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• Guide to Experimental Design | Overview, Steps, & Examples

Guide to Experimental Design | Overview, 5 steps & Examples

Published on December 3, 2019 by Rebecca Bevans . Revised on June 21, 2023.

Experiments are used to study causal relationships . You manipulate one or more independent variables and measure their effect on one or more dependent variables.

Experimental design create a set of procedures to systematically test a hypothesis . A good experimental design requires a strong understanding of the system you are studying.

There are five key steps in designing an experiment:

• Consider your variables and how they are related
• Write a specific, testable hypothesis
• Design experimental treatments to manipulate your independent variable
• Assign subjects to groups, either between-subjects or within-subjects
• Plan how you will measure your dependent variable

For valid conclusions, you also need to select a representative sample and control any  extraneous variables that might influence your results. If random assignment of participants to control and treatment groups is impossible, unethical, or highly difficult, consider an observational study instead. This minimizes several types of research bias, particularly sampling bias , survivorship bias , and attrition bias as time passes.

Table of contents

Step 1: define your variables, step 2: write your hypothesis, step 3: design your experimental treatments, step 4: assign your subjects to treatment groups, step 5: measure your dependent variable, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about experiments.

You should begin with a specific research question . We will work with two research question examples, one from health sciences and one from ecology:

To translate your research question into an experimental hypothesis, you need to define the main variables and make predictions about how they are related.

Start by simply listing the independent and dependent variables .

Then you need to think about possible extraneous and confounding variables and consider how you might control  them in your experiment.

Finally, you can put these variables together into a diagram. Use arrows to show the possible relationships between variables and include signs to show the expected direction of the relationships.

Here we predict that increasing temperature will increase soil respiration and decrease soil moisture, while decreasing soil moisture will lead to decreased soil respiration.

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Now that you have a strong conceptual understanding of the system you are studying, you should be able to write a specific, testable hypothesis that addresses your research question.

The next steps will describe how to design a controlled experiment . In a controlled experiment, you must be able to:

• Systematically and precisely manipulate the independent variable(s).
• Precisely measure the dependent variable(s).
• Control any potential confounding variables.

If your study system doesn’t match these criteria, there are other types of research you can use to answer your research question.

How you manipulate the independent variable can affect the experiment’s external validity – that is, the extent to which the results can be generalized and applied to the broader world.

First, you may need to decide how widely to vary your independent variable.

• just slightly above the natural range for your study region.
• over a wider range of temperatures to mimic future warming.
• over an extreme range that is beyond any possible natural variation.

Second, you may need to choose how finely to vary your independent variable. Sometimes this choice is made for you by your experimental system, but often you will need to decide, and this will affect how much you can infer from your results.

• a categorical variable : either as binary (yes/no) or as levels of a factor (no phone use, low phone use, high phone use).
• a continuous variable (minutes of phone use measured every night).

How you apply your experimental treatments to your test subjects is crucial for obtaining valid and reliable results.

First, you need to consider the study size : how many individuals will be included in the experiment? In general, the more subjects you include, the greater your experiment’s statistical power , which determines how much confidence you can have in your results.

Then you need to randomly assign your subjects to treatment groups . Each group receives a different level of the treatment (e.g. no phone use, low phone use, high phone use).

You should also include a control group , which receives no treatment. The control group tells us what would have happened to your test subjects without any experimental intervention.

When assigning your subjects to groups, there are two main choices you need to make:

• A completely randomized design vs a randomized block design .
• A between-subjects design vs a within-subjects design .

Randomization

An experiment can be completely randomized or randomized within blocks (aka strata):

• In a completely randomized design , every subject is assigned to a treatment group at random.
• In a randomized block design (aka stratified random design), subjects are first grouped according to a characteristic they share, and then randomly assigned to treatments within those groups.

Sometimes randomization isn’t practical or ethical , so researchers create partially-random or even non-random designs. An experimental design where treatments aren’t randomly assigned is called a quasi-experimental design .

Between-subjects vs. within-subjects

In a between-subjects design (also known as an independent measures design or classic ANOVA design), individuals receive only one of the possible levels of an experimental treatment.

In medical or social research, you might also use matched pairs within your between-subjects design to make sure that each treatment group contains the same variety of test subjects in the same proportions.

In a within-subjects design (also known as a repeated measures design), every individual receives each of the experimental treatments consecutively, and their responses to each treatment are measured.

Within-subjects or repeated measures can also refer to an experimental design where an effect emerges over time, and individual responses are measured over time in order to measure this effect as it emerges.

Counterbalancing (randomizing or reversing the order of treatments among subjects) is often used in within-subjects designs to ensure that the order of treatment application doesn’t influence the results of the experiment.

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Finally, you need to decide how you’ll collect data on your dependent variable outcomes. You should aim for reliable and valid measurements that minimize research bias or error.

Some variables, like temperature, can be objectively measured with scientific instruments. Others may need to be operationalized to turn them into measurable observations.

• Ask participants to record what time they go to sleep and get up each day.
• Ask participants to wear a sleep tracker.

How precisely you measure your dependent variable also affects the kinds of statistical analysis you can use on your data.

Experiments are always context-dependent, and a good experimental design will take into account all of the unique considerations of your study system to produce information that is both valid and relevant to your research question.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Likert scale

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Framing effect
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic

Experimental design means planning a set of procedures to investigate a relationship between variables . To design a controlled experiment, you need:

• A testable hypothesis
• At least one independent variable that can be precisely manipulated
• At least one dependent variable that can be precisely measured

When designing the experiment, you decide:

• How you will manipulate the variable(s)
• How you will control for any potential confounding variables
• How many subjects or samples will be included in the study
• How subjects will be assigned to treatment levels

Experimental design is essential to the internal and external validity of your experiment.

The key difference between observational studies and experimental designs is that a well-done observational study does not influence the responses of participants, while experiments do have some sort of treatment condition applied to at least some participants by random assignment .

A confounding variable , also called a confounder or confounding factor, is a third variable in a study examining a potential cause-and-effect relationship.

A confounding variable is related to both the supposed cause and the supposed effect of the study. It can be difficult to separate the true effect of the independent variable from the effect of the confounding variable.

In your research design , it’s important to identify potential confounding variables and plan how you will reduce their impact.

In a between-subjects design , every participant experiences only one condition, and researchers assess group differences between participants in various conditions.

In a within-subjects design , each participant experiences all conditions, and researchers test the same participants repeatedly for differences between conditions.

The word “between” means that you’re comparing different conditions between groups, while the word “within” means you’re comparing different conditions within the same group.

An experimental group, also known as a treatment group, receives the treatment whose effect researchers wish to study, whereas a control group does not. They should be identical in all other ways.

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19+ Experimental Design Examples (Methods + Types)

Ever wondered how scientists discover new medicines, psychologists learn about behavior, or even how marketers figure out what kind of ads you like? Well, they all have something in common: they use a special plan or recipe called an "experimental design."

Imagine you're baking cookies. You can't just throw random amounts of flour, sugar, and chocolate chips into a bowl and hope for the best. You follow a recipe, right? Scientists and researchers do something similar. They follow a "recipe" called an experimental design to make sure their experiments are set up in a way that the answers they find are meaningful and reliable.

Experimental design is the roadmap researchers use to answer questions. It's a set of rules and steps that researchers follow to collect information, or "data," in a way that is fair, accurate, and makes sense.

Long ago, people didn't have detailed game plans for experiments. They often just tried things out and saw what happened. But over time, people got smarter about this. They started creating structured plans—what we now call experimental designs—to get clearer, more trustworthy answers to their questions.

In this article, we'll take you on a journey through the world of experimental designs. We'll talk about the different types, or "flavors," of experimental designs, where they're used, and even give you a peek into how they came to be.

What Is Experimental Design?

Alright, before we dive into the different types of experimental designs, let's get crystal clear on what experimental design actually is.

Imagine you're a detective trying to solve a mystery. You need clues, right? Well, in the world of research, experimental design is like the roadmap that helps you find those clues. It's like the game plan in sports or the blueprint when you're building a house. Just like you wouldn't start building without a good blueprint, researchers won't start their studies without a strong experimental design.

So, why do we need experimental design? Think about baking a cake. If you toss ingredients into a bowl without measuring, you'll end up with a mess instead of a tasty dessert.

Similarly, in research, if you don't have a solid plan, you might get confusing or incorrect results. A good experimental design helps you ask the right questions ( think critically ), decide what to measure ( come up with an idea ), and figure out how to measure it (test it). It also helps you consider things that might mess up your results, like outside influences you hadn't thought of.

For example, let's say you want to find out if listening to music helps people focus better. Your experimental design would help you decide things like: Who are you going to test? What kind of music will you use? How will you measure focus? And, importantly, how will you make sure that it's really the music affecting focus and not something else, like the time of day or whether someone had a good breakfast?

In short, experimental design is the master plan that guides researchers through the process of collecting data, so they can answer questions in the most reliable way possible. It's like the GPS for the journey of discovery!

History of Experimental Design

Around 350 BCE, people like Aristotle were trying to figure out how the world works, but they mostly just thought really hard about things. They didn't test their ideas much. So while they were super smart, their methods weren't always the best for finding out the truth.

Fast forward to the Renaissance (14th to 17th centuries), a time of big changes and lots of curiosity. People like Galileo started to experiment by actually doing tests, like rolling balls down inclined planes to study motion. Galileo's work was cool because he combined thinking with doing. He'd have an idea, test it, look at the results, and then think some more. This approach was a lot more reliable than just sitting around and thinking.

Now, let's zoom ahead to the 18th and 19th centuries. This is when people like Francis Galton, an English polymath, started to get really systematic about experimentation. Galton was obsessed with measuring things. Seriously, he even tried to measure how good-looking people were ! His work helped create the foundations for a more organized approach to experiments.

Next stop: the early 20th century. Enter Ronald A. Fisher , a brilliant British statistician. Fisher was a game-changer. He came up with ideas that are like the bread and butter of modern experimental design.

Fisher invented the concept of the " control group "—that's a group of people or things that don't get the treatment you're testing, so you can compare them to those who do. He also stressed the importance of " randomization ," which means assigning people or things to different groups by chance, like drawing names out of a hat. This makes sure the experiment is fair and the results are trustworthy.

Around the same time, American psychologists like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner were developing " behaviorism ." They focused on studying things that they could directly observe and measure, like actions and reactions.

Skinner even built boxes—called Skinner Boxes —to test how animals like pigeons and rats learn. Their work helped shape how psychologists design experiments today. Watson performed a very controversial experiment called The Little Albert experiment that helped describe behaviour through conditioning—in other words, how people learn to behave the way they do.

In the later part of the 20th century and into our time, computers have totally shaken things up. Researchers now use super powerful software to help design their experiments and crunch the numbers.

With computers, they can simulate complex experiments before they even start, which helps them predict what might happen. This is especially helpful in fields like medicine, where getting things right can be a matter of life and death.

Also, did you know that experimental designs aren't just for scientists in labs? They're used by people in all sorts of jobs, like marketing, education, and even video game design! Yes, someone probably ran an experiment to figure out what makes a game super fun to play.

So there you have it—a quick tour through the history of experimental design, from Aristotle's deep thoughts to Fisher's groundbreaking ideas, and all the way to today's computer-powered research. These designs are the recipes that help people from all walks of life find answers to their big questions.

Key Terms in Experimental Design

Before we dig into the different types of experimental designs, let's get comfy with some key terms. Understanding these terms will make it easier for us to explore the various types of experimental designs that researchers use to answer their big questions.

Independent Variable : This is what you change or control in your experiment to see what effect it has. Think of it as the "cause" in a cause-and-effect relationship. For example, if you're studying whether different types of music help people focus, the kind of music is the independent variable.

Dependent Variable : This is what you're measuring to see the effect of your independent variable. In our music and focus experiment, how well people focus is the dependent variable—it's what "depends" on the kind of music played.

Control Group : This is a group of people who don't get the special treatment or change you're testing. They help you see what happens when the independent variable is not applied. If you're testing whether a new medicine works, the control group would take a fake pill, called a placebo , instead of the real medicine.

Experimental Group : This is the group that gets the special treatment or change you're interested in. Going back to our medicine example, this group would get the actual medicine to see if it has any effect.

Randomization : This is like shaking things up in a fair way. You randomly put people into the control or experimental group so that each group is a good mix of different kinds of people. This helps make the results more reliable.

Sample : This is the group of people you're studying. They're a "sample" of a larger group that you're interested in. For instance, if you want to know how teenagers feel about a new video game, you might study a sample of 100 teenagers.

Bias : This is anything that might tilt your experiment one way or another without you realizing it. Like if you're testing a new kind of dog food and you only test it on poodles, that could create a bias because maybe poodles just really like that food and other breeds don't.

Data : This is the information you collect during the experiment. It's like the treasure you find on your journey of discovery!

Replication : This means doing the experiment more than once to make sure your findings hold up. It's like double-checking your answers on a test.

Hypothesis : This is your educated guess about what will happen in the experiment. It's like predicting the end of a movie based on the first half.

Steps of Experimental Design

Alright, let's say you're all fired up and ready to run your own experiment. Cool! But where do you start? Well, designing an experiment is a bit like planning a road trip. There are some key steps you've got to take to make sure you reach your destination. Let's break it down:

• Ask a Question : Before you hit the road, you've got to know where you're going. Same with experiments. You start with a question you want to answer, like "Does eating breakfast really make you do better in school?"
• Do Some Homework : Before you pack your bags, you look up the best places to visit, right? In science, this means reading up on what other people have already discovered about your topic.
• Form a Hypothesis : This is your educated guess about what you think will happen. It's like saying, "I bet this route will get us there faster."
• Plan the Details : Now you decide what kind of car you're driving (your experimental design), who's coming with you (your sample), and what snacks to bring (your variables).
• Randomization : Remember, this is like shuffling a deck of cards. You want to mix up who goes into your control and experimental groups to make sure it's a fair test.
• Run the Experiment : Finally, the rubber hits the road! You carry out your plan, making sure to collect your data carefully.
• Analyze the Data : Once the trip's over, you look at your photos and decide which ones are keepers. In science, this means looking at your data to see what it tells you.
• Draw Conclusions : Based on your data, did you find an answer to your question? This is like saying, "Yep, that route was faster," or "Nope, we hit a ton of traffic."
• Share Your Findings : After a great trip, you want to tell everyone about it, right? Scientists do the same by publishing their results so others can learn from them.
• Do It Again? : Sometimes one road trip just isn't enough. In the same way, scientists often repeat their experiments to make sure their findings are solid.

So there you have it! Those are the basic steps you need to follow when you're designing an experiment. Each step helps make sure that you're setting up a fair and reliable way to find answers to your big questions.

Let's get into examples of experimental designs.

1) True Experimental Design

In the world of experiments, the True Experimental Design is like the superstar quarterback everyone talks about. Born out of the early 20th-century work of statisticians like Ronald A. Fisher, this design is all about control, precision, and reliability.

Researchers carefully pick an independent variable to manipulate (remember, that's the thing they're changing on purpose) and measure the dependent variable (the effect they're studying). Then comes the magic trick—randomization. By randomly putting participants into either the control or experimental group, scientists make sure their experiment is as fair as possible.

No sneaky biases here!

True Experimental Design Pros

The pros of True Experimental Design are like the perks of a VIP ticket at a concert: you get the best and most trustworthy results. Because everything is controlled and randomized, you can feel pretty confident that the results aren't just a fluke.

True Experimental Design Cons

However, there's a catch. Sometimes, it's really tough to set up these experiments in a real-world situation. Imagine trying to control every single detail of your day, from the food you eat to the air you breathe. Not so easy, right?

True Experimental Design Uses

The fields that get the most out of True Experimental Designs are those that need super reliable results, like medical research.

When scientists were developing COVID-19 vaccines, they used this design to run clinical trials. They had control groups that received a placebo (a harmless substance with no effect) and experimental groups that got the actual vaccine. Then they measured how many people in each group got sick. By comparing the two, they could say, "Yep, this vaccine works!"

So next time you read about a groundbreaking discovery in medicine or technology, chances are a True Experimental Design was the VIP behind the scenes, making sure everything was on point. It's been the go-to for rigorous scientific inquiry for nearly a century, and it's not stepping off the stage anytime soon.

2) Quasi-Experimental Design

So, let's talk about the Quasi-Experimental Design. Think of this one as the cool cousin of True Experimental Design. It wants to be just like its famous relative, but it's a bit more laid-back and flexible. You'll find quasi-experimental designs when it's tricky to set up a full-blown True Experimental Design with all the bells and whistles.

Quasi-experiments still play with an independent variable, just like their stricter cousins. The big difference? They don't use randomization. It's like wanting to divide a bag of jelly beans equally between your friends, but you can't quite do it perfectly.

In real life, it's often not possible or ethical to randomly assign people to different groups, especially when dealing with sensitive topics like education or social issues. And that's where quasi-experiments come in.

Quasi-Experimental Design Pros

Even though they lack full randomization, quasi-experimental designs are like the Swiss Army knives of research: versatile and practical. They're especially popular in fields like education, sociology, and public policy.

For instance, when researchers wanted to figure out if the Head Start program , aimed at giving young kids a "head start" in school, was effective, they used a quasi-experimental design. They couldn't randomly assign kids to go or not go to preschool, but they could compare kids who did with kids who didn't.

Quasi-Experimental Design Cons

Of course, quasi-experiments come with their own bag of pros and cons. On the plus side, they're easier to set up and often cheaper than true experiments. But the flip side is that they're not as rock-solid in their conclusions. Because the groups aren't randomly assigned, there's always that little voice saying, "Hey, are we missing something here?"

Quasi-Experimental Design Uses

Quasi-Experimental Design gained traction in the mid-20th century. Researchers were grappling with real-world problems that didn't fit neatly into a laboratory setting. Plus, as society became more aware of ethical considerations, the need for flexible designs increased. So, the quasi-experimental approach was like a breath of fresh air for scientists wanting to study complex issues without a laundry list of restrictions.

In short, if True Experimental Design is the superstar quarterback, Quasi-Experimental Design is the versatile player who can adapt and still make significant contributions to the game.

3) Pre-Experimental Design

Now, let's talk about the Pre-Experimental Design. Imagine it as the beginner's skateboard you get before you try out for all the cool tricks. It has wheels, it rolls, but it's not built for the professional skatepark.

Similarly, pre-experimental designs give researchers a starting point. They let you dip your toes in the water of scientific research without diving in head-first.

So, what's the deal with pre-experimental designs?

Pre-Experimental Designs are the basic, no-frills versions of experiments. Researchers still mess around with an independent variable and measure a dependent variable, but they skip over the whole randomization thing and often don't even have a control group.

It's like baking a cake but forgetting the frosting and sprinkles; you'll get some results, but they might not be as complete or reliable as you'd like.

Pre-Experimental Design Pros

Why use such a simple setup? Because sometimes, you just need to get the ball rolling. Pre-experimental designs are great for quick-and-dirty research when you're short on time or resources. They give you a rough idea of what's happening, which you can use to plan more detailed studies later.

A good example of this is early studies on the effects of screen time on kids. Researchers couldn't control every aspect of a child's life, but they could easily ask parents to track how much time their kids spent in front of screens and then look for trends in behavior or school performance.

Pre-Experimental Design Cons

But here's the catch: pre-experimental designs are like that first draft of an essay. It helps you get your ideas down, but you wouldn't want to turn it in for a grade. Because these designs lack the rigorous structure of true or quasi-experimental setups, they can't give you rock-solid conclusions. They're more like clues or signposts pointing you in a certain direction.

Pre-Experimental Design Uses

This type of design became popular in the early stages of various scientific fields. Researchers used them to scratch the surface of a topic, generate some initial data, and then decide if it's worth exploring further. In other words, pre-experimental designs were the stepping stones that led to more complex, thorough investigations.

So, while Pre-Experimental Design may not be the star player on the team, it's like the practice squad that helps everyone get better. It's the starting point that can lead to bigger and better things.

4) Factorial Design

Now, buckle up, because we're moving into the world of Factorial Design, the multi-tasker of the experimental universe.

Imagine juggling not just one, but multiple balls in the air—that's what researchers do in a factorial design.

In Factorial Design, researchers are not satisfied with just studying one independent variable. Nope, they want to study two or more at the same time to see how they interact.

It's like cooking with several spices to see how they blend together to create unique flavors.

Factorial Design became the talk of the town with the rise of computers. Why? Because this design produces a lot of data, and computers are the number crunchers that help make sense of it all. So, thanks to our silicon friends, researchers can study complicated questions like, "How do diet AND exercise together affect weight loss?" instead of looking at just one of those factors.

Factorial Design Pros

This design's main selling point is its ability to explore interactions between variables. For instance, maybe a new study drug works really well for young people but not so great for older adults. A factorial design could reveal that age is a crucial factor, something you might miss if you only studied the drug's effectiveness in general. It's like being a detective who looks for clues not just in one room but throughout the entire house.

Factorial Design Cons

However, factorial designs have their own bag of challenges. First off, they can be pretty complicated to set up and run. Imagine coordinating a four-way intersection with lots of cars coming from all directions—you've got to make sure everything runs smoothly, or you'll end up with a traffic jam. Similarly, researchers need to carefully plan how they'll measure and analyze all the different variables.

Factorial Design Uses

Factorial designs are widely used in psychology to untangle the web of factors that influence human behavior. They're also popular in fields like marketing, where companies want to understand how different aspects like price, packaging, and advertising influence a product's success.

And speaking of success, the factorial design has been a hit since statisticians like Ronald A. Fisher (yep, him again!) expanded on it in the early-to-mid 20th century. It offered a more nuanced way of understanding the world, proving that sometimes, to get the full picture, you've got to juggle more than one ball at a time.

So, if True Experimental Design is the quarterback and Quasi-Experimental Design is the versatile player, Factorial Design is the strategist who sees the entire game board and makes moves accordingly.

5) Longitudinal Design

Alright, let's take a step into the world of Longitudinal Design. Picture it as the grand storyteller, the kind who doesn't just tell you about a single event but spins an epic tale that stretches over years or even decades. This design isn't about quick snapshots; it's about capturing the whole movie of someone's life or a long-running process.

You know how you might take a photo every year on your birthday to see how you've changed? Longitudinal Design is kind of like that, but for scientific research.

With Longitudinal Design, instead of measuring something just once, researchers come back again and again, sometimes over many years, to see how things are going. This helps them understand not just what's happening, but why it's happening and how it changes over time.

This design really started to shine in the latter half of the 20th century, when researchers began to realize that some questions can't be answered in a hurry. Think about studies that look at how kids grow up, or research on how a certain medicine affects you over a long period. These aren't things you can rush.

The famous Framingham Heart Study , started in 1948, is a prime example. It's been studying heart health in a small town in Massachusetts for decades, and the findings have shaped what we know about heart disease.

Longitudinal Design Pros

So, what's to love about Longitudinal Design? First off, it's the go-to for studying change over time, whether that's how people age or how a forest recovers from a fire.

Longitudinal Design Cons

But it's not all sunshine and rainbows. Longitudinal studies take a lot of patience and resources. Plus, keeping track of participants over many years can be like herding cats—difficult and full of surprises.

Longitudinal Design Uses

Despite these challenges, longitudinal studies have been key in fields like psychology, sociology, and medicine. They provide the kind of deep, long-term insights that other designs just can't match.

So, if the True Experimental Design is the superstar quarterback, and the Quasi-Experimental Design is the flexible athlete, then the Factorial Design is the strategist, and the Longitudinal Design is the wise elder who has seen it all and has stories to tell.

6) Cross-Sectional Design

Now, let's flip the script and talk about Cross-Sectional Design, the polar opposite of the Longitudinal Design. If Longitudinal is the grand storyteller, think of Cross-Sectional as the snapshot photographer. It captures a single moment in time, like a selfie that you take to remember a fun day. Researchers using this design collect all their data at one point, providing a kind of "snapshot" of whatever they're studying.

In a Cross-Sectional Design, researchers look at multiple groups all at the same time to see how they're different or similar.

This design rose to popularity in the mid-20th century, mainly because it's so quick and efficient. Imagine wanting to know how people of different ages feel about a new video game. Instead of waiting for years to see how opinions change, you could just ask people of all ages what they think right now. That's Cross-Sectional Design for you—fast and straightforward.

You'll find this type of research everywhere from marketing studies to healthcare. For instance, you might have heard about surveys asking people what they think about a new product or political issue. Those are usually cross-sectional studies, aimed at getting a quick read on public opinion.

Cross-Sectional Design Pros

So, what's the big deal with Cross-Sectional Design? Well, it's the go-to when you need answers fast and don't have the time or resources for a more complicated setup.

Cross-Sectional Design Cons

Remember, speed comes with trade-offs. While you get your results quickly, those results are stuck in time. They can't tell you how things change or why they're changing, just what's happening right now.

Cross-Sectional Design Uses

Also, because they're so quick and simple, cross-sectional studies often serve as the first step in research. They give scientists an idea of what's going on so they can decide if it's worth digging deeper. In that way, they're a bit like a movie trailer, giving you a taste of the action to see if you're interested in seeing the whole film.

So, in our lineup of experimental designs, if True Experimental Design is the superstar quarterback and Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, then Cross-Sectional Design is like the speedy running back—fast, agile, but not designed for long, drawn-out plays.

7) Correlational Design

Next on our roster is the Correlational Design, the keen observer of the experimental world. Imagine this design as the person at a party who loves people-watching. They don't interfere or get involved; they just observe and take mental notes about what's going on.

In a correlational study, researchers don't change or control anything; they simply observe and measure how two variables relate to each other.

The correlational design has roots in the early days of psychology and sociology. Pioneers like Sir Francis Galton used it to study how qualities like intelligence or height could be related within families.

This design is all about asking, "Hey, when this thing happens, does that other thing usually happen too?" For example, researchers might study whether students who have more study time get better grades or whether people who exercise more have lower stress levels.

One of the most famous correlational studies you might have heard of is the link between smoking and lung cancer. Back in the mid-20th century, researchers started noticing that people who smoked a lot also seemed to get lung cancer more often. They couldn't say smoking caused cancer—that would require a true experiment—but the strong correlation was a red flag that led to more research and eventually, health warnings.

Correlational Design Pros

This design is great at proving that two (or more) things can be related. Correlational designs can help prove that more detailed research is needed on a topic. They can help us see patterns or possible causes for things that we otherwise might not have realized.

Correlational Design Cons

But here's where you need to be careful: correlational designs can be tricky. Just because two things are related doesn't mean one causes the other. That's like saying, "Every time I wear my lucky socks, my team wins." Well, it's a fun thought, but those socks aren't really controlling the game.

Correlational Design Uses

Despite this limitation, correlational designs are popular in psychology, economics, and epidemiology, to name a few fields. They're often the first step in exploring a possible relationship between variables. Once a strong correlation is found, researchers may decide to conduct more rigorous experimental studies to examine cause and effect.

So, if the True Experimental Design is the superstar quarterback and the Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, the Factorial Design is the strategist, and the Cross-Sectional Design is the speedster, then the Correlational Design is the clever scout, identifying interesting patterns but leaving the heavy lifting of proving cause and effect to the other types of designs.

8) Meta-Analysis

Last but not least, let's talk about Meta-Analysis, the librarian of experimental designs.

If other designs are all about creating new research, Meta-Analysis is about gathering up everyone else's research, sorting it, and figuring out what it all means when you put it together.

Imagine a jigsaw puzzle where each piece is a different study. Meta-Analysis is the process of fitting all those pieces together to see the big picture.

The concept of Meta-Analysis started to take shape in the late 20th century, when computers became powerful enough to handle massive amounts of data. It was like someone handed researchers a super-powered magnifying glass, letting them examine multiple studies at the same time to find common trends or results.

You might have heard of the Cochrane Reviews in healthcare . These are big collections of meta-analyses that help doctors and policymakers figure out what treatments work best based on all the research that's been done.

For example, if ten different studies show that a certain medicine helps lower blood pressure, a meta-analysis would pull all that information together to give a more accurate answer.

Meta-Analysis Pros

The beauty of Meta-Analysis is that it can provide really strong evidence. Instead of relying on one study, you're looking at the whole landscape of research on a topic.

Meta-Analysis Cons

However, it does have some downsides. For one, Meta-Analysis is only as good as the studies it includes. If those studies are flawed, the meta-analysis will be too. It's like baking a cake: if you use bad ingredients, it doesn't matter how good your recipe is—the cake won't turn out well.

Meta-Analysis Uses

Despite these challenges, meta-analyses are highly respected and widely used in many fields like medicine, psychology, and education. They help us make sense of a world that's bursting with information by showing us the big picture drawn from many smaller snapshots.

So, in our all-star lineup, if True Experimental Design is the quarterback and Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, the Factorial Design is the strategist, the Cross-Sectional Design is the speedster, and the Correlational Design is the scout, then the Meta-Analysis is like the coach, using insights from everyone else's plays to come up with the best game plan.

9) Non-Experimental Design

Now, let's talk about a player who's a bit of an outsider on this team of experimental designs—the Non-Experimental Design. Think of this design as the commentator or the journalist who covers the game but doesn't actually play.

In a Non-Experimental Design, researchers are like reporters gathering facts, but they don't interfere or change anything. They're simply there to describe and analyze.

Non-Experimental Design Pros

So, what's the deal with Non-Experimental Design? Its strength is in description and exploration. It's really good for studying things as they are in the real world, without changing any conditions.

Non-Experimental Design Cons

Because a non-experimental design doesn't manipulate variables, it can't prove cause and effect. It's like a weather reporter: they can tell you it's raining, but they can't tell you why it's raining.

The downside? Since researchers aren't controlling variables, it's hard to rule out other explanations for what they observe. It's like hearing one side of a story—you get an idea of what happened, but it might not be the complete picture.

Non-Experimental Design Uses

Non-Experimental Design has always been a part of research, especially in fields like anthropology, sociology, and some areas of psychology.

For instance, if you've ever heard of studies that describe how people behave in different cultures or what teens like to do in their free time, that's often Non-Experimental Design at work. These studies aim to capture the essence of a situation, like painting a portrait instead of taking a snapshot.

One well-known example you might have heard about is the Kinsey Reports from the 1940s and 1950s, which described sexual behavior in men and women. Researchers interviewed thousands of people but didn't manipulate any variables like you would in a true experiment. They simply collected data to create a comprehensive picture of the subject matter.

So, in our metaphorical team of research designs, if True Experimental Design is the quarterback and Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, Factorial Design is the strategist, Cross-Sectional Design is the speedster, Correlational Design is the scout, and Meta-Analysis is the coach, then Non-Experimental Design is the sports journalist—always present, capturing the game, but not part of the action itself.

10) Repeated Measures Design

Time to meet the Repeated Measures Design, the time traveler of our research team. If this design were a player in a sports game, it would be the one who keeps revisiting past plays to figure out how to improve the next one.

Repeated Measures Design is all about studying the same people or subjects multiple times to see how they change or react under different conditions.

The idea behind Repeated Measures Design isn't new; it's been around since the early days of psychology and medicine. You could say it's a cousin to the Longitudinal Design, but instead of looking at how things naturally change over time, it focuses on how the same group reacts to different things.

Imagine a study looking at how a new energy drink affects people's running speed. Instead of comparing one group that drank the energy drink to another group that didn't, a Repeated Measures Design would have the same group of people run multiple times—once with the energy drink, and once without. This way, you're really zeroing in on the effect of that energy drink, making the results more reliable.

Repeated Measures Design Pros

The strong point of Repeated Measures Design is that it's super focused. Because it uses the same subjects, you don't have to worry about differences between groups messing up your results.

Repeated Measures Design Cons

But the downside? Well, people can get tired or bored if they're tested too many times, which might affect how they respond.

Repeated Measures Design Uses

A famous example of this design is the "Little Albert" experiment, conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920. In this study, a young boy was exposed to a white rat and other stimuli several times to see how his emotional responses changed. Though the ethical standards of this experiment are often criticized today, it was groundbreaking in understanding conditioned emotional responses.

In our metaphorical lineup of research designs, if True Experimental Design is the quarterback and Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, Factorial Design is the strategist, Cross-Sectional Design is the speedster, Correlational Design is the scout, Meta-Analysis is the coach, and Non-Experimental Design is the journalist, then Repeated Measures Design is the time traveler—always looping back to fine-tune the game plan.

11) Crossover Design

Next up is Crossover Design, the switch-hitter of the research world. If you're familiar with baseball, you'll know a switch-hitter is someone who can bat both right-handed and left-handed.

In a similar way, Crossover Design allows subjects to experience multiple conditions, flipping them around so that everyone gets a turn in each role.

This design is like the utility player on our team—versatile, flexible, and really good at adapting.

The Crossover Design has its roots in medical research and has been popular since the mid-20th century. It's often used in clinical trials to test the effectiveness of different treatments.

Crossover Design Pros

The neat thing about this design is that it allows each participant to serve as their own control group. Imagine you're testing two new kinds of headache medicine. Instead of giving one type to one group and another type to a different group, you'd give both kinds to the same people but at different times.

Crossover Design Cons

What's the big deal with Crossover Design? Its major strength is in reducing the "noise" that comes from individual differences. Since each person experiences all conditions, it's easier to see real effects. However, there's a catch. This design assumes that there's no lasting effect from the first condition when you switch to the second one. That might not always be true. If the first treatment has a long-lasting effect, it could mess up the results when you switch to the second treatment.

Crossover Design Uses

A well-known example of Crossover Design is in studies that look at the effects of different types of diets—like low-carb vs. low-fat diets. Researchers might have participants follow a low-carb diet for a few weeks, then switch them to a low-fat diet. By doing this, they can more accurately measure how each diet affects the same group of people.

In our team of experimental designs, if True Experimental Design is the quarterback and Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, Factorial Design is the strategist, Cross-Sectional Design is the speedster, Correlational Design is the scout, Meta-Analysis is the coach, Non-Experimental Design is the journalist, and Repeated Measures Design is the time traveler, then Crossover Design is the versatile utility player—always ready to adapt and play multiple roles to get the most accurate results.

12) Cluster Randomized Design

Meet the Cluster Randomized Design, the team captain of group-focused research. In our imaginary lineup of experimental designs, if other designs focus on individual players, then Cluster Randomized Design is looking at how the entire team functions.

This approach is especially common in educational and community-based research, and it's been gaining traction since the late 20th century.

Here's how Cluster Randomized Design works: Instead of assigning individual people to different conditions, researchers assign entire groups, or "clusters." These could be schools, neighborhoods, or even entire towns. This helps you see how the new method works in a real-world setting.

Imagine you want to see if a new anti-bullying program really works. Instead of selecting individual students, you'd introduce the program to a whole school or maybe even several schools, and then compare the results to schools without the program.

Cluster Randomized Design Pros

Why use Cluster Randomized Design? Well, sometimes it's just not practical to assign conditions at the individual level. For example, you can't really have half a school following a new reading program while the other half sticks with the old one; that would be way too confusing! Cluster Randomization helps get around this problem by treating each "cluster" as its own mini-experiment.

Cluster Randomized Design Cons

There's a downside, too. Because entire groups are assigned to each condition, there's a risk that the groups might be different in some important way that the researchers didn't account for. That's like having one sports team that's full of veterans playing against a team of rookies; the match wouldn't be fair.

Cluster Randomized Design Uses

A famous example is the research conducted to test the effectiveness of different public health interventions, like vaccination programs. Researchers might roll out a vaccination program in one community but not in another, then compare the rates of disease in both.

In our metaphorical research team, if True Experimental Design is the quarterback, Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, Factorial Design is the strategist, Cross-Sectional Design is the speedster, Correlational Design is the scout, Meta-Analysis is the coach, Non-Experimental Design is the journalist, Repeated Measures Design is the time traveler, and Crossover Design is the utility player, then Cluster Randomized Design is the team captain—always looking out for the group as a whole.

13) Mixed-Methods Design

Say hello to Mixed-Methods Design, the all-rounder or the "Renaissance player" of our research team.

