compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning essay

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Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

How Classical Conditioning Differs from Operant Conditioning

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning.

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioral psychology. There are similarities between classical and operant conditioning. Both types of conditioning result in learning and both suggest that a subject can adapt to their environment.

However, the processes are also quite different. What are the main differences between classical vs. operant conditioning? To understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to understand how classical and operant conditioning differ from one another.

Let's take a look at some of the most basic differences.

First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist

Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors

Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex

First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist

Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior

Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors

Even if you are not a psychology student, you have probably at least heard about  Pavlov's dogs . In his famous experiment ,  Ivan Pavlov  noticed dogs began to salivate in response to a tone after the sound had repeatedly been paired with presenting food. Pavlov quickly realized that this was a learned response and set out to further investigate the conditioning process.

Classical conditioning is a process that involves creating an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previously neutral one. Sounds confusing, but let's break it down:

The classical conditioning process involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (the taste of food).

This unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response to the food, which is known as the unconditioned response . After associating the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the bell alone will start to evoke salivating as a response.

The sound of the bell is now known as the conditioned stimulus and salivating in response to the bell is known as the conditioned response .

A dog doesn't need to be trained to salivate when it sees food; this occurs naturally. The food is the naturally occurring stimulus. If you ring a bell every time you presented the dog with food, an association would be formed between the food and the bell. Eventually, the bell alone, a.k.a. the conditioned stimulus would come to evoke the salivation response.

Classical conditioning is much more than just a basic term used to describe a method of learning; it can also explain how many behaviors form that can impact your health. Consider how a bad habit might form. Even though you have been working out and eating healthy, nighttime overeating keeps tripping up your dieting efforts.

Thanks to classical conditioning, you might have developed the habit of heading to the kitchen for a snack every time a commercial comes on while you are watching your favorite television program.

While commercial breaks were once a neutral stimulus, repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (having a delicious snack) has turned the commercials into a conditioned stimulus. Now every time you see a commercial, you crave a sweet treat.

Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning ) focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease a behavior. Through this process, an association is formed between the behavior and the consequences of that behavior.

Imagine that a trainer is trying to teach a dog to fetch a ball. When the dog successfully chases and picks up the ball, the dog receives praise as a reward. When the animal fails to retrieve the ball, the trainer withholds the praise. Eventually, the dog forms an association between the behavior of fetching the ball and receiving the desired reward.

For example, imagine that a schoolteacher punishes a student for talking out of turn by not letting the student go outside for recess. As a result, the student forms an association between the behavior (talking out of turn) and the consequence (not being able to go outside for recess). As a result, the problematic behavior decreases.

A number of factors can influence how quickly a response is learned and the strength of the response. How often the response is reinforced, known as a schedule of reinforcement , can play an important role in how quickly the behavior is learned and how strong the response becomes. The type of reinforcer used can also have an impact on the response.

For example, while a variable-ratio schedule will result in a high and steady rate of response, a variable-interval schedule will lead to a slow and steady response rate.

In addition to being used to train people and animals to engage in new behaviors, operant conditioning can also be used to help people eliminate unwanted ones. Using a system of rewards and punishments, people can learn to overcome bad habits that might have a negative impact on their health such as smoking or overeating.

One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary.

The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence.

In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also, remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished.

For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior that can then be either rewarded or punished. Classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of already naturally occurring event.  

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Examples

Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers, and many others.

• Example of classical conditioning : In animal conditioning, a trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response that the taste of food would.
• Example of operant conditioning : In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of reward, such as a treat or extra playtime. In each of these instances, the goal of conditioning is to produce some sort of change in behavior.

A Word From Verywell

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both important learning concepts that originated in behavioral psychology. While these two types of conditioning share some similarities, it is important to understand some of the key differences in order to best determine which approach is best for certain learning situations.

Dunsmoor JE, Murphy GL. Categories, concepts, and conditioning: how humans generalize fear. Trends Cogn Sci (Regul Ed). 2015;19(2):73-7.  doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.12.003

Segers E, Beckers T, Geurts H, Claes L, Danckaerts M, Van der oord S. Working memory and reinforcement schedule jointly determine reinforcement learning in children: Potential implications for behavioral parent training. Front Psychol . 2018;9:394.  doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00394

Franzoi S. Psychology: A Discovery Experience. South-Western CENGAGE Learning. 2015.

Boutelle KN, Bouton ME. Implications of learning theory for developing programs to decrease overeating. Appetite . 2015;93:62-74.  doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.05.013

Silverman K, Jarvis BP, Jessel J, Lopez AA. Incentives and Motivation. Transl Issues Psychol Sci . 2016;2(2):97-100.  doi:10.1037/tps0000073

Hulac D, Benson N, et al. Using variable interval reinforcement schedules to support students in the classroom: An introduction with illustrative examples. Journal of Educational Research and Practice . 2016;6(1):90–96.

• McSweeney, FK & Murphy, ES. The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical Conditioning. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.
• Nevid, JS. Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; 2012.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Categories Behavior

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Both classical conditioning and operant are central to behaviorism , but students often get confused about the differences between the two. Classical and operant conditioning are both types of learning that involve learning by association. However, there are important differences between the two.

The main difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response. In contrast, operant conditioning involves reinforcing or punishing voluntary behaviors to either increase or decrease their frequency.

Table of Contents

Classical vs Operant Conditioning: Understanding the Differences

For many students, remembering what makes classical conditioning and operant conditioning different can be a real challenge. Fortunately, there are some handy tricks for remembering and identifying each type of conditioning process.

