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Definition and Key Features of Case Study Research

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A case study is one type of research method and qualitative research. A case study is important as it defines as a study involving descriptive information about an individual or a small group of individuals. The result of the case studies is in a narrative description of behavior or experience that is normally qualitative in nature. It is not used to discover generalizable truths or make a prediction and also not used to determine cause and effect. The case study research is more emphasis on the exploration and description of a phenomenon. The central characteristics of the case study research are usually narrowly focused as it provides a specific detail that combines both the objective and subjective data to result in in-depth understanding.

A case study is used to answer questions of how or why rather than quantitative study generally asked questions of who, what, where, how much and how many. A case study is commonly used to collect in-depth data in a natural setting where the researcher has little or no control over the events as there is a real-life context. The main goal of a case study is to deliver information that may research in the formation of a hypothesis for future research. A case study is regularly used in an educational setting and social science research. For example, it is commonly used to study psychological problems such as the development of a child in a broken family or the effects on a student who are being bullied and abused. As for the educational setting that was used for the case study is to explore the development of writing skills in a small group of individuals taking a creative writing class.

There are different types of case study methods as it depends on the goals of the researcher and the nature of the question being asked. The first type of case study method is called illustrative. This type of method is used to describe an event or situation in order to make people be more familiar with the topic in question or perhaps become aware of the terminology associated with the topic. The second type of case study method id called exploratory. This method is a summarize case study as it gathered basic and original data that could be used to categorize a particular question for a larger study. It is an exploratory in nature because it was not designed to produce detailed data from any conclusions.

The third type of case study is the cumulative method. The cumulative method commonly designed to pull information together for several situations or event and summative it in a way to allow resulting greater generalization. The cumulative method can save time and money as this method is not creating new and repetitive studies. The fourth method of case study is called critical instance. These studies are used to study situations of certain unique interest or to challenge a universal or generalized belief. These situations or events may be examined to rear questions or to challenge the previous proclamations.

Thus, the researcher will start to design their case study approach once the basic type of case study has been chosen and the question has been recognized. The researcher can use a different range of approaches and methods such as interviews, field studies, protocol or transcript analyses, direct participant observations, a review of documents and achieved records or an exploration of artifacts to collect data in order to gain a full and detailed picture of the participant or small group. Researchers may use a single method approach (one method) or use a multi-modal approach (several methods) to collect data.

The researcher will need to make the decision of the strategy for analyzing the data after he or she has determined the data collection methods and the type of data that will be used and recorded in the study. Typically, case study researchers will interpret their data either holistically or through coding procedures. In a holistic approach, it commonly reviews all the data as a whole and tries to draw conclusions based on the data entirely. It is known as an appropriate approach because the question that being studied is more general and get an overview of the data. Sometimes by breaking the data into smaller pieces might be useful as it involves searching the data to identify and categorize specific actions or characteristics. By assigning a numeric code, it allows the data to be analyzed using statistical in quantitative methods.

There are a few advantages and disadvantages regardless of the type of case study, data collection method or the data analysis method. The first advantages are in the case study; it is more flexible than many other types of research because it eventually allows the researcher to explore and discover the development of the research. Secondly, the case study emphasizes in-depth content that allows the researcher to investigate deep and use a variety of data sources to get a full picture. Furthermore, the data that is collected is in a natural setting and context. Third advantages are case study often resulting in new hypotheses that can be tested later and explore new discovery on a proven theory that can result in further exploration. Lastly, researchers are also able to analyze or study a situation, events, and behaviors. The disadvantages in case studies are that the originality of the data usually cannot be replicated because it has some level of subjectivity and researcher preference may be a problem. It is not possible to conduct the research on a large scale because of the in-depth nature of the data as it concerns about the reliability, validity, and generalizability of the results.

Fortunately, there are some major challenges in conducting case study research. The first challenge is to choose the right research topic. It is important to choose the topic carefully because the research topic is the main groundwork by means the researcher cannot do anything else until he or she figures out the basic focus of their topic. The topic chosen is best when the researcher has an interest in it. The second challenge is on choosing the right methodology for the case study. After a topic is chosen, the researcher needs a methodology in which is a procedure for conducting the research in order to move forward. The researcher sometimes not too sure which method is best suitable to achieve the research aims and objective.