Mixed-Methods Design uses a blend of both qualitative and quantitative methods to get a more complete picture, just like a Renaissance person who's good at lots of different things. It's like being good at both offense and defense in a sport; you've got all your bases covered!

Mixed-Methods Design is a fairly new kid on the block, becoming more popular in the late 20th and early 21st centuries as researchers began to see the value in using multiple approaches to tackle complex questions. It's the Swiss Army knife in our research toolkit, combining the best parts of other designs to be more versatile.

Here's how it could work: Imagine you're studying the effects of a new educational app on students' math skills. You might use quantitative methods like tests and grades to measure how much the students improve—that's the 'numbers part.'

But you also want to know how the students feel about math now, or why they think they got better or worse. For that, you could conduct interviews or have students fill out journals—that's the 'story part.'

Mixed-Methods Design Pros

So, what's the scoop on Mixed-Methods Design? The strength is its versatility and depth; you're not just getting numbers or stories, you're getting both, which gives a fuller picture.

Mixed-Methods Design Cons

But, it's also more challenging. Imagine trying to play two sports at the same time! You have to be skilled in different research methods and know how to combine them effectively.

Mixed-Methods Design Uses

A high-profile example of Mixed-Methods Design is research on climate change. Scientists use numbers and data to show temperature changes (quantitative), but they also interview people to understand how these changes are affecting communities (qualitative).

In our team of experimental designs, if True Experimental Design is the quarterback, Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, Factorial Design is the strategist, Cross-Sectional Design is the speedster, Correlational Design is the scout, Meta-Analysis is the coach, Non-Experimental Design is the journalist, Repeated Measures Design is the time traveler, Crossover Design is the utility player, and Cluster Randomized Design is the team captain, then Mixed-Methods Design is the Renaissance player—skilled in multiple areas and able to bring them all together for a winning strategy.

14) Multivariate Design

Now, let's turn our attention to Multivariate Design, the multitasker of the research world.

If our lineup of research designs were like players on a basketball court, Multivariate Design would be the player dribbling, passing, and shooting all at once. This design doesn't just look at one or two things; it looks at several variables simultaneously to see how they interact and affect each other.

Multivariate Design is like baking a cake with many ingredients. Instead of just looking at how flour affects the cake, you also consider sugar, eggs, and milk all at once. This way, you understand how everything works together to make the cake taste good or bad.

Multivariate Design has been a go-to method in psychology, economics, and social sciences since the latter half of the 20th century. With the advent of computers and advanced statistical software, analyzing multiple variables at once became a lot easier, and Multivariate Design soared in popularity.

Multivariate Design Pros

So, what's the benefit of using Multivariate Design? Its power lies in its complexity. By studying multiple variables at the same time, you can get a really rich, detailed understanding of what's going on.

Multivariate Design Cons

But that complexity can also be a drawback. With so many variables, it can be tough to tell which ones are really making a difference and which ones are just along for the ride.

Multivariate Design Uses

Imagine you're a coach trying to figure out the best strategy to win games. You wouldn't just look at how many points your star player scores; you'd also consider assists, rebounds, turnovers, and maybe even how loud the crowd is. A Multivariate Design would help you understand how all these factors work together to determine whether you win or lose.

A well-known example of Multivariate Design is in market research. Companies often use this approach to figure out how different factors—like price, packaging, and advertising—affect sales. By studying multiple variables at once, they can find the best combination to boost profits.

In our metaphorical research team, if True Experimental Design is the quarterback, Longitudinal Design is the wise elder, Factorial Design is the strategist, Cross-Sectional Design is the speedster, Correlational Design is the scout, Meta-Analysis is the coach, Non-Experimental Design is the journalist, Repeated Measures Design is the time traveler, Crossover Design is the utility player, Cluster Randomized Design is the team captain, and Mixed-Methods Design is the Renaissance player, then Multivariate Design is the multitasker—juggling many variables at once to get a fuller picture of what's happening.

15) Pretest-Posttest Design

Let's introduce Pretest-Posttest Design, the "Before and After" superstar of our research team. You've probably seen those before-and-after pictures in ads for weight loss programs or home renovations, right?

Well, this design is like that, but for science! Pretest-Posttest Design checks out what things are like before the experiment starts and then compares that to what things are like after the experiment ends.

This design is one of the classics, a staple in research for decades across various fields like psychology, education, and healthcare. It's so simple and straightforward that it has stayed popular for a long time.

In Pretest-Posttest Design, you measure your subject's behavior or condition before you introduce any changes—that's your "before" or "pretest." Then you do your experiment, and after it's done, you measure the same thing again—that's your "after" or "posttest."

Pretest-Posttest Design Pros

What makes Pretest-Posttest Design special? It's pretty easy to understand and doesn't require fancy statistics.

Pretest-Posttest Design Cons

But there are some pitfalls. For example, what if the kids in our math example get better at multiplication just because they're older or because they've taken the test before? That would make it hard to tell if the program is really effective or not.

Pretest-Posttest Design Uses

Let's say you're a teacher and you want to know if a new math program helps kids get better at multiplication. First, you'd give all the kids a multiplication test—that's your pretest. Then you'd teach them using the new math program. At the end, you'd give them the same test again—that's your posttest. If the kids do better on the second test, you might conclude that the program works.

One famous use of Pretest-Posttest Design is in evaluating the effectiveness of driver's education courses. Researchers will measure people's driving skills before and after the course to see if they've improved.

16) Solomon Four-Group Design

Next up is the Solomon Four-Group Design, the "chess master" of our research team. This design is all about strategy and careful planning. Named after Richard L. Solomon who introduced it in the 1940s, this method tries to correct some of the weaknesses in simpler designs, like the Pretest-Posttest Design.

Here's how it rolls: The Solomon Four-Group Design uses four different groups to test a hypothesis. Two groups get a pretest, then one of them receives the treatment or intervention, and both get a posttest. The other two groups skip the pretest, and only one of them receives the treatment before they both get a posttest.

Sound complicated? It's like playing 4D chess; you're thinking several moves ahead!

Solomon Four-Group Design Pros

What's the pro and con of the Solomon Four-Group Design? On the plus side, it provides really robust results because it accounts for so many variables.

Solomon Four-Group Design Cons

The downside? It's a lot of work and requires a lot of participants, making it more time-consuming and costly.

Solomon Four-Group Design Uses

Let's say you want to figure out if a new way of teaching history helps students remember facts better. Two classes take a history quiz (pretest), then one class uses the new teaching method while the other sticks with the old way. Both classes take another quiz afterward (posttest).

Meanwhile, two more classes skip the initial quiz, and then one uses the new method before both take the final quiz. Comparing all four groups will give you a much clearer picture of whether the new teaching method works and whether the pretest itself affects the outcome.

The Solomon Four-Group Design is less commonly used than simpler designs but is highly respected for its ability to control for more variables. It's a favorite in educational and psychological research where you really want to dig deep and figure out what's actually causing changes.

17) Adaptive Designs

Now, let's talk about Adaptive Designs, the chameleons of the experimental world.

Imagine you're a detective, and halfway through solving a case, you find a clue that changes everything. You wouldn't just stick to your old plan; you'd adapt and change your approach, right? That's exactly what Adaptive Designs allow researchers to do.

In an Adaptive Design, researchers can make changes to the study as it's happening, based on early results. In a traditional study, once you set your plan, you stick to it from start to finish.

Adaptive Design Pros

This method is particularly useful in fast-paced or high-stakes situations, like developing a new vaccine in the middle of a pandemic. The ability to adapt can save both time and resources, and more importantly, it can save lives by getting effective treatments out faster.

Adaptive Design Cons

But Adaptive Designs aren't without their drawbacks. They can be very complex to plan and carry out, and there's always a risk that the changes made during the study could introduce bias or errors.

Adaptive Design Uses

Adaptive Designs are most often seen in clinical trials, particularly in the medical and pharmaceutical fields.

For instance, if a new drug is showing really promising results, the study might be adjusted to give more participants the new treatment instead of a placebo. Or if one dose level is showing bad side effects, it might be dropped from the study.

The best part is, these changes are pre-planned. Researchers lay out in advance what changes might be made and under what conditions, which helps keep everything scientific and above board.

In terms of applications, besides their heavy usage in medical and pharmaceutical research, Adaptive Designs are also becoming increasingly popular in software testing and market research. In these fields, being able to quickly adjust to early results can give companies a significant advantage.

Adaptive Designs are like the agile startups of the research world—quick to pivot, keen to learn from ongoing results, and focused on rapid, efficient progress. However, they require a great deal of expertise and careful planning to ensure that the adaptability doesn't compromise the integrity of the research.

18) Bayesian Designs

Next, let's dive into Bayesian Designs, the data detectives of the research universe. Named after Thomas Bayes, an 18th-century statistician and minister, this design doesn't just look at what's happening now; it also takes into account what's happened before.

Imagine if you were a detective who not only looked at the evidence in front of you but also used your past cases to make better guesses about your current one. That's the essence of Bayesian Designs.

Bayesian Designs are like detective work in science. As you gather more clues (or data), you update your best guess on what's really happening. This way, your experiment gets smarter as it goes along.

In the world of research, Bayesian Designs are most notably used in areas where you have some prior knowledge that can inform your current study. For example, if earlier research shows that a certain type of medicine usually works well for a specific illness, a Bayesian Design would include that information when studying a new group of patients with the same illness.

Bayesian Design Pros

One of the major advantages of Bayesian Designs is their efficiency. Because they use existing data to inform the current experiment, often fewer resources are needed to reach a reliable conclusion.

Bayesian Design Cons

However, they can be quite complicated to set up and require a deep understanding of both statistics and the subject matter at hand.

Bayesian Design Uses

Bayesian Designs are highly valued in medical research, finance, environmental science, and even in Internet search algorithms. Their ability to continually update and refine hypotheses based on new evidence makes them particularly useful in fields where data is constantly evolving and where quick, informed decisions are crucial.

Here's a real-world example: In the development of personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients, Bayesian Designs are invaluable. If a treatment has been effective for patients with similar genetics or symptoms in the past, a Bayesian approach can use that data to predict how well it might work for a new patient.

This type of design is also increasingly popular in machine learning and artificial intelligence. In these fields, Bayesian Designs help algorithms "learn" from past data to make better predictions or decisions in new situations. It's like teaching a computer to be a detective that gets better and better at solving puzzles the more puzzles it sees.

19) Covariate Adaptive Randomization

Now let's turn our attention to Covariate Adaptive Randomization, which you can think of as the "matchmaker" of experimental designs.

Picture a soccer coach trying to create the most balanced teams for a friendly match. They wouldn't just randomly assign players; they'd take into account each player's skills, experience, and other traits.

Covariate Adaptive Randomization is all about creating the most evenly matched groups possible for an experiment.

In traditional randomization, participants are allocated to different groups purely by chance. This is a pretty fair way to do things, but it can sometimes lead to unbalanced groups.

Imagine if all the professional-level players ended up on one soccer team and all the beginners on another; that wouldn't be a very informative match! Covariate Adaptive Randomization fixes this by using important traits or characteristics (called "covariates") to guide the randomization process.

Covariate Adaptive Randomization Pros

The benefits of this design are pretty clear: it aims for balance and fairness, making the final results more trustworthy.

Covariate Adaptive Randomization Cons

But it's not perfect. It can be complex to implement and requires a deep understanding of which characteristics are most important to balance.

Covariate Adaptive Randomization Uses

This design is particularly useful in medical trials. Let's say researchers are testing a new medication for high blood pressure. Participants might have different ages, weights, or pre-existing conditions that could affect the results.

Covariate Adaptive Randomization would make sure that each treatment group has a similar mix of these characteristics, making the results more reliable and easier to interpret.

In practical terms, this design is often seen in clinical trials for new drugs or therapies, but its principles are also applicable in fields like psychology, education, and social sciences.

For instance, in educational research, it might be used to ensure that classrooms being compared have similar distributions of students in terms of academic ability, socioeconomic status, and other factors.

Covariate Adaptive Randomization is like the wise elder of the group, ensuring that everyone has an equal opportunity to show their true capabilities, thereby making the collective results as reliable as possible.

20) Stepped Wedge Design

Let's now focus on the Stepped Wedge Design, a thoughtful and cautious member of the experimental design family.

Imagine you're trying out a new gardening technique, but you're not sure how well it will work. You decide to apply it to one section of your garden first, watch how it performs, and then gradually extend the technique to other sections. This way, you get to see its effects over time and across different conditions. That's basically how Stepped Wedge Design works.

In a Stepped Wedge Design, all participants or clusters start off in the control group, and then, at different times, they 'step' over to the intervention or treatment group. This creates a wedge-like pattern over time where more and more participants receive the treatment as the study progresses. It's like rolling out a new policy in phases, monitoring its impact at each stage before extending it to more people.

Stepped Wedge Design Pros

The Stepped Wedge Design offers several advantages. Firstly, it allows for the study of interventions that are expected to do more good than harm, which makes it ethically appealing.

Secondly, it's useful when resources are limited and it's not feasible to roll out a new treatment to everyone at once. Lastly, because everyone eventually receives the treatment, it can be easier to get buy-in from participants or organizations involved in the study.

Stepped Wedge Design Cons

However, this design can be complex to analyze because it has to account for both the time factor and the changing conditions in each 'step' of the wedge. And like any study where participants know they're receiving an intervention, there's the potential for the results to be influenced by the placebo effect or other biases.

Stepped Wedge Design Uses

This design is particularly useful in health and social care research. For instance, if a hospital wants to implement a new hygiene protocol, it might start in one department, assess its impact, and then roll it out to other departments over time. This allows the hospital to adjust and refine the new protocol based on real-world data before it's fully implemented.

In terms of applications, Stepped Wedge Designs are commonly used in public health initiatives, organizational changes in healthcare settings, and social policy trials. They are particularly useful in situations where an intervention is being rolled out gradually and it's important to understand its impacts at each stage.

21) Sequential Design

Next up is Sequential Design, the dynamic and flexible member of our experimental design family.

Imagine you're playing a video game where you can choose different paths. If you take one path and find a treasure chest, you might decide to continue in that direction. If you hit a dead end, you might backtrack and try a different route. Sequential Design operates in a similar fashion, allowing researchers to make decisions at different stages based on what they've learned so far.

In a Sequential Design, the experiment is broken down into smaller parts, or "sequences." After each sequence, researchers pause to look at the data they've collected. Based on those findings, they then decide whether to stop the experiment because they've got enough information, or to continue and perhaps even modify the next sequence.

Sequential Design Pros

This allows for a more efficient use of resources, as you're only continuing with the experiment if the data suggests it's worth doing so.

One of the great things about Sequential Design is its efficiency. Because you're making data-driven decisions along the way, you can often reach conclusions more quickly and with fewer resources.

Sequential Design Cons

However, it requires careful planning and expertise to ensure that these "stop or go" decisions are made correctly and without bias.

Sequential Design Uses

In terms of its applications, besides healthcare and medicine, Sequential Design is also popular in quality control in manufacturing, environmental monitoring, and financial modeling. In these areas, being able to make quick decisions based on incoming data can be a big advantage.

This design is often used in clinical trials involving new medications or treatments. For example, if early results show that a new drug has significant side effects, the trial can be stopped before more people are exposed to it.

On the flip side, if the drug is showing promising results, the trial might be expanded to include more participants or to extend the testing period.

Think of Sequential Design as the nimble athlete of experimental designs, capable of quick pivots and adjustments to reach the finish line in the most effective way possible. But just like an athlete needs a good coach, this design requires expert oversight to make sure it stays on the right track.

22) Field Experiments

Last but certainly not least, let's explore Field Experiments—the adventurers of the experimental design world.

Picture a scientist leaving the controlled environment of a lab to test a theory in the real world, like a biologist studying animals in their natural habitat or a social scientist observing people in a real community. These are Field Experiments, and they're all about getting out there and gathering data in real-world settings.

Field Experiments embrace the messiness of the real world, unlike laboratory experiments, where everything is controlled down to the smallest detail. This makes them both exciting and challenging.

Field Experiment Pros

On one hand, the results often give us a better understanding of how things work outside the lab.

While Field Experiments offer real-world relevance, they come with challenges like controlling for outside factors and the ethical considerations of intervening in people's lives without their knowledge.

Field Experiment Cons

On the other hand, the lack of control can make it harder to tell exactly what's causing what. Yet, despite these challenges, they remain a valuable tool for researchers who want to understand how theories play out in the real world.

Field Experiment Uses

Let's say a school wants to improve student performance. In a Field Experiment, they might change the school's daily schedule for one semester and keep track of how students perform compared to another school where the schedule remained the same.

Because the study is happening in a real school with real students, the results could be very useful for understanding how the change might work in other schools. But since it's the real world, lots of other factors—like changes in teachers or even the weather—could affect the results.

Field Experiments are widely used in economics, psychology, education, and public policy. For example, you might have heard of the famous "Broken Windows" experiment in the 1980s that looked at how small signs of disorder, like broken windows or graffiti, could encourage more serious crime in neighborhoods. This experiment had a big impact on how cities think about crime prevention.

From the foundational concepts of control groups and independent variables to the sophisticated layouts like Covariate Adaptive Randomization and Sequential Design, it's clear that the realm of experimental design is as varied as it is fascinating.

We've seen that each design has its own special talents, ideal for specific situations. Some designs, like the Classic Controlled Experiment, are like reliable old friends you can always count on.

Others, like Sequential Design, are flexible and adaptable, making quick changes based on what they learn. And let's not forget the adventurous Field Experiments, which take us out of the lab and into the real world to discover things we might not see otherwise.

Choosing the right experimental design is like picking the right tool for the job. The method you choose can make a big difference in how reliable your results are and how much people will trust what you've discovered. And as we've learned, there's a design to suit just about every question, every problem, and every curiosity.

So the next time you read about a new discovery in medicine, psychology, or any other field, you'll have a better understanding of the thought and planning that went into figuring things out. Experimental design is more than just a set of rules; it's a structured way to explore the unknown and answer questions that can change the world.

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Experimental Research Design — 6 mistakes you should never make!

Since school days’ students perform scientific experiments that provide results that define and prove the laws and theorems in science. These experiments are laid on a strong foundation of experimental research designs.

An experimental research design helps researchers execute their research objectives with more clarity and transparency.

In this article, we will not only discuss the key aspects of experimental research designs but also the issues to avoid and problems to resolve while designing your research study.

Table of Contents

What Is Experimental Research Design?

Experimental research design is a framework of protocols and procedures created to conduct experimental research with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. Herein, the first set of variables acts as a constant, used to measure the differences of the second set. The best example of experimental research methods is quantitative research .

Experimental research helps a researcher gather the necessary data for making better research decisions and determining the facts of a research study.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Experimental Research?

A researcher can conduct experimental research in the following situations —

• When time is an important factor in establishing a relationship between the cause and effect.
• When there is an invariable or never-changing behavior between the cause and effect.
• Finally, when the researcher wishes to understand the importance of the cause and effect.

Importance of Experimental Research Design

To publish significant results, choosing a quality research design forms the foundation to build the research study. Moreover, effective research design helps establish quality decision-making procedures, structures the research to lead to easier data analysis, and addresses the main research question. Therefore, it is essential to cater undivided attention and time to create an experimental research design before beginning the practical experiment.

By creating a research design, a researcher is also giving oneself time to organize the research, set up relevant boundaries for the study, and increase the reliability of the results. Through all these efforts, one could also avoid inconclusive results. If any part of the research design is flawed, it will reflect on the quality of the results derived.

Types of Experimental Research Designs

Based on the methods used to collect data in experimental studies, the experimental research designs are of three primary types:

1. Pre-experimental Research Design

A research study could conduct pre-experimental research design when a group or many groups are under observation after implementing factors of cause and effect of the research. The pre-experimental design will help researchers understand whether further investigation is necessary for the groups under observation.

Pre-experimental research is of three types —

• One-shot Case Study Research Design
• One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
• Static-group Comparison

2. True Experimental Research Design

A true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis. It is one of the most accurate forms of research because it provides specific scientific evidence. Furthermore, out of all the types of experimental designs, only a true experimental design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. However, in a true experiment, a researcher must satisfy these three factors —

• There is a control group that is not subjected to changes and an experimental group that will experience the changed variables
• A variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
• Random distribution of the variables

This type of experimental research is commonly observed in the physical sciences.

3. Quasi-experimental Research Design

The word “Quasi” means similarity. A quasi-experimental design is similar to a true experimental design. However, the difference between the two is the assignment of the control group. In this research design, an independent variable is manipulated, but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned. This type of research design is used in field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.

The classification of the research subjects, conditions, or groups determines the type of research design to be used.

Advantages of Experimental Research

Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before taking the research to clinical trials. Moreover, it provides the best method to test your theory because of the following advantages:

• Researchers have firm control over variables to obtain results.
• The subject does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research. Anyone can implement it for research purposes.
• The results are specific.
• Post results analysis, research findings from the same dataset can be repurposed for similar research ideas.
• Researchers can identify the cause and effect of the hypothesis and further analyze this relationship to determine in-depth ideas.
• Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The collected data could be used as a foundation to build new research ideas for further studies.

6 Mistakes to Avoid While Designing Your Research

There is no order to this list, and any one of these issues can seriously compromise the quality of your research. You could refer to the list as a checklist of what to avoid while designing your research.

1. Invalid Theoretical Framework

Usually, researchers miss out on checking if their hypothesis is logical to be tested. If your research design does not have basic assumptions or postulates, then it is fundamentally flawed and you need to rework on your research framework.

2. Inadequate Literature Study

Without a comprehensive research literature review , it is difficult to identify and fill the knowledge and information gaps. Furthermore, you need to clearly state how your research will contribute to the research field, either by adding value to the pertinent literature or challenging previous findings and assumptions.

3. Insufficient or Incorrect Statistical Analysis

Statistical results are one of the most trusted scientific evidence. The ultimate goal of a research experiment is to gain valid and sustainable evidence. Therefore, incorrect statistical analysis could affect the quality of any quantitative research.

4. Undefined Research Problem

This is one of the most basic aspects of research design. The research problem statement must be clear and to do that, you must set the framework for the development of research questions that address the core problems.

5. Research Limitations

Every study has some type of limitations . You should anticipate and incorporate those limitations into your conclusion, as well as the basic research design. Include a statement in your manuscript about any perceived limitations, and how you considered them while designing your experiment and drawing the conclusion.

6. Ethical Implications

The most important yet less talked about topic is the ethical issue. Your research design must include ways to minimize any risk for your participants and also address the research problem or question at hand. If you cannot manage the ethical norms along with your research study, your research objectives and validity could be questioned.

Experimental Research Design Example

In an experimental design, a researcher gathers plant samples and then randomly assigns half the samples to photosynthesize in sunlight and the other half to be kept in a dark box without sunlight, while controlling all the other variables (nutrients, water, soil, etc.)

By comparing their outcomes in biochemical tests, the researcher can confirm that the changes in the plants were due to the sunlight and not the other variables.

Experimental research is often the final form of a study conducted in the research process which is considered to provide conclusive and specific results. But it is not meant for every research. It involves a lot of resources, time, and money and is not easy to conduct, unless a foundation of research is built. Yet it is widely used in research institutes and commercial industries, for its most conclusive results in the scientific approach.

Have you worked on research designs? How was your experience creating an experimental design? What difficulties did you face? Do write to us or comment below and share your insights on experimental research designs!

Frequently Asked Questions

Randomization is important in an experimental research because it ensures unbiased results of the experiment. It also measures the cause-effect relationship on a particular group of interest.

Experimental research design lay the foundation of a research and structures the research to establish quality decision making process.

There are 3 types of experimental research designs. These are pre-experimental research design, true experimental research design, and quasi experimental research design.

The difference between an experimental and a quasi-experimental design are: 1. The assignment of the control group in quasi experimental research is non-random, unlike true experimental design, which is randomly assigned. 2. Experimental research group always has a control group; on the other hand, it may not be always present in quasi experimental research.

Experimental research establishes a cause-effect relationship by testing a theory or hypothesis using experimental groups or control variables. In contrast, descriptive research describes a study or a topic by defining the variables under it and answering the questions related to the same.

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Home » Experimental Design – Types, Methods, Guide

Experimental Design – Types, Methods, Guide

Table of Contents

Experimental Design

Experimental design is a process of planning and conducting scientific experiments to investigate a hypothesis or research question. It involves carefully designing an experiment that can test the hypothesis, and controlling for other variables that may influence the results.

Experimental design typically includes identifying the variables that will be manipulated or measured, defining the sample or population to be studied, selecting an appropriate method of sampling, choosing a method for data collection and analysis, and determining the appropriate statistical tests to use.

Types of Experimental Design

Here are the different types of experimental design:

Completely Randomized Design

In this design, participants are randomly assigned to one of two or more groups, and each group is exposed to a different treatment or condition.

Randomized Block Design

This design involves dividing participants into blocks based on a specific characteristic, such as age or gender, and then randomly assigning participants within each block to one of two or more treatment groups.

Factorial Design

In a factorial design, participants are randomly assigned to one of several groups, each of which receives a different combination of two or more independent variables.

Repeated Measures Design

In this design, each participant is exposed to all of the different treatments or conditions, either in a random order or in a predetermined order.

Crossover Design

This design involves randomly assigning participants to one of two or more treatment groups, with each group receiving one treatment during the first phase of the study and then switching to a different treatment during the second phase.

Split-plot Design

In this design, the researcher manipulates one or more variables at different levels and uses a randomized block design to control for other variables.

Nested Design

This design involves grouping participants within larger units, such as schools or households, and then randomly assigning these units to different treatment groups.

Laboratory Experiment

Laboratory experiments are conducted under controlled conditions, which allows for greater precision and accuracy. However, because laboratory conditions are not always representative of real-world conditions, the results of these experiments may not be generalizable to the population at large.

Field Experiment

Field experiments are conducted in naturalistic settings and allow for more realistic observations. However, because field experiments are not as controlled as laboratory experiments, they may be subject to more sources of error.

Experimental Design Methods

Experimental design methods refer to the techniques and procedures used to design and conduct experiments in scientific research. Here are some common experimental design methods:

Randomization

This involves randomly assigning participants to different groups or treatments to ensure that any observed differences between groups are due to the treatment and not to other factors.

Control Group

The use of a control group is an important experimental design method that involves having a group of participants that do not receive the treatment or intervention being studied. The control group is used as a baseline to compare the effects of the treatment group.

Blinding involves keeping participants, researchers, or both unaware of which treatment group participants are in, in order to reduce the risk of bias in the results.

Counterbalancing

This involves systematically varying the order in which participants receive treatments or interventions in order to control for order effects.

Replication

Replication involves conducting the same experiment with different samples or under different conditions to increase the reliability and validity of the results.

This experimental design method involves manipulating multiple independent variables simultaneously to investigate their combined effects on the dependent variable.

This involves dividing participants into subgroups or blocks based on specific characteristics, such as age or gender, in order to reduce the risk of confounding variables.

Data Collection Method

Experimental design data collection methods are techniques and procedures used to collect data in experimental research. Here are some common experimental design data collection methods:

Direct Observation

This method involves observing and recording the behavior or phenomenon of interest in real time. It may involve the use of structured or unstructured observation, and may be conducted in a laboratory or naturalistic setting.

Self-report Measures

Self-report measures involve asking participants to report their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors using questionnaires, surveys, or interviews. These measures may be administered in person or online.

Behavioral Measures

Behavioral measures involve measuring participants’ behavior directly, such as through reaction time tasks or performance tests. These measures may be administered using specialized equipment or software.

Physiological Measures

Physiological measures involve measuring participants’ physiological responses, such as heart rate, blood pressure, or brain activity, using specialized equipment. These measures may be invasive or non-invasive, and may be administered in a laboratory or clinical setting.

Archival Data

Archival data involves using existing records or data, such as medical records, administrative records, or historical documents, as a source of information. These data may be collected from public or private sources.

Computerized Measures

Computerized measures involve using software or computer programs to collect data on participants’ behavior or responses. These measures may include reaction time tasks, cognitive tests, or other types of computer-based assessments.

Video Recording

Video recording involves recording participants’ behavior or interactions using cameras or other recording equipment. This method can be used to capture detailed information about participants’ behavior or to analyze social interactions.

Data Analysis Method

Experimental design data analysis methods refer to the statistical techniques and procedures used to analyze data collected in experimental research. Here are some common experimental design data analysis methods:

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe the data collected in the study. This includes measures such as mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics are used to make inferences or generalizations about a larger population based on the data collected in the study. This includes hypothesis testing and estimation.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

ANOVA is a statistical technique used to compare means across two or more groups in order to determine whether there are significant differences between the groups. There are several types of ANOVA, including one-way ANOVA, two-way ANOVA, and repeated measures ANOVA.

Regression Analysis

Regression analysis is used to model the relationship between two or more variables in order to determine the strength and direction of the relationship. There are several types of regression analysis, including linear regression, logistic regression, and multiple regression.

Factor Analysis

Factor analysis is used to identify underlying factors or dimensions in a set of variables. This can be used to reduce the complexity of the data and identify patterns in the data.

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)

SEM is a statistical technique used to model complex relationships between variables. It can be used to test complex theories and models of causality.

Cluster Analysis

Cluster analysis is used to group similar cases or observations together based on similarities or differences in their characteristics.

Time Series Analysis

Time series analysis is used to analyze data collected over time in order to identify trends, patterns, or changes in the data.

Multilevel Modeling

Multilevel modeling is used to analyze data that is nested within multiple levels, such as students nested within schools or employees nested within companies.

Applications of Experimental Design 

Experimental design is a versatile research methodology that can be applied in many fields. Here are some applications of experimental design:

• Medical Research: Experimental design is commonly used to test new treatments or medications for various medical conditions. This includes clinical trials to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of new drugs or medical devices.
• Agriculture : Experimental design is used to test new crop varieties, fertilizers, and other agricultural practices. This includes randomized field trials to evaluate the effects of different treatments on crop yield, quality, and pest resistance.
• Environmental science: Experimental design is used to study the effects of environmental factors, such as pollution or climate change, on ecosystems and wildlife. This includes controlled experiments to study the effects of pollutants on plant growth or animal behavior.
• Psychology : Experimental design is used to study human behavior and cognitive processes. This includes experiments to test the effects of different interventions, such as therapy or medication, on mental health outcomes.
• Engineering : Experimental design is used to test new materials, designs, and manufacturing processes in engineering applications. This includes laboratory experiments to test the strength and durability of new materials, or field experiments to test the performance of new technologies.
• Education : Experimental design is used to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching methods, educational interventions, and programs. This includes randomized controlled trials to compare different teaching methods or evaluate the impact of educational programs on student outcomes.
• Marketing : Experimental design is used to test the effectiveness of marketing campaigns, pricing strategies, and product designs. This includes experiments to test the impact of different marketing messages or pricing schemes on consumer behavior.

Examples of Experimental Design 

Here are some examples of experimental design in different fields:

• Example in Medical research : A study that investigates the effectiveness of a new drug treatment for a particular condition. Patients are randomly assigned to either a treatment group or a control group, with the treatment group receiving the new drug and the control group receiving a placebo. The outcomes, such as improvement in symptoms or side effects, are measured and compared between the two groups.
• Example in Education research: A study that examines the impact of a new teaching method on student learning outcomes. Students are randomly assigned to either a group that receives the new teaching method or a group that receives the traditional teaching method. Student achievement is measured before and after the intervention, and the results are compared between the two groups.
• Example in Environmental science: A study that tests the effectiveness of a new method for reducing pollution in a river. Two sections of the river are selected, with one section treated with the new method and the other section left untreated. The water quality is measured before and after the intervention, and the results are compared between the two sections.
• Example in Marketing research: A study that investigates the impact of a new advertising campaign on consumer behavior. Participants are randomly assigned to either a group that is exposed to the new campaign or a group that is not. Their behavior, such as purchasing or product awareness, is measured and compared between the two groups.
• Example in Social psychology: A study that examines the effect of a new social intervention on reducing prejudice towards a marginalized group. Participants are randomly assigned to either a group that receives the intervention or a control group that does not. Their attitudes and behavior towards the marginalized group are measured before and after the intervention, and the results are compared between the two groups.

When to use Experimental Research Design 

Experimental research design should be used when a researcher wants to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables. It is particularly useful when studying the impact of an intervention or treatment on a particular outcome.

Here are some situations where experimental research design may be appropriate:

• When studying the effects of a new drug or medical treatment: Experimental research design is commonly used in medical research to test the effectiveness and safety of new drugs or medical treatments. By randomly assigning patients to treatment and control groups, researchers can determine whether the treatment is effective in improving health outcomes.
• When evaluating the effectiveness of an educational intervention: An experimental research design can be used to evaluate the impact of a new teaching method or educational program on student learning outcomes. By randomly assigning students to treatment and control groups, researchers can determine whether the intervention is effective in improving academic performance.
• When testing the effectiveness of a marketing campaign: An experimental research design can be used to test the effectiveness of different marketing messages or strategies. By randomly assigning participants to treatment and control groups, researchers can determine whether the marketing campaign is effective in changing consumer behavior.
• When studying the effects of an environmental intervention: Experimental research design can be used to study the impact of environmental interventions, such as pollution reduction programs or conservation efforts. By randomly assigning locations or areas to treatment and control groups, researchers can determine whether the intervention is effective in improving environmental outcomes.
• When testing the effects of a new technology: An experimental research design can be used to test the effectiveness and safety of new technologies or engineering designs. By randomly assigning participants or locations to treatment and control groups, researchers can determine whether the new technology is effective in achieving its intended purpose.

How to Conduct Experimental Research

Here are the steps to conduct Experimental Research:

• Identify a Research Question : Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through the experiment. The question should be clear, specific, and testable.
• Develop a Hypothesis: Based on your research question, develop a hypothesis that predicts the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The hypothesis should be clear and testable.
• Design the Experiment : Determine the type of experimental design you will use, such as a between-subjects design or a within-subjects design. Also, decide on the experimental conditions, such as the number of independent variables, the levels of the independent variable, and the dependent variable to be measured.
• Select Participants: Select the participants who will take part in the experiment. They should be representative of the population you are interested in studying.
• Randomly Assign Participants to Groups: If you are using a between-subjects design, randomly assign participants to groups to control for individual differences.
• Conduct the Experiment : Conduct the experiment by manipulating the independent variable(s) and measuring the dependent variable(s) across the different conditions.
• Analyze the Data: Analyze the data using appropriate statistical methods to determine if there is a significant effect of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s).
• Draw Conclusions: Based on the data analysis, draw conclusions about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. If the results support the hypothesis, then it is accepted. If the results do not support the hypothesis, then it is rejected.
• Communicate the Results: Finally, communicate the results of the experiment through a research report or presentation. Include the purpose of the study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.

Purpose of Experimental Design 

The purpose of experimental design is to control and manipulate one or more independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable. Experimental design allows researchers to systematically investigate causal relationships between variables, and to establish cause-and-effect relationships between the independent and dependent variables. Through experimental design, researchers can test hypotheses and make inferences about the population from which the sample was drawn.

Experimental design provides a structured approach to designing and conducting experiments, ensuring that the results are reliable and valid. By carefully controlling for extraneous variables that may affect the outcome of the study, experimental design allows researchers to isolate the effect of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s), and to minimize the influence of other factors that may confound the results.

Experimental design also allows researchers to generalize their findings to the larger population from which the sample was drawn. By randomly selecting participants and using statistical techniques to analyze the data, researchers can make inferences about the larger population with a high degree of confidence.

Overall, the purpose of experimental design is to provide a rigorous, systematic, and scientific method for testing hypotheses and establishing cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Experimental design is a powerful tool for advancing scientific knowledge and informing evidence-based practice in various fields, including psychology, biology, medicine, engineering, and social sciences.