Classical conditioning:

• Involves involuntary behaviors that occur automatically
• Involves a neutral stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
• Involves placing a previously neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex

Operant conditioning:

• Involves voluntary behaviors
• Requires the use of reinforcement or punishment
• Involves placing a consequence after a behavior

What Is Classical Conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is formed between a naturally existing and neutral stimulus. Once an association has been formed, the neutral stimulus will come to evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus.

Sounds confusing, but let’s break it down:

• A dog will salivate when it sees food. The food is a naturally occurring stimulus that automatically triggers a response.
• Now imagine that you begin to wear a white coat every time you present the food to the dog.
• Eventually, the animal forms an association between the natural stimulus (the food) and the previously neutral stimulus (the white coat).
• Once this association has been established, the dog will begin to salivate when it sees the white coat, even in the absence of the food.

This process was discovered by a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov and has become a vital concept within the field of behavioral psychology. The classical conditioning process often occurs in the real world, and can also be used to purposefully alter behaviors and teach new behaviors.

How Does Classical Conditioning Work?

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist, but his most famous discovery had a significant effect on the field of psychology. If Pavlov’s name rings a bell, then you have probably heard of his famous experiments with dogs. Pavlov experimented on 40 dogs during the course of his experiments.

Pavlov was conducting experiments on the digestive systems of dogs when he noticed something interesting. Whenever a lab assistant would enter the room, the animals would begin to salivate.

Pavlov’s digestive experiments involved introducing both food and non-food items to the animals and then measuring the salivary response. Why were the animals salivating whenever they saw the lab assistant?

Pavlov quickly realized that salivating had actually become a learned response . The animals had grown to associate the sight of the assistant’s white lab coat with the presentation of food. Eventually, simply the sight of the assistant could trigger this response, even in the absence of food.

Pavlov’s discovery became known as classical conditioning. In this process, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus or something that naturally and automatically triggers a response. In Pavlov’s experiments, he paired the sound of a bell with the presentation of food.

After several pairings, an association is formed and the neutral stimulus will also trigger the response. At this point, the neutral stimulus is known as the conditioned stimulus and the response becomes known as the conditioned response . In Pavlov’s experiments, the sound of the bell eventually began to provoke the drooling response, even when no food was present.

The Influence of Classical Conditioning

The discovery of classical conditioning had an enormous impact on the school of thought known as behaviorism. Advocates of behaviorism included the psychologist John B. Watson, who utilized classical conditioning in an experiment to demonstrate how fear could be a conditioned response.

The behaviorist John B. Watson also utilized this process in his famous Little Albert experiment. In the experiment, a child known as Little Albert was exposed to a white lab rat. The child initially showed no fear of the animal, but Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner then paired the presentation of the rat with a loud clanging sound.

After several pairings, the child eventually began to cry whenever he saw the white rat. By associating the sight of a white rat with a loud, clanging sound, Watson was able to classically condition a young boy to fear the white rat. Little Albert’s fear even bled over to other white, furry objects including stuffed toys, Rayner’s white fur coat, and the sight of Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard.

What Is Operant Conditioning?

Another psychologist named B.F. Skinner realized that while classical conditioning was powerful, it could not account for all types of learning. He suggested that intentional behaviors and the consequences that follow were also important.

Skinner described a process known as operant conditioning in which actions followed by reinforcement become more likely to occur again. If a child cleans her room and her parents give her a treat as a reward, she will become more likely to clean her room in the future.

Actions immediately followed by punishment will make the behavior less likely to occur.  If you talk out of turn in class and the teacher reprimands you, chances are you will be less likely to speak out again without first raising your hand.

Operant conditioning is often used by parents, teachers, and behavioral therapists to help teach new behaviors and discourage undesirable ones.

A teacher, for example, might utilize praise and reward systems to encourage good classroom behavior, while also using punishments to minimize disruptive actions. Kids who behave appropriately might be awarded tokens, which they can then turn in to receive a reward. Those who disrupt class, on the other hand, might have to miss recess or some other desired activity.

Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment to create associations between behaviors and the consequences for those behaviors.

For example, imagine that a parent punishes a child for throwing a toy. Because of this punishment, the child forms an association between the action (throwing) and a result (getting punished). As a result of this consequence, the child becomes less likely to throw the toy again in the future. Once this association is learned, the problematic behavior decreases.

There are a few different factors that can influence how quickly and how strongly a response is learned.

• The salience of the consequence can play a role, as well as the timing and frequency of the consequence.
• The timing and frequency of consequences in operant conditioning are known as schedules of reinforcement .

Key Terms and Definitions

The following are a few of the key terms that you should know and understand related to classical conditioning and operant conditioning:

• Conditioned Response
• Conditioned Stimulus
• Discrimination
• Fixed-Interval Schedule
• Fixed Ratio Schedule
• Habituation
• Negative Punishment
• Negative Reinforcement
• Positive Punishment
• Positive Reinforcement
• Stimulus Generalization
• Unconditioned Response
• Unconditioned Stimulus
• Variable-Interval Schedule
• Variable-Ratio Schedule

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning: Study Questions

As you study classical conditioning and operant conditioning, be sure that you are able to answer the following questions.

• What effect do schedules of reinforcement have on acquiring a new behavior?
• What are reinforcement and punishment? How do they differ?
• What are positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?
• What are positive punishment and negative punishment?
• People often confuse punishment with negative reinforcement. How are they different?
• What are the differences between classical and operant conditioning?