Without confirming the right topic for the appropriate methodology, the research cannot be proceeding further. The third challenge is the problems in using survey questionnaires. Although questionnaire clearly stated that individuals’ own perspective would be valued and there were no right or wrong answers, the researcher noticed that the participants still seemed to search and asking others nearby the right or positive answers rather than expressing their own views. The final challenge is knowing how to dealing with the collected data. The researcher might find out irrelevant data which bring the result of an inaccurate and misinterpreted data collected in the process.

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

• Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
• Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
• Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
• Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
• Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

• Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
• Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
• Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
• Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

• An engaging headline
• A subject and customer introduction
• The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
• The solution the customer used to solve the problem
• The results achieved
• Data and statistics to back up claims of success
• A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

• Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
• Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
• Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
• Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
• Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
• Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

• Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
• Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
• Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
• Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
• Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

• Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
• Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
• Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

• Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
• Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
• Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
• Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

To learn more, watch the Adobe Experience Platform story .

Keep in mind that the best case studies are backed by data. That’s where Adobe Real-Time Customer Data Platform and Adobe Analytics come into play. With Real-Time CDP, you can gather the data you need to build a great case study and target specific customers to deliver the content to the right audience at the perfect moment.

Watch the Real-Time CDP overview video to learn more.

Finally, Adobe Analytics turns real-time data into real-time insights. It helps your business collect and synthesize data from multiple platforms to make more informed decisions and create the best case study possible.

Request a demo to learn more about Adobe Analytics.

https://business.adobe.com/blog/perspectives/b2b-ecommerce-10-case-studies-inspire-you

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/business-case

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/what-is-real-time-analytics

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

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Blog Beginner Guides

What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

By Ronita Mohan , Sep 20, 2021

Case studies have become powerful business tools. But what is a case study? What are the benefits of creating one? Are there limitations to the format?

If you’ve asked yourself these questions, our helpful guide will clear things up. Learn how to use a case study for business. Find out how cases analysis works in psychology and research.

We’ve also got examples of case studies to inspire you.

Haven’t made a case study before? You can easily  create a case study  with Venngage’s customizable templates.

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What is a case study, what is the case study method, benefits of case studies, limitations of case studies, types of case studies, faqs about case studies.

Case studies are research methodologies. They examine subjects, projects, or organizations to tell a story.

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Numerous sectors use case analyses. The social sciences, social work, and psychology create studies regularly.

Healthcare industries write reports on patients and diagnoses. Marketing case study examples , like the one below, highlight the benefits of a business product.

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Now that you know what a case study is, we explain how case reports are used in three different industries.

What is a business case study?

A business or marketing case study aims at showcasing a successful partnership. This can be between a brand and a client. Or the case study can examine a brand’s project.

There is a perception that case studies are used to advertise a brand. But effective reports, like the one below, can show clients how a brand can support them.

Hubspot created a case study on a customer that successfully scaled its business. The report outlines the various Hubspot tools used to achieve these results.

Hubspot also added a video with testimonials from the client company’s employees.

So, what is the purpose of a case study for businesses? There is a lot of competition in the corporate world. Companies are run by people. They can be on the fence about which brand to work with.

Business reports  stand out aesthetically, as well. They use  brand colors  and brand fonts . Usually, a combination of the client’s and the brand’s.

With the Venngage  My Brand Kit  feature, businesses can automatically apply their brand to designs.

A business case study, like the one below, acts as social proof. This helps customers decide between your brand and your competitors.

Don’t know how to design a report? You can learn  how to write a case study  with Venngage’s guide. We also share design tips and examples that will help you convert.

Related: 55+ Annual Report Design Templates, Inspirational Examples & Tips [Updated]

What is a case study in psychology?

In the field of psychology, case studies focus on a particular subject. Psychology case histories also examine human behaviors.

Case reports search for commonalities between humans. They are also used to prescribe further research. Or these studies can elaborate on a solution for a behavioral ailment.