Advantages of Experimental Design 

Experimental design offers several advantages in research. Here are some of the main advantages:

• Control over extraneous variables: Experimental design allows researchers to control for extraneous variables that may affect the outcome of the study. By manipulating the independent variable and holding all other variables constant, researchers can isolate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
• Establishing causality: Experimental design allows researchers to establish causality by manipulating the independent variable and observing its effect on the dependent variable. This allows researchers to determine whether changes in the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable.
• Replication : Experimental design allows researchers to replicate their experiments to ensure that the findings are consistent and reliable. Replication is important for establishing the validity and generalizability of the findings.
• Random assignment: Experimental design often involves randomly assigning participants to conditions. This helps to ensure that individual differences between participants are evenly distributed across conditions, which increases the internal validity of the study.
• Precision : Experimental design allows researchers to measure variables with precision, which can increase the accuracy and reliability of the data.
• Generalizability : If the study is well-designed, experimental design can increase the generalizability of the findings. By controlling for extraneous variables and using random assignment, researchers can increase the likelihood that the findings will apply to other populations and contexts.

Limitations of Experimental Design

Experimental design has some limitations that researchers should be aware of. Here are some of the main limitations:

• Artificiality : Experimental design often involves creating artificial situations that may not reflect real-world situations. This can limit the external validity of the findings, or the extent to which the findings can be generalized to real-world settings.
• Ethical concerns: Some experimental designs may raise ethical concerns, particularly if they involve manipulating variables that could cause harm to participants or if they involve deception.
• Participant bias : Participants in experimental studies may modify their behavior in response to the experiment, which can lead to participant bias.
• Limited generalizability: The conditions of the experiment may not reflect the complexities of real-world situations. As a result, the findings may not be applicable to all populations and contexts.
• Cost and time : Experimental design can be expensive and time-consuming, particularly if the experiment requires specialized equipment or if the sample size is large.
• Researcher bias : Researchers may unintentionally bias the results of the experiment if they have expectations or preferences for certain outcomes.
• Lack of feasibility : Experimental design may not be feasible in some cases, particularly if the research question involves variables that cannot be manipulated or controlled.

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• A Quick Guide to Experimental Design | 5 Steps & Examples

A Quick Guide to Experimental Design | 5 Steps & Examples

Published on 11 April 2022 by Rebecca Bevans . Revised on 5 December 2022.

Experiments are used to study causal relationships . You manipulate one or more independent variables and measure their effect on one or more dependent variables.

Experimental design means creating a set of procedures to systematically test a hypothesis . A good experimental design requires a strong understanding of the system you are studying. 

There are five key steps in designing an experiment:

• Consider your variables and how they are related
• Write a specific, testable hypothesis
• Design experimental treatments to manipulate your independent variable
• Assign subjects to groups, either between-subjects or within-subjects
• Plan how you will measure your dependent variable

For valid conclusions, you also need to select a representative sample and control any  extraneous variables that might influence your results. If if random assignment of participants to control and treatment groups is impossible, unethical, or highly difficult, consider an observational study instead.

Table of contents

Step 1: define your variables, step 2: write your hypothesis, step 3: design your experimental treatments, step 4: assign your subjects to treatment groups, step 5: measure your dependent variable, frequently asked questions about experimental design.

You should begin with a specific research question . We will work with two research question examples, one from health sciences and one from ecology:

To translate your research question into an experimental hypothesis, you need to define the main variables and make predictions about how they are related.

Start by simply listing the independent and dependent variables .

Then you need to think about possible extraneous and confounding variables and consider how you might control  them in your experiment.

Finally, you can put these variables together into a diagram. Use arrows to show the possible relationships between variables and include signs to show the expected direction of the relationships.

Here we predict that increasing temperature will increase soil respiration and decrease soil moisture, while decreasing soil moisture will lead to decreased soil respiration.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Now that you have a strong conceptual understanding of the system you are studying, you should be able to write a specific, testable hypothesis that addresses your research question.

The next steps will describe how to design a controlled experiment . In a controlled experiment, you must be able to:

• Systematically and precisely manipulate the independent variable(s).
• Precisely measure the dependent variable(s).
• Control any potential confounding variables.

If your study system doesn’t match these criteria, there are other types of research you can use to answer your research question.

How you manipulate the independent variable can affect the experiment’s external validity – that is, the extent to which the results can be generalised and applied to the broader world.

First, you may need to decide how widely to vary your independent variable.

• just slightly above the natural range for your study region.
• over a wider range of temperatures to mimic future warming.
• over an extreme range that is beyond any possible natural variation.

Second, you may need to choose how finely to vary your independent variable. Sometimes this choice is made for you by your experimental system, but often you will need to decide, and this will affect how much you can infer from your results.

• a categorical variable : either as binary (yes/no) or as levels of a factor (no phone use, low phone use, high phone use).
• a continuous variable (minutes of phone use measured every night).

How you apply your experimental treatments to your test subjects is crucial for obtaining valid and reliable results.

First, you need to consider the study size : how many individuals will be included in the experiment? In general, the more subjects you include, the greater your experiment’s statistical power , which determines how much confidence you can have in your results.

Then you need to randomly assign your subjects to treatment groups . Each group receives a different level of the treatment (e.g. no phone use, low phone use, high phone use).

You should also include a control group , which receives no treatment. The control group tells us what would have happened to your test subjects without any experimental intervention.

When assigning your subjects to groups, there are two main choices you need to make:

• A completely randomised design vs a randomised block design .
• A between-subjects design vs a within-subjects design .

Randomisation

An experiment can be completely randomised or randomised within blocks (aka strata):

• In a completely randomised design , every subject is assigned to a treatment group at random.
• In a randomised block design (aka stratified random design), subjects are first grouped according to a characteristic they share, and then randomly assigned to treatments within those groups.

Sometimes randomisation isn’t practical or ethical , so researchers create partially-random or even non-random designs. An experimental design where treatments aren’t randomly assigned is called a quasi-experimental design .

Between-subjects vs within-subjects

In a between-subjects design (also known as an independent measures design or classic ANOVA design), individuals receive only one of the possible levels of an experimental treatment.

In medical or social research, you might also use matched pairs within your between-subjects design to make sure that each treatment group contains the same variety of test subjects in the same proportions.

In a within-subjects design (also known as a repeated measures design), every individual receives each of the experimental treatments consecutively, and their responses to each treatment are measured.

Within-subjects or repeated measures can also refer to an experimental design where an effect emerges over time, and individual responses are measured over time in order to measure this effect as it emerges.

Counterbalancing (randomising or reversing the order of treatments among subjects) is often used in within-subjects designs to ensure that the order of treatment application doesn’t influence the results of the experiment.

Finally, you need to decide how you’ll collect data on your dependent variable outcomes. You should aim for reliable and valid measurements that minimise bias or error.

Some variables, like temperature, can be objectively measured with scientific instruments. Others may need to be operationalised to turn them into measurable observations.

• Ask participants to record what time they go to sleep and get up each day.
• Ask participants to wear a sleep tracker.

How precisely you measure your dependent variable also affects the kinds of statistical analysis you can use on your data.

Experiments are always context-dependent, and a good experimental design will take into account all of the unique considerations of your study system to produce information that is both valid and relevant to your research question.

Experimental designs are a set of procedures that you plan in order to examine the relationship between variables that interest you.

To design a successful experiment, first identify:

• A testable hypothesis
• One or more independent variables that you will manipulate
• One or more dependent variables that you will measure

When designing the experiment, first decide:

• How your variable(s) will be manipulated
• How you will control for any potential confounding or lurking variables
• How many subjects you will include
• How you will assign treatments to your subjects

The key difference between observational studies and experiments is that, done correctly, an observational study will never influence the responses or behaviours of participants. Experimental designs will have a treatment condition applied to at least a portion of participants.

A confounding variable , also called a confounder or confounding factor, is a third variable in a study examining a potential cause-and-effect relationship.

A confounding variable is related to both the supposed cause and the supposed effect of the study. It can be difficult to separate the true effect of the independent variable from the effect of the confounding variable.

In your research design , it’s important to identify potential confounding variables and plan how you will reduce their impact.

In a between-subjects design , every participant experiences only one condition, and researchers assess group differences between participants in various conditions.

In a within-subjects design , each participant experiences all conditions, and researchers test the same participants repeatedly for differences between conditions.

The word ‘between’ means that you’re comparing different conditions between groups, while the word ‘within’ means you’re comparing different conditions within the same group.

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Rebecca Bevans

15 Experimental Design Examples

Experimental design involves testing an independent variable against a dependent variable. It is a central feature of the scientific method .

A simple example of an experimental design is a clinical trial, where research participants are placed into control and treatment groups in order to determine the degree to which an intervention in the treatment group is effective.

There are three categories of experimental design . They are:

• Pre-Experimental Design: Testing the effects of the independent variable on a single participant or a small group of participants (e.g. a case study).
• Quasi-Experimental Design: Testing the effects of the independent variable on a group of participants who aren’t randomly assigned to treatment and control groups (e.g. purposive sampling).
• True Experimental Design: Testing the effects of the independent variable on a group of participants who are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups in order to infer causality (e.g. clinical trials).

A good research student can look at a design’s methodology and correctly categorize it. Below are some typical examples of experimental designs, with their type indicated.

Experimental Design Examples

The following are examples of experimental design (with their type indicated).

1. Action Research in the Classroom

Type: Pre-Experimental Design

A teacher wants to know if a small group activity will help students learn how to conduct a survey. So, they test the activity out on a few of their classes and make careful observations regarding the outcome.

The teacher might observe that the students respond well to the activity and seem to be learning the material quickly.

However, because there was no comparison group of students that learned how to do a survey with a different methodology, the teacher cannot be certain that the activity is actually the best method for teaching that subject.

2. Study on the Impact of an Advertisement

An advertising firm has assigned two of their best staff to develop a quirky ad about eating a brand’s new breakfast product.

The team puts together an unusual skit that involves characters enjoying the breakfast while engaged in silly gestures and zany background music. The ad agency doesn’t want to spend a great deal of money on the ad just yet, so the commercial is shot with a low budget. The firm then shows the ad to a small group of people just to see their reactions.

Afterwards they determine that the ad had a strong impact on viewers so they move forward with a much larger budget.

3. Case Study

A medical doctor has a hunch that an old treatment regimen might be effective in treating a rare illness.

The treatment has never been used in this manner before. So, the doctor applies the treatment to two of their patients with the illness. After several weeks, the results seem to indicate that the treatment is not causing any change in the illness. The doctor concludes that there is no need to continue the treatment or conduct a larger study with a control condition.

4. Fertilizer and Plant Growth Study

An agricultural farmer is exploring different combinations of nutrients on plant growth, so she does a small experiment.

Instead of spending a lot of time and money applying the different mixes to acres of land and waiting several months to see the results, she decides to apply the fertilizer to some small plants in the lab.

After several weeks, it appears that the plants are responding well. They are growing rapidly and producing dense branching. She shows the plants to her colleagues and they all agree that further testing is needed under better controlled conditions .

5. Mood States Study

A team of psychologists is interested in studying how mood affects altruistic behavior. They are undecided however, on how to put the research participants in a bad mood, so they try a few pilot studies out.

They try one suggestion and make a 3-minute video that shows sad scenes from famous heart-wrenching movies.

They then recruit a few people to watch the clips and measure their mood states afterwards.

The results indicate that people were put in a negative mood, but since there was no control group, the researchers cannot be 100% confident in the clip’s effectiveness.

6. Math Games and Learning Study

Type: Quasi-Experimental Design

Two teachers have developed a set of math games that they think will make learning math more enjoyable for their students. They decide to test out the games on their classes.

So, for two weeks, one teacher has all of her students play the math games. The other teacher uses the standard teaching techniques. At the end of the two weeks, all students take the same math test. The results indicate that students that played the math games did better on the test.

Although the teachers would like to say the games were the cause of the improved performance, they cannot be 100% sure because the study lacked random assignment . There are many other differences between the groups that played the games and those that did not.

Learn More: Random Assignment Examples

7. Economic Impact of Policy

An economic policy institute has decided to test the effectiveness of a new policy on the development of small business. The institute identifies two cities in a third-world country for testing.

The two cities are similar in terms of size, economic output, and other characteristics. The city in which the new policy was implemented showed a much higher growth of small businesses than the other city.

Although the two cities were similar in many ways, the researchers must be cautious in their conclusions. There may exist other differences between the two cities that effected small business growth other than the policy.

8. Parenting Styles and Academic Performance

Psychologists want to understand how parenting style affects children’s academic performance.

So, they identify a large group of parents that have one of four parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, or neglectful. The researchers then compare the grades of each group and discover that children raised with the authoritative parenting style had better grades than the other three groups. Although these results may seem convincing, it turns out that parents that use the authoritative parenting style also have higher SES class and can afford to provide their children with more intellectually enriching activities like summer STEAM camps.

9. Movies and Donations Study

Will the type of movie a person watches affect the likelihood that they donate to a charitable cause? To answer this question, a researcher decides to solicit donations at the exit point of a large theatre.

He chooses to study two types of movies: action-hero and murder mystery. After collecting donations for one month, he tallies the results. Patrons that watched the action-hero movie donated more than those that watched the murder mystery. Can you think of why these results could be due to something other than the movie?

10. Gender and Mindfulness Apps Study

Researchers decide to conduct a study on whether men or women benefit from mindfulness the most. So, they recruit office workers in large corporations at all levels of management.

Then, they divide the research sample up into males and females and ask the participants to use a mindfulness app once each day for at least 15 minutes.

At the end of three weeks, the researchers give all the participants a questionnaire that measures stress and also take swabs from their saliva to measure stress hormones.

The results indicate the women responded much better to the apps than males and showed lower stress levels on both measures.

Unfortunately, it is difficult to conclude that women respond to apps better than men because the researchers could not randomly assign participants to gender. This means that there may be extraneous variables that are causing the results.

11. Eyewitness Testimony Study

Type: True Experimental Design

To study the how leading questions on the memories of eyewitnesses leads to retroactive inference , Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted a simple experiment consistent with true experimental design.

Research participants all watched the same short video of two cars having an accident. Each were randomly assigned to be asked either one of two versions of a question regarding the accident.

Half of the participants were asked the question “How fast were the two cars going when they smashed into each other?” and the other half were asked “How fast were the two cars going when they contacted each other?”

Participants’ estimates were affected by the wording of the question. Participants that responded to the question with the word “smashed” gave much higher estimates than participants that responded to the word “contacted.”

12. Sports Nutrition Bars Study

A company wants to test the effects of their sports nutrition bars. So, they recruited students on a college campus to participate in their study. The students were randomly assigned to either the treatment condition or control condition.

Participants in the treatment condition ate two nutrition bars. Participants in the control condition ate two similar looking bars that tasted nearly identical, but offered no nutritional value.

One hour after consuming the bars, participants ran on a treadmill at a moderate pace for 15 minutes. The researchers recorded their speed, breathing rates, and level of exhaustion.

The results indicated that participants that ate the nutrition bars ran faster, breathed more easily, and reported feeling less exhausted than participants that ate the non-nutritious bar.

13. Clinical Trials

Medical researchers often use true experiments to assess the effectiveness of various treatment regimens. For a simplified example: people from the population are randomly selected to participate in a study on the effects of a medication on heart disease.

Participants are randomly assigned to either receive the medication or nothing at all. Three months later, all participants are contacted and they are given a full battery of heart disease tests.

The results indicate that participants that received the medication had significantly lower levels of heart disease than participants that received no medication.

14. Leadership Training Study

A large corporation wants to improve the leadership skills of its mid-level managers. The HR department has developed two programs, one online and the other in-person in small classes.

HR randomly selects 120 employees to participate and then randomly assigned them to one of three conditions: one-third are assigned to the online program, one-third to the in-class version, and one-third are put on a waiting list.

The training lasts for 6 weeks and 4 months later, supervisors of the participants are asked to rate their staff in terms of leadership potential. The supervisors were not informed about which of their staff participated in the program.

The results indicated that the in-person participants received the highest ratings from their supervisors. The online class participants came in second, followed by those on the waiting list.

15. Reading Comprehension and Lighting Study

Different wavelengths of light may affect cognitive processing. To put this hypothesis to the test, a researcher randomly assigned students on a college campus to read a history chapter in one of three lighting conditions: natural sunlight, artificial yellow light, and standard fluorescent light.

At the end of the chapter all students took the same exam. The researcher then compared the scores on the exam for students in each condition. The results revealed that natural sunlight produced the best test scores, followed by yellow light and fluorescent light.

Therefore, the researcher concludes that natural sunlight improves reading comprehension.

See Also: Experimental Study vs Observational Study

Experimental design is a central feature of scientific research. When done using true experimental design, causality can be infered, which allows researchers to provide proof that an independent variable affects a dependent variable. This is necessary in just about every field of research, and especially in medical sciences.

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143 Experiment Research Topics

Welcome to our collection of experimental research topics! Experiments are the cornerstone of empirical research, allowing scholars to test hypotheses and expand knowledge. With our experimental research questions ideas, you can uncover the diverse realms of empirical studies, from the natural sciences to social sciences and beyond.

🧪 7 Best Experimental Research Questions Ideas

🏆 best experimental research topics, 💡 simple experimental essay titles, 👍 catchy experimental research questions ideas, ❓ more experimental research questions ideas, 🎓 interesting experimental research topics.

• Bean Seed Germination Experiment Results
• Physical Health Indicator: Pulse Rate Experiment
• Static and Kinetic Friction: A Lab Experiment
• Experiment: Flame Test and Chemical Fingerprinting
• “Stanford Prison Experiment Ethics” by Philip Zimbardo
• Metal and Non-metal Redox Reactions Experiment
• Water Quality and Contamination Experiment Report
• Human Transport Systems: The Pulse Rate Experiment The report provides an analysis of the pulse rate experiment aimed at determining the pulse rates before and after a five-minute exercise conducted by the researcher.
• Hawthorne Experiments – Elton Mayo With Roethlisberger and Dickson The Hawthorne theories have brought about a positive change in the behavior and attitude of the managers as well as the workers.
• John Watson and the “Little Albert” Experiment John Watson is considered to be the founder of behaviorism, a psychological theory that focuses on visible behavior while diminishing the notion of consciousness.
• Putnam’s “Twin Earth” Thought-Experiment Throughout the history of analytic philosophy, the problem of meaning has been and remains one of its central themes.
• Why People Obey Authority: Milgram Experiment and Real-World Situation Human beings would obey authority depending on the overall rewards, potential personal gains, and the consequences of failing to do so.
• Ideal Gas Expansion Law: Experiment The purpose of the experiment was to understand the differences between different types of ideal gas expansions, paying attention to the amount of work done.
• Scientific Report Draft on Osmosis Egg Experiment Understanding how an egg reacts when placed in solutions of different concentrations enables one to understand the role of osmosis in the human body.
• Fiji Water Quality: Biology Lab Experiment Since Fiji water is among the popular brands in the US, it is essential to evaluate whether it is clean, that is, safe for human consumption.
• Experiment on Effect of Energy Drinks on Athletic Performance Experimental research is a study that a researcher sets up to evaluate a given situation, such as a drug or treatment intervention.
• Inductor-Capacitor-Resistor Circuit Experiment The article presents the experiment that will demonstrate the relationship between an inductor, voltmeter, and resistor in an inductor-capacitor-resistor (LCR) circuit.
• Unethical Research Experiments Violation of ethical principles can be traced in two analyzed cases; only in Landis’s experiment harm and killing were real in relation to animals.
• Air Pressure Experiment Methods and Results The plastic mesh fabric was placed over the mouth of the Mason jar, and the metal screw band of the latter was fastened firmly over the plastic mesh sheet.
• Kant’s Ethical Philosophy and Milgram’s Experiments The problem for Kant’s ethical philosophy is whether moral principles are applicable to nonhumans, such as Galacticans.
• Helicopter Experiment Assessment This report of a paper helicopter experiment involved designating a paper helicopter in varied designs and then dropping it severally while recording the flight time.
• Chemical Experiment on Enzyme Amylase This paper presents an experiment that was conducted to determine the activity of amylase on starch at various pH levels.
• Acoustics Experiment in Brunel’s Thames Tunnel In this project, tunnels that exist below London streets for a variety of communications, civil defense, and military purposes will be used as the objects of the experiment.
• Virtue Ethics in Stanford and Milgram’s Experiments This paper investigates the notion of virtue ethics, discussing two major studies, the Stanford prison experiment, and Milgram’s obedience studies.
• “Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment – The Deadly Deception”: Unethical Scientific Experiment “Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment – The Deadly Deception” reviews an unethical scientific experiment on humans that was conducted by White physicians on African-Americans.
• Archimedes’ Principle Experiment: Determining Gravity of Objects This paper describes an experiment that aims in determining the specific gravity of different metallic objects, a liquid, and wood.
• A Hypothesis and an Experiment: A Case Study On the control experiment, there would be a seed grown at normal aeration, and wind conditions. All should have a viable bean seed planted centrally on watered soil preferably.
• Ideal Experiment Design: Independent and Dependent Variables This work describes the ideal experiment, that is designed to verify the causal relationship between independent and dependent variables.
• Social Experiment: Informal Norms of Gender Issues The social experiment presents a contradiction between the socially-accepted norms and the understanding of equality between men and women.
• Milgram Experiment: The Question of Ethics This essay will discuss the Milgram experiment and also argue that it was ethical as medical research standards were met, and no undue harm to the participants was caused.
• An Observable Experiment: Control Over the Variables An observable experiment is defined as the experiment in which the independent variables cannot possibly be controlled by the person or person setting the test.
• Bolted & Welded Connections and Tension Experiment Exploring and comparing the expected and actual failure modes of both bottled and welded connections in tension are the primary purposes of the paper.
• Osmosis Experiment With Parsnip Through Differing Concentration of Sucrose
• Identifying the Benefits of Home Ownership: A Swedish Experiment
• Experiment for Cancer Risk Factors
• Hydrochloric Acid Into Tubes of Water and Sodium Thiosulphate Experiment
• General Information about Monkey Drug Trials Experiment
• Reaction Rates Experiment Hydrochloric Acid
• Hydrochloric Acid and Marble Chips Experiment
• Physical Disability and Labor Market Discrimination: Evidence From a Field Experiment
• Canadian Advanced Nanosatellite Experiment Biology
• Dr. Heidegger’s Experiment: Reality or Illusion
• Experiment and Multi-Grid Modeling of Evacuation From a Classroom
• High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Experiment
• Social Capital and Contributions in a Public-Goods Experiment
• Illusory Gains From Chile’s Targeted School Voucher Experiment
• Short Selling and Earnings Management: A Controlled Experiment
• Theft and Rural Poverty: Results of a Natural Experiment
• Lab Experiment: The Effectiveness of Different Antibiotics on Bacteria
• Brucellosis and Its Treatment: Experiment With Doxycycline
• The Link Between Stanford Prison Experiment and Milgram Study
• Four Fundamental Results From the Mice Experiment
• Metrology Experiment with Measurement Tools The experiment concerned testing the efficacy of the measurement tools such as the Vernier caliper, a depth gauge, a micrometer, and a gauge in an uncertainty analysis.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment The Stanford prison experiment is an example of how outside social situations influence changes in thought and behavior among humans.
• Miles Davis and Steve Reich: Geniuses of Experiments and Creativity Although Miles Davis’ and Steve Reich’s music belongs to different genres, they are connected in their constant search for a new sound by experimenting and improvising.
• Lab Experiment on Animals’ Taste or Smell Senses The hypothesis of the study is that taste perception and detection of different sugars by insects were similar to that of humans.
• Medical Pharmacology: The Langendorff Experiment The Langendorff experiment aimed at using an ex vivo isolated rat heart preparation to demonstrate the pharmacological effects of two unknown drugs.
• Studying Organisations: The Hawthorne Experiments The Hawthorn experiments marked a new direction in research of motivation and productivity. More than half a century has passed, and productivity remains a concern of management.
• Pasture Experiment: Fertiliser Treatments Response This work is an experiment that defines the role of fertilizers in pasture production and to establish the appropriate use of pasture sampling to assess pasture mass.
• Scientific Experiments on Animals from Ethical Perspectives This paper discusses using animals in scientific experiments from the consequentialist, Kantian deontological and Donna Yarri’s Christian character-based perspectives.
• Conducting a Titration Experiment Titration studies are conducted to quantify the amount of an unidentified element in the sample using a methodological approach.
• Thought Experiment: The Morality of Human Actions A thought experiment aimed at assessing the morality of human actions motivated by divine punishment or reward raises the question of morality and religion correlation.
• Ethical Implications of the Early Studies in Psychology: Milgram’s Experiment Milgram’s experiment on obedience content and results are valuable for understanding the ethical issues that may occur in social and behavioral research.
• Should Animals Be Used for Scientific Experiments? Unfortunately, at the moment, the use of animals in science and medicine cannot be excluded entirely. However, it is possible to conduct experiments using mathematical models.
• Stanford Prison Experiment: Behind the Mask Stanford Prison Experiment organized by Stanford researcher Philip Zimbardo led to a strong public response and still discussed today.
• Extraneous Variables in Experiments There are some variables in experiments besides the independent variables that usually cause a variation or a change to the dependent variables.
• The Use of Animals in Psychological Experiments The method of experimentation is of great significance for multiple fields of psychology, especially for the behaviorist branch.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment Analysis Abuse between guards and prisoners is an imminent factor attributed to the differential margin on duties and responsibilities.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment’s Historical Record The Stanford Prison Experiment is a seminal investigation into the dynamics of peer pressure in human psychology.
• Socioeconomic Status and Sentencing Severity Experiment There are two types of validity threats: external and internal. External validity refers to the degree to which the study can be applied to situations outside the research context.
• Psychology: Zimbardo Prison Experiment Despite all the horrors that contradict ethics, Zimbardo’s research contributed to the formation of social psychology. It was unethical to conduct this experiment.
• Post-Covid Adaptation Laboratory Experiment The goal of the laboratory experiment that this paper will outline is to test the hypothesis about the needs of senior citizens in the post-pandemic era.
• Psychology: Milgram Obedience Experiment Milgram’s experiment may be the last psychological experiment that has had a significant impact on psychology and public opinion.
• Predicting the Replicability of Social Science Lab Experiments The quality of work is the most significant factor for any academic organization. A research process for any scientific project requires careful evaluation of information sources.
• Moral Dilemma and Thought Experiments The aim of this essay is to set up a thought experiment in which a moral dilemma must be resolved. A person is invited to make a choice as a result of which people should suffer.
• Experiments in High-Frequency Trading High-frequency trading (HFT) is becoming increasingly popular with private businesses and traders. HFT allows traders to make transactions within fractions of seconds.
• The Ethical Issues in 1940’s U.S. Experiments With Syphilis in Guatemala The Guatemala tests have been viewed as a dark side of the U.S. clinical examination: in the 1940s, they purposely uncovered over 5,000 individuals with syphilis and gonorrhea.
• Isopods and Their Use in Experiments Isopod is a large family belonging to the crayfish order. The fact that isopods are good to use in various experiments is related to their habitat.
• Sociological Experiment: The Salience of Social Norms Based on the sociological experiment described in the paper, the author demonstrated the salience of social norms that exist in our culture.
• Blue-Eyed vs. Brown-Eyed Experiment Elliot exposed the learners to discrimination, in which blue-eyed children were initially preferred and given more privileges in the classroom than brown-eyed students.
• Experiment: Science Meets Real Life The experiment involves the sequential study of the dog’s behavior and its reaction to a change in some factors, such as food and bowl.
• P. Zimbardo’s Stanford Experiment A psychological experiment is an event conducted to acquire new scientific knowledge about psychology through the researcher’s deliberate intervention in the life of the examinee.
• Smoking: An Idea for a Statistical Experiment The hypothesis is that people who smoke cigarettes daily tend to earn more than others: this is a personal observation that requires careful experimental testing.
• The Stanford Jail Experiment Critiques One of the most important critiques leveled at the Stanford Jail Experiment is the length of time it took Zimbardo to call a halt to the experiment.
• Can Nonrandomized Experiments Yield Accurate Answers?
• What Kind of Experiments Are Done on Animals?
• Is It Good to Use Animals for Experiments?
• What Are the Types of Experiments?
• Is There Any Healthy Way to Experiment With Drugs?
• What Are the Top Experiments of All Time?
• Are Breaching Experiments Ethical?
• What Does It Mean to Experiment With a Drug?
• Why Do We Use Factorial Experiments?
• How Does Temperature Affect the Rate of Reaction Experiment?
• What Are the Easiest Experiments to Do?
• How Can Rushing Harm the Data and the Experiment Overall?
• What Are the Steps to a Science Experiment?
• How Do Errors Affect the Experiment?
• What Is the Purpose of the Wax Experiment and What Conclusion Does Descartes Reach on Its Basis?
• Can an Experiment Be Invalid but Reliable?
• What Is the Most Influential Experiment in Psychology?
• Why Are Fruit Flies Used for Experiments?
• How Can You Improve the Accuracy of an Experiment?
• What Was Galileo’s Famous Cannonball Drop Experiment?
• What Can Knowledge Be Gained From Conducting a Breaching Experiment?
• How Do You Identify the Independent and Dependent Variables in an Experiment?
• What Was Griffith’s Experiment and Why Was It Important?
• What Is the Difference Between Contingent Valuation and Choice Experiment?
• What Is the Choice Experiment Valuation Method?
• Super Size Me and Jogn Cisna Experiments In comparison to Super Size Me, the experiment of John Cisna immediately stands out with a positive attitude towards fast food.
• The Milgram Experiment: Ethical Issues The Milgram experiment is a controversial study on the subject of obedience to authority figures. The participants were asked to deliver electric shocks to other people.
• Health and Medicine: Experiments and Discussions In the first experiment, researchers tested the subjectivity of polygraph examiners’ assessments. The specialist was given a specific name before the test began to do it.
• An Experiment in DNA Cloning and Sequencing The aim of this experiment is to clone a fragment of DNA that includes the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) gene into the vector pTTQ18, which is an expression vector.
• An Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay Experiment In our society presently, immunoassay techniques used in data analyses have assumed a place of high significance, particularly as it applies to pure/applied research.
• Anaerobic Threshold: An Experiment Anaerobic Threshold refers to the minimum level below which no increase in blood lactose can occur. At levels above AT, supplementing aerobic production needs aerobic energy.
• Comparative Effectiveness of Various Surfactants: Experiment Surfactants refer to chemical substances that lessen the surface tension in water. This experiment aimed at establishing the comparative effectiveness of various surfactants.
• An Experiment on Data Mining Extend This experiment aims to utilize knowledge and principles of data mining in depicting the investigation of emergent data in biology- particularly on the development of ELISAs.
• Lab Experiment on Photovoltaics The experiment was done specifically to ascertain how various connected units could be coordinated to give a more reliable and controllable functioning.
• Mind Control: Ethics of the Experiment The topics of mind control and free will has always been seen as a morally grey area in terms of its research potential.
• A Personal Behavior Modification Experiment Using Operant Conditioning This research paper points out the positive outcomes of swearing: it can relieve stress and help one cope with emotional work.
• Jane Elliott’s Experiment on Discrimination The teacher Jane Elliott from Iowa decided to conduct an experiment demonstrating to her students what discrimination is and what it feels like.
• The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment When the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment was begun, over 75 years ago, no such principles were officially in place.
• The Power of Conformity: Asch’s Experiments The article examines a series of experiments by Asch that helped him identify the factors influencing social conformity.
• The Critical Characteristics of an Experiment The main aim of this assignment is to evaluate the thought control experiment by famous psychologist Ellen Langer and determine whether it is a qualitative experiment.
• Ethical Analysis of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments The Tuskegee Syphilis Study failed to take into account several critical ethical considerations. This essay examines some of the ethical problems linked to the investigation.
• Boston’s Experiment: Harvard Business Review’s Lessons In Harvard Business Review’s Lessons from Boston’s Experiment with The One Fund, Mitchell discusses his experience with fund distribution to the victims of the Boston bombing.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment Review The video presents an experiment held in 1971. In general, a viewer can observe that people are subjected to behavior and opinion change when affected by others.
• The Way to Come To Terms With Yourself: Social Distancing Experiment In this work, the author describes the course and results of an experiment on social distance: refusal to use gadgets, any communication, and going out.
• Experiment: Bacteria vs Antibiotics The experiment aimed was to test the reaction of bacteria towards some antibiotics and determine the effectiveness of those antibiotics in treating some diseases.
• Ethics: Experiments on Animals Industrial and biomedical research is often painful and most of the test ends up killing the animals. Experiments such as these often incur the wrath of the animal rights movement.
• Impact of the Stanford Prison Experiment Have on Psychology This essay will begin with a brief description of Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment then it will move to explore two main issues that arose from the said experiment.
• Chemistry of Cooking. Saffron Rice Experiment This research project outlines an experiment that aims to determine the temperature at which Saffron rice turns yellow.
• Worldview Changes After the Blindness Experiment Our senses are the central source of information about the world and events that happen around us. So, the loss of one of these is a significant challenge for a person.
• Evaluation of the Stanford Prison Experiment’ Role The Stanford Prison Experiment is a study that was conducted on August 20, 1971 by a group of researchers headed by the psychology professor Philip Zimbardo.
• Social Experiment: Wrong Outfit in a Wedding Event The attendees of the wedding event displayed disappointment, discomfort, and open resentment towards the dressing style.
• Heat Transfer Rates in a Hot Jet: Experiment The experiment is aimed at determining the heat transfer rates in a hot jet. The reasons for the hot jet to have different heat rates in different areas will be determined.
• Inattentive Blindness in Psychological Experiment The features of the human consciousness not to notice quite obvious changes are natural and innate. Such blindness can be caused by several factors.
• Situation, Institutional Norms, and Roles: The Stanford Experiment of Zimbardo Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Experiment brought him critical acclaim. At the same time, it accorded him a certain level of notoriety; because of the methodologies he utilized to conduct the experiment.
• Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: Ethical Controversy Tuskegee case set the background for the reconsideration of healthcare ethics, which means that the ethical value of the given case deserves reconsideration.
• Gender Stereotyping Experiment: The Level of Gender Stereotyping in Society The present study measures the effects of stereotyping women. It examines the first impression formed by subjects based on the information about a fictitious man or a woman.
• Psychological Studies and Experiments: Code of Conduct The following paper is based on past psychological studies i.e. Stanly Milgram’s ‘Obedience Experiment’, Philip Zimbardo’s ‘Stanford Prison Experiment, and Jane Elliott’s ‘Class Divided’.
• Using Animals in Medical Experiments This paper explores how the principles of the character-based ethical approach can be applied to the discussion of using animals in the medical research and experiments.
• The Stanford Experiment by Philip Zimbardo Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Experiment shows that situational power and norms dictate the behavior of the individual more than the core beliefs that made up his personal identity.

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Top 100 Experimental Research Topics for School & College Students

Top 100 Experimental Research Topics for School & College Students: Are you a student looking for inspiration for your next research project? Research is a vital aspect of your educational journey, and choosing the right topic is often the first step to success. Whether you’re in school or college, finding a compelling experimental research topic can be a daunting task. But fear not! We’ve compiled a list of the top 100 experimental research topics to ignite your curiosity and help you embark on an exciting research journey.

What is Experimental Research?

Experimental research is a research approach that entails the deliberate manipulation of one or more independent variables to assess their impact on one or more dependent variables. It is widely regarded as the “gold standard” of research methodologies due to its capacity to establish causal relationships between variables.

Typically, experimental research designs involve the creation of two distinct groups: the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable, while the control group is not. Subsequently, the researcher compares the outcomes of these two groups to identify any disparities.

Two primary categories of experimental research designs exist: true experiments and quasi-experiments. True experiments employ random assignment of participants to the experimental and control groups, ensuring initial equivalency between the groups and minimizing alternative explanations for observed differences.

Conversely, quasi-experiments lack random assignment, potentially introducing disparities between the experimental and control groups at the outset, which may confound the results. Nevertheless, quasi-experiments can still be valuable in studying cause-and-effect relationships, particularly when random assignment is impractical or ethically challenging.

Experimental research finds applications across diverse fields such as science, medicine, education, and business. It serves as a potent tool for comprehending how various factors influence outcomes and for developing novel products and interventions.