Classical and operant conditioning can be powerful learning tools and have many real-world applications. Pavlov’s discovery may have occurred by accident, but it has influenced our understanding of how behaviors are learned.

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Similarities and Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Last updated 22 Mar 2021

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Classical and operant conditioning are both similar because they involve making association between behaviour and events in an organism’s environment and are governed by several general laws of association - for example, it is easier to associate stimuli that are similar to each other and that occur at similar times. However there are several important differences.

These include:

• In CC, the response is a reflex and involuntary. In OC, the response is voluntary behaviour.
• In CC, the stimulus is new to the animal. In OC, the behaviour is new to the animal.
• In CC, the reflex (response) follows the stimulus. In OC, the behaviour (response) precedes the reward or punishment (stimulus).
• In CC, association occurs whether the stimulus is pleasurable or aversive. In OC pleasurable reward leads to repetition while aversion leads to extinction.
• In CC, strength of conditioning is measured by speed or amount of response. In OC, strength is measured by rate of production of behaviour.

Strengths of the Behaviourist Approach

Behaviourism provides simple, easily testable predictions about behaviour. For example, the effect of reinforcement on behaviour can be easily quantified.

Treatments based on classical or operant conditioning have been effective in treating some disorders. For example, systematic desensitisation can be used to treat Phobias (Wolpe, 1958).

Behaviourism played a key role in making psychology more scientific. For example, most researchers now accept that laboratory experiments with measurable variables are the best form of research.

Limitations of the Behaviourist Approach

Behaviourism’s assumption of a general process of learning does not account for biological predispositions. For example, it is easier to learn phobias of some objects than others (Seligman, 1971).

Behaviourism's assumption that learning takes place through gradual S-R association cannot explain how animals can learn without reinforcement. Tolman & Honzik (1930) showed that rats could learn maps of mazes without operant conditioning.

Behaviourism finds it difficult to explain how humans construct new solutions to problems. For example, children can generate the plural forms of nouns they have never encountered before and could not have learned (Berko, 1958).

• Classical conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Behaviourist Approach
• Reinforcement
• Systematic Desensitisation

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Classical vs Operant Conditioning

Conditioning Learning is a process in psychology that is used to enforce new behavior in an organism. There are two major types of conditioning learning.

• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning

These forms of conditioning learning have both similarities and differences. Their main purpose is same, which is acquiring new behavior. But the process of how that is acquired is quite different.

Differences between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

Similarities.

Along with the differences there are also various similarities between these two forms of conditioning learning. The major similarity lies in its application. Both these conditioning learning techniques are used to teach a new behavior to an organism. Despite different techniques, the major goal remains the same.

Both of these techniques have certain limitations when applying it in real life. These techniques are also applied unknowingly. For instance, a teacher punishing a student is an example of operant conditioning. On the other hand, we call our pets with a certain signal before we treat them with food. The dog then associates the timing of food with the signal, which is an example of classical conditioning.

What are other people reading?

Behaviorism

Explaining behaviorism: operant & classical conditioning, simple and easy to digest explanations of behaviorism, take 1..

Posted February 28, 2014 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

There are many explanations that can be used to help people understand the Behaviorist Point of View. Some are very factual, others argue towards practical concerns, and still others are highly philosophical.

This is the first in a series of posts trying to show these styles of explanation in a compact and easy-to-digest form. Feedback is welcome. Because of a guest lecture that I must give soon, the first post will focus on outlining operant and classical conditioning . The order is not meant to imply that this should be the first thing you tell someone about behaviorism, nor to imply that it is the most convincing line of explanation.

How to Explain Behaviorism, version 1: Operant and Classical Conditioning

Operant and classical conditioning are two different ways in which organisms come to reflect the order of the environment around them. They are not perfect processes and they certainly cannot explain facet of human and non-human behavior.

That said, they are surprisingly reliable processes, and they can explain much, much , more about human and non-human behavior than anyone would have thought before extensive study of those processes began.

It is probably best to think about operant and classical conditioning as offering two different types of developmental stories. They are not stories about what a behavior is , now, but rather stories about how that behavior got to be that way.

Classical conditioning stories are about things happening around the animal, no matter what the animal does. Operant conditioning stories involve consequences of the animal's action, i.e., what happens when the animal operates upon the world as an active agent.

There is some debate about whether we need two types of stories. There are good reasons to go either way, including some recent genetic evidence that they can be disentangled. None of that really matters here; all that matters is that you understand the two types of stories and their consequences for future behavior.

Note below that "stimulus" can refer to any object, event, or situation that an organism could potentially respond to. Note also that "response" can be anything the organism does . For now, a "response" could be an overt action (such as jumping up and down), a covert action (such as tensing your leg without moving it), or even thinking or feeling, so long as we conceiving of those as active, rather than passive.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning stories involve an animal doing something that changes the world in a way that produces, crudely speaking, a good or a bad outcome. When an organism does something that is followed by a good outcome, that behavior will become more likely in the future. When an organism does something that is followed by a bad outcome, that behavior will become less likely in the future.

The action and outcome could coincide because of natural laws or social conventions, because someone purposely set it up that way, or it could be that the events followed due to random chance in this animal's life history.

For example, in pretty much any animal's experience, it is good to stop touching overly-hot objects (natural law); in some worlds telling a parent you love them results in good outcomes (social convention); and in some worlds tapping a baseball bat five times on the left corner of the mound is followed by a home run (random chance).

Operant conditioning stories require that the outcome be reinforcing or punitive to the particular animal in question. (There are ways to specify that so it does not involve circular reasoning, but we don't need to go that deep.)