The American Psychology Association  has a number of case studies on real-life clients. Note how the reports are more text-heavy than a business case study.

Famous psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Anna O popularised the use of case studies in the field. They did so by regularly interviewing subjects. Their detailed observations build the field of psychology.

It is important to note that psychological studies must be conducted by professionals. Psychologists, psychiatrists and therapists should be the researchers in these cases.

Related: What Netflix’s Top 50 Shows Can Teach Us About Font Psychology [Infographic]

What is a case study in research?

Research is a necessary part of every case study. But specific research fields are required to create studies. These fields include user research, healthcare, education, or social work.

For example, this UX Design  report examined the public perception of a client. The brand researched and implemented new visuals to improve it. The study breaks down this research through lessons learned.

Clinical reports are a necessity in the medical field. These documents are used to share knowledge with other professionals. They also help examine new or unusual diseases or symptoms.

The pandemic has led to a significant increase in research. For example,  Spectrum Health  studied the value of health systems in the pandemic. They created the study by examining community outreach.

The pandemic has significantly impacted the field of education. This has led to numerous examinations on remote studying. There have also been studies on how students react to decreased peer communication.

Social work case reports often have a community focus. They can also examine public health responses. In certain regions, social workers study disaster responses.

You now know what case studies in various fields are. In the next step of our guide, we explain the case study method.

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A case analysis is a deep dive into a subject. To facilitate this case studies are built on interviews and observations. The below example would have been created after numerous interviews.

Case studies are largely qualitative. They analyze and describe phenomena. While some data is included, a case analysis is not quantitative.

There are a few steps in the case method. You have to start by identifying the subject of your study. Then determine what kind of research is required.

In natural sciences, case studies can take years to complete. Business reports, like this one, don’t take that long. A few weeks of interviews should be enough.

The case method will vary depending on the industry. Reports will also look different once produced.

As you will have seen, business reports are more colorful. The design is also more accessible . Healthcare and psychology reports are more text-heavy.

Designing case reports takes time and energy. So, is it worth taking the time to write them? Here are the benefits of creating case studies.

• Collects large amounts of information
• Helps formulate hypotheses
• Builds the case for further research
• Discovers new insights into a subject
• Builds brand trust and loyalty
• Engages customers through stories

For example, the business study below creates a story around a brand partnership. It makes for engaging reading. The study also shows evidence backing up the information.

We’ve shared the benefits of why studies are needed. We will also look at the limitations of creating them.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

There are a few disadvantages to conducting a case analysis. The limitations will vary according to the industry.

• Responses from interviews are subjective
• Subjects may tailor responses to the researcher
• Studies can’t always be replicated
• In certain industries, analyses can take time and be expensive
• Risk of generalizing the results among a larger population

These are some of the common weaknesses of creating case reports. If you’re on the fence, look at the competition in your industry.

Other brands or professionals are building reports, like this example. In that case, you may want to do the same.

There are six common types of case reports. Depending on your industry, you might use one of these types.

Descriptive case studies

Explanatory case studies, exploratory case reports, intrinsic case studies, instrumental case studies, collective case reports.

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We go into more detail about each type of study in the guide below.

Related:  15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

When you have an existing hypothesis, you can design a descriptive study. This type of report starts with a description. The aim is to find connections between the subject being studied and a theory.

Once these connections are found, the study can conclude. The results of this type of study will usually suggest how to develop a theory further.

A study like the one below has concrete results. A descriptive report would use the quantitative data as a suggestion for researching the subject deeply.

When an incident occurs in a field, an explanation is required. An explanatory report investigates the cause of the event. It will include explanations for that cause.

The study will also share details about the impact of the event. In most cases, this report will use evidence to predict future occurrences. The results of explanatory reports are definitive.

Note that there is no room for interpretation here. The results are absolute.

The study below is a good example. It explains how one brand used the services of another. It concludes by showing definitive proof that the collaboration was successful.

Another example of this study would be in the automotive industry. If a vehicle fails a test, an explanatory study will examine why. The results could show that the failure was because of a particular part.

Related: How to Write a Case Study [+ Design Tips]

An explanatory report is a self-contained document. An exploratory one is only the beginning of an investigation.