Consider the following examples of experimental research :

A scientist aims to assess a new drug’s effectiveness in treating high blood pressure. Participants are randomly assigned to receive either the new drug or a placebo. After several weeks, their blood pressure is measured, and the results between the two groups are compared.

A teacher seeks to investigate the impact of various teaching methods on student achievement. Students are randomly allocated to different classrooms, each utilizing a distinct teaching method. At the end of the semester, the students’ test scores are compared to identify the most effective teaching method.

A marketing manager intends to evaluate the influence of a new advertising campaign on product sales. A random sample of customers is chosen and assigned to either view the new advertising campaign or not. After several weeks, sales data from the two groups are compared to determine the campaign’s effectiveness.

Major Types of Experimental Research Design

There are three main types of experimental research designs:

1. Pre-experimental research designs

Pre-experimental research designs are the simplest type of experimental design. They do not involve random assignment, and the researcher typically only tests one group of participants. Pre-experimental research designs are often used to generate preliminary data or to explore new research questions. However, they are not considered to be as rigorous as other types of experimental designs because they are more prone to confounding variables.

Here are some examples of pre-experimental research designs:

• One-shot case study design: The researcher tests a single group of participants after they have been exposed to the independent variable.
• One-group pretest-posttest design: The researcher tests a single group of participants before and after they have been exposed to the independent variable.
• Static-group comparison design: The researcher compares two groups of participants, one of which has been exposed to the independent variable and the other of which has not.

2. Quasi-experimental research designs

Quasi-experimental research designs are more rigorous than pre-experimental research designs because they involve some form of control group. However, they do not involve random assignment. Quasi-experimental research designs are often used in situations where random assignment is not feasible or ethical.

Here are some examples of quasi-experimental research designs:

• Non-equivalent control group design: The researcher compares two groups of participants, one of which has been exposed to the independent variable and the other of which has not. The two groups are not randomly assigned, but the researcher tries to match them on relevant characteristics to reduce the risk of confounding variables.
• Time series design: The researcher tests a single group of participants multiple times over time, both before and after they have been exposed to the independent variable.
• Interrupted time series design: The researcher tests a single group of participants multiple times over time, both before and after they have been exposed to the independent variable. However, there is an interruption in the time series, such as a change in policy or practice, that may affect the dependent variable.

3. True experimental research designs

True experimental research designs are the most rigorous type of experimental design. They involve random assignment and a control group. True experimental research designs are considered to be the best way to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

Here are some examples of true experimental research designs:

• Randomized controlled trial (RCT): The researcher randomly assigns participants to either the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable, while the control group is not. The researcher then compares the outcomes of the two groups to see if there is a difference.
• Posttest-only control group design: The researcher randomly assigns participants to either the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable, while the control group is not. The researcher then measures the dependent variable in both groups after the experiment is complete.
• Solomon four-group design: This design is similar to the posttest-only control group design, but it also includes two additional groups: a pretest-posttest experimental group and a pretest-posttest control group. This allows the researcher to control for the effects of testing.

Experimental research is a powerful tool for understanding the world around us and developing new ways to improve our lives. By understanding the different types of experimental research designs, we can better evaluate the quality of research and make informed decisions about the findings.

Elements of Experimental Research

Experimental research typically comprises several essential elements that help structure and conduct a rigorous scientific investigation. These elements are crucial for designing, executing, and analyzing experiments effectively. Here are the key elements of experimental research:

• Research Question or Hypothesis : Every experiment begins with a clear research question or a testable hypothesis. This question or hypothesis specifies what the researcher aims to investigate or the relationship they seek to explore.
• Independent Variable : The independent variable is the factor that the researcher intentionally manipulates or varies in the experiment. It is the presumed cause and is under the researcher’s control. In some cases, there may be more than one independent variable.
• Dependent Variable : The dependent variable is the outcome or response that the researcher measures or observes. It is the variable that may be influenced by changes in the independent variable. The dependent variable is what researchers are trying to understand or explain.
• Experimental and Control Groups : To assess the impact of the independent variable, participants or subjects are typically divided into at least two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable, while the control group is not. This comparison helps determine whether any observed effects are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.
• Random Assignment : In true experimental designs, participants are randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups. Random assignment helps ensure that the groups are comparable and minimizes bias, increasing the internal validity of the experiment.
• Controlled Conditions : Experimental research strives to control and minimize the influence of extraneous variables, which are factors other than the independent variable that could affect the results. This control helps isolate the effects of the independent variable.
• Experimental Procedure : Researchers outline the specific steps and procedures that participants will undergo during the experiment. This includes how the independent variable will be manipulated, how data will be collected, and the sequence of events.
• Data Collection : Data collection involves gathering information about the dependent variable’s responses or outcomes. This is typically done through measurements, observations, surveys, or other data collection methods.
• Data Analysis : After data collection, researchers analyze the collected data using statistical methods to determine whether there are significant differences or relationships between groups. This analysis helps draw conclusions about the impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
• Replication : To enhance the reliability of experimental findings, replication involves repeating the experiment under similar conditions to see if the results can be consistently reproduced.
• Ethical Considerations : Researchers must adhere to ethical principles when conducting experiments involving human or animal subjects. This includes obtaining informed consent, ensuring participant well-being, and minimizing harm.
• Reporting and Communication : Researchers communicate their findings by writing research papers or reports that describe the experiment, its methods, results, and conclusions. This enables other scientists to assess and build upon the research.

These elements collectively form the foundation of experimental research, allowing researchers to systematically investigate and establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables in a controlled and methodical manner.

Top Best Experimental Research Topics for School Students

Natural sciences research topics for school students:.

• Investigating How Light Intensity Affects Plant Growth
• Exploring the Relationship Between Salt Concentrations and the Freezing Point of Water
• Comparing Battery Lifespan Among Various Brands
• Studying the Influence of pH on Enzyme Activity
• Examining the Effect of Magnet Strength on the Attraction Distance of a Paperclip

Behavioral Sciences Research Topics for School Students:

• Analyzing the Impact of Music on Concentration
• Contrasting Group Study and Individual Study to Assess Their Effects on Academic Performance
• Investigating the Influence of Reward Systems on Student Motivation
• Exploring the Role of Different Colors in Shaping Mood
• Assessing How Sleep Patterns Affect Academic Performance

Environmental Studies Research Topics for School Students:

• Investigating How Temperature Affects Composting Processes
• Assessing the Consequences of Water Pollution on Aquatic Life
• Exploring the Impact of Urbanization on Local Bird Species
• Studying the Influence of Different Soil Types on Plant Growth
• Examining the Effects of Acid Rain on Plant Growth

Best Experimental Research Topics for College Students

Social sciences research topics for college students:.

• Examining the Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Mental Health
• Analyzing the Influence of Media Portrayals on Body Image
• Investigating the Effects of Bilingual Education on Academic Achievement
• Exploring the Role of Social Media in Political Campaigns
• Assessing the Impact of Gender Stereotypes on Career Choices

Business and Economics:

• Evaluating the Influence of Online Reviews on Consumer Purchasing Decisions
• The Effect of Advertising on Brand Loyalty
• Analyzing the Impact of Corporate Social Responsibility on Profitability
• The Efficacy of Different Pricing Strategies on Sales
• Investigating the Relationship Between Employee Satisfaction and Productivity
• Effects of Economic Policy Changes on Small Businesses
• The Role of Market Research in Product Development
• The Impact of Globalization on International Trade
• Comparing the Performance of Different Investment Strategies
• Evaluating the Effects of Tax Policies on Economic Growth

Natural Sciences Research Topics for College Students:

• Investigating the Genetic Factors Contributing to Obesity
• Analyzing the Effects of Climate Change on Marine Ecosystems
• Assessing the Impact of Pesticides on Bee Populations
• Studying the Consequences of Pollution on Urban Wildlife
• Examining the Role of Microplastics in Freshwater Ecosystems

Applied Sciences Research Topics for College Students:

• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Machine Learning Algorithms in Predicting Stock Prices
• Analyzing the Significance of Encryption in Ensuring Data Security
• Investigating the Influence of Aerodynamics on Vehicle Fuel Efficiency
• Assessing the Impact of Material Properties on Bridge Stability
• Studying the Efficiency of Solar Panels at Different Angles

Health Sciences Research Topics for College Students:

• Investigating the Role of Exercise in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes
• Analyzing the Effects of Caffeine on Cognitive Performance
• Assessing the Impact of Plant-Based Diets on Heart Health
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Various Physical Therapy Methods in Knee Rehabilitation
• Studying the Role of Mindfulness Meditation in Reducing Stress

Environmental Sciences Research Topics for College Students:

• Examining the Consequences of Deforestation on Local Climate Patterns
• Investigating the Efficacy of Different Oil Spill Cleanup Techniques
• Analyzing the Effects of Organic Farming on Crop Yield
• Assessing the Impact of Noise Pollution on Urban Wildlife
• Examining the Influence of Electronic Waste (E-Waste) on Soil Quality

Computer Sciences Research Topics for College Students:

• Comparing Various Sorting Algorithms for Efficiency
• Evaluating the Security Implications of Different Password Policies
• Analyzing the Impact of User Interface Design on User Experience
• Investigating the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Image Recognition
• Assessing the Energy Efficiency of Different Computer Processors

Economics Research Topics for College Students:

• Examining the Effects of Economic Policies on Inflation
• Analyzing the Role of Microfinance in Alleviating Poverty
• Assessing the Impact of Globalization on Small Businesses
• Investigating the Influence of Exchange Rates on the Export Market
• Evaluating the Relationship Between Unemployment and Crime Rates

Tips for Selecting an Appropriate Experimental Research Topic

Choosing the right topic is fundamental to the success of an experimental research project. Here are some valuable tips to assist students in this selection process:

• Interest : Opt for a topic that genuinely piques your interest. Your passion for the subject will serve as a motivating force throughout the research journey.
• Relevance : Pick a topic that aligns with your field of study. It should complement your academic objectives and enrich your comprehension of the subject matter.
• Feasibility : Ensure that the chosen topic is practical and feasible for research. Consider factors such as resource availability, time constraints, and ethical considerations.
• Uniqueness : Choose a topic that is original and distinctive. This not only enhances the appeal of your research but also contributes to the advancement of your academic field.

Conclusion: 100 Experimental Research Topics for Students

Experimental research is a pivotal component of scientific exploration. It empowers us to establish causal relationships, expand our comprehension of the world, and discover solutions to issues across diverse fields of study.

Engaging in an experimental research project can be a gratifying experience. It enables students to apply their knowledge, cultivate critical thinking and problem-solving skills, and make meaningful contributions to their academic discipline.

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• Int J Sports Phys Ther
• v.7(5); 2012 Oct

RESEARCH DESIGNS IN SPORTS PHYSICAL THERAPY

1 Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA [email protected]

Research is designed to answer a question or to describe a phenomenon in a scientific process. Sports physical therapists must understand the different research methods, types, and designs in order to implement evidence‐based practice. The purpose of this article is to describe the most common research designs used in sports physical therapy research and practice. Both experimental and non‐experimental methods will be discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Evidence‐based practice requires that physical therapists are able to analyze and interpret scientific research. When performing or evaluating research for clinical practice, sports physical therapists must first be able to identify the appropriate study design. Research begins by identifying a specific aim or purpose; researchers should always attempt to use a methodologically superior design when performing a study. Research design is one of the most important factors to understand because:

• 1. Research design provides validity to the study;
• 2. The design must be appropriate to answer the research question; and
• 3. The design provides a “level of evidence” used in making clinical decisions.

Research study designs must have appropriate validity, both internally and externally. Internal validity refers to the design itself, while external validity refers to the study's applicability in the real world. While a study may have internal validity, it may not have external validity; however, a study without internal validity is not useful at all.

Most clinical research suffers from a conflict between internal and external validity. Internally valid studies are well‐controlled with appropriate designs to ensure that changes in the dependent variable result from manipulation of an independent variable. Well‐designed research provides controls for managing or addressing extraneous variables that may influence changes in the dependent variable. This is often accomplished by ensuring a homogenous population; however, clinical populations are rarely homogenous. An internally‐valid study with control of extraneous variables may not represent a more heterogeneous clinical population; therefore, clinicians should always consider the conflict between internal and external validity both when choosing a research design and when applying the results of research on order to make evidence‐based clinical decisions.

Furthermore, research can be basic or applied. Basic science research is often done on animals or in a controlled laboratory setting using tissue samples, for example. Applied research involves humans, including patient populations; therefore, applied research provides more clinical relevance and clinical application (i.e., external validity) than basic science research.

One of the most important considerations in research design for internal validity is to minimize bias. Bias represents the intentional or unintentional favoring of something in the research process. Within research designs, there are 5 important features to consider in establishing the validity of a study: sample, perspective, randomization, control, and blinding.

• Sample size and representation is very important for both internal and external validity. Sample size is important for statistical power, but also increases the representativeness of the target population. Unfortunately, some studies use a ‘convenience sample’, often consisting of college students, which may not represent a typical clinical population. Obviously, a representative clinical population can provide a higher level of external validity than a convenience sample.
• In terms of perspective, a study can be prospective (before the fact) or retrospective (after the fact). A prospective study has more validity because of more control of the variables at the beginning of and throughout the study, whereas a retrospective study has less control since it is performed after the end of an event. A prospective design provides a higher level of evidence to support cause‐and‐effect relationships, while retrospective studies are often associated with confounding variables and bias.
• Random assignment to an experimental or control group is performed to represent a ‘normal distribution’ of the population. Randomization reduces selection bias to ensure one group doesn't have an advantage over the other. Sometimes groups, rather than individual subjects, are randomly assigned to an experimental or control group; this is referred to as “block randomization.” Sample bias can also occur when a “convenience sample” is used that might not be representative of the target population. This is often seen when healthy, college‐aged students are included, rather than a representative sample of the population.
• A control group helps ensure that changes in the dependent variable are due to changes in the independent variable, and not due to chance. A control group receives no intervention, while the experimental group receives some type of intervention. In some situations, a true control group is not possible or ethical; therefore, “quasi‐experimental” designs are often used in clinical research where the control group receives a “standard treatment.” Sometimes, the experimental group can be used as it's “own control” by testing different conditions over time.
• Blinding (also known as “masking”) is performed to minimize bias. Ideally, both the subjects and the investigator should be blinded to group assignment and intervention. For example, a “double‐blind” study is one in which the subjects are not aware if they are receiving the experimental intervention or a placebo and at the same time, and the examiner is not aware which intervention the subjects received.

While considering these 5 features, a large sample size of patients, prospective, randomized, controlled, double‐blinded clinical outcome study would likely provide the best design to assure very high internal and external validity.

Most research follows the “scientific method”. The scientific method progresses through four steps:

• 1. Identification of the question or problem;
• 2. Formulation of a hypothesis (or hypotheses);
• 3. Collection of data; and
• 4. Analysis and interpretation of data.

Different research designs applying apply are used to answer a question or address a problem. Different authors provide different classifications of research designs. 1 ‐ 4

Within the scientific method, there are 2 main classifications of research methodology: experimental and non‐experimental. Both employ systematic collection of data. Experimental research is used to determine cause‐and‐effect relationships, while non‐experimental is used to describe observations or relationships in a systematic manner. Both experimental and non‐experimental research consist of several types and designs. ( Table 1 )

Research Designs.

Experimental Methods

Experimental methods follow the scientific method in order to examine changes in one variable by manipulating other variables to attempt to establish cause‐and‐effect. The dependent variable is measured under controlled conditions while controlling for confounding variables. It is important to remember that statistics do not establish cause‐and‐effect; rather, the design of the study does. Experimental statistics can only reject a null hypothesis and identify variance accounted for by the independent variable. Thomas et al. 4 provide three criteria to establish cause‐and‐effect:

• 1. Cause must precede effect in time;
• 2. Cause and effect must be correlated with each other; and
• 3. Relationship cannot be explained by another variable.

There are 3 elements of research to consider when evaluating experimental designs: groups, measures, and factors. Subjects in experimental research are generally classified into groups such as an experimental (those receiving treatment) or control group. Technically speaking, however, “groups” refers to the treatment of the data, not how the treatment is administered 2 . Groups are sometimes called “treatment arms” in order to denote subjects receiving different treatments. True experimental designs generally use randomized assignment to groups, while quasi‐experimental research may not.

Next, the order of measurements and treatments should be considered. “Time” refers to the course of the study from start to finish. Observations, or measurements of the dependent variables, can be performed one or several times throughout a study. The term, “repeated measures” denotes any measurement that is repeated on a group of subjects in the study. Repeated measures are often used in pseudo‐experimental research when the subjects act as their own control in one group, while true experimental research can use repeated measurements of the dependent variable as a single factor (“time”).

Since experimental designs are used to identify changes in a dependent variable by manipulating an independent variable, “factors” are used. Factors are essentially the independent variables. Individual factors can also have several levels. Single‐factor designs are referred to as “one‐way” designs with one independent variable and any number of levels. One‐way designs may have multiple dependent variables (measurements), but only one independent variable (treatment). Studies involving more than one independent variable are considered “multi‐factorial” and are referred to as “two‐way” or “three‐way” (and so on) designs. Multi‐factorial designs are used to investigate interactions within and between different variables. A “mixed design” factorial study includes 2 more independent variables with one repeated across all subjects and the other randomized to independent groups. Figure 1 is an example of a 2‐way repeated measures design including a true control group.

Two‐way repeated measures experimental design to determine interactions within and between groups.

Factorial designs are denoted with numbers representing the number of levels of each factor. A two‐way factorial (2 independent variables) with 2 levels of each factor is designated by “2 × 2”. The total number of groups in a factorial design can be determined by multiplying the factors together; for example, a 2×2 factorial has 4 groups while a 2×3×2 factorial has 12. Table 2 describes the differences in factorial designs using an example of 3 studies examining strength gains of the biceps during exercise. Each factor has multiple levels. In the 1‐way study, strength of the biceps is examined after performing flexion or extension with standard isotonic resistance. In the 2‐way study, a 3‐level factor is added by comparing different types of resistance during the same movements. In the 3‐way study, 2 different intensity levels are added to the design.

Examples of progressive factorial designs.

Statistical analysis of a factorial design begins by determining a main effect, which is an overall effect of a single independent variable on dependent variables. If a main effect is found, post‐hoc analysis examines the interaction between independent variables (factors) to identify the variance in the dependent variable.

As described in Table 1 previously, there are 2 types of experimental designs: true experimental and quasi‐experimental.

True Experimental Designs

True experimental designs are used to determine cause‐and‐effect by manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a dependent variable. These designs always have at least 2 groups for comparison.

In a true experimental design, subjects are randomized into at least 2 independent, separate groups, including an experimental and “true” control. This provides the strongest internal validity to establish a cause‐and‐effect relationship within a population. A true control group consists of subjects that receive no treatment while the experimental group receives treatment. The randomized, controlled trial design is the “gold standard” in experimental designs, but may not be the best choice for every project.

Table 3 provides common true experimental designs that include 2 independent, randomly assigned groups and a true control group. Notation is often used to illustrate research designs:

Common true experimental designs.

n = subjects in a group (n 1 refers to experimental group while n 0 refers to control group)

T = treatment (T 1 . refers to sequential treatments)

0 = observation (O 0 refers to baseline, O 1 refers to sequential observations)

Quasi‐Experimental Designs

Clinical researchers often find it difficult to use true experimental designs with a ‘true’ control because it may be unethical and sometimes illegal to withhold treatment within a patient population. In addition, clinical trials are often affected by a conflict between internal and external validity. Internal validity requires rigorous control of variables; however, that control does not support real‐world generalizability (external validity). As previously described, clinical researchers must seek balance between internal and external validity.

Quasi‐experimental designs are those that do not include a true control group or randomization of subjects. While these types of designs may reduce the internal validity of a study, they are often used to maximize a study's external validity. Quasi‐experimental designs are used when true randomization or a true control group is unethical or difficult. For example, a ‘pseudo‐control’ group may include a group of patients receiving traditional treatment rather than a true control group receiving nothing.

Block‐randomization or cluster grouping may also be more practical when examining groups, rather than individual randomization. Subjects are grouped by similar variables (age, gender, etc) to help control for extraneous factors that may influence differences between groups. The block factor must be related to dependent variable (i.e., the factor affecting response to treatment).

A cross‐over or counterbalanced design may also be used in a quasi‐experimental study. This design is often used when only 2 levels of an independent variable are repeated to control for order effects. 3 A cross‐over study may require twice as long since both groups must undergo the intervention at different times. During the cross‐over, both groups usually go through a ‘washout’ period of no intervention to be sure prolonged effects are not a factor in the outcome.

Examples of quasi‐experimental designs can include both single and multiple groups ( Table 4 ). Quasi‐experimental designs generally do not randomize group assignment or use true control groups. (Note: One‐group pre‐post test designs are sometimes classified as “pre‐experimental” designs.)

Quasi-Experimental designs.

T = treatment (T 1 refers to sequential treatments)

O = observation (O 0 refers to baseline, O 1 refers to sequential observations

Single‐subject designs are also considered quasi‐experimental as they draw conclusions about the effects of a treatment based on responses of single patients under controlled conditions. 3 These designs are used when withholding treatment is considered unethical or when random assignment is not possible or when it is difficult to recruit subjects as is commonly seen in rare diseases or conditions. Single subject designs have 2 essential elements: design phases and repeated measures. 3 Design phases include baseline and intervention phases. The baseline measure serves as a ‘pseudo‐control.” Repeated measurement over time (for example, during each treatment session) can occur during the baseline and intervention phases. Common single‐subject designs are commonly denoted by the letters ‘A’ ‘(baseline phases) and ‘B’ (intervention phases): A‐B; A‐B‐A; and A‐B‐A‐B. Other single‐subject designs include withdrawal, multiple baselines, alternating treatment, multiple treatment, and interactive design. For more detailed descriptions on single subject designs, see Portney and Watkins. 3

Non‐Experimental Methods

Studies involving non‐experimental methods include descriptive, exploratory, and analytic designs. These designs do not infer cause‐and‐effect by manipulating variables; rather, they are designed to describe or explain phenomena. Non‐experimental designs help provide an early understanding about clinical conditions or situations, without a full clinical study through systematic collection of data.

Descriptive Designs

Descriptive designs are used to describe populations or phenomena, and can help identify groups and variables for new research questions. 3 Descriptive designs can be prospective or retrospective, and may use longitudinal or cross‐sectional methods. Phenomena can be evaluated in subjects either over a period time (longitudinal studies) or through sampling different age‐grouped subjects (cross‐sectional studies). Descriptive research designs are used to describe results of surveys, provide norms or descriptions of populations, and to describe cases. Descriptive designs generally focus on describing one group of subjects, rather than comparing different groups.

Surveys are one of the most common descriptive designs. 4 They can be in the form of questionnaires or interviews. The most important component of an effective survey is to have an appropriate sample that is representative of the population of interest. There are generally 2 types of survey questions: open‐ended and closed‐ended. Open‐ended questions have no fixed answer, while closed‐ended questions have definitive answers including rank, scale, or category. Investigators should be careful not to lead answers of subjects one way or another, and to keep true to the objectives of the study. Surveys are limited by the sample and the questions asked. External validity is threatened, for example, if the sample was not representative of the research question and design.

A special type of survey is the Delphi technique that uses expert opinions to make decisions about practices, needs, and goals. 4 The Delphi technique uses a series of questionnaires in successive stages called “rounds.” The first round of the survey focuses on opinions of the respondents, and the second round of questions is based on the results of the first round, where respondents are asked to reconsider their answers in context of other's responses. Delphi surveys are common in establishing expert guidelines where consensus around an issue is needed.

Observational

A descriptive observational study evaluates specific behaviors or variables in a specific group of subjects. The frequency and duration of the observations are noted by the researcher. An investigator observing a classroom for specific behaviors from students or teachers would use an observational design.

Normative research describes typical or standard values of characteristics within a specific population. 3 These “norms” are usually determined by averaging the values of large samples and providing an acceptable range of values. For example, goniometric measures of joint range of motion are reported with an accepted range of degrees, which may be recorded as “within normal limits.” Samples for normative studies must be large, random, and representative of the population heterogeneity. 3 The larger the target population, the larger sample required to establish norms; however, sample sizes of at least 100 are often used in normative research. Normative data is extremely useful in clinical practice because it serves as a basis for determining the need for an intervention, as well as an expected outcome or goal.

Developmental

Developmental research helps describe the developmental change and the sequencing of human behavior over time. 3 This type of research is particularly useful in describing the natural course of human development. For example, understanding the normal developmental sequencing of motor skills can be useful in both the evaluation and treatment of young athletes. Developmental designs are classified by the method used to collect data; they can be either cross‐sectional or longitudinal.

Case Designs

Case designs offer thoughtful descriptions and analysis of clinical information; 2 they include case reports, case studies, and case series. A case report is an in‐depth understanding of a unique patient, while a case study focuses on a unique situation. These cases may involve a series of patients or situations, which is referred to as a ‘case series’ design. Case designs are often useful in developing new hypotheses and contributing to theory and practice. They also provide a springboard for moving toward more quasi‐experimental or experimental designs in order to investigate cause and effect.

Qualitative

Research measures can also be classified as quantitative or quantitative. Quantitative measures explain differences, determines causal relationships, or describes relationships; these designs include those previously discussed. Qualitative research, on the other hand, emphasizes attempting to discern process and meaning without measuring quantity. Qualitative studies focus on analysis in trying to describe a phenomenon. Qualitative research examines beliefs, understanding, and attitudes through skillful interview and content analysis. 5 These designs are used to describe specific situations, cultures, or everyday activities. Table 5 provides a comparison between qualitative and quantitative designs.

Comparison of quantitative and qualitative designs (Adapted from Thomas et al4 and Carter et al 2 ).

Exploratory Designs

Exploratory designs establish relationships without manipulating variables while using non‐experimental methods. These designs include cohort studies, case control studies, epidemiological research, correlational studies, and methodological research. Exploratory research usually involves comparison of 2 or more groups.

Cohort Studies

A cohort is a group of subjects being studied. Cohort studies may evaluate single groups or differences between specific groups. These observations may be made in subjects one time, or over periods of time, using either cross‐sectional or longitudinal methods.

In contrast to experimental designs, non‐experimentally designed cohort studies do not manipulate the independent variable, and lack randomization and blinding. A prospective analysis of differences in cohort groups is similar to an experimental design, but the independent variable is not manipulated. For example, outcomes after 2 different surgeries in 2 different groups can be followed without randomization of subjects using a prospective cohort design.

Some authors 2 have classified “Outcomes Research” as a retrospective, non‐experimental cohort design, where differences in groups are evaluated ‘after the fact’ without random allocation to groups or manipulation of an independent variable. This design would include chart reviews examining outcomes of specific interventions.

Case Control Studies

Case control studies are similar to cohort studies comparing groups of subjects with a particular condition to a group without the condition. Both groups are observed over the same period of time, therefore requiring a shorter timeframe compared to cohort studies. Case control studies are better for investigations of rare disease or conditions because the sample size required is less than a cohort study. The control group (injury/disease‐free) is generally matched to the injury/disease group by confounding variables consistent in both groups such as age, gender, and ethnicity.

Case control studies sometimes use “odds ratios” in order to estimate the relative risk if a cohort study would have been done. 4 An odds ratio greater than 1 suggests an increased risk, while a ratio less than 1 suggests reduced risk.

Epidemiological Research

Studies that evaluate the exposure, incidence rates, and risk factors for disease, injury, or mortality are descriptive studies of epidemiology. According to Thomas et al, 4 epidemiological studies evaluate “naturally occurring differences in a population.” Epidemiological studies are used to identify a variety of measures in populations ( Table 6 ).

Measurement terminology used in epidemiological research.

“Relative risk,” (RR) which is associated with exposure and incidence rates. Portney and Watkins 3 use a “contingency table” ( Table 7 ) to determine the relative risk and odds ratio. Usually, incidence rates are compared between 2 groups by dividing the incidence of one group by the other.

Contingency Table to determine risk (Adapted from Portney and Watkins 3 ).

Using Table 7 ,

With these formulas, the “null value” is 1.0. A risk or odds ratio less than 1.0 suggests reduced risk or odds, while a value greater than 1.0 suggests increased risk or odds. For example, if the risk is 1.5 in a group, there is a 1.5 times greater risk of suffering an injury in that group. Relative risk should be reported with a confidence interval, typically 95%.

Epidemiological studies can also be used to test a hypothesis of the effectiveness of an intervention on on injury prevention by using incidence as a dependent variable. These studies help link exposures and outcomes with observations, and can include case control and cohort studies mentioned previously.

Correlational Studies

Correlations studies examine relationships among variables. Correlations are expressed using the Pearson's “r” value that can range from −1 to +1. A Pearson's “r” value of +1 indicates a perfect linear correlation, noting the increase in one variable is directly dependent on the other. In contrast, an “r” value of −1 indicates a perfect inverse relationship. An “r” value of 0 indicates that the variables are independent of each other. The most important thing to remember is that correlation does not infer causation; in other words, correlational studies can't be used to establish cause‐and‐effect. In addition, 2 variables may have a high correlation (r>.80), but lack statistical significance if the p‐value is not sufficient. Finally, be aware that correlational studies must have a representative sample in order to establish external validity.

Methodological

The usefulness of clinical research and decision‐making heavily depends on the validity and reliability of measurements. 3 Methodological research is used to develop and test measuring instruments and methods used in practice and research. Methodological studies are important because they provide the reliability and validity of other studies. First, the reliability of the rater (inter‐rater and intra‐rater reliability) must be established when administering a test in order to support the accuracy of measurements. Inter‐rater reliability supports consistent measurements between different raters, while intra‐rater reliability supports consistent measures for the same individual rater. Reliability can also be established for instruments by demonstrating consistent measurements over time. Reliability is related to the ability to control error, and thus associated with internal validity.

Methodological studies are also used to establish validity for a measurement, which may include clinical diagnostic tests, performance batteries, or measurement devices. Measurement validity establishes the extent to which an instrument measures what it intends to measure. Different types of validity can be measured, including face validity, content validity, criterion‐related validity and construct validity ( Table 8 ).

Different types of validity in scientifi c research.

Sports physical therapists may also be interested in the sensitivity and specificity of clinical tests. Sensitivity refers to the ability of a test to correctly identify those with a condition, while specificity refers to the ability to correctly identify those without the condition. Unfortunately, few clinical tests possess both high sensitivity and specificity. 6

Analytical Designs

Analytical research designs are not just a review or summary, but a method of evaluating the existing research to reach a conclusion. These designs provide a synthesis of the literature for empirical and theoretical conclusions. 4 Analytical designs explain phenomena and analyze existing data using systematic reviews and meta‐analysis techniques. In contrast to systematic reviews, meta‐analyses include statistical analysis of data.

Systematic Reviews

Systematic reviews most commonly examine the effectiveness of interventions, but may also examine the accuracy of diagnostic tools. 3 Systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials provide the highest level of evidence possible. 7 Systematic reviews should describe their methodology in detail, including inclusion and exclusion criteria for studies reviewed, study designs, and outcomes measures. In addition, the method of literature search should be detailed including databases, dates, and keywords used.

Meta‐Analysis

Systematic reviews can be extended into meta‐analysis if multiple studies contain necessary information and data. Meta‐analysis techniques are particularly useful when trying to analyze and interpret smaller studies and studies with inconsistent outcomes. Meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials provides a high level of evidence, but may suffer in quality from heterogeneous samples, bias, outliers, and methodological differences.

Meta‐analysis quantifies the results of various studies into a standard metric that allows for statistical analysis to calculate effect sizes. The effect size, calculated by “Cohen's d value,” is defined as a standardized value of the relationship between two variables. Effect size provides magnitude and direction of the effect of a treatment, and is determined by the difference in means divided by the standard deviation (ΔM / SD). A Cohen's d value of .2 is considered small; .5 is considered moderate, and .8 and greater is a large effect size. Confidence intervals are then reported to provide an interval of certainty.

Levels of Evidence

Research designs are often viewed in a hierarchy of evidence. These designs have been discussed in this paper, but bear repeating in the context of evidence‐based practice. “Levels of Evidence” have been established by the Center for Evidence‐Based Medicine in Oxford, England ( Table 9 ) as well as other research consortiums. Each level is based on controlling as many factors (variables) as possible to confidently make conclusions without bias, the highest of which is cause‐and‐effect. In addition, “grades” of evidence have been established based on the quality and number of various levels of evidence to make recommendations in reviews and guidelines ( Table 10 ). Thus, a research publication could be described and labeled using a combination of a level and a grade, such as “Level II‐A” or “Level II‐B”.

Levels of Evidence (Adapted from the Center for Evidence-Based Medicine 7 ).

Grades of Evidence (Adapted from the Center for Evidence-Based Medicine 7 ).

In conclusion, it is important for sports physical therapists to understand different research designs not only to support evidence‐based practice, but also to contribute to the body of knowledge by using appropriate research designs. Clinicians should be aware of appropriate research design, validity, and levels of evidence in order to make informed clinical decisions. This commentary described the most common and relevant experimental and non‐experimental designs used and encountered by sports physical therapists who contribute to and utilize evidence‐based practice.

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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200+ Experimental Quantitative Research Topics For STEM Students In 2023

STEM means Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math, which is not the only stuff we learn in school. It is like a treasure chest of skills that help students become great problem solvers, ready to tackle the real world’s challenges.

In this blog, we are here to explore the world of Research Topics for STEM Students. We will break down what STEM really means and why it is so important for students. In addition, we will give you the lowdown on how to pick a fascinating research topic. We will explain a list of 200+ Experimental Quantitative Research Topics For STEM Students.

And when it comes to writing a research title, we will guide you step by step. So, stay with us as we unlock the exciting world of STEM research – it is not just about grades; it is about growing smarter, more confident, and happier along the way.

What Is STEM?

Table of Contents

STEM is Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. It is a way of talking about things like learning, jobs, and activities related to these four important subjects. Science is about understanding the world around us, technology is about using tools and machines to solve problems, engineering is about designing and building things, and mathematics is about numbers and solving problems with them. STEM helps us explore, discover, and create cool stuff that makes our world better and more exciting.

Why STEM Research Is Important?

STEM research is important because it helps us learn new things about the world and solve problems. When scientists, engineers, and mathematicians study these subjects, they can discover cures for diseases, create new technology that makes life easier, and build things that help us live better. It is like a big puzzle where we put together pieces of knowledge to make our world safer, healthier, and more fun.

• STEM research leads to new discoveries and solutions.
• It helps find cures for diseases.
• STEM technology makes life easier.
• Engineers build things that improve our lives.
• Mathematics helps us understand and solve complex problems.

How to Choose a Topic for STEM Research Paper

Here are some steps to choose a topic for STEM Research Paper:

Step 1: Identify Your Interests

Think about what you like and what excites you in science, technology, engineering, or math. It could be something you learned in school, saw in the news, or experienced in your daily life. Choosing a topic you’re passionate about makes the research process more enjoyable.

Step 2: Research Existing Topics

Look up different STEM research areas online, in books, or at your library. See what scientists and experts are studying. This can give you ideas and help you understand what’s already known in your chosen field.

Step 3: Consider Real-World Problems

Think about the problems you see around you. Are there issues in your community or the world that STEM can help solve? Choosing a topic that addresses a real-world problem can make your research impactful.

Step 4: Talk to Teachers and Mentors

Discuss your interests with your teachers, professors, or mentors. They can offer guidance and suggest topics that align with your skills and goals. They may also provide resources and support for your research.

Step 5: Narrow Down Your Topic

Once you have some ideas, narrow them down to a specific research question or project. Make sure it’s not too broad or too narrow. You want a topic that you can explore in depth within the scope of your research paper.