For example, candy might reinforce one person, but not another; some might find a graphic kill-sequence in a violent video game punishing, while others find it reinforcing; etc.

Over time, the story goes, if a certain type of outcome consistently follows a particular behavior, this will affect the rate of future behaviors.

Example Traditional Story : A cat is put in a "puzzle box." It performs a wide range of behaviors because cats don't like to be in cages. Eventually one of its flailing limbs pulls a lever that opens the cage door. This happens many times, and each time the lever gets pulled a little bit quicker (there is no "aha!" moment).

Tradition vs. Necessity : Traditionally operant conditioning stories start with a relatively "random" behavior, but they could start with any behavior. Traditionally, the story then introduces an arbitrary consequence, but in real-life situations, we usually care about socially-mediated consequences. Traditionally it takes many cycles for the consequence to make big changes in the frequency of future behavior, but sometimes the changes can be quite quick and others it can take a very long time. In the traditional story, the consequence always follows the behavior, but there are many cool effects that we know about when it does not the consequence is intermittent (i.e., the "schedule of reinforcement"). Traditionally the consequence has to be immediately following the behavior, though there are some exceptions, you probably want to stick with the traditional version here.

Enhanced Traditional Story : Often operant conditioning stories are enhanced by adding a "discriminative stimuli," which indicates that a particular contingency (a particular connection between action and outcome) is in effect. For example, an experimenter working with rats might have a light that, when on, means that lever pressing will result in food. Similarly, a special education instructor might have a picture of a hat that, when held up, means that saying "hat" will result in an M&M.

Other Classical Conditioning Stuff : You can do amazing things with discriminative stimuli. You can train people to respond to very specific stimuli, or to very general "categories" of stimuli. For example, we can get pigeons to discriminate early Monet's paintings from Picasso's. Also, by drawing out the "schedule" of reinforcement, you can also train animals to respond for many, many times without getting reinforced. For example, we can get people to pull slot machine levers scores of times without a win.

After Conditioning : After the events of an Operant Conditioning story, a behavior either has an increased or decreased rate of occurrence. Often there is a big increase or decrease specifically when a particular stimulus is present. So, if you know the world that a person has lived in before, you know something about why they respond now in certain ways in the presence of certain objects, events, or situations.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning stories involve (at least) two things that coincide "out there" in an animal's world. Those things could coincide because they are causally related due to natural laws or social conventions, or it could be that the events occur at random in relation to each other and this animal just happens to be the animal that experiences them together.

For example, in pretty much any animal's world, lightning is followed by thunder (natural law); in some worlds hearing "say cheese" might be followed by a camera flash (social convention); and in some worlds eating lamb dinners could coincide with hearing bad news from loved ones (random chance).

Classical conditioning stories also require that the organism already have a developed response to one of the two events. For example, thunder could make you flinch, a bright flash could make you wince, and bad news from loved ones could make you cry.

Over time, the story goes, if two things are repeatedly paired together out there in the world, the organism will come to respond to one as they already respond to the other.

Example Traditional Story : When Mary was a child her father liked to take many pictures of her. He always said, "Say cheese!" before he took the picture, and he always used a flash. Every time the flash hit Mary, she winced slightly. Now, whenever she hears "Say cheese!" she winces.

Tradition vs. Necessity : Traditionally classical conditioning stories start with a response that seems unlearned (an Unconditioned Response to an Unconditioned Stimulus), but they could start with any response the animal already has. Traditionally the story then introduces something the animal has no existing response to (a Neutral Stimulus), but it usually still works for stimuli that already elicit some response. Traditionally the neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response associated with unconditioned stimulus after several pairings (thus becoming a Conditioned Stimulus), but sometimes only a single pairing is required, and sometimes neutral stimuli fail to convert to conditioned stimuli even after many, many pairings. Traditionally the stimuli have to be very close together in time, but sometimes you can create conditioned stimuli when the pairings are far apart.

In many cases, where the traditional story does not hold, there has been a lot of research into the exceptions, and we have a very good understanding of why such exceptions should exist. For example, after a single event, many animals will learn to avoid novel tastes that were associated with becoming sick quite a bit later. This makes a lot of evolutionary sense; poisoned food presents a big risk, and one does not normally experience the full effects until quite a bit after ingestion. On the other hand, when dealing with fairly arbitrary pairings of stimuli, as we get all the time in our modern world, the structure of the traditional story holds. For example, why should anyone ever have become excited by hearing a computerized voice say "You've got mail!"? Because of several pairings, that's why.

Other Classical Conditioning Stuff : You can do amazing things here with generalization and discrimination training, and there are many other interesting phenomena that scientists have discovered.

After Conditioning : After the events of a Classical Conditioning story, the presence of a conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response. So, if you know the world that a person has lived in before, you know something about why they respond to certain things in certain ways now.

A Bit of Light Theory

Philosophical behaviorism can be very deep. In this context, all I will say is that most behaviorists believe we can explain a great deal about human behavior using the types of stories above. That is, the preferred style to a run of the mill "Why did he do that?!" question will begin with "Well, in the past history of that person, doing that behavior resulted in...."

Because these explanations are all about the way the world around the person works, and the person's past history in that world, you don't need to include traditional "mental" explanations. That doesn't mean that traditional "mental" stuff doesn't exist, but it does suggest that we can explain an awful lot about human behavior before we would need to start talking about them.

Eric Charles, Ph.D., runs the research lab at CTRL, the Center for Teaching, Research, and Learning, at American University.