Exploratory cases act as the starting point of studies. This is usually conducted as a precursor to large-scale investigations. The research is used to suggest why further investigations are needed.

An exploratory study can also be used to suggest methods for further examination.

For example, the below analysis could have found inconclusive results. In that situation, it would be the basis for an in-depth study.

Intrinsic studies are more common in the field of psychology. These reports can also be conducted in healthcare or social work.

These types of studies focus on a unique subject, such as a patient. They can sometimes study groups close to the researcher.

The aim of such studies is to understand the subject better. This requires learning their history. The researcher will also examine how they interact with their environment.

For instance, if the case study below was about a unique brand, it could be an intrinsic study.

Once the study is complete, the researcher will have developed a better understanding of a phenomenon. This phenomenon will likely not have been studied or theorized about before.

Examples of intrinsic case analysis can be found across psychology. For example, Jean Piaget’s theories on cognitive development. He established the theory from intrinsic studies into his own children.

Related: What Disney Villains Can Tell Us About Color Psychology [Infographic]

This is another type of study seen in medical and psychology fields. Instrumental reports are created to examine more than just the primary subject.

When research is conducted for an instrumental study, it is to provide the basis for a larger phenomenon. The subject matter is usually the best example of the phenomenon. This is why it is being studied.

Assume it’s examining lead generation strategies. It may want to show that visual marketing is the definitive lead generation tool. The brand can conduct an instrumental case study to examine this phenomenon.

Collective studies are based on instrumental case reports. These types of studies examine multiple reports.

There are a number of reasons why collective reports are created:

• To provide evidence for starting a new study
• To find pattens between multiple instrumental reports
• To find differences in similar types of cases
• Gain a deeper understanding of a complex phenomenon
• Understand a phenomenon from diverse contexts

A researcher could use multiple reports, like the one below, to build a collective case report.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

What makes a case study a case study?

A case study has a very particular research methodology. They are an in-depth study of a person or a group of individuals. They can also study a community or an organization. Case reports examine real-world phenomena within a set context.

How long should a case study be?

The length of studies depends on the industry. It also depends on the story you’re telling. Most case studies should be at least 500-1500 words long. But you can increase the length if you have more details to share.

What should you ask in a case study?

The one thing you shouldn’t ask is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions. Case studies are qualitative. These questions won’t give you the information you need.

Ask your client about the problems they faced. Ask them about solutions they found. Or what they think is the ideal solution. Leave room to ask them follow-up questions. This will help build out the study.

How to present a case study?

When you’re ready to present a case study, begin by providing a summary of the problem or challenge you were addressing. Follow this with an outline of the solution you implemented, and support this with the results you achieved, backed by relevant data. Incorporate visual aids like slides, graphs, and images to make your case study presentation more engaging and impactful.

Now you know what a case study means, you can begin creating one. These reports are a great tool for analyzing brands. They are also useful in a variety of other fields.

Use a visual communication platform like Venngage to design case studies. With Venngage’s templates, you can design easily. Create branded, engaging reports, all without design experience.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. Professor at Harvard Business School and the former dean of HBS.

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All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

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Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: 'CREDIBLE SOURCES: WHAT ARE THEY?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

• Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
• In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
• Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
• Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
• At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

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What Is a Case Study and Why You Should Use Them

Case studies can provide more insights into your business while helping you conduct further research with robust qualitative data analysis to learn more.

If you're in charge of running a company, then you're likely always looking for new ways to run your business more efficiently and increase your customer base while streamlining as many processes as possible.

Unfortunately, it can sometimes be difficult to determine how to go about implementing the proper program in order to be successful. This is why many business owners opt to conduct a case study, which can help significantly. Whether you've been struggling with brand consistency or some other problem, the right case study can identify why your problem exists as well as provide a way to rectify it.

A case study is a great tool that many businesses aren't even aware exists, and there are marketing experts like Mailchimp who can provide you with step-by-step assistance with implementing a plan with a case study. Many companies discover that not only do they need to start a blog in order to improve business, but they also need to create specific and relevant blog titles.