Here we will discuss 200+ Experimental Quantitative Research Topics For STEM Students: 

Qualitative Research Topics for STEM Students:

Qualitative research focuses on exploring and understanding phenomena through non-numerical data and subjective experiences. Here are 10 qualitative research topics for STEM students:

• Exploring the experiences of female STEM students in overcoming gender bias in academia.
• Understanding the perceptions of teachers regarding the integration of technology in STEM education.
• Investigating the motivations and challenges of STEM educators in underprivileged schools.
• Exploring the attitudes and beliefs of parents towards STEM education for their children.
• Analyzing the impact of collaborative learning on student engagement in STEM subjects.
• Investigating the experiences of STEM professionals in bridging the gap between academia and industry.
• Understanding the cultural factors influencing STEM career choices among minority students.
• Exploring the role of mentorship in the career development of STEM graduates.
• Analyzing the perceptions of students towards the ethics of emerging STEM technologies like AI and CRISPR.
• Investigating the emotional well-being and stress levels of STEM students during their academic journey.

Easy Experimental Research Topics for STEM Students:

These experimental research topics are relatively straightforward and suitable for STEM students who are new to research:

•  Measuring the effect of different light wavelengths on plant growth.
•  Investigating the relationship between exercise and heart rate in various age groups.
•  Testing the effectiveness of different insulating materials in conserving heat.
•  Examining the impact of pH levels on the rate of chemical reactions.
•  Studying the behavior of magnets in different temperature conditions.
•  Investigating the effect of different concentrations of a substance on bacterial growth.
•  Testing the efficiency of various sunscreen brands in blocking UV radiation.
•  Measuring the impact of music genres on concentration and productivity.
•  Examining the correlation between the angle of a ramp and the speed of a rolling object.
•  Investigating the relationship between the number of blades on a wind turbine and energy output.

Research Topics for STEM Students in the Philippines:

These research topics are tailored for STEM students in the Philippines:

•  Assessing the impact of climate change on the biodiversity of coral reefs in the Philippines.
•  Studying the potential of indigenous plants in the Philippines for medicinal purposes.
•  Investigating the feasibility of harnessing renewable energy sources like solar and wind in rural Filipino communities.
•  Analyzing the water quality and pollution levels in major rivers and lakes in the Philippines.
•  Exploring sustainable agricultural practices for small-scale farmers in the Philippines.
•  Assessing the prevalence and impact of dengue fever outbreaks in urban areas of the Philippines.
•  Investigating the challenges and opportunities of STEM education in remote Filipino islands.
•  Studying the impact of typhoons and natural disasters on infrastructure resilience in the Philippines.
•  Analyzing the genetic diversity of endemic species in the Philippine rainforests.
•  Assessing the effectiveness of disaster preparedness programs in Philippine communities.

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Good Research Topics for STEM Students:

These research topics are considered good because they offer interesting avenues for investigation and learning:

•  Developing a low-cost and efficient water purification system for rural communities.
•  Investigating the potential use of CRISPR-Cas9 for gene therapy in genetic disorders.
•  Studying the applications of blockchain technology in securing medical records.
•  Analyzing the impact of 3D printing on customized prosthetics for amputees.
•  Exploring the use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing forest fires.
•  Investigating the effects of microplastic pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
•  Analyzing the use of drones in monitoring and managing agricultural crops.
•  Studying the potential of quantum computing in solving complex optimization problems.
•  Investigating the development of biodegradable materials for sustainable packaging.
•  Exploring the ethical implications of gene editing in humans.

Unique Research Topics for STEM Students:

Unique research topics can provide STEM students with the opportunity to explore unconventional and innovative ideas. Here are 10 unique research topics for STEM students:

•  Investigating the use of bioluminescent organisms for sustainable lighting solutions.
•  Studying the potential of using spider silk proteins for advanced materials in engineering.
•  Exploring the application of quantum entanglement for secure communication in the field of cryptography.
•  Analyzing the feasibility of harnessing geothermal energy from underwater volcanoes.
•  Investigating the use of CRISPR-Cas12 for rapid and cost-effective disease diagnostics.
•  Studying the interaction between artificial intelligence and human creativity in art and music generation.
•  Exploring the development of edible packaging materials to reduce plastic waste.
•  Investigating the impact of microgravity on cellular behavior and tissue regeneration in space.
•  Analyzing the potential of using sound waves to detect and combat invasive species in aquatic ecosystems.
•  Studying the use of biotechnology in reviving extinct species, such as the woolly mammoth.

Experimental Research Topics for STEM Students in the Philippines

Research topics for STEM students in the Philippines can address specific regional challenges and opportunities. Here are 10 experimental research topics for STEM students in the Philippines:

•  Assessing the effectiveness of locally sourced materials for disaster-resilient housing construction in typhoon-prone areas.
•  Investigating the utilization of indigenous plants for natural remedies in Filipino traditional medicine.
•  Studying the impact of volcanic soil on crop growth and agriculture in volcanic regions of the Philippines.
•  Analyzing the water quality and purification methods in remote island communities.
•  Exploring the feasibility of using bamboo as a sustainable construction material in the Philippines.
•  Investigating the potential of using solar stills for freshwater production in water-scarce regions.
•  Studying the effects of climate change on the migration patterns of bird species in the Philippines.
•  Analyzing the growth and sustainability of coral reefs in marine protected areas.
•  Investigating the utilization of coconut waste for biofuel production.
•  Studying the biodiversity and conservation efforts in the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park.

Capstone Research Topics for STEM Students in the Philippines:

Capstone research projects are often more comprehensive and can address real-world issues. Here are 10 capstone research topics for STEM students in the Philippines:

•  Designing a low-cost and sustainable sanitation system for informal settlements in urban Manila.
•  Developing a mobile app for monitoring and reporting natural disasters in the Philippines.
•  Assessing the impact of climate change on the availability and quality of drinking water in Philippine cities.
•  Designing an efficient traffic management system to address congestion in major Filipino cities.
•  Analyzing the health implications of air pollution in densely populated urban areas of the Philippines.
•  Developing a renewable energy microgrid for off-grid communities in the archipelago.
•  Assessing the feasibility of using unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) for agricultural monitoring in rural Philippines.
•  Designing a low-cost and sustainable aquaponics system for urban agriculture.
•  Investigating the potential of vertical farming to address food security in densely populated urban areas.
•  Developing a disaster-resilient housing prototype suitable for typhoon-prone regions.

Experimental Quantitative Research Topics for STEM Students:

Experimental quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to conclude. Here are 10 Experimental Quantitative Research Topics For STEM Students interested in experimental quantitative research:

•  Examining the impact of different fertilizers on crop yield in agriculture.
•  Investigating the relationship between exercise and heart rate among different age groups.
•  Analyzing the effect of varying light intensities on photosynthesis in plants.
•  Studying the efficiency of various insulation materials in reducing building heat loss.
•  Investigating the relationship between pH levels and the rate of corrosion in metals.
•  Analyzing the impact of different concentrations of pollutants on aquatic ecosystems.
•  Examining the effectiveness of different antibiotics on bacterial growth.
•  Trying to figure out how temperature affects how thick liquids are.
•  Finding out if there is a link between the amount of pollution in the air and lung illnesses in cities.
•  Analyzing the efficiency of solar panels in converting sunlight into electricity under varying conditions.

Descriptive Research Topics for STEM Students

Descriptive research aims to provide a detailed account or description of a phenomenon. Here are 10 topics for STEM students interested in descriptive research:

•  Describing the physical characteristics and behavior of a newly discovered species of marine life.
•  Documenting the geological features and formations of a particular region.
•  Creating a detailed inventory of plant species in a specific ecosystem.
•  Describing the properties and behavior of a new synthetic polymer.
•  Documenting the daily weather patterns and climate trends in a particular area.
•  Providing a comprehensive analysis of the energy consumption patterns in a city.
•  Describing the structural components and functions of a newly developed medical device.
•  Documenting the characteristics and usage of traditional construction materials in a region.
•  Providing a detailed account of the microbiome in a specific environmental niche.
•  Describing the life cycle and behavior of a rare insect species.

Research Topics for STEM Students in the Pandemic:

The COVID-19 pandemic has raised many research opportunities for STEM students. Here are 10 research topics related to pandemics:

•  Analyzing the effectiveness of various personal protective equipment (PPE) in preventing the spread of respiratory viruses.
•  Studying the impact of lockdown measures on air quality and pollution levels in urban areas.
•  Investigating the psychological effects of quarantine and social isolation on mental health.
•  Analyzing the genomic variation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus and its implications for vaccine development.
•  Studying the efficacy of different disinfection methods on various surfaces.
•  Investigating the role of contact tracing apps in tracking & controlling the spread of infectious diseases.
•  Analyzing the economic impact of the pandemic on different industries and sectors.
•  Studying the effectiveness of remote learning in STEM education during lockdowns.
•  Investigating the social disparities in healthcare access during a pandemic.
• Analyzing the ethical considerations surrounding vaccine distribution and prioritization.

Research Topics for STEM Students Middle School

Research topics for middle school STEM students should be engaging and suitable for their age group. Here are 10 research topics:

• Investigating the growth patterns of different types of mold on various food items.
• Studying the negative effects of music on plant growth and development.
• Analyzing the relationship between the shape of a paper airplane and its flight distance.
• Investigating the properties of different materials in making effective insulators for hot and cold beverages.
• Studying the effect of salt on the buoyancy of different objects in water.
• Analyzing the behavior of magnets when exposed to different temperatures.
• Investigating the factors that affect the rate of ice melting in different environments.
• Studying the impact of color on the absorption of heat by various surfaces.
• Analyzing the growth of crystals in different types of solutions.
• Investigating the effectiveness of different natural repellents against common pests like mosquitoes.

Technology Research Topics for STEM Students

Technology is at the forefront of STEM fields. Here are 10 research topics for STEM students interested in technology:

• Developing and optimizing algorithms for autonomous drone navigation in complex environments.
• Exploring the use of blockchain technology for enhancing the security and transparency of supply chains.
• Investigating the applications of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) in medical training and surgery simulations.
• Studying the potential of 3D printing for creating personalized prosthetics and orthopedic implants.
• Analyzing the ethical and privacy implications of facial recognition technology in public spaces.
• Investigating the development of quantum computing algorithms for solving complex optimization problems.
• Explaining the use of machine learning and AI in predicting and mitigating the impact of natural disasters.
• Studying the advancement of brain-computer interfaces for assisting individuals with
• disabilities.
• Analyzing the role of wearable technology in monitoring and improving personal health and wellness.
• Investigating the use of robotics in disaster response and search and rescue operations.

Scientific Research Topics for STEM Students

Scientific research encompasses a wide range of topics. Here are 10 research topics for STEM students focusing on scientific exploration:

• Investigating the behavior of subatomic particles in high-energy particle accelerators.
• Studying the ecological impact of invasive species on native ecosystems.
• Analyzing the genetics of antibiotic resistance in bacteria and its implications for healthcare.
• Exploring the physics of gravitational waves and their detection through advanced interferometry.
• Investigating the neurobiology of memory formation and retention in the human brain.
• Studying the biodiversity and adaptation of extremophiles in harsh environments.
• Analyzing the chemistry of deep-sea hydrothermal vents and their potential for life beyond Earth.
• Exploring the properties of superconductors and their applications in technology.
• Investigating the mechanisms of stem cell differentiation for regenerative medicine.
• Studying the dynamics of climate change and its impact on global ecosystems.

Interesting Research Topics for STEM Students:

Engaging and intriguing research topics can foster a passion for STEM. Here are 10 interesting research topics for STEM students:

• Exploring the science behind the formation of auroras and their cultural significance.
• Investigating the mysteries of dark matter and dark energy in the universe.
• Studying the psychology of decision-making in high-pressure situations, such as sports or
• emergencies.
• Analyzing the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships and mental health.
• Exploring the potential for using genetic modification to create disease-resistant crops.
• Investigating the cognitive processes involved in solving complex puzzles and riddles.
• Studying the history and evolution of cryptography and encryption methods.
• Analyzing the physics of time travel and its theoretical possibilities.
• Exploring the role of Artificial Intelligence  in creating art and music.
• Investigating the science of happiness and well-being, including factors contributing to life satisfaction.

Practical Research Topics for STEM Students

Practical research often leads to real-world solutions. Here are 10 practical research topics for STEM students:

• Developing an affordable and sustainable water purification system for rural communities.
• Designing a low-cost, energy-efficient home heating and cooling system.
• Investigating strategies for reducing food waste in the supply chain and households.
• Studying the effectiveness of eco-friendly pest control methods in agriculture.
• Analyzing the impact of renewable energy integration on the stability of power grids.
• Developing a smartphone app for early detection of common medical conditions.
• Investigating the feasibility of vertical farming for urban food production.
• Designing a system for recycling and upcycling electronic waste.
• Studying the environmental benefits of green roofs and their potential for urban heat island mitigation.
• Analyzing the efficiency of alternative transportation methods in reducing carbon emissions.

Experimental Research Topics for STEM Students About Plants

Plants offer a rich field for experimental research. Here are 10 experimental research topics about plants for STEM students:

• Investigating the effect of different light wavelengths on plant growth and photosynthesis.
• Studying the impact of various fertilizers and nutrient solutions on crop yield.
• Analyzing the response of plants to different types and concentrations of plant hormones.
• Investigating the role of mycorrhizal in enhancing nutrient uptake in plants.
• Studying the effects of drought stress and water scarcity on plant physiology and adaptation mechanisms.
• Analyzing the influence of soil pH on plant nutrient availability and growth.
• Investigating the chemical signaling and defense mechanisms of plants against herbivores.
• Studying the impact of environmental pollutants on plant health and genetic diversity.
• Analyzing the role of plant secondary metabolites in pharmaceutical and agricultural applications.
• Investigating the interactions between plants and beneficial microorganisms in the rhizosphere.

Qualitative Research Topics for STEM Students in the Philippines

Qualitative research in the Philippines can address local issues and cultural contexts. Here are 10 qualitative research topics for STEM students in the Philippines:

• Exploring indigenous knowledge and practices in sustainable agriculture in Filipino communities.
• Studying the perceptions and experiences of Filipino fishermen in coping with climate change impacts.
• Analyzing the cultural significance and traditional uses of medicinal plants in indigenous Filipino communities.
• Investigating the barriers and facilitators of STEM education access in remote Philippine islands.
• Exploring the role of traditional Filipino architecture in natural disaster resilience.
• Studying the impact of indigenous farming methods on soil conservation and fertility.
• Analyzing the cultural and environmental significance of mangroves in coastal Filipino regions.
• Investigating the knowledge and practices of Filipino healers in treating common ailments.
• Exploring the cultural heritage and conservation efforts of the Ifugao rice terraces.
• Studying the perceptions and practices of Filipino communities in preserving marine biodiversity.

Science Research Topics for STEM Students

Science offers a diverse range of research avenues. Here are 10 science research topics for STEM students:

• Investigating the potential of gene editing techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 in curing genetic diseases.
• Studying the ecological impacts of species reintroduction programs on local ecosystems.
• Analyzing the effects of microplastic pollution on aquatic food webs and ecosystems.
• Investigating the link between air pollution and respiratory health in urban populations.
• Studying the role of epigenetics in the inheritance of acquired traits in organisms.
• Analyzing the physiology and adaptations of extremophiles in extreme environments on Earth.
• Investigating the genetics of longevity and factors influencing human lifespan.
• Studying the behavioral ecology and communication strategies of social insects.
• Analyzing the effects of deforestation on global climate patterns and biodiversity loss.
• Investigating the potential of synthetic biology in creating bioengineered organisms for beneficial applications.

Correlational Research Topics for STEM Students

Correlational research focuses on relationships between variables. Here are 10 correlational research topics for STEM students:

• Analyzing the correlation between dietary habits and the incidence of chronic diseases.
• Studying the relationship between exercise frequency and mental health outcomes.
• Investigating the correlation between socioeconomic status and access to quality healthcare.
• Analyzing the link between social media usage and self-esteem in adolescents.
• Studying the correlation between academic performance and sleep duration among students.
• Investigating the relationship between environmental factors and the prevalence of allergies.
• Analyzing the correlation between technology use and attention span in children.
• Studying how environmental factors are related to the frequency of allergies.
• Investigating the link between parental involvement in education and student achievement.
• Analyzing the correlation between temperature fluctuations and wildlife migration patterns.

Quantitative Research Topics for STEM Students in the Philippines

Quantitative research in the Philippines can address specific regional issues. Here are 10 quantitative research topics for STEM students in the Philippines

• Analyzing the impact of typhoons on coastal erosion rates in the Philippines.
• Studying the quantitative effects of land use change on watershed hydrology in Filipino regions.
• Investigating the quantitative relationship between deforestation and habitat loss for endangered species.
• Analyzing the quantitative patterns of marine biodiversity in Philippine coral reef ecosystems.
• Studying the quantitative assessment of water quality in major Philippine rivers and lakes.
• Investigating the quantitative analysis of renewable energy potential in specific Philippine provinces.
• Analyzing the quantitative impacts of agricultural practices on soil health and fertility.
• Studying the quantitative effectiveness of mangrove restoration in coastal protection in the Philippines.
• Investigating the quantitative evaluation of indigenous agricultural practices for sustainability.
• Analyzing the quantitative patterns of air pollution and its health impacts in urban Filipino areas.

Things That Must Keep In Mind While Writing Quantitative Research Title 

Here are few things that must be keep in mind while writing quantitative research tile:

1. Be Clear and Precise

Make sure your research title is clear and says exactly what your study is about. People should easily understand the topic and goals of your research by reading the title.

2. Use Important Words

Include words that are crucial to your research, like the main subjects, who you’re studying, and how you’re doing your research. This helps others find your work and understand what it’s about.

3. Avoid Confusing Words

Stay away from words that might confuse people. Your title should be easy to grasp, even if someone isn’t an expert in your field.

4. Show Your Research Approach

Tell readers what kind of research you did, like experiments or surveys. This gives them a hint about how you conducted your study.

5. Match Your Title with Your Research Questions

Make sure your title matches the questions you’re trying to answer in your research. It should give a sneak peek into what your study is all about and keep you on the right track as you work on it.

STEM students, addressing what STEM is and why research matters in this field. It offered an extensive list of research topics , including experimental, qualitative, and regional options, catering to various academic levels and interests. Whether you’re a middle school student or pursuing advanced studies, these topics offer a wealth of ideas. The key takeaway is to choose a topic that resonates with your passion and aligns with your goals, ensuring a successful journey in STEM research. Choose the best Experimental Quantitative Research Topics For Stem Students today!

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323 Experimental Research Titles

Experimental research is a study that follows a specific research design. Its main components are dependent and independent variables, hypotheses, research questions , and objectives. The examination can be qualitative or quantitative.

One of the critical aspects of experimental research is that it should be completed in a controlled scientific environment. For that, the researcher follows these steps:

• creating a plan;
• collecting the required data;
• applying statistical methods to analyze it;
• deciding whether to accept or reject hypotheses.

The purpose of experimental research is to determine the dependency between variables and estimate how they correlate.

Our team has collected experimental research titles to help you start this task. Besides, the article contains essential writing tips. With them, you will overcome all the challenges you may face while working on a scientific paper.

🔝 Top 18 Experimental Research Ideas

• 🚌 Titles for High School Students
• 🎓 Topics for College Students
• 🔬 Topics for STEM Students

🧫 Simple Experimental Research Topics

🧬 more experimental research titles, 🥼 how to conduct experimental research, 🔗 references.

• How effectively does AI fall technology decrease patient falls in hospitals?
• How does peer observation affect adolescents’ decision-making?
• Does nutrition affect students’ academic performance?
• Nano-Optics and Benefits: Possible Experiments .
• Comparing two machine learning models for detecting fake news.
• The effect of postabortion psychological intervention on women’s mental well-being.
• Quality Management Effects on Organizations’ Performance .
• How do genes affect wound healing?
• The investigation of photosynthesis by experimenting on spinach leaves.
• Impact of Culture on International Business .
• Studying the framing effect in cognitive psychology using experimental design.
• The impact of ads on American consumers’ attitudes towards eco-friendly beauty products.
• Long-Term Trends in Business and Their Impact .
• Nitrogen or potash: Which fertilizer is more effective for plant growth?
• Divorce and Its Impact on Children .
• Effects of a project-based learning program on low-income students’ performance.
• How do team-building activities affect a company’s general performance?
• How Fast Are We According to the Age? The Experiment .

🚌 Experimental Research Titles for High School Students

• An experiment proving the need for carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
• Combustion of phosphorus in the air and oxygen.
• Autoignition of white phosphorus in the air.
• The pH change during water electrolysis.
• Reactions of protozoa to the action of various stimuli.
• The absorption of substances and the formation of digestive vacuoles in protozoa.
• The effect of water temperature on the rate of reproduction of protozoa.
• Technology and Nursing: The Impact of Technology .
• The impact of daphnia on water filtration.
• Finding out the importance of fins in the movement of fish.
• Protein denaturation using different temperatures.
• Plasmolysis and deplasmolysis in onion skin cells.
• The catalytic activity of enzymes in living tissues.
• An experiment on the distribution of temperature thresholds for wool pigment formation in ermine rabbits.
• An experiment with acetabularia demonstrating the leading role of the cell nucleus in heredity.
• Obtaining CO2 from copper hydroxide carbonate.
• Getting carbon dioxide from vitamin pills.
• Production of CO2 from limescale and acetic acid.
• Getting carbon dioxide from the sparkling water.
• Organizational Effectiveness Impact on Individual Performance .
• The reaction of carbon dioxide with alkali.
• Change in pH when carbon dioxide is dissolved.
• Combustion of magnesium in carbon dioxide.
• Dissolving ammonia in water.
• Changes in pH when ammonia is dissolved.
• The reaction of ammonia and hydrogen chloride.
• Preparation and analysis of chlorine.
• The mixture of chlorine and iodine.
• Photochemical reaction: Chlorine + hydrogen.
• Impact of Divorce on the Emotional Well-being of Children .
• The process of burning sodium in chlorine.
• Combustion of antimony in chlorine.
• The combination of sodium and water.
• The experiment of mixing lithium and water.
• The reaction of copper and nitric acid.
• The deposition of copper on iron.
• The peculiarities of mercury deposition on copper.
• Flame staining with sodium salt.
• Coloring flames with potassium salt.
• Approaches to Media: Audiences and Effects .
• Staining the flame with a lithium salt.
• How to color the flame with strontium salt?
• The effect of concentration on the reaction rate.
• Dependence of the reaction rate on the initial substance.
• Effects of temperature on chemical equilibrium .
• Chromium (III) oxide as a catalyst.
• Impact of agitation on dissolution rate.
• Temperature dependence of salt solubility.
• A universal indicator color scale.
• Determination of the pH of consumer products.
• The pH of salt solutions in hydrolysis.
• The reaction of base oxide with water.
• Employee Loyalty and Career Development Effects .
• The reaction of sodium and ethanol.
• Sulfuric acid reaction and carbohydrates.
• Combustion of boric acid ethyl ester.
• How Social Class Impacts Health Disparities .
• Accumulation of wind energy in the form of hydrogen.
• Storage of solar energy in the form of hydrogen.
• The reaction of rubidium and water.
• An experiment on creating a volcano.
• Oxidizing properties of manganese (VII) oxide.
• Production and combustion of silane.
• Combustion in potassium chlorate.
• Lack Sleep Effects on Teenagers .
• An experiment proving the need for light for photosynthesis.
• Study of the properties of normal, burnt, and decalcified bones.
• Determination of breath holding time before and after exercise.
• Conducting a family therapy roleplay.
• Roleplay: A therapist and a client.
• Developing a program for family health awareness.
• Seminar on improving mental health.
• Creating a schedule for daily exercising.
• Negative Impact of Technology on Children’s Growth .
• The effect of color on the heat caused by light absorption.
• Experiment with constructing an X-Ray device. 
• The conversion of potential energy into kinetic one.
• The measurement of water surface tension. 
• The construction of a gravity model .
• Relationship Between Health and Wealth .

🎓 Experimental Research Topics for College Students

• The effects of different sleeping patterns on cognitive function.
• What impact does technology have on students’ social interactions?
• Various diet plans: Effects on physical health.
• How does media consumption affect mental health?
• Psychology. Stanford Prison Experiment .
• The impact of online learning platforms on educational outcomes.
• Are exercise and stress levels in students related?
• Social media use and academic performance.
• Differentiation of study techniques: Exam performance comparison.
• The impact of different teaching styles on learning outcomes.
• Do in-person and online student support services foster student retention?
• The Influence of Non-Work-Related Factors on the Work Commitment .
• Comparing academic performance in online learning and traditional classroom.
• Social media and its impact on student engagement.
• Student mental health impact on academic performance.
• Work Environment Impact on Employee Performance .
• How do extracurricular student activities affect personal and social development?
• How is student debt related to decision-making ?
• The relationship between college student sleep deprivation and academic performance.
• What types of financial aid can influence college student retention?
• Do college student internships affect employment opportunities?
• Organizational Culture and Performance Relationship .
• Comparing the impact of traditional vs. experiential learning.
• The cognitive load and academic performance: What is the relation?
• Time management strategies and college student success.
• Cyber-Bullying Versus Traditional Bullying and Its Psychological Effects .
• Can a new learning environment engage students?
• How can mindfulness affect academic performance?
• The impact of a teacher’s racial bias on cultural prejudice levels in the classroom.
• Effects of student-led group activities on learning outcomes.
• What types of testing have the most impact on student learning?
• Student motivation : The main types and their specifics.
• Does class size impact student academic performance?
• Voter behavior in the EU: A case study of political ads.
• The role of social media in political discourse in the US.
• The Effects of Physical Attractiveness on Persuasion .
• The effects of different political parties on voter attitudes.
• How can survey experiments be used to manipulate public opinion ?
• Political debates and voter engagement: Are there any connections?
• Does encouraging voters by mail decrease voter turnout?
• How do social media messages affect citizens’ political mobilization?
• How do political ads affect voters’ attitudes?
• The Effects of School Feeding Program on Preschool Children .
• Does the provision of financial incentives increase full-time employment rates in welfare recipients?
• Does giving vouchers to low-income families increase their economic mobility?
• Why people don’t migrate to higher-developed countries: A lab experiment.
• Innovation Influences on Business Environment .
• Does better customer service at the Department of Revenue increase citizens’ income tax compliance?
• Covid-19 as a natural experiment on the effects of remote learning.
• Does providing customers with information on food’s health benefits affect their buying decisions?
• Gender discrimination in hiring: An experiment.
• Schizophrenia: Mental Status Evaluation and Experiment .
• Using experimental methods to study preschoolers’ language acquisition.
• Do multilingual people have better working memory than monolingual ones?
• Language immersion programs and their effects on student learning.
• The study of the effects of age on language acquisition.
• Organizational Behaviour Influence on Innovation Processes .
• The influence of language immersion programs on student motivation.
• The investigation of language learning software effects on academic performance.
• The study of the effectiveness of bilingual education programs in schools.
• Impact of Workplace Factors on Nurses Job Satisfaction and Retention .

🔬 Experimental Research Topics for STEM Students

• Estimation of ionizing radiation influence on the organism.
• Evaluation of the thalamus contribution to the generation of pain sensations.
• The impact of neurotransmitters in the formation of tactile sensitivity.
• Research of the integrative function of the brain.
• An analysis of current resources for bioinformatics research.
• An assessment of hemodynamic state in hypertension .
• How Parental Styles Influence Children With ADHD?
• Approbation of biological systems in technology.
• Contribution of biophysics to brain concepts.
• Music Therapy and Its Effects on Elderly People .
• Current approaches to robotics and mechanical engineering.
• Dependence of neuronal development rate on nutrient conditions.
• Determination of the role of neural circuits in multisensory integration.
• High Blood Pressure and Heart Attack Relationship .
• Impact of the factors on the biochemical processes in the organism.
• Investigating predictors of cellular apoptosis.
• Investigation of the antibiotic susceptibility trends.
• Nursing Leadership Styles Influence on Performance and Work .
• Lipid metabolism disorders as predictors of atherosclerosis.
• Modern methods for assessing the functional state of blood vessels.
• Current methods of blood plasma proteins research.
• Nanotechnology opportunities in heart surgeries.
• New understanding of neurogenesis.
• Optimization methods in systemic evolutionary doctrine.
• Steroid Effects on the Body .
• Robotic systems performance in large industries.
• Structural bases of organization of biopolymers in medicine.
• Studying the potential of discrete mathematics in nanotechnology.
• The effects of the structure of biological membranes in DNA replication disorders.
• The outcomes of neurodegenerative diseases.
• Comparison of Vitamin C Levels in Different Vegetables and the Effects of Processing (Fresh, Frozen and Canned) .
• The potential consequences of anticoagulant use at inappropriate dosages.
• The power of mathematical calculation to assess health prognoses.
• The rationality of nuclear fusion in modern conditions.
• Pregnancy and Ultrasound Effects on Fetus .
• The role of applied mathematics in space research.
• The study of membrane polarization levels in cardiac disorders.
• The significance of the applicability of number theory in cosmology.
• The use of abstract relational biology in science.
• Nurse-Client Relationship and Mental Health Knowledge .
• The effects of social media on self-esteem and mental health.
• The impact of stress on memory and concentration.
• Behavioural Reaction to Organizational Change .
• Gender differences in emotional intelligence and expression.
• The influence of music on mood and behavior.
• The impact of sleep deprivation on attention and cognitive functioning.
• The effect of parental attachment on child development and self-esteem.
• The role of technology use in adolescent socialization and identity formation.
• The effects of mindfulness training on anxiety and stress management.
• How Video Games Influence Aggressiveness?
• The impact of workplace stress on job performance and productivity.
• The effect of nutrition on cognitive functioning and brain health.
• The influence of exercise on mental health and well-being.
• The impact of color on memory and learning.
• Smoking: Its Cause and Effects .
• The role of social support in psychological well-being and coping strategies.
• The influence of culture on attitudes toward mental illness and stigma.
• The relationship between self-regulation and academic achievement and success.
• The impact of depression on intimate relationships and communication.
• Work Environment, Absenteeism, Performance and Productivity: Relationship .
• The effects of test anxiety on student performance and confidence.
• The association of social media uses with self-esteem and self-image.
• The role of social comparison in self-concept formation and self-evaluation.
• Impact of Technological Innovations on the Organization Performance .
• The impact of forgiveness on psychological well-being and stress management.
• The influence of social media on body image and eating habits.
• The effect of exercise on cognitive performance and brain health.
• The role of attachment style in romantic relationships and intimacy.
• The influence of parenting style on adolescent outcomes and self-esteem.
• The effect of music on stress management and relaxation.
• Motivation and Its Effects on the Workplace .
• The impact of gender roles on mental health and self-esteem.
• The effects of sleep deprivation on emotional regulation and mental health
• The relationship between sleep quality and stress levels and mood.
• The effect of family dynamics on mental health and coping strategies.
• The Impact of Human Resource Management Strategies .
• The influence of religion on coping strategies and resilience.
• The impact of social support on depression and stress.
• The role of nature exposure on psychological well-being and relaxation.
• The influence of social media on self-esteem and self-image.
• Paramedics and Effects of Shift Work .
• The effects of technology use on attention span and concentration.
• The impact of self-esteem on academic performance and motivation .
• The association of childhood trauma with mental health and resilience.
• The role of emotional intelligence in interpersonal relationships and communication.
• Abusive Supervision and Its Effects on Employees .
• The influence of music on achievement motivation and concentration.
• The impact of social media on interpersonal communication and self-expression.
• The effect of media use on body image and self-esteem.
• Behavioral Effects Associated With Marijuana .
• The relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance outcomes.
• The influence of social comparison on self-concept formation.
• The impact of loneliness on mental health and well-being.
• The effects of humor on stress reduction and management.
• The Impact of Organizational Change on Business .
• The role of mindfulness in coping with anxiety and stress.
• The influence of technology use on social interactions and relationships.
• The effect of goal-setting on achievement and motivation.
• Successful Leadership’s Influences on Productivity .
• The impact of self-acceptance on psychological well-being and resilience.
• The relationship between attachment style and mental health outcomes.
• The effects of stress on cognitive performance and attention.
• The impact of social media on decision-making processes.
• Jazz Music and Race Relationship .
• The role of parental support on academic performance and engagement.
• The influence of sleep quality on emotional regulation and self-control .
• The effect of exercise on memory retention and learning.
• Diversity Effects on the Workplace .
• The impact of media uses on self-esteem and body image.
• The association of bullying with mental health symptoms.
• The role of nature in stress reduction and management.
• Fast Food Restaurants’ Impact on People’s Health .
• The influence of gratitude on psychological well-being and life satisfaction.
• The effect of humor on interpersonal communication and relationships.
• The impact of self-regulation on achievement and success.
• The relationship between sleep deprivation and cognitive functioning impairment.
• Impact of Branding on Consumer Purchasing Behaviour .
• How do oral contraceptives affect the nervous system?
• How does yoga affect muscle relaxation that leads to sleep?
• How Does Packaging Influence Buyer Decision Making .
• Does parent-child interaction influence the development of white matter?
• How do stress and anxiety affect the capacity for creativity?
• Health Effects of Steroid Use Among Athletes .
• How does bilingualism influence academic achievement and performance?
• How does bilingualism prevent cognitive deterioration?
• How Does Child Neglect Might Affect a Child’s Self-Esteem in Adulthood?
• How does parent-child interaction influence a child’s understanding of COVID-19?
• How does sex education help to curb teenage pregnancy?
• Facebook Inc.’s Unethical Experiment with Users .
• How does the availability of contraception influence teenage pregnancy levels?
• What will happen if the Great Depression happened today?
• How does the Christmas marketing affect its traditions?
• What is the role of Black culture in music?
• Possible Side Effects of Morphine Use .
• How can the US government structure be changed?
• How is the US Constitution adapted to modern times?
• The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment .
• How can elections be changed for better representation?
• What are the factors that predict levels of stress in children?
• Why do American and international students adapt differently to college?
• How does racial identity influence psychological well-being?
• Reasoning on the Topic of Crime – Ofshe’s Experiment .
• How does racial identity influence cognitive processes?
• How does racial discrimination affect the brain?
• How does racial discrimination cause mental distress?
• Cultural Influences on Business Ethics .
• What factors influence physical health in school children?
• How do race and ethnicity affect psychosocial adaptation?
• How does gender influence levels of impulsivity in alcohol addicts ?
• How does sexual conservatism relate to emotional guilt?
• Impacts of Information Systems on Policies and Student Learning .
• How do social norms induce the brain’s guilt response?
• Which societal factors lead to increased levels of teenage pregnancy?
• What are the impacts of teenage pregnancy on society?
• How does teenage pregnancy affect social mobility?
• “Fat Talk” by Ambwani: Experimental Study .
• How are teenage pregnancy and birth mortality rates connected?
• What is the gender difference in teenage pregnancy consequences?
• Impact of Core Competence and Sustainability of Business .
• What is the correlation between teenage pregnancy and child development?
• What is the correlation between teenage pregnancy and miscarriage?
• The Impact of Culture on Dementia Healthcare .
• How can teenage pregnancy levels be reduced?
• Human Resource Impacts on Organizational Performance .

If you plan to conduct experimental research, you should know a particular set of rules. By following them, you will ensure that your findings are accurate and that the paper structure is appropriate. See the essential steps of experimental research below:

• Come up with a hypothesis. Decide what assumptions you will test in your study. Keep in mind that they should be applying scientific methods. So, make sure you will be able to perform proper analysis to test your ideas.
• Think of the context & theory. Gather the information that is already available on your topic and examine it. You should have solid theoretical ground before performing an actual experiment. Besides, consider what space in existing research your study can fill. Examine everything done in the field – you can do it quicker with our summarizer .
• Plan your study. Create a detailed plan for your research and follow it. It will help you structure your experiment, keep track of the progress, and keep up with the deadlines. Don’t forget to decide on the possible ways of data collection.
• Conduct an experiment. Once you’ve set up everything, start the actual investigation. Collect the required data and organize it logically. Finally, perform the chosen scientific manipulation to test your hypotheses. Remember to clearly understand your objectives and distinguish your dependent and independent variables to conduct the study.
• Examine your finding. This step involves the in-depth analysis of your data. Investigate your results and decide whether you accept or reject your hypotheses. Be attentive in this part: you will deal with numbers and figures here.
• Write about what you’ve found. Wrap up your experiential research by explaining your results. Consider the practical implication of your study. Did you contribute anything of value to the field? Will your study be helpful for future research? Make sure that you not only present pure findings but also explain them.