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Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning (Table)

Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are theories of learning. Each theory identifies how organisms learn and how that learning changes their behavior.

Classical conditioning says that organisms learn by association. Discerning associations between events that occur contiguously then produces changes in behavior. For example, a dog may realize that every time its owner opens a particular cabinet, food will be placed in its bowl. Understanding this connection leads to the animal getting excited every time the owner approaches the cabinet.

Operant conditioning says that the consequences that follow an action determine the likelihood of it occurring again. For example, a dog may realize that if it raises its paw when hearing its owner say “shake,” it will receive a small treat.

Both theories are in the school of behaviorism , which is focused on overt, observable behavior, as opposed to covert, internal mental processes.

Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning

During the early to mid-1900s, behaviorism was the predominant theoretical orientation in psychology. Classical and operant conditioning are the two key forms of conditioning within behaviorism.

Here is a table comparison of the two:

Classical Conditioning Overview

Classical conditioning is sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning , named after the Russian physiologist that first discovered this fundamental principle of learning.

Pavlov discovered classical conditioning when he was conducting research on the digestion system of animals. To do so, he attached a device to the inside of a dog’s mouth to collect the salivatory juices activated during the digestion process.

He would then present food to the dog and collect the juices to analyze their chemical properties. There was only one problem. After a while, his dogs would start to salivate before he presented the food.

One day it dawned on Pavlov that the dogs started to salivate when they heard the footsteps of his assistant who brought the food.

The dogs were learning by association: the sound of footsteps predicted food.

From there, Pavlov conducted various experiments and trained the dogs to salivate in response to the sound of a bell which he rang right before presenting the food.

And that was the beginning of one of the most insightful theories of learning in human history.

Key Terms in Classical Conditioning

There are 4 key terms to know when discussing classical conditioning.

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): This is the stimulus that naturally triggers a response. Food is a UCS because it naturally triggers a biological response such as salivation.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): This is the stimulus that is initially neutral in that it does not trigger a response. However, by being associated with the UCS, it begins to trigger the response as well.
• Unconditioned response (UCR): This is the response that is triggered by the UCS. There is no learning by association needed.
• Conditioned response (CR): This is the term for the response that is triggered by the UCS after it has been associated with the CS.

Classical Conditioning Examples

• Treating a Fear of Spiders: Phobias are often treated by conditioning the patient to have a relaxed response to the fear-provoking stimulus. In the case of a spider phobia, the therapist first presents a black and white photo of a small spider, and teaches the patient how to control their body’s reaction through deep-breathing exercises. Over subsequent weeks, this process is repeated with more realistic photos, a toy spider, and eventually a very real spider placed in the patient’s hands.
• A Dog’s Reaction to the Can Opener: Whenever anyone in the family uses the electric can opener, the family’s dog immediately comes running. This is because the dog has learned that the sound of the can opener sometimes predicts food being placed in their bowl.
• In School: Students have learned, quickly, that the sound of the afternoon bell means school is over. So, whenever that bell sounds, they jump from their seats, pack their bags, and run out the door like there’s no tomorrow.
• In the Treatment of Onychophagia (nail-biting) ) : Neem oil has a very bitter taste, so when it is mixed with finger-nail polish, a person will begin to feel ill whenever they bite their nails. This conditions the person to associate nail-biting with feeling sick.
• Encouraging Reading: The parents of three children make sure their kids all read for at 30 minutes a day at a specific time. While the kids are reading, the parents put lavender oil in a diffuser so the air is filled with a pleasant and relaxing fragrance. They do this so the kids will associate reading with a positive emotional state.

Operant Conditioning Overview

B. F. Skinner (1965) is the most recognized researcher of operant conditioning. Skinner spent decades identifying different reinforcement schedules that produced different patterns of behavior.

However, the basic principles of operant conditioning can be traced back further in history to the work of Edward Thorndike and the Law of Effect (1898; 1905).

The Law of Effect states that:

“Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation” (Gray, 2007, p. 106).

Thorndike’s Contribution to Operant Conditioning

Thorndike developed the Law of Effect based on his research on how cats escaped an apparatus he created called a “puzzle box.”

The puzzle box was designed so that the only way the cat could escape was if it pressed on a panel or pulled on a rope, which then opened the door.

Thorndike would place a cat in the box and then record how long it took for it to escape. In the early trials, the cat would act chaotically until it accidentally discovered how to escape.

But with each trial, it took a little less time for the cat to escape. Over time, a trend emerged.

The graph below depicts the results for cat #12 in box A, based on the data presented in Thorndike’s 1898 publication (p. 15). The graph shows that it took nearly 3 minutes for the cat to escape in the first trial.

However, by trial 13, the cat was escaping in less than 10 seconds. Thorndike conducted numerous studies similar to this one. They all revealed the same general trend.

From these experiments, the famous Law of Effect was derived and proceeded to have a tremendous impact on our understanding of human behavior.

Skinner’s Reinforcement Schedules in Operant Conditioning

Skinner created an apparatus called the Skinner Box to conduct extensive studies on reinforcement schedules and how they shaped behavioral patterns.

A Skinner Box contains a lever, a place where food pellets can be dispensed, a wire floor that can be electrified, and a light.

By manipulating how often a food pellet was delivered when the animal (often a rat) pressed on a lever, Skinner identified four main schedules of reinforcement: fixed ratio , variable ratio , fixed interval , and variable interval .

Different schedules of reinforcement result in different patterns of behavior (Ferster & Skinner, 1957).