If your company already has a blog, then optimizing your blog posts may be helpful. Regardless of the obstacles that are preventing you from achieving all your professional goals, a case study can work wonders in helping you reverse this issue.

What is a case study?

A case study is a comprehensive report of the results of theory testing or examining emerging themes of a business in real life context. Case studies are also often used in the healthcare industry, conducting health services research with primary research interest around routinely collected healthcare data.

However, for businesses, the purpose of a case study is to help small business owners or company leaders identify the issues and conduct further research into what may be preventing success through information collection, client or customer interviews, and in-depth data analysis.

Knowing the case study definition is crucial for any business owner. By identifying the issues that are hindering a company from achieving all its goals, it's easier to make the necessary corrections to promote success through influenced data collection.

Why are case studies important?

Now that we've answered the questions, "what is a case study?" Why are case studies important? Some of the top reasons why case studies are important include:

• Understand complex issues: Even after you conduct a significant amount of market research , you might have a difficult time understanding exactly what it means. While you might have the basics down, conducting a case study can help you see how that information is applied. Then, when you see how the information can make a difference in business decisions, it could make it easier to understand complex issues.
• Collect data: A case study can also help with data tracking . A case study is a data collection method that can help you describe the information that you have available to you. Then, you can present that information in a way the reader can understand.
• Conduct evaluations: As you learn more about how to write a case study, remember that you can also use a case study to conduct evaluations of a specific situation. A case study is a great way to learn more about complex situations, and you can evaluate how various people responded in that situation. By conducting a case study evaluation, you can learn more about what has worked well, what has not, and what you might want to change in the future.
• Identify potential solutions: A case study can also help you identify solutions to potential problems. If you have an issue in your business that you are trying to solve, you may be able to take a look at a case study where someone has dealt with a similar situation in the past. For example, you may uncover data bias in a specific solution that you would like to address when you tackle the issue on your own. If you need help solving a difficult problem, a case study may be able to help you.

Remember that you can also use case studies to target your audience . If you want to show your audience that you have a significant level of expertise in a field, you may want to publish some case studies that you have handled in the past. Then, when your audience sees that you have had success in a specific area, they may be more likely to provide you with their business. In essence, case studies can be looked at as the original method of social proof, showcasing exactly how you can help someone solve their problems.

What are the benefits of writing a business case study?

Although writing a case study can seem like a tedious task, there are many benefits to conducting one through an in depth qualitative research process.

• Industry understanding: First of all, a case study can give you an in-depth understanding of your industry through a particular conceptual framework and help you identify hidden problems that are preventing you from transcending into the business world.
• Develop theories: If you decide to write a business case study, it provides you with an opportunity to develop new theories. You might have a theory about how to solve a specific problem, but you need to write a business case study to see exactly how that theory has unfolded in the past. Then, you can figure out if you want to apply your theory to a similar issue in the future.
• Evaluate interventions: When you write a business case study that focuses on a specific situation you have been through in the past, you can uncover whether that intervention was truly helpful. This can make it easier to figure out whether you want to use the same intervention in a similar situation in the future.
• Identify best practices: If you want to stay on top of the best practices in your field, conducting case studies can help by allowing you to identify patterns and trends and develop a new list of best practices that you can follow in the future.
• Versatility: Writing a case study also provides you with more versatility. If you want to expand your business applications, you need to figure out how you respond to various problems. When you run a business case study, you open the door to new opportunities, new applications, and new techniques that could help you make a difference in your business down the road.
• Solve problems: Writing a great case study can dramatically improve your chances of reversing your problem and improving your business.
• These are just a few of the biggest benefits you might experience if you decide to publish your case studies. They can be an effective tool for learning, showcasing your talents, and teaching some of your other employees. If you want to grow your audience , you may want to consider publishing some case studies.

What are the limitations of case studies?

Case studies can be a wonderful tool for any business of any size to use to gain an in-depth understanding of their clients, products, customers, or services, but there are limitations.

One limitation of case studies is the fact that, unless there are other recently published examples, there is nothing to compare them to since, most of the time, you are conducting a single, not multiple, case studies.