Thank you for reading our article. We hope our experimental research topics for college students were helpful. Plus, we have a handy tool for you. Our online sentence rephraser will help you make your writing sophisticated.

• Guide Designing and Conducting Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research – Writing@CSU, Colorado State University
• Experimental Research Educational Research Basics – Del Siegle, the University of Connecticut
• Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research — WAC Clearinghouse
• Understanding Nursing Research: Experimental Design — Mary and Jeff Bell Library
• Experimentation — Yale University
• Experiment Basics — Research Methods in Psychology
• Causal or Experimental Research Designs — Queensborough Community College
• Fundamental Experimental Research in Machine Learning — Oregon State University

A List of 580 Interesting Research Topics [2024 Edition]

In school and college, you will be required to write research papers. Yes — papers in the plural. And that’s the first reason you may want to turn to Custom Writing and seek help with research projects.

Our specialists will write a custom essay specially for you!

When assigned a paper, the very first undertaking is to choose from a list of research topics. This is a daunting, even intimidating task, one that many people would prefer to circumvent altogether.

The good thing is:

There are hundreds of exciting and fun research topics for high school or college students from which to choose. With a variety of options, you are likely to find some interesting things to research. When you have good ideas and help available, this task becomes less threatening and more engaging.

But first: Let’s verify you have a complete comprehension of what writing a research paper entails. After all, you can’t be creative with an idea if you don’t know how to write about it. Then, you’ll find numerous interesting research topics for your work.

• 🔝 Top 10 Research Topics

❓ What Is a Research Paper?

• ✍️ How to Find Topics to Write About

⭐ A List of Research Topics

• 💻 IT Topics
• 🏺 History Topics
• 🧠 Psychology Topics
• 🎓 Education Topics
• 📺 Cultural Topics
• 🗣️ Topics for an Argumentative Essays

🔬 Science Research Topics

💉 health topics for research papers.

• 👔 Business Research Topics
• 📚 Literature Topics
• 🗳️ Political Topics

😂 Fun Research Topics

• 👥 Sociology Research Papers

🎯 Specific Research Proposal Topics

• 👩‍⚕️ Nursing Research Papers
• 🎨 Art Topics
• 🎼 Music Topics
• ✍️ Creative Writing Topics
• 🎈 Other Topics

🔝 Top 10 Research Topics for 2024

• Maintaining social bonds via music
• Use of AI in robotics
• Narcissistic personality disorder: genetic factors
• Mental effects of remote work
• Use of infrared detectors in alarm systems
• Cosmological simulations and machine learning
• Achieving climate-positive agriculture
• Emerging infectious diseases: detection and prevention
• Technology-enhanced education in the post-COVID era
• Disability inclusion in the workplace

If you aren’t clear on what a research paper is, then you won’t get very far when writing one. A research paper is just as its name suggests — a form of academic writing that necessitates the independent investigation of a specified topic and reports the unique results of that investigation.

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Suny Empire State College provides a great and exhaustive explanation of what a research paper is.

In order to write a paper, you are required to formulate a research question. This is a question associated with your topic that acts as a guide during your research, enabling you to focus and provide unique arguments.

Before you can produce a research question, you have to choose from countless research topics available. Another useful thing to do would be checking out free sample research papers . With that in mind, let’s examine how you can discover some unique research paper topics.

✍️ How to Find Research Topics to Write About

The choice of a research paper topic can be influenced by a number of factors, including:

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• The course for which the paper is assigned
• Whether there is a topic assigned to you by the professor
• Whether you are given a broad-spectrum subject area
• How much freedom you are given to branch out and select a topic

Hopefully, you have been given some freedom of choice regarding academic paper topics. However, if you do have some choice in the matter, you might be speculating about how to narrow it down.

You are in luck!

There are a number of ways to effectively comb through the abundance of research paper topics and discover one that will work well for you. Here are some suggestions:

• Ask your professor. Chances are your professor has some fabulous research paper ideas. You can also inquire with other university staff and graduate students for ideas. These people know your discipline well, which can work to your advantage.
• Browse through scientific journals and research papers , but be sure to adhere to the most recent research possible. You will definitely find interesting ideas in published papers that would make great research paper topics.
• Investigate other professional and government publications for research project ideas. Again, keep to the most recent publications within the last three to five years, if possible.
• Browse through your library catalog to uncover the most interesting areas of study in your field.
• Take notes everywhere you go! It doesn’t matter if you are in class listening to your professor, traveling, reading a magazine, or watching TV. Research paper ideas are absolutely everywhere! Write things down whenever you come across something unique and interesting, and you just might find a topic to pursue.

When it comes down to it, deciding on one of the many academic essay topics is the most substantial step of the process.

Once you have that narrowed down, you can focus your research and write a remarkable paper. Now, we want to give you some help. What follows is an extensive list of the most interesting research topics to get you started.

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Now that you have a good idea of how to search for college research paper topics, you are ready for some suggestions. You might like one of them right off the bat, or you might be inspired by a particular topic and write something related to it.

Want to know the best part?

By the time you are finished reading this academic topics list, you will feel much more equipped for writing your research paper. For even better result, have a brainstorming session with a research topic generator to introduce a bigger variety of options.

💻 IT Research Paper Topics

Perhaps some of the best college research topics these days are in the IT field. Explore one of these interesting ideas in your paper:

• Has big data changed our lives for the better? Big data is a trendy study subject. Large IT companies use it for purposes such as advertising and logistics. However, it has also raised substantial privacy concerns over non-consensual data gathering. Are the benefits companies get by collecting your data worth them learning everything about you?
• Neural networks are algorithms that can learn to solve problems. Both their name and method of learning are derived from how the human brain works. Can neural networks lead to the creation of a true AI? If so, how soon?
• The current state of cryptography and how it may develop. The entire Internet’s security relies on a relatively small number of ciphers. If they were to be broken, the potential damage would be immeasurable. How likely is that to happen? What challenges are we likely to face in the future?
• The pros and cons of transitioning to cloud technologies. Cloud services are very convenient for various purposes. They might not work as fast as physical devices, but they are portable, cheap, and very convenient. Should humanity switch entirely to cloud services?
• What issues does automation raise, and how can they be solved? Robots don’t get tired and work very precisely. That’s why automation is great for business. Many manufacturing companies rely on robots heavily in their production. However, robots in the workplace mean fewer jobs for humans. When most blue-collar positions disappear, what will humanity do?
• Should we keep using multi-factor authentication?
• Are big tech companies monopolistic in their behaviors?
• Is remote work the future of office jobs employment?
• The pros and cons of software ownership vs. subscription models.
• Explore the evolution of wireless communication standards and their implications.
• Describe the Internet of things and its effects on security .
• The issues of IPv4 and the adoption of IPv6.
• How do computers manage to generate random numbers?
• The infrastructure and contingencies of the World Wide Web .
• Are computers entirely unbiased in their treatment of people?
• Procedures to enhance IT security
• New methodologies and challenges to IT management in health
• Interrelation, patterns, and existing theories on behavior and IT
• Common services center vs. community multimedia center: selecting the correct variety of IT service
• Racial and gender issues in the IT domain
• Innovative theories regarding computer imitation of a human being
• The impact of digitization of medical records on the IT domain

🏺 Topics for your Research Project on History

Human history is full of exciting events, and despite what you might believe, not all of them have been explored. There are many incredible history research topics, such as:

• The history of the Chinese Empire over the millennia. The Chinese Empire is rarely discussed in history classes as much as its Western counterparts. However, it existed for over two millennia, only falling in 1912. Many curious events happened in that time that merit discussion.
• The Ottoman Empire and the Barbary slave trade. The word “barbarian” comes from the Barbary Coast in Africa. It was infamous for its pirates, who raided European vessels for loot and slaves. Only ending in the 19th century, this phenomenon can make for an interesting case study.
• The rise and fall of Ancient Greek city-states. Ancient Greece is often viewed as mostly monolithic and united against threats. In fact, it was comprised of numerous city-states that fought as much as they cooperated. Research the region’s fascinating and nuanced history.
• The effects of the printing press on the world . The printing press was invented in 1440 AD by Johannes Gutenberg. Before it, each copy of a book had to be written by hand. It limited the literature’s availability dramatically. What effects did mass production of books have on Europe and the world?
• The fracturing of Christianity : causes and effects. Since its inception, Christianity has gone through multiple schisms. Some of them were remarkably violent. As a result, there are now three main Christian churches and a multitude of lesser ones. Explore what caused believers to split apart into Orthodox Christians, Catholics, and Protestants.
• The underlying causes of the World War I.
• Provide a detailed history of the Hundred Years’ War and its results.
• Holy Roman Empire : from successor to the Romans to a Nazi symbol.
• Liberalism in national politics: emergence and evolution.
• The history of the world as a series of conquests.
• Were the Crusades motivated purely by religious devotion?
• Why did Texas secede from Mexico to the United States?
• Apartheid in South Africa and its heritage.
• Centers of scientific activity throughout history.
• How did China’s geography influence its history?
• Palestine and the Golan Heights
• Premises, progression, and consequences of the cold war
• The most remarkable revolutions in history
• Has Slavery transformed the development of the western world?
• Could damage from the bubonic plague have been diminished?
• Strange medieval family laws and their influence on society
• Life in London in the 15th century
• Religious cults in ancient societies

🧠 Psychology Research Paper Topics

Psychology has to offer plenty of interesting ideas for you to research. Just look through the discoveries made over the past decades, and you can understand that the human mind holds as many mysteries as the deep ocean.

It is why we would like to suggest a list of great experimental research topics in psychology. The science of human behavior is even more exciting when you can try your theories on practice.

If you still can’t decide on the topic for your research paper or thesis, just look through this collection of compelling proposals to give yourself an inspirational boost.

• What is the correlation between personality and taste in literature? It’s obvious that people with similar interests get in groups. Does it mean that they have similar personalities, though?
• Conformity in college and high school: a scientific approach. Check how your course mates tend to agree with others and don’t forget to write it down!
• Do men and women have different short-term memory mechanisms? It’s quite easy to conduct an experiment, but be careful approaching it in terms of gender issues.
• Optical illusions from the perspective of people with creativity skills. What if people who tend to be artistic and creative can see something in the common optical illusions that others can’t?
• The gut feeling: how do you feel when others stare at you? Some studies showed that you are more likely to wake up in the night because someone is staring at you. It’s creepy, though…
• Tricking the taste buds: how does smell affect the taste? How much can the smell of an onion confuse your sense of taste while you are eating an apple?
• What is the Stroop Effect, and how does age influence it? Check whether the age of the participants influences their ability to name the colors.
• Does having a symmetrical face make us seem more attractive? It is very rare that someone has perfectly identical left and right sides of the face. But how noticeable is it?
• Analyze the capacity of the short-term memory of your peers. The easiest way is to measure it by memorizing words and comparing the numbers later.
• Do people eat more popcorn when watching movies of a specific genre? Chewing something is almost a must-do in the cinema. But what type of movies triggers this behavior more than others?
• What signs of social media addiction are noticeable in public? Spend some time in the local coffee shop, watching people on their phones, and note any signs of addiction they show.
• The psychological effects of having breakfast: learning performance. Check if your course mates who have breakfast are more successful in learning than those who don’t.
• Music vs. body: how does your body respond? Measure different biomarkers while listening to different types of music. Maybe you’ll find perfect motivational beats!
• What color should your room be to improve your learning outcome? Blue is more calming than red, which is often used in sports halls. But what about boosting your learning abilities?
• Favorite color as a result of childhood attraction. Try to trace the childhood memories of your friends. Maybe their favorite color is pink because they had pink walls in their room.
• Biomarkers and colors: what is the correlation? Check how seeing different colors can stimulate specific responses from the body, for example, in heart rate.
• Colors and mood: can the color of your bedsheets make your day? The first thing you see in the morning is quite important. How would a specific color affect your mood?
• What is the correlation between stress levels and procrastination? There is a relation for sure, but does procrastination cause stress or the other way around?
• How much can we trust the long-term memory ? Ask people to tell you about some random event from their past. Then, ask them to do the same later. Do the stories match?
• Negative influences of sleep deprivation on social behavior. Track some students’ behavior when they don’t get enough sleep and see how it affects their relationship with others.
• The origin of phobias and fears : engaging the monster within
• Dreams : are they messages from within?
• Mechanisms of thinking: it’s all in your head
• Factors that influence behavior and character
• Mechanisms of aggravating habits
• The function of short- and long-term memory

• Why people yearn for their past
• What entices people to amass the most preposterous things?
• Is autism a disease or a natural variation of the norm ?
• The impact and outcomes of social networks and mental health
• How memory works: recalling the essential
• How depression impacts the immune system

• A phenomenon-oriented approach to the study of depression
• How to manage post-traumatic stress disorder in children
• Depression as a cause of celiac disease
• Fighting depression with techniques to relieve anxiety
• The consequences of depression and relationship problems
• Eating behaviors in different cultures
• How behavioral patterns develop
• How to forecast and shape behavioral patterns
• Differences and similarities in the behavioral patterns of diverse cultures
• Is there a genetic link to optimism that can shape behaviors and attitudes?
• The causes and consequences of insomnia
• How to combat child violence

• How defense mechanisms and behavioral patterns work
• How bilingualism works: the secret of processing mechanisms
• How fear-related beliefs fit into the cognition process
• Following the cognitive process involved in anxiety disorders
• How to fight emotional distress
• Unusual mental health cases and cognition deviations
• Applying psychological approaches to ethical reality
• How motivation plays a role in human development
• The shared elements of self-affiliation and self-determination
• An examination of the causes and results of drug and alcohol abuse
• New ideas regarding the peculiarities of rational and social development
• How practicing a healthy lifestyle cures disease and promotes wellness
• Conflict solution in parent-child relationships
• Evaluating the challenges of preterm development in children
• How to battle cognitive deficit in Parkinson’s disease
• Is attention deficit disorder a neuropsychological problem?
• Examining the process of making decisions and taking risks
• The impact of music genres on how the brain works
• How to fight childhood disorders
• Shattering long-standing myths about ADHD
• Intellectually gifted people: how is it possible?

🎓 Research Paper Topics on Education

Research project ideas around education are always changing. This has resulted in a wide range of research topics, such as:

• Computers in classrooms: useful tool or obstacle to equality ? Computers have proved to be capable of improving many aspects of our lives. For instance, they allow children to interact with content instead of just consuming it. However, computers further the disparities between those who can and cannot afford one. Explore these factors in your research paper.
• A review of potential methods for solving America’s education crisis. The US invests a substantial portion of its budget into education. However, the system’s equality is average at best. You can study proposals on how we may change its design for the better. Choose the most promising ones, or suggest one of your own.
• Individualized vs. group learning : which is better suited for current reality? Every child’s learning should be tailored to their specific situation. Unfortunately, there are far more children than teachers. Answer these questions: is group learning the only available option despite its drawbacks? Can we reduce its shortcomings by blending the models?
• Are standardized tests helpful or damaging to children’s education ? Standardized tests are convenient from a bureaucratic standpoint. They convert children’s learning into numbers that are easy to work with. But the practice is often criticized for prioritizing memorization over understanding. Should standardized tests be abandoned?
• How should the education system approach children with special needs ? Special needs children have experienced a broad range of treatment throughout history. What are the current ideas on how to teach them? What are their special needs in an educational context, and how can schools satisfy them?
• Are the world’s best education systems based on similar foundations?
• How can schools help children maintain their mental health ?
• What does equality of opportunity mean in the context of the school?
• Review how the essential qualities of a teacher evolved since 2000.
• Should every school student aim for higher education ?
• What traits define an excellent teacher, and can they be cultivated?
• Is homeschooling a viable alternative to public schools ?
• The school choice debate in the US: arguments for and against.
• Authoritative sources: what qualities make information available on the Internet valid?
• Is cheating on tests an expression of an educational failure?
• Where theory encounters reality in gender issues
• Test anxiety with regard to contemporary methods of teaching
• The effects of contemporary teaching methods
• The mental process behind human learning
• The interpretation of IQ test results
• Should children be rebuked when they misbehave?
• How to prevent bullying and harassment in schools

• The creation of particular learning methods for blind children
• Positives and negatives of contemporary methods of teaching and state-of-the-art innovations
• The function of technology in lesson planning
• Is there a one-size-fits-all strategy for education?

📺 Cultural Research Topics for Papers

Perhaps there is nothing more complex than human culture and how people have interacted with each other throughout history. For this reason, these cultural topics might be of interest to you:

• Harlem Renaissance: how a single neighborhood created modern African American culture . In the 1920s, numerous African Americans moved to the Harlem neighborhood of New York. Influenced by the ideas of thinkers such as W. E. B. Du Bois , they built the foundations of Black culture and art. How did this happen? 
• Is third-wave feminism still a movement for equality ? First-wave feminism gave women equal rights with men. Then the second wave started the fight with discrimination. However, third-wave feminism claims that the second wave failed, especially with regards to matters such as race and ethnicity. Are its claims valid, and what does it work to achieve? 
• Is the Western way of thinking the only correct one? Non-Western civilizations lay claim to different schools of thought that emphasize different viewpoints. Should Westerners adopt aspects of non-Western philosophical thought? 
• Are the factors that informed the Constitution still relevant? The Constitution was created in a different time than now. Some of its provisions, notably the Second Amendment , have been challenged repeatedly in recent years. Explore if the ideas of the Founding Fathers still apply today. 
• Should the postmodern school of art be considered art? Postmodern art is challenging to define in plain terms. Many people are confused when a seemingly random series of brush strokes sells for millions of dollars. Think of how such artworks fit into the history of art movements. 
• The impact of advertisements and commercials on how people comprehend the world 
• The implicit messages of mass media : what you see is what you get 
• How the most remarkable cultural achievements of the 20 th century influenced contemporary art 
• The repetition of cultural tendencies: the Greeks did it first 
• Social roles adults endorse to children via toys 
• Social models mass media bestows on teenagers and adults 
• Eating habits in dissimilar cultures 
• The origin of racial discrimination  
• The segmentation and integration of humans 
• The impact of AIDS on mankind 
• A new comprehension of past events 
• Unearthing a common language: divorce prevention and family therapy  
• Painting a portrait of the average American family 
• The roots of antisemitism and how it manifests today 
• A case against cruelty to living beings 
• An examination of the current job market and unemployment  

🗣️ Argumentative Essay Topics

It is easy to find unique argumentative research paper topics. After all, we live in a crazy world in which all kinds of interesting things happen. Here are some suggestions:

• Is the Electoral College a better system than the popular vote? The United States uses the unique Electoral College system for its presidential elections. Over the centuries, calls have been made to change it to the popular vote approach. So far, these attempts have been fruitless. In this debate, whose position has more merit?
• Should the continued expansion of the government be reversed? Starting small, governments around the world took on more and more functions. As a result, they now guarantee the operation of many services. They also collect massive taxes and demonstrate bureaucratic inefficiencies. Is there a valid argument for privatizing most public services?
• Should the US continue acting as the world’s peacekeeper? The US’s military is present in many areas around the world. Usually, they take the form of military bases and peacekeeping forces. However, its efforts often fail, with Iraq as a recent example . Should the nation continue spending its resources abroad?
• Does the public or private healthcare produce better results for the cost? The US’s healthcare system is often criticized for its massive costs and underwhelming quality. There have been calls to both make it more private and more public. Which of the two approaches ensures a more affordable, efficient system?
• Is teenage gender transition ethical? Recently, medical professionals in the US have started transitioning teenagers with gender dysphoria . Yet, some of them de-transition later. Should the practice continue regardless?
• Political commitment and television
• Should marijuana be legalized?
• Can people of different races ever understand each other
• Abusive relationships : where to draw the line on what relationships should Be allowed to exist
• Are there realistic limitations on abortion ?
• The many guises of violence in society
• The impact of women on world history

• Are social interactions possible without lies?
• Dealing with overpopulation: can it be accomplished ethically ?
• Torture : is it ever acceptable?
• The ethics of using animals in research
• Human dependence on computers : beneficial or harmful
• Post-9/11 security measures : an invasion of privacy or good sense

Science is always bursting with new and exciting topics as we delve deeper into the mysteries of the universe and technology. Here are a few topic suggestions:

• The potential of space resources and the technologies for extracting them. Space contains a vast quantity of resources, many of which are rare or expensive on Earth. Plans to use them have been arising for a long time. Can we implement any of them in the near future, and do they justify the costs? 
• Recent promising developments in cancer treatment and their validity. Cancer is a significant concern for humanity largely because it cannot be treated without harming the body. However, ideas such as targeted medications and imitations of whale biology have promised an end to this problem. Research them and assess their validity. 
• Large-scale recycling methods and their effectiveness in reducing waste . Most of the resources humanity uses are still on the planet in the form of waste. Some, such as fossil fuels, cannot be recovered, while metals and many others can. Is it possible to address resource scarcity through large-scale recycling? Is it economically viable? 
• Advantages and disadvantages of proposed thorium nuclear reactor designs. Thorium has been touted as the solution to the problems of uranium-based atomic reactors. It’s not as dangerous and produces less waste. Is it indeed superior, or should its issues prevent its use? 
• Potential benefits and issues of genetic modification . Genetic modification is broadly used but also criticized by many. It has its benefits, but critics argue that overreliance may lead to unexplored side effects. Are there reasons to believe these claims? 
• What cloning has in store for humanity : altering the personality 
• How nanotechnology will impact modern science  
• Will uranium isotopes precipitate the next scientific revolution? 
• How psychoactive drugs influence the central nervous system 
• Deafness and using echolocation 
• The role of erythropoietin and calcitriol in the human body 
• The process of feeling pain: treatment and pain relievers of the future 
• Is nuclear energy too hazardous to use? 
• Nuclear weapons : a responsibility for which no country is prepared 
• People’s impact on climate change : the cost of a technological breakthrough 
• Key issues and potential solutions for toxic waste disposal 
• Are the effects of global warming reversible ? 
• The future of NASA  
• Endangered species : causes and concerns  
• Black mold: the bathroom invasion 

Just like science, health care is always changing, particularly as technology advances. With new discoveries in disease research and new technology being developed every day, the following topics are great examples of what you can write about in your paper:

• Race and ethnicity-based differences in normal health indicators . People of different races and ethnicities tend to have varying normal health indicators. For example, African Americans tend to have a higher blood pressure than average. What causes such differences? Why do medical workers need to understand them?
• The effects of the Affordable Care Act on American healthcare. The Affordable Care Act, colloquially known as Obamacare , was introduced to improve health insurance’s affordability for disadvantaged people. However, the costs of insurance have grown since through premiums. Did Obamacare cause this increase, or did it happen independently?
• Strategies for prevention of obesity and associated heart disease risks. Heart disease is a leading cause of death in the United States. Obesity, which is also prevalent in the nation, is associated with the condition. How can the healthcare system reduce the rates of obesity and associated heart disease?
• For- or non-profit hospitals: which offer superior treatment? Both for- and non-profit hospitals are private entities. The former operate as businesses, while the latter only seek to cover their costs. Is the former’s drive to compete and lower prices preferable to the latter’s not charging a profit margin?
• Mental health in the United States: issues and proposed solutions. Mental healthcare is a complicated topic. Many conditions are difficult to diagnose, and some are associated with stigma . Conflicts of interest often arise among psychiatrists, incentivizing them to diagnose fake conditions. How can mental health be improved in the US?
• Should medicine be more focused on the prevention of illnesses or their treatment?
• Is it possible to eliminate a disease forever?
• The development of prosthetics: current technologies and promising ideas
• Barriers to the adoption of electronic health systems and how to overcome them.
• Sedentary behavior and sports: what are the health outcomes ?
• Psychological treatment for adolescents: how to address their needs.
• Caring for seniors: current problems and potential solutions.
• US nursing shortage : causes and potential effects on the nation’s health.
• The effects of circumcision on the health of newborn infants.
• Analyze the experiences of children with autism in school and at home.
• Should image scan radiation be reduced to a minimum level?
• Health care and insurance: concerns and problems
• The most likely outcomes of recent health care reform
• Old theories and new methods of sports injury rehabilitation
• A look at celebrities who have battled cancer
• A comparison of conventional and alternative cancer treatments
• How clean needle programs benefit society
• The need for education on nutrition in school
• The impact of diet on health

👔 Business Research Paper Topics to Write About

Business is a broad field, so there are plenty of topics you can write about, such as:

• Best contemporary practice in green supply chain management for businesses. Green supply chain management aims to overturn the stereotype of polluting factories. Companies that adopt it seek to generate as little waste as possible and require their suppliers to do the same. What policies do researchers currently recommend for this purpose? 
• Corporate social responsibility : theoretical framework and practical implementations. Corporate social responsibility is an approach where a company seeks to give back to the community where it works. It’s a popular concept, often discussed in business schools. But how does it translate into practice? 
• The effects of different office arrangements on the productivity of employees . Offices have evolved substantially over the 20th century. Cubicles replaced isolated rooms, and today open offices are popular. Is there a meaningful difference between these different arrangements? Are the changes improvements or lateral movements? 
• Remote work and its effects on the operations of businesses. Remote work is more popular than ever. It seems convenient for workers, but some companies worry that they will stop being productive without oversight. Are their concerns reasonable? 
• A cross-cultural comparison of leadership styles . In the West, a number of leadership style theories have crystallized that are considered best. However, other regions use distinct approaches that work for them. They’re also not rushing to change to the Western model. Do Western styles work best everywhere, or are they limited to the appropriate mindset? 
• Social media marketing strategies and the determinants of success. 
• Compare the functions of administration and management. 
• Prevention of organizational misconduct: barriers and strategies. 
• Review the latest developments in performance management theory and practice. 
• What is the future of e-commerce business environments ? 
• Innovation in the workplace: current thought and generation methods. 
• How does outsourcing influence business performance? 
• Describe the effects of kaizen and total quality management on performance. 
• Discuss economic viability in corporations that operate at a loss. 
• Overtime work, employee well-being , and company performance. 
• Deliberating in the secrets of effective leadership  
• How time management influences the prosperity of a company 
• How to resolve a conflict between staff and management 
• The function of diversity in the workplace of the 21 st century  
• Management by walking around: effective or fruitless? 
• Should businesses be regulated: pros and cons 
• Social media and word-of-mouth in the digital age 
• How the digital age has transformed small businesses 
• How mobile technology is altering the workplace 
• The future of the franchise  
• How the millennial employee is transforming the workplace 

📚 Literature Research Paper Topics

Sometimes, there is no surrogate for a great paper on literature, and with the changing world, there are always innovative ways to observe literature, even the classics. Here are a few topic suggestions:

• The depiction of the American Dream in The Great Gatsby . Jay Gatsby first appears as an example of the American Dream. Starting poor, he becomes wealthy and popular in the city. However, he does not achieve his desires and stays unhappy. You can research how the novel criticizes the concept while also reinforcing its idea.
• The evolution of Japanese literature in the Meiji Era. The Meiji Era began after the end of Japanese isolationism. Due to encountering new cultures, its art evolved rapidly. Writers such as Akutagawa Ryunosuke and Dazai Osamu created unique works. From what context did they emerge?
• The traits of 20th century dystopian works . The worlds of Aldous Huxley, Ray Bradbury, George Orwell , and others are bleak. However, they are all substantially different. Can you distinguish unifying themes in the stories that these writers tell?
• How does literature reflect contemporary social issues? Writers often try to draw attention to problems of their time. Dickens wrote about the exploitation of the poor, and Langston Hughes discussed racial discrimination. Can this trend be traced across most literature?
• Classic vs. modern poetry. Classical poetry follows a variety of rules, such as rhymes and stanza organization. Contemporary poets often reject these constraints and create works that are closer to prose in form. What caused this change?
• Study the Four Great Works of Chinese Literature as cultural reflections.
• Examine the influence of romantic tendencies on Walther Scott’s works.
• What issues are raised in contemporary African literature?
• Analyze Milton’s interpretation of Biblical myth in Paradise Lost .
• What characterizes the depiction of war in Heller’s Catch-22 ?
• Discuss real and fake loyalty in King Lear .
• How was grotesque used in 19th century American Gothic fiction?
• The Old Man and the Sea : Hemingway’s depiction of the unconquerable spirit.
• How were gender issues depicted in 19th and 20th-century feminist literature?
• Compare the themes of The Iliad and The Odyssey.
• The innovative era: poets of the 21 st century
• A dissection of the most illustrious novels in history
• The hunger games: over and above pulp fiction
• The future of copyright
• An examination of racism in novels from the 1960s and 1970s
• The perception of exile in literature
• Culture and literature: which affects which?
• An examination of homosexuality in literature

🗳️ Political Research Topics

The world of politics is ever-changing. Understanding the complex mechanisms that regulate our lives is challenging. That’s why a research paper is a great way to clarify the matter. Whether you’re interested in global or local affairs, this section has got you covered.

• What is the origin and purpose of powers separation in government ? Most modern governments are separated into three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. Thus they limit each other to avoid government overreach. How was this system founded, and how does it work?
• The structure of the legislation approval process in the US. Every bill has to be approved by the Congress , the Senate, and the President. What factors can hinder the process?
• A comparison between the two-party system and multi-party nations. The US is often critiqued for its two-party system by nations that have numerous parties. With that said, a common counterargument is that American parties made of people with diverse views. How do the political climates of the US and multi-party democracies differ in practice?
• The purpose and effectiveness of term limits for government positions. Some government positions, such as that of the President, are limited to a specific number of years. At the same time, jobs in the Congress and Senate are not. Discuss the purpose of term limits and say if they’re effective.
• Pros and cons of globalism as a political philosophy. The concept of globalism requires worldwide bodies that supersede governments. It looks past nations and ignores their interest in favor of global benefits. Is this approach valid, or are there problems with it?
• How does the European Union membership affect its countries?
• Review the evolution of China’s political system in the 20th-21st centuries.
• The threat of terrorism in a world without ISIS.
• Discuss the issue of mass incarceration in the United States.
• What were the causes of the Soviet Union’s collapse ?
• Write about violations of human rights worldwide and their causes.
• Examine the critiques of capitalism .
• What are the political aims of the Black Lives Matter movement ?
• Review the methods for effectively combating governmental corruption .
• The issues of democracy and how to overcome them.
• The American policy of intervention
• The future of the European union
• Causes of world hunger
• Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction
• The Justice system and juvenile criminals
• Afghanistan—success or stalemate ?
• Was media coverage of SARS adequate
• The new world war: fighting terrorism
• Same-sex marriage: are laws keeping up with changing attitudes?
• BREXIT: good or bad?

Who says you can’t combine academia and entertainment? Great conclusions can come from fun research. The most important thing is to ask the right questions. Check out the following prompts and get inspired:

• Parallel universes, their origins, and potential organizations. Numerous authors have imagined parallel universes. Even some quantum physics theories assert their existence. Are parallel universes slightly different versions of our world, or are they entirely distinct?
• The theories and paradoxes of various time travel mechanisms. Time travel is a popular science fiction trope. It’s also associated with multiple contradictions, such as the grandfather paradox . How do science fiction authors try to overcome these problems?
• The attempts to create the theory of everything. Physicists are trying to develop an approach that would explain everything in the universe. It doesn’t exist yet, as general relativity and quantum physics often contradict each other.
• What are the possibilities and problems of interstellar travel? Without a method to travel much faster than light, expansion beyond the Solar System is impossible. If it becomes feasible, what possibilities can it offer?
• The history of the moon landing conspiracy theory. The moon landing conspiracy theory asserts that the Apollo 11 mission didn’t occur, and the evidence was filmed on Earth. It tries to find various flaws in this evidence and use them to prove its illegitimacy. How did it emerge, and does it still exist?
• Are people who claim to have extrasensory perception frauds?
• Research stories of the supernatural based on facts.
• What is the origin of the modern Santa Claus?
• If an afterlife exists, what form does it take?
• Does meditation have benefits for physical and mental health?
• Did Nostradamus’s prophecies come to pass?
• Why do some people believe the Earth is flat ?
• Does Murphy’s Law always work?
• Examine 19th-century occultism and its prominent leaders.
• Alchemy and the quest for the Philosopher’s Stone.
• How people are affected by the death of a game character
• Challenges faced by people creating their own cartoon
• Beloved comic strip characters and their influence on society
• An examination of UFOs: fact or fiction
• What if aliens do exist: the impact on humanity
• Is there a differentiation between déjà vu and precognition?
• The existence of spirits and how to communicate with them
• Theories regarding the Bermuda triangle
• Investigating alternative cosmology theories
• Does fortune telling have a scientific basis?
• Law of attraction: fact or fiction?
• Men and women’s brain: what’s the difference?

👥 Sociology Research Paper Topics

As an additional interest for studies, a sociology research paper can be written with the purpose of learning this or that aspect of society’s life. You may use personal experience or continue the research started by other authors. Interesting research projects in this area can be based on the following topics:

• Problems of the marriage and family: a divorce research paper . This article can study the relationship in different families and problems that can arise.
• Observance of public behavior standards as the feature of the civilized society. You can describe modern social ideals.
• Comparison of sociological laws in different historical epochs. In your paper, study the attitudes towards various social phenomena.
• The influence of personality on public development and progress. You can describe the power of the personality and what one person can do to contribute to social development.
• Opportunities for searching optimal criteria for the personality socialization . Such a paper aims at revealing the ways of how people can uncover their potential.
• The society’s attitude to global problems : a global warming research paper and the impact of this phenomenon on people’s way of life. Describe this well-known ecological problem in your paper.
• Cultural formation of the personality in the context of modern public reality. This type of work can be connected with describing the ways of people’s cultural development.
• Attempts to socialize adolescents and people with deviant behavior . A research paper on this relevant topic should describe how people who are prone to criminal behavior can correct their way of life.
• Ways of improving the microclimate in the work collective and creating conditions for comfortable work. The theme aims at finding optimal techniques to improve relationships among employees.
• Equality problems in society. A paper on this topic should uncover modern problems connected with inequality and various forms of racism.
• Explore the causes of poverty in disadvantaged communities around the US.
• Review the health and education outcomes of children raised in single-parent families .
• What are the effects of social media on users’ mental health?
• Look into the presence of gender stereotypes in popular culture.
• What are the effects of mass immigration on communities and nations?
• Study the effects of lockdown-related social isolation on mental health.
• Is the Internet an adequate replacement for face-to-face communication ?
• Research the causes of bullying and potential strategies for its prevention.
• What’s the status of LGBT communities in nations around the world?
• The effects of juvenile convictions on one’s life prospects.
• Write about the American population’s views on the dangers of pollution .
• Explore the stigma and social acceptance issues associated with transgender status.
• How does cyberbullying affect one’s health ?
• Review the Internet’s influence on education .
• Assess the rationale of policies that restrict citizen reproduction.
• Research your community’s views on the concept of privacy .
• Health and education outcomes of children raised in same-sex families.
• Explore intergenerational differences in views on social topics.
• How do views on freedom of speech vary among people of different social categories?
• Make a case study on the prevalence of workplace gender discrimination in your community.

It is essential to remember that a good research paper on the subject of sociology will be appreciated by readers if you study a specific social phenomenon in detail, carry out statistical analysis, and perform a number of important procedures. The purpose of a research paper in this field is to cover current public issues, reveal important aspects of various problems, and, if possible, offer optimal solutions. This science requires concrete and well-grounded answers. Any deviations and ambiguous arguments can be regarded as an author’s incompetent attempt to investigate a complex topic.

With all of these topics at your disposal, you might still be feeling a little overwhelmed. However, they are divided into categories to make choosing one easier. It might also be helpful to look at some great research paper samples .