1. Fixed Ratio Schedule

The fixed ratio (FR) delivers a reward based on a specific number of behaviors occurring. For example, an FR-10 schedule will deliver a reward after 10 instances of the target behavior ; regardless of the amount of time that elapses. Fixed ratio schedules produce quick acquisition of the target behavior, followed by a strong and steady pattern. However, when reinforcement stops, the target behavior stops quickly. This is called extinction .

Read More about Fixed Ratio Schedules Here

2. Variable Ratio Schedule

With the variable ratio (VR) schedule, number of target behaviors required in order for reinforcement to be delivered varies. For example, in a VR-10 schedule, the target behavior may be reinforced after 7 instances, then 11, then 8, then 15. The number of target behaviors required for reinforcement changes, but on average, it will be 10. This VR schedule produces quick acquisition, a high rate of behavior, and no post-reinforcement pause. After reinforcement is terminated, extinction is slow.

Read More about Variable Ratio Schedules Here

3. Fixed Interval Schedule

The fixed interval (FI) schedule delivers reinforcement based on the amount of time that has elapsed. For example, with an FI-7 min. schedule, reinforcement will be delivered for the first target behavior exhibited after seven minutes. The number of target behaviors that occur during the interval is irrelevant. How quickly acquisition and extinction occur depends on the interval length; the shorter the interval, the quicker the behavior will be acquired and the quicker it will be extinguished once reinforcement is terminated.

Read More about Fixed Interval Schedules Here

4. Variable Interval Schedule

The variable interval (VI) schedule is also based on time elapsed, but the interval varies. For instance, with an VI-10 min. schedule, the first interval may be 11 minutes, followed by 4, then 9, and then maybe 10. Although the specific interval changes after each reinforcement has been delivered, it will average 10 minutes. The VI schedule results in a steady rate of behavior, slow acquisition and slow extinction.

Operant Conditioning Examples

• The Bi-weekly Paycheck ( Fixed Interval ): Being paid every two weeks is predictable and can result in a post-reinforcement pause for a few days after cashing the paycheck.    
• Landing a Job Interview ( Variable Ratio ): After applying to 10 jobs, a person gets called in for a job interview. Then, they get called for an interview after just applying for three other jobs. Over an extended period of time, landing an interview almost seems completely random.
• Sales Commissions ( Fixed Ratio ): Most people in sales are paid on a commission. Sometimes the commission is paid after each and every sale, and sometimes it’s paid after meeting a quota.  
• The Yearly Bonus ( Fixed Interval ) : Many top executives are given an end of year bonus, usually based on their performance evaluations for that year.
• Pop Quizzes ( Variable Interval ) : The pop-quiz means that a teacher may give two or three quizzes one week, but then not give another one for two weeks. The amount of time between quizzes changes.

Classical and operant conditioning are theories of learning that explain how organisms such as human beings learn. By seeing the connections between events or experiencing consequences, we learn about eh environment in which we live.

We learn what predicts the occurrence of another event or stimulus, or we learn about which behaviors we engage will be rewarded or punished.

Classical conditioning explains how a person can develop a fear of certain objects, and how that fear can be treated. A therapist will teach a client how to relax whenever seeing that feared stimulus. Over a period of time, the client will no longer feel anxiety when seeing that stimulus.

Operant conditioning helps managers and teachers shape the behavior of their staff or students. By reinforcing certain behaviors at certain times, those behaviors will become stronger and more frequent.

Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement . New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Gray, P. (2007). Psychology (6 th ed.). Worth Publishers, NY.

Madden, G. J. (2012). APA Handbook of Behavior Analysis (APA Handbooks in Psychology) . New York: ABA.

Skinner, B. F. (1965). Science and human behavior . New York: Free Press.Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. The Psychological Review: Monograph Supplements , 2 (4), i.

Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology . New York: A. G. Seiler.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review , 20 (2), 158-177.

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Positive Punishment Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Dissociation Examples (Psychology)
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• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ Perception Checking: 15 Examples and Definition

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• Chris Drew (PhD) #molongui-disabled-link 25 Positive Punishment Examples
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Classical and operant conditioning are two core concepts in behavioral psychology, each playing a crucial role in understanding how humans and animals adapt to their environments. Despite some similarities, these forms of conditioning have distinct differences. Understanding these differences is key to utilizing them effectively in various settings, including education, parenting, and animal training.

Behavioral psychology has significantly advanced our understanding of learning and behavior. Central to this field are the concepts of classical and operant conditioning, each offering a unique perspective on how behavior is learned and modified. While they share the common goal of facilitating learning and adaptation, their approaches and mechanisms differ significantly. This article delves into these differences, providing definitions, explanations, and examples to illustrate their distinct roles in behavior modification.

Operant vs Classical conditioning

Ever wonder if our actions are more like an echo or a choice? This question opens the door to understanding operant and classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is like an echo – an automatic response to a familiar sound. It’s a natural reaction, not chosen but developed through repeated experiences, like jumping at the sound of thunder. Operant conditioning, however, is about choices, like navigating a maze. It’s learning through trial and error, guided by the rewards and consequences of our actions, akin to choosing a path based on the signs of success or warning.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, first described by Ivan Pavlov, focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors. It involves creating an association between a naturally occurring stimulus and a previously neutral one. In Pavlov’s famous experiment, dogs were conditioned to salivate in response to a bell, a neutral stimulus, after it was repeatedly paired with food, an unconditioned stimulus. This form of conditioning underlines how an involuntary response (salivation) can be elicited by a previously neutral stimulus (bell sound).