Another limitation is the fact that most case studies can lack scientific evidence.

Types of case studies

There are specific types of case studies to choose from, and each specific type will yield different results. Some case study types even overlap, which is sometimes more favorable, as they provide even more pertinent data.

Here are overviews of the different types of case studies, each with its own theoretical framework, so you can determine which type would be most effective for helping you meet your goals.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are pretty straightforward, as they're not difficult to interpret. This type of case study is best if there aren't many variables involved because explanatory case studies can easily answer questions like "how" and "why" through theory development.

Exploratory case studies

An exploratory case study does exactly what its name implies: it goes into specific detail about the topic at hand in a natural, real-life context with qualitative research.

The benefits of exploratory case studies are limitless, with the main one being that it offers a great deal of flexibility. Having flexibility when writing a case study is important because you can't always predict what obstacles might arise during the qualitative research process.

Collective case studies

Collective case studies require you to study many different individuals in order to obtain usable data.

Case studies that involve an investigation of people will involve many different variables, all of which can't be predicted. Despite this fact, there are many benefits of collective case studies, including the fact that it allows an ongoing analysis of the data collected.

Intrinsic case studies

This type of study differs from the others as it focuses on the inquiry of one specific instance among many possibilities.

Many people prefer these types of case studies because it allows them to learn about the particular instance that they wish to investigate further.

Instrumental case studies

An instrumental case study is similar to an intrinsic one, as it focuses on a particular instance, whether it's a person, organization, or something different.

One thing that differentiates instrumental case studies from intrinsic ones is the fact that instrumental case studies aren't chosen merely because a person is interested in learning about a specific instance.

Tips for writing a case study

If you have decided to write case studies for your company, then you may be unsure of where to start or which type to conduct.

However, it doesn't have to be difficult or confusing to begin conducting a case study that will help you identify ways to improve your business.

Here are some helpful tips for writing your case studies:

1. Your case study must be written in the proper format

When writing a case study, the format that you should be similar to this:

Administrative summary

The executive summary is an overview of what your report will contain, written in a concise manner while providing real-life context.

Despite the fact that the executive summary should appear at the beginning of your case studies, it shouldn't be written until you've completed the entire report because if you write it before you finish the report, this summary may not be completely accurate.

Key problem statement

In this section of your case study, you will briefly describe the problem that you hope to solve by conducting the study. You will have the opportunity to elaborate on the problem that you're focusing on as you get into the breadth of the report.

Problem exploration

This part of the case study isn't as brief as the other two, and it goes into more detail about the problem at hand. Your problem exploration must include why the identified problem needs to be solved as well as the urgency of solving it.

Additionally, it must include justification for conducting the problem-solving, as the benefits must outweigh the efforts and costs.

Proposed resolution

This case study section will also be lengthier than the first two. It must include how you propose going about rectifying the problem. The "recommended solution" section must also include potential obstacles that you might experience, as well as how these will be managed.

Furthermore, you will need to list alternative solutions and explain the reason the chosen solution is best. Charts can enhance your report and make it easier to read, and provide as much proof to substantiate your claim as possible.

Overview of monetary consideration

An overview of monetary consideration is essential for all case studies, as it will be used to convince all involved parties why your project should be funded. You must successfully convince them that the cost is worth the investment it will require. It's important that you stress the necessity for this particular case study and explain the expected outcome.

Execution timeline

In the execution times of case studies, you explain how long you predict it will take to implement your study. The shorter the time it will take to implement your plan, the more apt it is to be approved. However, be sure to provide a reasonable timeline, taking into consideration any additional time that might be needed due to obstacles.

Always include a conclusion in your case study. This is where you will briefly wrap up your entire proposal, stressing the benefits of completing the data collection and data analysis in order to rectify your problem.

2. Make it clear and comprehensive

You want to write your case studies with as much clarity as possible so that every aspect of the report is understood. Be sure to double-check your grammar, spelling, punctuation, and more, as you don't want to submit a poorly-written document.

Not only would a poorly-written case study fail to prove that what you are trying to achieve is important, but it would also increase the chances that your report will be tossed aside and not taken seriously.