Composing a research proposal can sometimes be a part of a big study. If you not only want to describe a specific problem or to convey an idea to your readers, but also expect to promote your personal theory and receive the approval of a respected scientific community, it’s necessary to choose a topic which allows you to present your own ideas. Different types of writing can be included in this category: an analytical research paper, work on identifying the best ways and techniques for a particular topic, etc. The preparation of research proposal articles has some nuances, and the following topics can be studied:

• The way to conduct optimal trade relationships. Review appropriate techniques and offer specific methods to improve the situation in a particular company.
• The advantages of electronic management systems. This theme will be connected with describing the merits of modern ways of managing specific spheres of production.
• Useful innovations in modern life . Research paper subjects can be different: medicine, sociology, business, etc.
• The best management techniques: methods of control . A paper on this topic should describe the behavioral features of successful managers.
• The implementation of nursing theories in practice. The research paper proposal should have an appropriate scientific basis and describe corresponding medical issues.
• Best practice in the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis .
• What challenges are associated with the nationwide adoption of the DNP standard?
• Research current developments in palliative care for senior patients.
• Are there differences in leadership and management styles between genders?
• Assess the effects of tutoring on the educational attainment of school children.
• Compare the preferred management styles in different cultures.
• How do different states’ populations view the legalization of marijuana ?
• Write about the underlying causes of Ancient Rome’s fall.
• Challenges in the adoption of electronic health records in medical facilities.
• What are the potential vulnerabilities of the AES-256 encryption standard?
• Research the link between loyalty to a company and career growth .
• How did Dante’s Inferno influence Christian depictions of Hell?
• A case study of Singaporean government and its economic policies.
• Review the financial environment and economic growth of Hong Kong .
• Causes and implications of the human waste issues in San Francisco.
• Assess the prevalence of smoking in the United States.
• Study the beneficial effects of early childhood musical education on later development.
• The philosophical and political underpinnings of the French Revolution .
• What are the effects of successful social media marketing campaigns on videogame sales?
• How did Confucian writings influence Chinese political thought?

The video below provides detailed instructions on how to write a research proposal. It is crucial to follow these rules so that the article to be up-to-date and properly formatted. Any attempts to bring something new are generally welcome; however, it is important not to forget about established rules.

👩‍⚕️ Nursing Research Paper Topics

A nursing research paper is an academic article that has specific format requirements. Citation rules in particular are very important, for example, an APA research paper format . In order to write a perfect paper and conduct high-quality research, follow the formatting rules and use any of these topics:

• Nursing techniques to care for patients in intensive care units. The summary of your research paper can include a description of the best practical methods.
• How do you implement nursing theories ? Your paper can consist of the enumeration of specific nursing theories and the ways of their implementation in practice.
• Patients’ education and useful materials. The theme aims at discovering the best educational materials that would be suitable for patients.
• Ideas on how to achieve a better quality of nursing care . You can offer various interpretations of this topic in your research paper.
• Experienced researchers’ opinions on improving the state of nursing in hospitals. Use the ideas of different authors and don’t forget to follow the citation rules.

• Patient-oriented type of care and its advantages. This scientific research essay can reveal the merits of a specific nursing approach.
• Potential risks for nurses in the workplace. Both a junior research paper and a senior research paper of this theme should competently describe all possible dangers that medical employees can face.
• Care for people of different social backgrounds. If this research paper is written in English, it should uncover the ways how to care for people speaking other languages and having different cultural and social levels of development.
• Do nurses need additional stimuli to improve their qualifications? You can write many interesting research papers on this topic, and all of them can include lists of possible bonuses and incentives for nurses.
• The necessity for nurses’ additional education. A paper on this topic can describe subjects suitable for nursing education.
• How do you promote healthy eating practices in disadvantaged communities through educational programs?
• Research ways of providing preventative care for veterans affected by PTSD .
• Review the strategies of organizing nurse shifts to maximize the quality of care in understaffed conditions.
• Study cases of patient violence toward nurses in the intensive care unit.
• Preventing pressure ulcers in immobile patients.
• Ways of implementing quality improvement in nursing units .
• What cultural competencies and challenges are typically encountered in nursing care?
• Review the methods for controlling delirium in the intensive care unit .
• Propose adjustments in sexual education to spread awareness of STD risks in same-sex relationships.
• Suggest interventions to prevent falls in patients staying at home.
• What are the issues of advanced practice nursing in different countries?
• Strategies for remaining productive under pressure as a nurse.
• Research alternatives to prescribing patients with infections antibiotics that bypass resistance.
• How to design effective interventions for child obesity rates reduction.
• Explore using exercise to maintain the physical well-being of hospital patients.
• What interventions can reduce alcoholism rates in your community?
• Analyze the implementation of evidence-based practice in nursing facilities.
• Ethical standards and issues that arise in the nursing profession.
• Review the methods of providing holistic care to patients.
• The dangers associated with telemedicine in medical-surgical nursing.

The compliance with the specific research project ideas will allow you to write a high-quality paper and will give you the opportunity to conduct research at a high level. Having completed the document, you can summarize and identify its crucial points. Following the rules of formatting is an integral part of working on any academic text.

🎨 Research Project Topics on Art

In the process of writing research articles, it is necessary to adhere to a certain topic. You can choose any theme you want. A research paper will be successful if you stick to your topic and provide a real search for optimal ways of solving a particular issue. There are a few suggestions that can be helpful in the process of writing. If we talk about such an interesting sphere as the world of art, themes can be as follows.

• How is ideology reflected in architecture? Naturally, ideologies are largely represented in media, but they also influence architecture in many ways. You can study this topic at several points in time.
• How does photography represent reality? In this paper, you can discuss if photography reflects reality, interprets it, or constructs it.
• The significance of linear perspective . If you draw a linear perspective on a flat surface, you will create the illusion of depth. Discuss how this magic trick works in your paper!
• Art and the unconscious mind. It’s an excellent topic that lets you explore psychology. Try to answer the questions of how the unconscious mind influences the creation and perception of art.
• The evolution of horror movies . This film research paper topic covers everything from silent films to modern horror movies. You can discuss the influence of film noir on the genre, literary works that influenced it, the concept of “suspense,” and so on.
• Physiological aesthetics in Surrealism. It is a known fact that Surrealists were inspired by psychoanalysis and dream imagery. You can explore this topic in a paper or use it for a presentation!
• Deconstruction in architecture. The philosophical movement of deconstructivism influenced many spheres of life and art, including architecture. It allowed the creation of seemingly nonsensical forms and environments.
• Sociology of fine art. This is a relatively new branch of sociology, which deals with arts and social structures of their production. It also includes political trends that influence art, consumerism, and other social phenomena.
• Jewelry as sculpture. This topic lets you explore fantastic avant-garde jewelry and how contemporary artists such as Jeff Koons use it to create sculptures.
• The discourse of Modernist painting in the 1950s. This topic covers experimental and abstract paintings of artists who rejected the realistic approach. Mention political agendas that influenced modernism in the ’50th.
• Abstract Expressionism. Here you can discuss postwar artists such as Rothko and Pollock , as well as their predecessors Ernst and Kandinsky.
• Andy Warhol’s influence on art. This art research paper topic covers not only pop art, but also films, music, aphorisms, the concept of “superstars,” and other aspects of Andy Warhol’s influence.
• The art of street photography. Street photography is usually spontaneous, which helps to create realistic and powerful imagery. Write about the art of photographing urban landscapes and the most influential candid photographers.
• The history of animation . Techniques preceding animation have existed long before the invention of cinematography. Puppetry, shadow play, magic lantern – all these things relate to animation in one way or another.
• Are video games art? This idea seemed impossible in the past, but now many video games are considered art for their use of imagery, music, and compelling narrative.
• Art as a form of protest. This includes protests against tradition or political causes. You may also talk about the role of art in bringing about a change in society.
• Renaissance sculpture. This topic is just as interesting as the Renaissance painting. During that period, the art of sculpture had reached its peak. Sculptors of the Renaissance were influenced by Ancient Greek sculptures , as well as by Humanism.
• Relationship between architecture and environment. Here you can discuss eco-friendly or “ green” architecture .
• Modern ceramics as an art form. In the last decade, ceramics became a very popular art form. From prehistoric pottery to intricate porcelain forms – ceramics is a great medium that can often be compared to sculpture.
• Science fiction in cinema. The earliest science fiction films were created back in the late 19th century by Georges Melies. In 1927, Fritz Lang’s silent film Metropolis revolutionized science fiction cinema. Explore it in your research paper!
• The peculiarities of Da Vinci’s masterpieces. The paper will reflect the talent of the great European master and describe his Best Works.

• The trends of art in Medieval Europe. The topic should uncover modern trends in the art of the Middle Ages and include the description of some styles; it can the article of any format, even a 10-page research paper. The main thing is to fully reveal all the distinctive features of that epoch.
• The history of European Art in the 20th century . The research can be devoted to some trends in the previous century.
• The most outstanding artists in the world’s history. The paper should tell about the most famous artists of all the epochs.
• Why do people appreciate art? This article can include your own ideas concerning the subject.
• How do artists reflect their talent today? Your task is to try to study the methods that modern artists use to attract the audience.
• Skills that a professional artist should possess. The aim of this article is to study some skills that should be necessary for the work of the artist. Regardless of whether you write research papers for sale or not, you should try to express not only well-known ideas but also your personal point of view.
• Is it possible to develop artistic talent? Try to express your ideas concerning the opportunity for mastering proper skills.
• The benefits of cooperation with other artists. This topic touches upon probable advantages that artists can gain when cooperating with their colleagues.
• Themes that are the best for the canvas. You can develop a number of research abstract topics on this theme and convey the best motives to paint that seem the most successful for you.
• The absence of inspiration. The theme should reveal what authors should do to develop their inspiration.
• Chronological order of art development in the world. It is a rather accurate paper that should mention the most significant stages of art development.
• Do people appreciate the work of artists? You could try to study the audience’s attitude toward artists’ work.
• The methods to attract young people to art. The topic is connected with a social issue and aims at popularizing art in masses.
• Do artists need additional knowledge? This theme implies for describing the necessity of education among all the professions, including artists and other creative posts.

🎼 Music Research Topics

Every culture has its distinct music. For many people, music is an integral part of everyday life. Film and theater productions use it to steer our emotions. When writing about music, you can choose from an endless number of ideas to research. Here are some examples:

• Music as a ritual. Back in prehistoric times, music was considered to be a powerful ritualistic practice. Some mythologies even include stories about gods introducing the art of music to humans.
• Early polyphony in Christian Europe. The earliest choral music was mostly performed in a single melodic line. See how it changed when more melodic lines were added.
• Indian ethnomusicology . This interesting music research topic is concerned with the peculiarities of Indian music culture. You can include the discussion of how Indian music influenced psychedelic rock in the ’60s.
• Jazz performance and improvisation. The element of spontaneity is very important in jazz performance, and improvisation is its key component.
• Medieval troubadours and their legacy. Troubadours were poets who sang their own music and played instruments. Their performances differed greatly from the traditional church music of that time.
• Ecomusicology of North America. This research topic allows you to discover the ways in which American landscape and nature influenced music, including Native American music, folk music, and modern songwriters.
• Baroque music . During the Baroque era, many important features of modern music were introduced. You can choose this topic if you like grandiose, dramatic, or playful classical music.
• The classical period in music. This period followed the after the Baroque and was very different from it. You can recognize it by simple structures and minimalistic arrangements. Many of the world’s greatest composers, such as Mozart and Beethoven, lived during the Classical era.
• Classical music of the 20th century. Over the course of the previous century, the music styles were changing like never before. Still, classical music survived, while also transforming itself in accordance with times.
• Music therapy for children. In this exciting music research topic, you can discover how music is used to help children with developmental dyspraxia, autism, ADHD, and other disorders.
• Music and sound in film. Discover for yourself the art of scoring – from improvised piano arrangements of early movies to modern stereo surround sound.
• The history of Italian opera. The Italian language played a key role in the formation of classical singing techniques. This includes opera – an art form that unites music and singing with storytelling.
• The 20th-century music industry. This topic is centered on various ways of recording and selling music. Vinyl records, wax cylinders, cassette tapes, and CDs – 20th-century technology allowed turning music into a business.
• The birth of pop music. The history of popular music begins in the 1950s. The term refers to the songs appealing to a large audience, as opposed to classical or jazz music. You can discuss the elements of early pop music that made it so accessible.
• The ideology and aesthetics of punk rock. Punk rock was enormously influential in the 1970th. Its philosophy of anti-conformity appealed to young people of post-war Britain and the USA.
• The musicology of electronic music. This exciting topic covers the earliest repetitive devices such as Hammond organ, early experimentations with electronics, the first use of computers and synthesizers in songwriting, and more!
• Sampling in electronic music: context and aesthetics. Sampling is a very interesting technique that allows using audio fragments in different contexts. It can be used for aesthetic or political reasons, or as a cultural commentary.
• What is a sound sculpture? A combination of an art object and music, sound sculptures are exciting to research. You can use this topic for presentation and demonstrate sound sculptures in action!
• Dadaism and music. Dadaist ideas of randomness and paradox influenced art as well as music. Discuss the noise compositions and avant-garde sonic experiments that influenced the latter half of the 20th century.
• Robotic musical instruments. You may think that robots playing music is a relatively new idea, but in fact, they date back to ancient times.

✍️ Creative Writing Research Topics

There are more rules to creative writing than one might think. For example, narratives should be coherent, and world-building has to follow certain logic. Analyzing these peculiarities brings you one step closer to becoming a better writer.

• The role of reality within the psychological thriller genre. Psychological thrillers often aim at distorting or questioning reality. Study the ways in which this idea manifests in different narratives.
• Graphic novels and their peculiarities. In modern times comic books are no longer considered to be just for entertainment, and graphic novel format is used to produce award-winning narratives.
• Writing about the past : historical research and archaeology. When your narrative takes place in the distant past, you need to do extensive research to represent the time period properly. One way to do it is to turn to archaeology.
• What is the role of landscape in supernatural narratives? Supernatural narratives rely on the atmosphere to evoke the feeling of uncanny. The setting and landscape are especially important to the writes of the supernatural genre.
• How to write engaging crime fiction? This topic includes the ways of building suspense, the use of “red herrings,” complex character development, and other tips.
• Digital storytelling. Here you can explore how to present your narrative in interactive digital form. It can be a video game, a visual novel, or a walking simulator.
• Writing about the future. When you write about the past, you already know the characteristics of an epoch. But how do you invent the attributes of the future? Discuss it in your paper!
• The influence of the author’s personal life on their writing. People often want to learn more about their favorite writers in the hope to understand their work better. But is there really such a connection between one’s personal and creative lives?
• The role of diaries in creative writing . Almost all writers keep diaries. Sometimes the diaries are published and used in research or literary analysis. But how do authors themselves use their diary entries?
• Creative writing for children. This excellent creative writing research topic deals with the ways of teaching children how to create their own narratives. You can discuss why writing is beneficial for children and how you can encourage them to be creative.
• The art of teaching poetry . Poetry is one of the most exciting art forms that never gets old. However, not everybody appreciates poetry right away. See how you can change it!
• What is the role of nature in romantic literature? Romantic artists and writers took lots of inspiration from nature, using it as a metaphor for one’s life and feelings.
• The role of authorial intent. Some readers think that it’s essential to know what the author wanted to say in their literary work. Others believe that it’s one’s personal interpretation that matters the most.
• A persona in poetry. The lyrical subject is someone who narrates a poem. Some people see it as the manifestation of the author, and others as a fictitious character. And what do you think?
• Degrees of realism in fiction . When writing a work of fiction, some writers use excessive descriptions, while others keep things relatively minimalistic. Discuss the positive and negative sides of these approaches.
• Forms of structure in films and novels: a comparison. Here you can compare different forms of narrative structures used in cinema and literature, such as linear and non-linear narratives, the use of flashbacks, and so on.
• How to write a comedy. Comics say that making people laugh is much harder than to make them cry. Discuss what makes a literary work funny, and how one can write effective comedy.
• The recontextualization of Hamlet . Recontextualization is a process by which something (e.g., a character) is taken from one context and introduced into another context. You can explore this notion through different recontextualizations of Shakespeare’s character Hamlet.
• Writing a dystopia . See what techniques you can use when writing a narrative set in a bleak society.
• Monomyth in literature. This exciting topic deals with the concept of “hero’s journey,” which serves as a basis for nearly all myths as well as countless works of fiction.

🎈 Other Research Paper Topics

You still haven’t found what you were looking for? This section might have what you need! Here you’ll find all kinds of topics. From psychology over physics to sociology, we compiled the most engaging ideas for you.

• American teenagers–can they be called new species?
• William Shakespeare : was this man the author of famous plays and sonnets?
• Do you have any ideas about the field circles?
• Black magic. Does it exist?
• Censorship and its role in forming a society
• The phenomenon of the penny press in the USA
• Symbolism in literature
• Alcatraz and its famous fugitives
• Major sources of stress
• Government grants–how do they work?
• Election falsification: is it commonly used, and what are its main techniques?
• Genetic engineering and your point of view on it
• Stem cell research
• What is a black hole ?
• Loch Ness monster and your attitude towards this mystery
• Joan of Arc –did she manage to escape the fires of Inquisition?
• Do some research on techniques of brainwashing
• Who invented the radio ?
• There is a belief that American astronauts didn’t step on the Moon. Did they?
• American international policy
• Unique people who changed the world
• Genius ideas that made their inventors famous and wealthy
• Is education a necessary factor to become successful in today’s world?
• Differences between the high school systems in the USA and Japan
• Schindler’s list : the importance of moral roles over wealth
• Educational programs’ impact on professional careers
• Why do college students from all over the world come to the USA to pursue further education?
• Examples of crop circles: Fake or real?
• Humanity’s technological achievements in 2020

• The importance of outlines in books and articles 
• Web-designers seem to be using the same template in their works 
• Exciting inventions of humankind in the nearest future 
• Modern students do not know how to do their homework without access to the Internet 
• The original cover page of the Holy Bible  
• The development of the MLA style 
• The cradle of psychology 
• Controversial policies of the USA and the USSR  
• How abortion affects a woman’s organism 
• What did Homer write about his lifestyle?  
• Famous people in the world’s history that did not exist 
• Would people have become what they are today without science ? 
• Parts of the world that will always remain uninhabited 
• Philosophical questions that humanity cannot answer for centuries 
• Medical stereotypes around the world 
• Will global warming ruin America’s economic system? 
• The USA government should be thankful for the mass immigration 
• The majority of scientific works are useless 
• Things to research in the sphere of modern gadgets 
• Should sociology make people happier? 
• The lack of pure water sources on Earth 
• The environment’s effect on human health  
• Humanity’s steps towards eco-friendly products, cities, and vehicles 
• Sherlock Holmes’ analytical mind and deduction skills 
• Should parents teach their children how to make the world better for other people? 
• Is business the only way to become wealthy in Third World countries ? 
• Analysis of William Shakespeare’s literary language 
• Does a title tell everything about a book’s context? 
• The Great Wall: A legendary monument or China’s income source? 
• Should families report to the police that their relatives are guilty of something? 
• The first websites, available on the World Wide Web 
• New challenges to the society introduced by social media  
• If you created your government, what would you do for your citizens? 
• What career options are prevalent in modern societies? 
• Chemistry in people’s everyday life 
• Is there any person on Earth, whose life is considered to be easy? 
• Is bribery acceptable for criminal justice? 
• The most popular sports in Britain 
• The population biology of India 
• Basic nursing knowledge of everyday life 
• Renaissance literature in France 
• Think of a technology that would make our atmosphere cleaner 
• Development of different animals after forty days on Noah’s Ark. 
• What will the food be like in a hundred years? 
• Socialization of children with autism 
• The medieval art of Scandinavian people 
• Different ways to save Earth’s environment from pollution  
• Depression in adolescents: reasons and outcomes 
• The importance of computer science in today’s world 
• Coca-Cola marketing strategies  

• Express your opinion on people’s purpose in life on Earth
• How do early childhood memories and experiences influence our lives?
• The history of video games era
• Regulation of bullying in schools by law
• Drugs industry in California, New Mexico, and Texas
• The most prevalent economic issues in Greece after joining the EU
• China’s rapid growth: is it going to become the first country in the world?
• Global dangers that influence our planet’s ecology
• Significant changes in the American media since the 1970s
• What makes medicine an interesting subject to study?
• The main factors to consider while conducting qualitative research

There are so many resources out there that will help you choose a topic and write an outstanding paper. This video gives you a bunch of topics for research papers, which means you now have even more from which to choose!

There is no doubt that writing a research paper is a daunting task.

If you feel you need help, even if you have managed to choose a topic, you can always hire a custom writing service to help you produce a fabulous research paper of which you will be proud and will guarantee you a good mark.

Whether you choose to write it on your own or get some help, we wish you luck writing your paper!

🤔 Research Topics FAQ

There are literally thousands of topics to choose from. “Biomarkers and colors: what is the correlation?” is a great topic on psychology. Should businesses be regulated: pros and cons is an exciting business research topic. Finally, Art as a form of protest is an art research topic worth exploring.

The first option is to ask your professor. Then you can browse through scientific journals and take a look at your library catalog. The final option for those who search for a creative idea is to take notes everywhere. Write things down while traveling, watching TV, and reading.

The Big Bang theory, Dwarf galaxies, and Supernova Astronomy are just a few of numerous astronomy research topics. Genetically modified organisms, Neurobiology of sleep, and Rainforest conservation are exciting research biology research topics. Artificial intelligence, Computer modeling, and Voice recognition are trendy computer science topics.

There are numerous exciting topics in various education research areas. Some of them are: Ability grouping, Computer literacy, Early childhood education, Multiculturalism, Parental involvement, Sex education, Violence in schools, and Virtual classrooms.

You might also be interested in:

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• Good Research Topics, Titles and Ideas for Your Paper

🔗 References

• APA Sample Paper
• Painting Movements in the 20th Century Topic
• The Discovery Themes Initiative at The Ohio State University
• Quantitative Research in Education
• Quantitative Research Works, Indiana University
• Organizing Academic Research Papers: Choosing a Title
• Research Topics, The University of Arizona
• Research Topic Ideas, University of Michigan-Flint
• National Archives—Research by Topic
• Jet Propulsion Laboratory—Research Topics List
• Global Health Research Topics
• National Institute of Justice—Topics
• National Institute of Standards and Technology—Topics
• Research Topics at U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Office of Research & Development
• National Institutes of Health—A to Z Topics Index
• Evaluating Print Sources
• Working With Sources
• Developing a Thesis
• Psychiatry: Medscape
• Information Technology: NIST
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• Recent Computer and Education Articles: Elsevier
• Basic Guide to Cross-Cultural Research: Yale University
• Cultural Anthropology: Britannica
• Top Physical and Tech News: Science Daily
• Health Topics: National Institute of Mental Health
• PhDs in Business & Management: Five Hot Research Topics: Top Universities
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243 Experiment Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best experiment topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on experiment, 📌 interesting topics to write about experiment, ✅ simple & easy experiment essay titles, 📑 good research topics about experiment, ❓ experimental research questions.

• Psychology: Change Blindness Experiment The independent variable was the type of change, and the dependent variable was the response to detecting the changes. Broadly, it was established that change blindness varied with the type of change introduced because incongruent […]
• Seed Germination Experiment: Results and Discussion The results indicated that the number of germinated seeds differed according to the concentration of solutions. 0625M CaCl2 germinated quickly on the second day and attained the mean of about 10 germinated seeds on […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Hydrated Copper (II) Sulphate Experiment The objective of this experiment is to determine the amounts of the component parts of hydrated copper Sulfate. The third procedure is the scrutiny of sulfate ion in a sample of copper sulfate.
• The Latent Heat of Vaporization Experiment From the table above, it is evident that water has a specific latent heat of vaporization of 2260kJ/Kg implying that the any mass of water absorbs heat that is proportional to this ratio.
• The Operational Amplifier: A Physical Experiment The main objectives for doing this experiment are: Investigating the use of operational amplifier as an analog comparator Investigating the influence of open-loop characteristics on the circuits in which operational amplifiers are used To measure […]
• A Resonance Tube Laboratory Experiment The purpose of the present work was to determine the frequency of the sound wave in the state of resonance. The paper contains calculations of the two frequencies for the two forks and a comparison […]
• Optics: The Experiment of Snell’s Law The degree of bending is proportional to the refractive index of the medium. In essence, with an incident ray traversing two media with different refractive indices, the incident ray, the normal to the interface separating […]
• Social Facilitation Experiment with Examples from the Study The study hypothesized that participants’ performances in the audience condition with competition are better than the performances in no audience condition and audience condition of the experiment.
• Ethics in Social Research: Peculiarities of the Genie Case and the Milgram Experiment The main idea of the experiment consists in the physical and even moral injury of the object. The consent of the experiment was not informed.
• The Experiment With Spring Balance The essence of performing this experiment was to verify the relationship between the effects of force on the extension of a coiled spring and as such, verify the principle behind a spring balance.
• Pinacol Rearrangement Laboratory Experiment The first objective of the experiment is to elucidate the formation of a ketone from alcohol through the process of pinacol rearrangement in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid, heat, and boiling chips.
• KHT Molar Solubility Experiment Thus, the calculated molarity of NaOH is used to compute the molar solubility of KHT, which is the quantity of KHT moles that are liquefied in every liter before saturation level.
• A Criticism of the Asch Conformity Experiment In this critical analysis of the experiment, we shall focus on the various assumptions that surrounded the experiment. This can mostly to the experiment carried out in the 1950s by the famous psychologist Solomon Asch.
• Experiment in Cognition: Stroop Effect The method section depicts the specifics of the experimental design, including the characteristics of the participants, the materials used, and the procedure.
• Energy Conservation: The Lab Experiment The motion of a pendulum is a good demonstration of mechanical energy conservation. However, gravity is a conservative force, which is why it does not cause any change to the total mechanical energy of the […]
• Ethical Issues With the Stanford Prison Experiment – Essay Nowadays, modern psychologists are expected to adhere to a strict and rigid code of ethical principles in order to ensure the validity of their practices and the safety of the patients and participants.
• Cognitive Dissonance and Stanford Prison Experiment The leader of the team, doctor Zimbardo, was also the person who conducted the analysis of the course and the results of the experiment.
• Bomb Calorimetry: Theory and Experiment Bomb Calorimetry is one of the methods to calculate the standard heat of the reaction of various chemical processes. One of the ways of its application is the determination of the standard heat of organic […]
• Stanford Prison Experiment: Results Analysis One of the results that were realized from the experiment was the level of rebellion that the prisoners developed after some time within the prison set up.
• Blindfolded Experiment: Personal Experience As we start walking through the predetermined route, I feel lost in a dark abyss and a strong sense of fear for the unknown starts creeping in.the situation is made less threatening as I hear […]
• Plastic Bending of Portals Experiment Is to forecast the bending moment diagram, collapse load, the number, and the position at which plastic hinges for the portal are formed To compare the predicted values with the experimental values found from […]
• Pinacol Rearrangement Experiment The pinacol rearrangement constitutes the dehydration of pinacol and the stabilization of carbocation by the shift of methyl. The mechanism of the pinacol rearrangement commences with the protonation of one of the two OH groups.
• Food Dye and Bleach Reaction Experiment The rate law demonstrates how the rate correlates with the concentrations of the components of the reaction. It is possible to note that “the power of the concentration in the rate law expression is called […]
• Experiment of the Fluid Mechanics The Experiment was going to be carried out in the following manner: Checking the equipment; Charging the hydraulic bench with water; Placing the plastic caps at the end of the shaft; Increasing/decreasing pressure; Observing the […]
• Experiment: Growing Tomato Plants Under Light The first seedling was planted into a garden under a condition of strong direct sunlight of about six to eight hours daily and was far away from the light source.
• Pros and Cons of Food Dyes: Experiments With Food Ramesh and Muthuraman argue that there is a certain association between the increased use of food colorants and the elevated rates of ADHD in children.
• The C-Fern Plant Laboratory Experiment The fusion of the male and female gametes results in the formation and development of a sporophyte, which shifts to the diploid generation and the devolvement of spores.
• The Solid-Liquid Equilibrium in a Binary System Experiment The cooling curves of the pure compounds and various mixtures were used to construct a solid-liquid phase diagram of the biphenyl and naphthalene systems.
• Toothpaste Controlled Experiment and Hypothesis The table below would be adopted in designing a controlled experiment to test Sullivan’s hypothesis, which is derived from her assertion that her new toothpaste whitens teeth five times faster than other toothpastes.
• Steel and Young’s Modulus Experiment The stress at the end of the experiment gave the breaking strength and was 504. The stress-strain curve was re-plotted in the range of 0 to 1% strain to calculate Young’s modulus and 0.
• Stroop Experiment: Congruent and Incongruent Words The core aim of the Stroop experiment was to reveal the differences in perception of congruent and incongruent words. First, the paper focused on the research plan involving such aspects as hypotheses and methods where […]
• Aluminum vs. Mild Steel Comparison Experiment In addition, to yield strength, percentage of elongation, and ultimate strength, the tensile test experiment may be used to assess additional mechanical properties of the specimen.
• Quasi-Experiments and True Experiments In most cases, the nature of variables and the need of the investigation play a vital role in influencing the criteria for exploration. The analysis focuses on exploring the variation between quasi and true experiments […]
• Dr. Milgram’s Experiment Experimenter was the participant who was giving orders to the na ve subjects to follow the requirements of the experiment. In this case, the na ve subjects realized that the experiment was against their conscience […]
• Experiment: Shear Force in a Beam Calculate the theoretical shear force at the cut and complete the Table 2. Calculations: Theoretical Shear Force Sc=w*a/L Where L=0.
• The Asch Conformity Experiment Asch arranged so that the real subject was to be the next to the last person or the last person in every group to announce his/her answer.
• Diffusion and Osmosis Experiments The osmolarity of various solutions was also evaluated by noting the changes in weight of potato cylinders in the solutions. The movement of carmine particles in the water was random.
• Experiment: Frame Deflections and Reactions This guide describes how to set up and perform experiments related to the deflections and reactions of a rectangular portal. The Frame Deflections and Reactions experiment fits into a Test Frame.
• Milgram’s Experiment on Obedience: Ethical Issues The subjects were told that the experiment tested the potency of punishment in improving learning capabilities, and were asked to administer electrical shocks to a “learner”.
• The Experiment of Belt-Drive Pulleys As such, with regards to direction, it is expected that for an open pulley arrangement the directions of both the driven and the driving pulley move in tandem.
• Organ Bath Experiments in Pharmacokinetics The aim of an organ bath experiment is to establish a relationship between the changes in the response and the drug stimulant.
• UV & VIS Spectroscopy Experiment The first was to determine the unknown concentrations of samples A and B using linear dilution while the other employed the serial decimal dilution method.
• The Ship of Theseus Thought Experiment and Solution The puzzle is complicated by the later addition of a replica ship being built out of the original parts in the warehouse.
• Anomalous Expansion of Water: A Home Experiment This investigation proves the hypothesis that water expands anomalously when cooled and increases in volume as it nears its freezing point of zero degree Celsius.
• Springs and Oscillations: Scientific Experiment From the analysis, the effective mass of the spring was 0. The effective mass of the spring was 0.
• CP & CV Measurement for an Ideal Gas: Laboratory Experiment Specific heat capacity is the measure of the heat energy In physics, energy is a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of Work_ that can be performed by a force. The study of the […]
• Chemical Raising Agent in Bread in Lab Experiment Therefore, the gluten content of flour affects the physical properties of flour and the corresponding baked products. The leavening agent was baking powder, which consists of sodium bicarbonate and potassium bitartrate.
• Breaching Social Norms Experiment The struggle to violate a social norm and the sharp reaction to it is due to the culture that exists in that particular setting.
• How SCOBY Changes Its Environment: Lab Experiment The means of SCOBY growth in black tea, green tea, chamomile tea, and distilled water are not significantly different. The means of SCOBY growth in black tea and distilled water are not significantly different.
• Collisions in One Dimension: A Physical Experiment The objective of this experiment is to ascertain that when bodies are involved in an elastic collision, both the energy and the momentum are conserved unlike in a perfectly inelastic collision where only the momentum […]
• Photoelectric Effect: A Lab Experiment The voltage required to stop the current is proportional to the energy emitted; thus, voltage data is obtained and plotted to obtain the stopping voltage allowing the current to reach zero on the meter.
• Experiment: Transients in Power Equipment Circuits One of them is by designing a machine that is well adapted to such conditions of overvoltage, while the other method involves the use of protectors such as lightning arresters or power surges.
• Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment and Ethical Principles The study started in 1929 when USPHS investigated the high incidence of syphilis in the rural areas of the South of the USA and possibilities for its mass treatment.
• The Word Superiority Effect: Letter Detection Experiment In other words, the percentage of correct detection should be higher for trials in which a word appeared rather than a single letter. The percentage of the correct detections when the target letter was in […]
• Experimental Neurosis: Shenger-Krestovnikova Experiment and Pavlov’s Theory In this context, it is possible to trace the relationship between a person’s nervous system and his type of temperament, which is determined by its essence by the reaction to external stimuli.
• Water Properties as a Solvent: An Experiment Lab In the second part of the work, a mixture of 10 g of solid calcium hydroxide and 50 mL of drinking water in a beaker was initially created.
• Pinacol Rearrangement: Chemical Lab Experiment Undertake qualitative analysis of the product using IR and NMR techniques, which provide spectra of functional groups and chemical shifts respectively. Carry out qualitative analysis of the product using 2,4-DNP test, which can detect carbonyl […]
• Bean Beetles and Oviposition Experiment Then, the chi-squared test was performed to determine if the differences between the observed and the expected number of eggs laid on each bean were statistically significant.
• Dictator Game Experiment and Behavioral Economics One of the players selected to be the “dictator” selects the optimal strategy depending on the move of another player and in turn putting pressure on them.
• Stanford Prison Experiment and Criminal Justice The researchers used cameras and microphones to assess the behavior of the correctional staffs and inmates. The capability of managing the correctional facility depends on effective communication between the inmates and the prison guards.
• Ethical Reflection of Psychological Experiments Besides, the participants are not briefed on the nature of the experiment and what to expect in terms of emotions. The progress was then measured by the reaction of the participant to the behavior of […]
• The Parkfield Earthquake Prediction Experiment The seismic activity and the relatively regular sequence of the earthquakes in the area of San Paul Fault generated the interest of the geologists in exploring the processes in the rupture.
• Pendulum Experiment: Pendulum Motion and Factors Affecting Period Following the experiment for the simple pendulum, one can see that the pendulum’s period of motion changes due to the different lengths of the string but not the weight of the washer.
• The Ideal Gas Law in a Practical Experiment The purpose of this laboratory work was to evaluate the ideal gas law for the case of gas in a syringe when the pressure was increased.
• Conservation of Number Experiment with Children Young children frequently mistake the physical expanse of a collection of items for the number of items in that set. It confirms that young children cannot differentiate between numbers and space since they have not […]
• Little Albert Experiment by Watson and Rayner Today, the Little Albert experiment would raise a lot of concerns and would not have a chance to pass the review of the ethical board.
• The Marshmallow Experiment The marshmallow experiment was done by Mischel, and traces back its roots in Trinidad. Mischel wanted to find out the reactions of children towards some psychological aspects.
• Physical Lab Experiment on Equilibrium of Objects Through considering the measurements of the bodies with regular shapes, it was easy to locate the C.O. As a result, the body cannot balance if the pivot is not put at the center of gravity.
• Natural Sciences. The Phenol Red Broth Test Experiment The tube cap was removed with the little finger of the dominant hand, and the tube mouth was incinerated in the flame.
• Frank Conroy’s Memoir: Life Experiments To emphasize the stop and to draw the readers’ attention to it, Conroy uses the present tense, and the readers become involved in the situation because of observing it through the eyes of a boy […]
• Biology: Analysis of Egg Experiment The data obtained from the above experiment supports the hypothesis that if the cell is soaked in corn syrup, a hypertonic solution, then water will move out of the cell by osmosis, and the egg […]
• Mendelian Corn Genetics: An Experiment Seeds are then sorted out on the basis of their color and shape and the obtained data recorded adjacent to the respective phenotypes. Determine the 2 value for each experiment, and use the table of […]
• The DNA Extraction Procedure: Scientific Experiment It touches on plant cell DNA extraction, animal cell DNA extraction, sequence used in DNA extraction and composition of the sample.
• Chemical Composition of Cells: A Lab Experiment This laboratory experiment focuses on the chemical composition of cells, appropriate identification of which contributes to the understanding of distinctions between organic and inorganic chemicals.
• The Experiment on Substitution Reactions of Alcohols The purpose of the experiment is to study substitution reactions of alcohols because they can react as nucleophiles or electrophiles, depending on prevailing conditions of the reaction. This experiment illustrates the reaction of 1-butanol with […]
• Stanford Prison Experiment by Philip Zimbardo: Legal Research The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of situational variables on human behavior. What was even worse was that the initiator of the experiment kept watching as these things going on in […]
• Psychology: The Little Albert Experiment The study began when the participant was in the middle of their first development stage, and as it ended, the child had the unconscious recognition of fear that generalized to multiple objects.
• The Miller-Urey Experiment and Findings The researchers note that their experiment was designed to mimic the primitive earth’s atmosphere and not the ideal conditions required for the development of amino acids. At the experiment’s conclusion, the solution in the flask […]
• Chinese Artificial Sun Experiment Given the lack of transparency and the occasional exaggeration of research results in China, it is difficult to evaluate this particular experiment.
• The Urine Volume and Composition Experiment Homeostatic mechanisms in the bodies of all animals are constantly monitoring variables such as pH, ionic concentration, and water volume within the body tissues. The central organ systems involved in homeostasis include the kidney, the […]
• The Asch’s Conformity Experiment A personal sheet of paper with answers saved the tested person from having to voice his answer and fearing denunciation or other adverse reactions from additional participants.
• A Metals Density Virtual Lab Experiment The graduated cylinder was filled with the amount of metal powder, and the outcome was measured as the final volume. The density of the metal was determined using these measurements and the density formula ).
• Stanford Prison Experiment vs. Little Albert Experiment The guards eventually devised a system of punishments and rewards to keep the inmates in line. In the Watson experiment, the participant Albert was not informed of the experiment nor his parent but was experimented […]
• The Chinese Room Argument: The World-Famous Experiment Such reasoning, based on the inadmissibility of the presence of real intelligence in a computer, proves that even the physical manifestations of the mind cannot prove the existence of a fundamental mind.
• A Random Variable and Binomial Experiment On the contrary, it is considered a continuous random variable if it’s quantities or representative array of values are not quantifiable and it accepts any numbers on the reference axis or its interval. Conversely, Y […]
• Design Experiment Research in Mathematics Education According to Cobb et al, “design experiments are pragmatic as well as theoretical” in orientation in that the methodology’s core focus is the study of function, both that of the design and the consequent ecology […]
• Scientific Integrity: The Stanford Prison Experiment The most important lesson drawn from the experiment is that scientific integrity is essential in the process of collecting evidence. In conclusion, the Stanford prison experiment is not about groupthink, obedience, and compliance but rather […]
• Louis Pasteur and His Experiments Pasteur found that a diluted solution of this vaccine could kill what he saw as the single-celled micro-organism at the time, the Germ Theory.
• Ethics of Experiments: What Went Wrong? Finally, the researcher failed to debrief the participants after the study, which could have helped them understand the study’s psychological effects and how to deal with them.
• Non-Replicated Experiments in Commercial Dairy This is because of the practical operation at the dairy farm, the manageability of the day-to-day operation, and the cost involved with them.
• Ethical Concern About the Milgram Experiment One way that the experiment could be redesigned to meet ethical standards is that the participants are notified about the nature of the experiment, knowing that it is testing authority and that the shocks they […]
• The Centripetal Force Experiment As force acts on an object in motion, its acceleration and direction of force act towards the center of the circular path.
• Philosophical Significance of Soul Weight Experiment The experiment that Renee and David were going to conduct is of great interest as the search for the soul has been the question that has occupied the minds of great thinkers since ancient times.
• The Elasticity Experiment in Physics The difference between the initial and final values of the position of the lower end of the spring corresponds to the vertical displacement, that is, it shows how much the given weight was able to […]
• The Delta Max Paper Airplane Performance Experiment This study aims to propose an experiment in which the performance of the Delta Max paper airplane is compared to other paper airplane models in the context of the range and duration of the flight.
• Controversial Experiment in Psychology History The essence of the project was to simulate prison life and make the participants learn their roles and follow their obligations within the environment.
• The Milgram Experiment and Ethical Issues The experiment was inherently designed in order to force subjects to continue since the goal was to observe the significance and extent of authoritative pressure on human behavior and obedience. Such pressure can be considered […]
• D. Hardy & D. Nachman’s “The Human Experiment” I have learned about the connection between corporations’ actions and the presence of dangerous chemicals in the environment. Europe has risen to prominence internationally in limiting environmental dangers and forcing chemical producers to verify the […]
• The Human Experiment: Analysis of Documentary Fortunately, as mentioned in The Human Experiment, some campaigns and activists try to increase awareness and stop the growing levels of unsafe chemicals that poison people around the world.
• The Dipole and Dish Antenna Experiments The transmitter and receiver’s wavelength are in proportion to the antenna height. It indicates that the shorter the antenna, the greater the frequencies, and the larger the transmitter, the lesser the intensity.
• Psychological Experiments on Videogames and Theater Although the experiment has shown no correlation between the sexualization of female characters and women’s perception of their bodies and self-objectification, scientists assume that the effect may appear due to the long-term playing of such […]
• Natural Experiment Methodology for Research Therefore, the combination of both types allows for the enhanced result, as the quantitative data can be explained by subjective experiences. The survey consisting of two questions and the experiment are the major data collection […]
• Market Research Experiment: Developing and Testing Hypothesis Statements In a nutshell, the hypothesis should contain all variables on the targeted market group to be studied and a recap of the expected results from the experiment.
• Torque and Equilibrium Experiment Thus, the direction of the torque with respect to the point is essential and shows the ability of the body to rotate in the direction of the resultant vector.
• Nobel Prize for Natural Experiments The two things in the research that impressed me the most is the complexity of the natural experiments and the methods to simplify the research.
• A Social Experiment of Breaking a Line I have conducted two experiments breaking a line in different settings: one was a line of strangers to buy tickets to a suburban train, the other a line of students to a library.
• Natural Experiments in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia The researchers enabled the realization of the impact of immigration on the labor market and the impact of language in this matrix.
• Experiment on the Bacteriophages Since the basis of the experiment was to measure the number of plaques on previously prepared plates, the only direct measurement was to count the number of such spots on the entire plate, and only […]
• The Hawthorne Experiments and Organization Theory Since the beginning of the previous century, employers were interested in finding out more about the efficiency of the employees and how it could be improved.
• The Tuskegee Experiment in Public Health However, in reality, they received a lethal injection, resulting in 28 of the 399 participants dying from syphilis, 100 from related medical complications, and 40 of the participants’ wives and 19 children becoming infected during […]
• Experiment With Balloons in ”Up” Movie by Pixar The key focus of the mathematical essay is to determine the minimum number of balloons that can lift the building into the air and consider the associated features of this event.
• Chemical Experiment of Reduction of Chromium (VI) 000510?-1, and k-1 = 0. 000684?-1, and k-1 = 0.
• Physics Laboratory Experiment on Acceleration The conical pendulum moves at a constant spend in a circular horizontal plane and when the bob is attached to a string, it forms a cone and so it is used to illustrate uniform circular […]
• A Statistical Experiment: Junco Birds The presence and content of 2-pentadecanone in the male may be related to the saturation of particular odors that excite the reproductive call of female birds.
• Natural Science: Mouse Experiment For this, it is necessary to sum up the babies in the litter and divide the obtained number by the number of the litters.
• Ethical Issues in “Prison Experiments” Video To resolve the identified ethical issues and prevent them in the future, it is critical to ensure that the subjects are not placed in coercive environments and a vulnerable position as it significantly impacts their […]
• “Facebook’s Unethical Experiment”: Brief Description of the Study In such research, it is necessary to ensure the rights of people, the voluntary nature of their participation, the preventive nature of the presentation of the results, and the warning of possible consequences.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Ethics Principles Examples of the violation of these are deception in how the participants selected to be prisoners were delivered to the facility and the violent treatment they experienced.
• Using Animals in Medical Research and Experiments While discussing the use of animals in medical research according to the consequentialist perspective, it is important to state that humans’ preferences cannot be counted higher to cause animals’ suffering; humans and animals’ preferences need […]
• DNA Cloning and Sequencing: The Experiment The plasmid vector pTTQ18 and the GFP PCR product will be digested with restriction enzymes and the desired DNA fragments obtained thereof will be purified by Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and ligated with DNA ligase resulting […]
• PH Titrations & Buffer Solutions Experiment The objective of this experiment was partly to determine the behaviour of PH curve of a triprotic acid and hence determine its pKa value, and on the other part to determine the concentration of an […]
• The Cruel Experiment by Stanley Milgram According to the researchers, the presence of a figure empowered to give orders to other participants in the process had a tremendous impact on the latter.
• Research and Experiments: Molecules in Food, Photosynthesis The saliva of humans and some mammals contains amylase: the enzyme that begins the chemical process of food digestion. I took the pollution of the environment with heavy metals and the effect on photosynthesis.
• Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment and African Americans Hesitancy to Receive COVID-19 Vaccines Laurencin states that discrimination of the minority African-Americans in the health sector contributes to the high spread of COVID-19 cases and deaths in the United States black population.
• Social Media Experiment: The Marketer Tweeter For instance, Twitter is one of the most confusing platforms to participate in because of its wealth of information on the one hand and for being a cesspool of toxic content on the other hand.
• The Chromatography Method: Scientific Experiment SDS-PAGE separates isolated protein of which can be visualized by coo massive stain that binds to the experimental proteins and hence, the intensity of this resultant bands is used to give plasminogen estimation in a […]
• Bystander Effect: The Stanford Experiment In the Stanford case, most guards including the initiator of the experiment himself thought about what the rest of the group was doing and they all interpreted the inaction of others as a sign that […]
• Micrococcus Luteus Detection Experiment Microbial Physiology, the branch of microbiology responsible for the study of these enzymes, employs a spectrum of tests that detect the known set of enzymes unique to each species of microbe.
• Sugar Results: Experiment on Chocolate When the concentration of glucose was high, the color and odor of the reaction mixture were darker and more intense, respectively, due to a larger amount of products formed.
• Biology Experiment: Hormone and Its Effect It is emphasized by Erickson and Tadaaki, that avocados do not ripen while attached to the branches, and ethylene increases the speed of ripening. This will be tested by placing avocados under the test bell […]
• Informed Consent in Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment The physicians involved in the experiment failed to inform their participants about the essence of the experiment and its possible outcomes.
• Artificial Blood: Dr. Clark’s Experiment Damage was mainly due to the size of the mouse’s airway. Clark found out that the time for survival was related to the temperature of the fluorocarbon solution.
• Drawing Conclusions from Experience vs. Experiments On the contrary, if one is drawing conclusion from experiments they have to be referred or guided by the results and discussions of the experiment.
• Atlantic Tomcod’s Adaptation Experiment Conversely, those with the gene survived and passed it on to their young, making them immune to the toxins in the water and ultimately creating a generation of PCB resistant tomcod.
• “The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment” by Sherman and Berk The experiment conducted by the authors throws light on the three stages of the research circle. This is one of the arguments that can be advanced.
• The Analysis of the Seed Removal Experiment Given this, a study carried out with an objective of, first, to determine the impact of seed predation on seed environment, and second, to determine the same on the seed sizes were carried out.
• Practical Experiment of Routine Staining Using Hematoxylin and Eosin in the Histopathology Lab For the sake of this practical, there was focus on the human uterus.”This method uses hematoxylin solutions for nuclear staining and eosin solutions for cytoplasm staining”.
• Are Experiments the Only Option? A Look at Dropout Prevention Programs It is, therefore, no wonder that the findings of this study establish propensity-score methods as highly unlikely to replicate the experimental impacts on school dropout programs.
• Thermoelectric Cooling Systems Efficiency Experiment One of the sides of the thermoelectric cooler junction absorbs heat energy when the electric current is passed while the other side dissipates energy in form of heat.
• Flagella Protein Isolation: Scientific Experiment Intra-flagella transport revealed in a model of both membrane and non-membrane bound flagellar protein shuttling between the cytoplasm and flagellar compartments. Here interaction between the proteins and intra-flagella transport takes place.
• Identifying Isolated Bacteria: Scientific Experiment The steps are as follows: Add slowly drops of crystal violet on the surface of the slide completely and for 1 minute allow it to stand.
• Aerial Experiment Association & Wright Brothers Conflict The AEA made up their mind and decided to partake in the rivalry. The truth was that, all this planes being made and flown by the AEA were part of the wrights’ designs.
• Fiber Optics Laboratory Experiments The aim of this report is to introduce the process and the results of the laboratory experiments on fiber optics. The choice of the fiber cable and the waves will define the theoretical optical loss.
• The Science About the Experiments: Colloidal Systems This Debye length depends on the concentration of the colloidal system and charge on the colloidal particles. This works on the principle of scattering of light by the particles in the colloidal system.
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Experimental Design Research Paper

