusions, there is little incentive for the insurer to compromise any amount they feel is rightly owed to them.

Dr. Worrel’s attorneys were able to negotiate and successfully challenge some of the audit findings and reduce the overpayment amount by about $15,000. But even then, as a solo practitioner in a rural community, the overpayment was insurmountable. Coupling the $40,000 penalty with continued reductions to her billing submissions, Dr. Worrel was forced to close her practice and file for bankruptcy.

What Can We Learn

Contact your malpractice insurance carrier.  Your malpractice policy may have coverage that can help with the burden of a health insurance audit. In NCMIC's case, it's called the Audit and Legal Defense Endorsement for Chiropractors and includes coverage for Wrongful Billing and Related Proceedings (including private health insurance company billing audits).

Responsiveness to audits. Frustrating as they are, health insurance audits against providers are a reality. More often than not, however, an insurance audit does not suggest or indicate you or your practice has engaged in improper behavior or are otherwise not following protocols. But how you respond is important and can have long-lasting effects. Accordingly, it is important to take the following from this real-life example:

• Pay attention to your audit notice.  Make sure you understand its scope, its date range, your due date, and what records are to be reviewed.
• Use your resources. If you operate a multi-provider or high-volume clinic, make sure you immediately notify your records and compliance department. If you are a sole practitioner, it is recommended you retain a healthcare attorney to advise and represent your interests in the audit. This allows you to focus on the care you provided and aids your response to the auditors.
• Be responsive and in compliance with what the audit seeks.  Partial records or answers will likely rouse suspicions and prolong your audit. If you cannot locate all the documents immediately, request an extension; partial answers are never recommended. Do not respond to your audit unless and until your production is complete and responsive.

Recordkeeping. Poor record-keeping and charting not only weaken your position, but can also have disastrous effects to your practice. Whether your practice is large or small, whether you are a solo practitioner or part of a clinic, as the practitioner you are responsible for your charting and recordkeeping. Make sure you are aware of all charting, coding, and reporting requirements for respective health insurers.

Take your time when writing and reviewing chart notes.  Avoid duplication and sloppy charting and reporting. Learn, understand, and correctly apply the billing codes, and avoid disorganization. Taking a few extra minutes to ensure your records are accurate and complete can save you a lot of headaches. The more organized and prepared you are throughout your practice, the more likely you are to respond positively to an audit (and avoid audits in the future!).

Plan for the future and minimize your risk. Once the audit is complete, and after you receive your audit report, you should thoroughly review and correct the issues found during the audit. Use the results of the audit as an educational tool for understanding proper practices and training both for you and your staff. Not only does this make you a more responsive and diligent practitioner, but it also minimizes your future risk.

Consider an attorney or auditing contractor. You may want to   invest resources in your documentation and billing compliance by retaining an attorney or auditing contractor to perform a periodic spot audit to ensure compliance with the obligations imposed by the insurer. This action may allow you to foresee future issues, plan ahead, fix mistakes before they compound, and reduce the risk of an overpayment and reimbursement determination.

Taking the time and investing in resources on the front end can help avoid exponentially more time, money, and resources on the back end trying to contain an audit and avoid a significant overpayment.

Additional Resources

Article: What to Do Immediately if Notified of an Insurance Audit

Joseph A. Pickels is an Attorney with Brisbee & Stockton, LLC in Hillsboro, Oregon. He focuses his practice on healthcare and professional liability defense and represents healthcare providers and employers before state and federal courts, administrative and licensing boards, and with OSHA and HIPAA compliance in Oregon and Washington.

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