3. Don't rush through the process

Writing the perfect case study takes time and patience. Rushing could result in your forgetting to include information that is crucial to your entire study. Don't waste your time creating a study that simply isn't ready. Take the necessary time to perform all the research necessary to write the best case study possible.

Depending on the case study, conducting case study research could mean using qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or both. Qualitative research questions focus on non-numerical data, such as how people feel, their beliefs, their experiences, and so on.

Meanwhile, quantitative research questions focus on numerical or statistical data collection to explain causal links or get an in-depth picture.

It is also important to collect insightful and constructive feedback. This will help you better understand the outcome as well as any changes you need to make to future case studies. Consider using formal and informal ways to collect feedback to ensure that you get a range of opinions and perspectives.

4. Be confident in your theory development

While writing your case study or conducting your formal experimental investigation, you should have confidence in yourself and what you're proposing in your report. If you took the time to gather all the pertinent data collected to complete the report, don't second-guess yourself or doubt your abilities. If you believe your report will be amazing, then it likely will be.

5. Case studies and all qualitative research are long

It's expected that multiple case studies are going to be incredibly boring, and there is no way around this. However, it doesn't mean you can choose your language carefully in order to keep your audience as engaged as possible.

If your audience loses interest in your case study at the beginning, for whatever reason, then this increases the likelihood that your case study will not be funded.

Case study examples

If you want to learn more about how to write a case study, it might be beneficial to take a look at a few case study examples. Below are a few interesting case study examples you may want to take a closer look at.

• Phineas Gage by John Martin Marlow : One of the most famous case studies comes from the medical field, and it is about the story of Phineas Gage, a man who had a railroad spike driven through his head in 1848. As he was working on a railroad, an explosive charge went off prematurely, sending a railroad rod through his head. Even though he survived this incident, he lost his left eye. However, Phineas Gage was studied extensively over the years because his experiences had a significant, lasting impact on his personality. This served as a case study because his injury showed different parts of the brain have different functions.
• Kitty Genovese and the bystander effect : This is a tragic case study that discusses the murder of Kitty Genovese, a woman attacked and murdered in Queens, New York City. Shockingly, while numerous neighbors watched the scene, nobody called for help because they assumed someone else would. This case study helped to define the bystander effect, which is when a person fails to intervene during an emergency because other people are around.
• Henry Molaison and the study of memory : Henry Molaison lost his memory and suffered from debilitating amnesia. He suffered from childhood epilepsy, and medical professionals attempted to remove the part of his brain that was causing his seizures. He had a portion of his brain removed, but it completely took away his ability to hold memories. Even though he went on to live until the age of 82, he was always forced to live in the present moment, as he was completely unable to form new memories.

Case study FAQs

When should you do a case study.

There are several scenarios when conducting a case study can be beneficial. Case studies are often used when there's a "why" or "how" question that needs to be answered. Case studies are also beneficial when trying to understand a complex phenomenon, there's limited research on a topic, or when you're looking for practical solutions to a problem.

How can case study results be used to make business decisions?

You can use the results from a case study to make future business decisions if you find yourself in a similar situation. As you assess the results of a case study, you can identify best practices, evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention, generate new and creative ideas, or get a better understanding of customer needs.

How are case studies different from other research methodologies?

When compared to other research methodologies, such as experimental or qualitative research methodology, a case study does not require a representative sample. For example, if you are performing quantitative research, you have a lot of subjects that expand your sample size. If you are performing experimental research, you may have a random sample in front of you. A case study is usually designed to deliberately focus on unusual situations, which allows it to shed new light on a specific business research problem.

Writing multiple case studies for your business

If you're feeling overwhelmed by the idea of writing a case study and it seems completely foreign, then you aren't alone. Writing a case study for a business is a very big deal, but fortunately, there is help available because an example of a case study doesn't always help.

Mailchimp, a well-known marketing company that provides comprehensive marketing support for all sorts of businesses, can assist you with your case study, or you can review one of their own recently published examples.

Mailchimp can assist you with developing the most effective content strategy to increase your chances of being as successful as possible. Mailchimp's content studio is a great tool that can help your business immensely.