Sample Experimental Design Research Paper. Browse other research paper examples and check the list of research paper topics for more inspiration. If you need a research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our custom research paper writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Many scientific discoveries are made by observing how a change in a stimulus that is presented to a subject or object affects the response (measurement) given by that subject or object. In an experiment, the investigator has direct control over which stimuli are presented to which subjects in which time periods. This control, when exercised correctly, enables the investigator to deduce a ‘cause and effect’ relationship, that is, the investigator can deduce that a given change in a stimulus causes a given change in the measured response. The plan of how an experiment is to proceed is called the ‘design of the experiment.’ The art of experimental design is the art of devising an experimental plan which maximizes the information that can be obtained on the effects of the stimuli.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. terminology.

Experimentation is used in almost every branch of science, with the result that the terminology used in experimental design is not quite standardized. For example, in some fields, the subject or object which is to be presented with a stimulus and then to be measured is called a ‘unit’ or ‘experimental unit.’ The stimulus, itself, may be called the ‘treatment’ or the ‘level of a factor’ or the ‘level of an independent variable.’ In factorial experiments, where a subject is presented with a combination of different types of stimuli (such as a particular light intensity together with a particular noise level), the combination may be called a ‘treatment combination’ but, for simplicity, the term ‘treatment’ may be taken to mean either a single stimulus or a combination of stimuli, depending on the context.

In some experiments, measurements are made on each subject over several time periods. These are known as ‘repeated measurements.’ The terminology concerning the associated designs again differs between disciplines. The term ‘repeated measurements design’ may refer solely to a design involving repeated measurements on a subject to whom a single treatment has been administered or it may include designs in which the treatment is changed before each measurement. The latter type of design is also known as a ‘within subjects design’ or a ‘block design’ or a ‘crossover design.’ All of these designs are grouped under the heading of ‘split-plot designs’ by some authors, while others reserve this last term for a design with two types of treatment, one of which is held constant throughout the repeated measurements on a subject and the other of which changes before each measurement see Sect. 9.2.

2. The Purpose Of Experimental Design

The pioneer in statistical experimental design was Sir R. A. Fisher (Fisher 1951) who was concerned with maximizing the amount of information about agricultural crop production. In the Social and Behavioral Sciences, the questions of scientific interest are very different, but the art of good experimental design is similar.

Every experiment has a budget (time and money) and a limit as to the number of subjects that can be recruited. Also, every experiment has inherent variability; subjects differ from one another in fundamental ways, technicians differ in how they read measuring instruments, subjects and instrument readings vary over time, and so on. Variability translates into uncertainty and uncertainty reduces the amount of useful information. Information gained from an experiment may be viewed either from a sampling perspective or from a Bayesian perspective. In the former, hypothesis tests and confidence intervals are generally used, and the most informative experimental designs yield the most powerful tests and the shortest intervals, whilst producing unbiased results. (E.g., Estimation: Point and Inter al; Hypothesis Testing in Statistics). For a Bayesian analysis, the most informative designs are those which maximize the expected utility (e.g., Experimental Design: Bayesian Designs).

The purpose of designing an experiment is (a) to maximize the amount of information that can be gained within a given budget or (b) to minimize the budget required to obtain a given amount of information. Maximizing information is done by controlling and reducing the effect of extraneous variables and by the removal of confounding variables and bias, as described in Sects. 3.2 and 3.3.

3. Features Of Good Design

3.1 comparison.

Experiments, by their nature, tend to be comparative. Questions of interest tend to be of the type ‘does this treatment elicit a ‘‘better’’ response than that treatment?’ and, if so, ‘how much better?.’ Even if a single treatment appears to be the only one of interest, information about its effect on a subject is usually of no value without a comparison with other treatments. For instance, Moore and McCabe (1999, chap. 3) cite an example of a medical study that showed a gastric freezing technique to be a good treatment for ulcer pain, but in later comparative experiments it was shown that the pain relief using freezing was no better than the relief achieved using the same technique but with no freezing solution. Apparently, the pain relief was due to nothing more than doctors showing concern for their patients (a placebo effect) and the freezing technique was abandoned. A good design for evaluating the effect of a single treatment will, therefore, always include a second treatment, called a control or control treatment, for comparison purposes. In some experiments, the control is the treatment in current use, and in other experiments it is the ‘absence of a stimulus.’ An experiment with more than one treatment needs no control since the experimental treatments can be compared among themselves. Nevertheless, a control can often add extra information. For example, in an experiment on how different types of background music (such as ‘classical,’ ‘rock,’ ‘rap,’ etc.) affect the time taken to learn a new task, a control treatment might be the absence of background music.

3.2 Control Of Extraneous And Confounding Variables

A good experimental design allows a particular set of stimuli to be compared with each other with high accuracy. Therefore, any other variable (or factor) that causes the experimental measurements to vary at best reduces the efficiency of the experiment and at worst completely masks the true effect being investigated. For example, in an experiment to investigate the effect of employing different types of memory aid in memorization, the IQ of the subjects may play an important role. The variability of IQ of subjects in the experiment would then contribute to the variability in the measured memorization scores. One way of controlling the effect of such an extraneous variable is to hold the variable fixed during the experiment. For instance, IQ could be held more-or-less fixed by using as subjects only people with a tested IQ within a certain range. Although it reduces variability and avoids masking the effects of the memory aids, this strategy limits the applicability of the conclusions of the experiment since the results would apply only to the people in the population with IQ within this range. A preferable method of controlling extraneous variability is to use a matched design (see below).

An extraneous variable whose effect is completely muddled with that of the factor(s) of interest is called a confounding variable. In the above example, if all the subjects with high IQ were to be tested using the first memory aid and all those with low IQ tested using the second, then, if high IQ is correlated with memorization ability, the first memory aid will inevitably appear to be the better, regardless of its true merits.

The masking effect of a confounding variable can be reduced by randomization (e.g., Experimental Design: Randomization and Social Experiments). The simplest form of randomization leads to a ‘completely randomized design’ (see Sect. 7.1); subjects are recruited from the general public as randomly as is possible (see Sect. 5) and then assigned to the stimuli at random in such a way that every subject has the same chance of being assigned to any one of the stimuli. In such a design, it is likely, although not guaranteed, that each stimulus will receive roughly the same distribution of values of the extraneous variable. If a completely randomized design is used in the above example, the memory aids should receive roughly similar ranges of subject IQs.

In all experiments there are confounding variables that have small effects which are ignored by the experimenter and confounding variables that are accidentally overlooked. The use of randomization helps to spread out the effects of these variables so that the response given to any one stimulus is less likely to be inflated upward or downward due to extraneous factors. For a discussion of random assignment using a random number table or a computer random number generator, see for example, Dean and Voss (1999, chaps. 1, 3), (e.g., Random Numbers).

A more foolproof method of ensuring similar distributions of IQ levels for each memory aid in the above example is to divide the subjects into groups so that subjects within the same group have similar IQs, and then to make the random assignment of subjects to stimuli within each group separately. The division into groups provides the control necessary for removing the variability and masking due to the extraneous IQ variable, while maintaining the applicability to the general population. This type of design is called a ‘matched design’ or ‘block design’ (see Sect. 7.2). Matched designs and completely randomized design are examples of ‘between subjects designs’ (Sect. 7).

A further possibility is to measure each subject under a sequence of different treatments—a ‘crossover design’ or ‘within subjects design’ (see Sect. 8). The use of such a design in the above example would completely control the extraneous variable since it would ensure that the distribution of IQs assigned to each memory aid is identical. However, new extraneous variables have now been introduced, such as fatigue on the part of the subject over the course of the experiment. If the effects of the new extraneous variables are likely to be small, they can be ignored, but if they are large, then the variables should be controlled by making sure that subjects are assigned the memory aids in different orders. The orders can be assigned at random for each subject separately—a ‘block design,’ or by deliberately making sure that each stimulus is viewed by the same number of subjects in each time period—a ‘latin square design.’

3.3 Removal Of Bias

Since each experiment is run with a particular purpose in mind, experimenters tend to have inbuilt, although perhaps subconscious, biases towards or against certain treatments. A random assignment of subjects to treatments and a random ordering of observations ensures that experimenter bias cannot consciously or unconsciously favor one treatment above another.

Subjects’ own biases towards the treatments can affect their responses. It may or may not be possible or ethical to conceal the true nature of the experiment from the subjects. It may be possible, however, to mask from both the subjects and the person(s) running the experiment which of the stimuli is the experimental treatment(s) and which is the control (a ‘double blind experiment’). Leach (1991 Sect. 24, Appendix 1) discusses ethical issues of concealing information from subjects and lists the guidelines published by the British Psychological Society. Kirk (1982 Sect. 1.5) gives references to ethical guidelines put out by the American Psychological Association, the American Sociological Association, and other bodies.

4. Planning An Experiment

Guides to planning experiments can be found in many texts; for example, Myers (1979, chap. 1), Cox (1958) Dean and Voss (1999, chap. 2), Leach (1991 Sects. 5–9). A protocol, which gives in great detail, step by step, how the experiment is to proceed, is usually prepared well in advance. The protocol includes details about subject selection, measurement, and data collection methods, preparation of materials, preparation of subjects, and a draft statistical analysis.

A pilot experiment, in which a small number of observations is collected, is often run early in the planning stage. Although these observations will usually be thrown away when the main experiment commences, the pilot experiment gives an opportunity to check that the experimental procedure will work as planned and that the required analyses are possible. It also gives indications of unexpected important confounding variables and the likely accuracy of the results. It allows problems to be detected and corrected before they arise in the main experiment.

5. Selection Of Subjects

Ideally, the subjects taking part in the experiment are selected at random from the population to which the conclusions of the experiment will be applied (the ‘target population’). Since this is not always possible, the experimenter may be forced to use volunteers who will inevitably come from a subset of the population. The results of the experiment may or may not then apply to the entire target population.

The number of subjects required to achieve the goals of powerful hypothesis tests and short confidence intervals, or of maximum expected utility, can be calculated using statistical formulae. The required number of subjects depends upon the design selected for the experiment, on the comparisons of interest, and on the variability of the responses of subjects when assigned the same treatment under identical experimental conditions. In general, ‘between subjects designs’ require many more subjects than ‘within subjects designs.’ Between subjects designs are used in fields where subjects can be assigned only a single treatment (as in the evaluation of different teaching methods) and/or where subjects are sufficiently plentiful to off-set the subject-to-subject variability. Within subjects designs are preferred in fields where subjects are scarce or highly variable.

The length of the sequence of treatments that can be presented to any one subject depends upon the nature of the experiment. For example, in experimentation involving multiple visits to a laboratory, subject tolerance can be as low as two or three visits. In experiments in which treatments can be changed rapidly with no long term effect on the subject, a much longer sequence of treatments can be used, requiring fewer subjects in total. There are exceptional circumstances in which an experiment is conducted on a single subject (see Wilson 1995, Kratochwill and Levin 1992), but such experiments cannot give conclusive information about the population as a whole and are not used in standard experimentation.

6. Models And Analysis

The model links the dependent (response) variable(s) to all of the factors (independent variables) that could influence the response, such as the various stimuli, the subjects, time periods, extraneous variables that were used in determining the design, and other important variables that can be taken into account only during the analysis (called ‘concomitant variables’ or ‘covariates’: see, e.g., Maxwell and Delaney 1990, chap. 9). All extraneous variables that were ignored in the design are grouped together in a single ‘error variable.’ A measurement on a subject during a time period before the experiment begins is called a ‘baseline measurement’ and can be used to increase the accuracy of the results (see, e.g., Jones and Kenward 1989, chap. 2, Sect. 4.4; Cotton 1998, chaps. 9, 10).

If the distributions of the error variables are identical and approximately normal distributions, then standard analysis of variance techniques can be used (e.g., Analysis of Variance and Generalized Linear Models). Analysis of designs in which treatments are assigned the same numbers of subjects and the same numbers of time periods are the easiest to analyse and interpret. They are also the least sensitive to assumptions about normality of the error distributions and equal variances (e.g., Errors in Statistical Assumptions, Effects of; Statistical Analysis, Special Problems of: Transformations of Data). When the errors do not follow a normal distribution, other types of analysis are needed such as analysis of generalized linear models (e.g., Analysis of Variance and Generalized Linear Models), nonparametric analysis (e.g., Nonparametric Statistics: Rank-based Methods), and categorical data analysis (e.g., see Ratkowski et al. 1993, chap. 7, Jones and Kenward 1989, chap. 3, Crowder and Hand 1990, chap. 8).

Repeated measurements on a subject under a particular treatment may require a time series or regression analysis, (see Crowder and Hand 1990), (e.g., Linear Hypothesis: Regression (Basics)). Bayesian techniques in analyzing cross-over designs are mentioned by Jones and Kenward (1989, pp. 80, 235) (e.g., Experimental Design: Bayesian Designs). In the case of correlated responses per subject, multivariate analysis is used for normally distributed errors (see, e.g., Winer et al. 1991, chap. 4, Johnson and Wichern 1992, Maxwell and Delaney 1990, chaps. 13, 14, Crowder and Hand 1990, chap. 4, Jones and Kenward 1989, chap. 7, Myers 1979, chap. 18).

7. Between Subjects Designs

7.1 completely randomized designs.

In a completely randomized design, each subject is assigned to just one treatment. The assignment is done completely at random so that each subject has exactly the same chance of being assigned to each possible treatment (stimulus or combination of stimuli). Often a restriction is applied so that each stimulus receives the same number of subjects.

Completely randomized designs are simple to use and simple to analyse. They are most suited to situations where subjects are plentiful, where subjects’ responses would not be too variable if they were all given the same stimulus under the same experimental conditions, and where experimental conditions can be held constant throughout the experiment.

If there are extraneous variables which add variation to the responses and which can be measured during the experiment (such as age or IQ), their effects can be removed during the analysis (analysis of covariance) (e.g., Winer et al. 1991 chap. 10). However, where it is possible for the extraneous variables to become confounding variables in an unfortunate randomization, a matched pairs design, block design, or within subjects design would be preferred (see Sects. 7.2 and 8).

As in all designs, it is possible to take repeated measurements in completely randomized designs. Each subject is measured for some number of time intervals after administration of the single treatment. Cotton (1998) calls such a design a ‘multigroup splitplot design.’

7.2 Matched Pairs And Block Designs

If there are just two treatments of interest, the variability in the responses (observations) due to differences in the subjects themselves can be reduced by pairing the subjects so that, within each pair, the subjects are alike as possible. For each pair separately, the two subjects are assigned at random to the two treatments (a matched pairs design).

When there are t treatments with t 2, the subjects are matched into groups (or blocks) of size t and, within in each group, the subjects are assigned at random to the t treatments. This type of design is usually known as a ‘randomized block design.’

Block designs are also appropriate when the extraneous variation is due to variables unrelated to the subjects. Experimental conditions cannot always be held constant throughout the experiment, as for example, changes in the weather, use of different testing centers, use of different laboratory technicians, etc. To combat this, the subjects would be put into groups of size t (not necessarily matched) and, apart from the assignment to different treatments, all subjects within a group would be tested under the same experimental conditions.

If the number of treatments, t, to be compared is large (as is often the case in a factorial experiment where the treatments are combinations of several stimuli), there may not be enough subjects to form groups of t similar subjects, nor may it be possible to hold conditions constant for t measurements. In this case, an incomplete block design can be used, where each group of s(<t) subjects is assigned at random to a preselected subset of s treatments (see, e.g., Winer 1971, chap. 9, Dean and Voss 1999, chaps. 11, 13).

8. Within Subject Designs

In a within subjects design, each subject is essentially matched with himself or herself and assigned a sequence of some or all of the treatments. The order or presentation is decided using randomization for each subject separately. The comparison of any two treatments is made for each subject (‘within’ each subject) and then averaged over all the subjects. This has the advantage that subject to subject variability does not play a part in the comparison of the treatments.

In experiments where stimuli are presented to each subject in quick succession, ‘carry-over effects’ can be a problem. For example, a subject asked to work in bright light followed by normal light may perceive the normal light to be darker than if it had been preceded by dim light. These carry-over effects can be mitigated by separating the trials by a period of time, called a ‘washout period,’ in which the subject is asked to do something completely different in some control state. If a long enough washout period cannot be arranged, then the experiment usually is counterbalanced (see Sect. 8.3). Carry-over effects are also known as ‘residual effects’ and the effect of the treatment administered in the current time period is called the ‘direct treatment effect.’

8.1 Cross-Over Designs

In the simplest within subjects design, any randomization of the order of treatments for any subject is accepted. However, if time period effects or carry-over effects are thought to be important and are to be included in the model, then it is desirable to exercise control over which treatment sequences are used. In most cases, the carry-over effect from a given treatment will be assumed to be the same no matter which treatment follows it. If the treatments interact, then this assumption may not be valid and larger designs and more complicated analyses are needed.

When there is a small number of treatments, say two or three, and the subject can be measured over several time periods, then each subject can be assigned some or all of the treatments more than once. For three time periods and two treatments (one assigned to one period and one assigned to two periods), there are six possible treatment sequences; with four time periods and two treatments (each assigned to two periods), there are fourteen possible treatment sequences; with four time periods and four treatments (each assigned to one period), there are twelve possible sequences, and so on. If there are sufficient subjects, all the possible sequences can be used an equal number of times. If the number of subjects is small, however, it may not even be possible to use each sequence once. Information must then be used about which set of sequences provides the best design. Among the possibilities are ‘variance balanced designs’ (Sect. 8.2) and ‘latin squares’ (Sect. 8.3).

In general, if it is possible to avoid them, two-period designs are not recommended. Not only can the carry-over effects not be estimated independently of the treatment by period interaction, but also three-period designs are considerably more efficient (Jones and Kenward 1989, Sect. 4.16).

8.2 Balanced Cross-Over Designs

Cross-over designs that allow differences between all pairs of treatments to be estimated with the same precision are called ‘variance balanced.’ Variance balanced designs include cross-over designs that use all possible treatment sequences, and counterbalanced latin square designs (see Sect. 8.3). Variance balanced designs, efficient for comparing all pairs of treatments, are tabulated by Ratkowski et al. (1993, chap. 5) and also by Jones and Kenward (1989, pp. 212–4, 223–4). The latter authors also list designs efficient for comparing test treatments with a control.

The treatment given in the last period of a crossover design can be repeated in an extra period. Such designs, called ‘extra period designs,’ allow the carryover from the last treatment to be measured, thus increasing the precision of the treatment comparisons.

Balanced designs typically require a large number of subjects when the number of treatments is large and so cannot always be used. An alternative is to use an efficient ‘partially balanced’ design. These designs allow treatment differences to be estimated with two or three different precisions that are fairly close in value. When the treatments are factorial in nature, the effects of the individual factors (main effects) and the interactions between the factors are usually of primary interest. Variance balance is then desirable for the comparisons of the levels of each factor separately (see Jones and Kenward 1989, pp. 222–8, Ratkowski et al. 1993, chap. 6, for tabulated designs).

8.3 Latin Squares

A latin square design is ideal for any experiment in which it is possible to measure each subject under every treatment and, in addition, it is necessary to control for changing conditions over the course of the experiment. A latin square is a design in which each treatment is assigned to each time period the same number of times and to each subject the same number of times (see Dean and Voss 1999, chap. 12). If there are t treatments, t time periods, and mt subjects then m latin squares (each with t treatment sequences) would be used.

Carry-over effects are controlled by using latin squares that are ‘counterbalanced’ (Cotton 1993). This means that, looking at the sequences of treatments assigned to all the subjects taken together, every treatment is preceded by every other treatment for the same number of subjects. Counterbalanced latin squares exist for any even number of treatments and for some odd numbers of treatments (e.g., t =9, 15, 21, 27; see Jones and Kenward 1989 Sect. 5.2.2, for references). For other odd numbers, a pair of latin squares can be used which between them give a set of 2t counterbalanced sequences.

If a carry-over effect is expected to persist for more than one time period, then the counterbalancing must be extended to treatements occurring more than one time period prior to the current treatment.

9. Other Designs

9.1 nested or hierarchical designs.

It is not unusual for extraneous variables to be ‘nested.’ For example, if subjects are recruited and tested separately at different testing centers, the subjects are ‘nested within testing center.’ If subjects are animals such as mice or piglets, then the subjects are naturally nested within litters, which are nested within parent, which may be nested within laboratory. The nesting information can be used in matched designs, since the nesting forms natural groupings of like subjects. For within subjects designs, the nesting information can be used during the analysis for examining the different sources of extraneous variation (e.g., Hierarchical Models: Random and Fixed Effects). Designs in which different levels of nesting are assigned different treatment factors are called ‘split-plot designs’ (see Sect. 9.2).

A second type of nesting is a nesting structure within the treatment factors being examined. Examples given by Myers (1979) include memorization of words within grammatical class; time taken to complete problems within difficulty levels. Models and analyses used in such experiments must reflect the nested treatment structure.

9.2 Split-Plot Designs

An experiment with more than one type of stimulus (factor) can be run as a split plot design with a level of one or more factors being applied to a subject throughout the course of the experiment (as for a between-subjects design), and the levels of the other factor(s) being changed for each time period (as for a within subjects design). Such designs are sometimes called ‘mixed designs.’ The stimuli applied as the within subjects design will generally be measured more accurately than those applied as the between subjects design, since subject to subject variability enters into the comparison of the latter.

Split-plot designs are useful when it is difficult to change the levels of one of the factors. For example, Dean and Voss (1999, chap. 19) cite an example of an optokinetic experiment on the drift of focus of a subject’s eyes from the center of a rotating drum measured under two different lighting conditions. The change of lighting conditions was a time-consuming process, whereas it was simple to change the speed of rotation of the drum. Consequently, each subject was assigned a single lighting condition throughout an entire viewing session, and during the viewing session the subject was assigned a sequence of different speeds.

10. Optimality And Efficiency Of Designs

As pointed out by Cotton (1998), designs that are best (i.e., optimal) for one purpose are not necessarily best for another purpose and compromises may need to be made. The optimal design for investigating the effects in one model may be totally unsuitable for a different model. For example, in a cross-over design with two treatments and two time periods, a set of counterbalanced latin squares provides an optimal design for estimating direct treatment effects and carry-over effects. This design does not, however, allow estimation of both a carry-over effect and an interaction between treatments and time periods. Thus, if both of these effects are required in the model, then more than two time periods must be used in the experiment (e.g., Statistical Identification and Estimability).

As a general rule, the most balanced designs are optimal when interest lies equally in all treatment comparisons. The following features are typical characteristics of balance; every treatment is assigned the same number of subjects, every treatment is observed in every time period the same number of times, every treatment is preceded by every other treatment (including itself, if possible) for the same number of subjects and in the same number of time periods. When balance is not achievable, computer programs for generating optimal designs are commercially available. For other settings, where comparison of all treatments is not the main goal of the experiment, more sophisticated algorithms are needed see, for example, Atkinson and Donev (1992).

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