Examples of classical conditioning in everyday life

Classical conditioning occurs in everyday scenarios, often without our conscious awareness. For instance, if a person feels anxious every time they enter a doctor’s office due to past painful experiences, the doctor’s office (neutral stimulus) has become associated with discomfort (unconditioned stimulus), eliciting anxiety (conditioned response).

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, introduced by B. F. Skinner, is centered around voluntary behaviors and their consequences. It involves the use of reinforcement or punishment to either increase or decrease a behavior. Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning requires active participation from the learner. For example, a dog is rewarded for fetching a ball, thereby increasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

Examples of operant conditioning in everyday life 

Operant conditioning is widely used in educational settings, such as teachers rewarding students for good behavior to encourage its repetition. Similarly, parents might use time-outs (a form of punishment) to reduce undesirable behaviors in children.

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning

While both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning, they differ in key aspects:

• Nature of Behavior: Classical conditioning deals with involuntary responses (e.g., salivating), while operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors (e.g., fetching a ball).
• Role of the Learner: In classical conditioning, the learner is passive, responding to the association between stimuli. In contrast, operant conditioning requires active participation from the learner.
• Stimulus-Response Relationship: Classical conditioning links an involuntary response with a stimulus. Operant conditioning, however, associates a voluntary behavior with a consequence (reinforcement or punishment).

Final Thoughts

Understanding the nuances between classical and operant conditioning is essential for effectively applying these principles in various fields, from education to behavioral therapy. While they share similarities in their associative learning processes, their differences in addressing involuntary versus voluntary behaviors, the learner’s role, and the nature of stimulus-response relationships set them apart. This knowledge not only aids in practical applications but also enriches our understanding of the complex nature of learning and behavior modification.

What is an example of classical and operant conditioning?

An example of classical conditioning is Pavlov’s dogs, where dogs were conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, which initially had no relevance to salivation. This was achieved by repeatedly pairing the bell sound with the presentation of food. An example of operant conditioning is training a dog to sit. When the dog sits on command, it receives a treat (positive reinforcement), increasing the likelihood of the dog sitting on command in the future.

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning extinction?

Extinction in classical conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus (e.g., a bell in Pavlov’s experiment) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food), leading to a decrease in the conditioned response (e.g., salivation). In operant conditioning, extinction happens when a behavior (e.g., pressing a lever) is no longer reinforced (e.g., by removing a food reward), which gradually reduces the frequency of that behavior. Essentially, classical conditioning extinction is the breaking of an association between two stimuli, while operant conditioning extinction involves the ceasing of reinforcement or punishment.

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• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning is the type of learning in which the organism learns by way of modification in behaviour or pattern through reinforcement or punishment. Take a read of this article to get the understanding of the differences between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning.

Content: Classical Conditioning Vs Operant Conditioning

Comparison chart, definition of classical conditioning.

Classical Conditioning or say respondent conditioning is a learning technique in which the experimenter learns the relation between two stimuli, that precedes the natural response. It indicates that the occurrence of one stimulus signals the possible occurrence of another.

Classical conditioning was coined by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, who was a Russian Physiologist. It assumes that an organism learns something, through his/her interaction with the environment, that tends to mould the behaviour and the state of mind. The components of classical conditioning are:

• US or Unconditioned Stimulus : The stimulus that causes the organism to react unconditionally or naturally.
• UR or Unconditioned Response : Occurs naturally when the unconditioned stimulus is offered or displayed.
• CS or Conditioned Stimulus : The stimulus that causes one to react to something as it is associated with something else.
• CR or Conditioned Response : It is a learned response, to a neutral stimulus.

Classical conditioning is based on certain factors which are:

• Time relations between stimuli.
• Type of unconditioned stimuli, i.e. aversive or appetitive.
• Intensity of conditioned stimuli.

Definition of Operant Conditioning

Operant refers to the controlled, voluntary response or behaviour of the living organism. Learning through operant is called operant conditioning. Here, the response of an individual relies on the consequence that occurs subsequently. In other words, it is a simple process of learning in which the likelihood of response is increased by manipulating the outcome. It is commonly used the theory of workforce motivation.

Otherwise called as instrumental conditioning, it was propounded in the year 1938 by B.F. Skinner, (an American Psychologist). It posits that the frequency of the response increases, if it has a favourable consequence, whereas the frequency will decrease if it has an undesirable consequence. In this, the experimenter learns to understand the behaviour of the organism and effects of such behaviour.

The determinants of operant conditioning are as under:

• Reinforcer, i.e. the consequence
• Nature of response or behaviour
• Time interval between the occurrence of response and reinforcement.

Key Differences Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

The differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning are explained in the points hereunder:

• Classical Conditioning is a type of learning, that generalizes association between two stimuli, i.e. one signifies the occurrence of another. Conversely, Operant Conditioning states that living organisms learn to behave in a particular manner, due to the consequences that followed their past behaviour.
• In classical conditioning, the conditioning process in which the experimenter, learns to associate two stimuli, on the basis of involuntary responses that occurs before it. As against, In operant conditioning, the behaviour of the organism will be modified as per the consequences that arise afterwards.
• Classical conditioning relies on involuntary or reflexive behaviour, in essence, physiological and emotional responses of the organism such as thoughts, emotions and feelings. On the other extreme, operant conditioning is one that is based on voluntary behaviour, i.e. active responses of the organism.
• In classical conditioning, the responses of the organism, are under the control of the stimulus, whereas in operant conditioning, the responses are controlled by the organism.
• Classical Conditioning, defines the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus, but, operant conditioning, does not defines conditioned stimulus, i.e. it can only be generalised.
• When it comes to the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus, it is controlled by the experimenter, and so the organism plays a passive role. Contrary to this, the occurrence of the reinforcer is under the control of organism and thus, the organism acts actively.

To sum up, classical conditioning is one in which you associate two stimuli, but there is no involvement of behaviour. On the contrary, operant conditioning is a type of conditioning in which the behaviour is learned, maintained or modified, as per the consequences, it produces.

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February 26, 2022 at 12:01 pm

perfectly explained ever

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I love the explanation. Thanks

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Essay On Compare And Contrast Classical And Operant Conditioning Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Psychology , Pets , Dog , Sound , Operant Conditioning , Behavior , Training , Food

Published: 01/30/2020

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Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two concepts of learning that are integral to behavioral psychology. Although the processes differ to quite an extent, they tend to complement one another, and the ultimate result of both concepts is learning. Although both conditioning practices were pioneered by different individuals, both believed in the general principle that investigating behaviors through experiments should be the basis of psychology. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, was the one who unintentionally discovered the concept of classical conditioning while carrying out research on canine digestive patterns. According to his findings, His findings supported the idea that we may develop unnatural responses to some stimuli (Pavlov, 1927). B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist coined the term operant conditioning based on his belief that examining at the causes and consequences of an action reveal a lot about behavior (Skinner, 1953). Thus, in classical conditioning a neutral stimuli is placed before a reflex and it focuses on automatic, involuntary behaviors, while in operant conditioning punishment or reinforcement is applied after a behavior and it focuses on voluntary behaviors.

How Does Classical Conditioning Work?

In Pavlov’s famous experiment, Pavlov observed that repeatedly pairing the sound of bell while presenting his dogs with food caused them to salivate (Pavlov, 1927). In classical conditioning, a stimulus in the learning process that was previously neutral is paired with a stimulus that is unconditioned. The unconditioned stimulus triggers a natural response, for instance, the dog had always salivated whenever the food was presented to them. However, when the neutral and unconditioned response is paired, it triggers an unnatural response; for instance, eventually the dogs began salivating merely to the sound of the bell.

How Does Operant Conditioning Work?

In operant conditioning a behavior is encouraged or discouraged by using either punishment or reinforcement. This process ends up establishing a bond between the behavior and its consequences. For instance, a trainer who is trying to teach a dog how to fetch a ball praises the dog as a reward whenever it successfully chases and brings back the ball. The trainer does not praise the dog whenever it is unsuccessful in bringing back the ball. Ultimately, the dog understands that the praise it is receiving is somehow associated with its behavior of fetching the ball successfully.

How Are Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning Different From Each Other?

Whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary is the major aspect that distinguishes classical and operant conditioning from each other. According to classical conditioning, we tend to pair certain stimuli (Pavlov, 1927), for instance, a song to a person or a situation, and listening to the song may trigger unintentional response, in the form of perhaps happiness or sadness, merely based on the person or situation it was associated with. According to operant conditioning, we learn from our consequences in our everyday life and they shape our voluntary behavior (Skinner, 1953). For instance, we often make mistakes in life, but we usually do not voluntarily make the same mistake again because of the consequence that had occurred as a result of that mistake. These days, classical and operant conditioning are employed for numerous purposes, such as animal training, parenting, psychology, teaching, etc. While training an animal, a trainer may make use of classical conditioning by pairing the taste of food with the sound of a clicker, almost like Pavlov did. Eventually, the dog will began responding to the clicker just as it would to the taste of food. In a classroom, a teacher may use operant conditioning reward students that behave well by giving them tokens. Students will learn that they can earn behavior by behaving properly and will be encouraged to do so. A recent breakthrough in classical conditioning include that animals, especially invertebrates such as fish, use classical conditioning for reproduction and survival ("Psychologist Karen Hollis"). A major breakthrough in operant conditioning is the discovery that affective disorders, such as borderline personality disorder and reactive attachment disorder, can be treated using operant conditioning (Othmer, 2002). Despite their differences, both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are psychological theories that are often used in behavioral therapy. In both theories, the focus is to learn associations to behaviors, whether involuntary or voluntary. Certain stimuli in the environment always control the responses. Reinforcement of both types of conditioning is necessary because neither is capable of lasting forever. Both classical and operant conditioning allows new behaviors to be built on ones that are previously established.

Othmer, S. (2002, Feb). On the use of EEG operant conditioning as a treatment for affective disorders, including reactive attachment disorder and borderline personality disorder. Retrieved from http://www.eeginfo.com/research/articles/general_12.htm Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. Mineola, New York: Courier Dover Publications. Psychologist Karen Hollis "goes fishing" and nets a research breakthrough. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mtholyoke.edu/offices/comm/csj/970221/hollis.html Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York, NY: Free Press.

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Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Operant Conditioning — The Connection Between Classical And Operant Conditioning

The Connection Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

• Categories: Operant Conditioning

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Published: Jun 9, 2021

Words: 899 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

• Last Updated November 30th, 2018 07:12 pm. (n.d.). Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner). Retrieved from https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/operant-conditioning/.
• Mcleod, S. (2018, August 21). Classical Conditioning. Retrieved from https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html.
• Bouton, M. E. (2019). Conditioning and learning. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology. Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. Retrieved from http://noba.to/ajxhcqdr
• King, L.A. (2016). The Science of Psychology: An Appreciative View. McGraw-Hill Education.

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