How to Write a Case Study: From a Definition to Examples

24 August 2023

last updated

Case studies are essential in presenting detailed information regarding a subject of interest. Psychology, business, marketing, law, and medicine case studies have a standard structure. Some examples of commentaries include collective, descriptive, instrumental, intrinsic, and exploratory case studies. People can use various methods, like observation, surveys, focus groups, interviews, and design thinking to gather the necessary research data for presentation. A standard case study should have an introduction and background, parties involved, problem, possible solutions, discussion, alternative solutions, limitations, action plan, outcome, and conclusion. In turn, creating an outline helps to organize the main ideas chronologically. Compelling case studies should have a formal tone and be contained in paragraphs. Each passage in a case study should dwell and expound on a single view and have a topic sentence, supporting evidence, and transitioning statement.

General Guidelines on How to Write an Outstanding Case Study

Case studies that tell the story about a specific individual, group, event, or institution provide the best way to prove evidence and its application, developing a better understanding of the phenomenon under analysis. Basically, a good case study is a descriptive paper that gathers qualitative data. Moreover, people should read this article because it concisely defines what is a case study, examples from different areas of study, their types, and data collection methods. Scholars who present case investigations should follow proper outlines to guide the writing process and ensure clarity of ideas. Although students can use different ways to write a case study, they should include an introduction and background, parties involved, research problem, conceivable solutions, discussion, alternative solutions, limitations, action plan, outcome, and conclusion.

Definition of What Is a Case Study

A case study is an in-depth analysis of an individual, group, event, or institution. People can explore every aspect of a subject’s life to understand the patterns and causes of behavior. For example, case studies are common in psychology, education, anthropology, political science, and social work. Investigating a research issue provides more insights into the subject of interest and uses the acquired knowledge to generalize concepts.

➖ Focus of a Case Study

Case studies have a narrow focus, which makes them relevant to a specific subject. Basically, individuals may describe a single item. They seek to expose important details of concepts under investigation. In case studies where scholars evaluate events, they focus on a single aspect. Moreover, good papers should have a clear heading on the feature that one evaluates. For example, this trend allows readers to understand the focus of the work. Therefore, writers should cover a single aspect of any case under investigation.

➖ Use of a Case Study

People need case studies when they intend to obtain specific, appropriate, and comprehensive knowledge about a subject of interest. For example, they can use different qualitative and quantitative methods to gather research information from credible sources about the chosen topic. The resulting evidence is important for explaining, comparing, evaluating, and recognizing various aspects of the research problem. Case studies are common in learning institutions, commercial companies, healthcare facilities, and government agencies where individuals evaluate important concepts or address existing challenges.

➖ Difference From Research Papers

A case study differs from a research paper or an executive summary due to its narrow scope. For example, academic research has a wide scope that includes the purpose of the study, sample population, duration of study, relevant theories, results , and other aspects covered. However, various types of papers focus on a narrow span of themes that involve human subjects. In turn, case studies allow scholars to conduct an in-depth evaluation of a subject regarding an individual, group, event, or institution.

➖ Difference From Essays

Case studies differ from various types of essays because they focus on specific situations to provide approaches and solutions. For example, writing a case study in history suggests formal research that requires supporting evidence to justify a claim. However, an essay is a form of writing that informs a targeted audience about a topic or subject. Academic papers contain an explanation and elucidation of a specific concept.

➖ Combining Objective and Subjective Information

A case study covers objective and subjective aspects. For instance, researchers should identify valid research data for investigation. The primary aim is to develop a basis for inferences that authors intend to make. One should make an objective description of the features identified. Hence, writers should provide details of the subjective aspects of the theme and cover reliable sources. In turn, they should give sensory details. As a result, this strategy makes it possible for readers to develop an intrinsic understanding of the subject under analysis. Besides, it allows students to offer a means of expressing how people should feel toward the theme under investigation.

➖ Descriptive Information

Learning to prepare a case study helps people to collect detailed descriptive data. For example, when mastering their descriptive writing , they gain skills to evaluate various features accurately. It becomes possible for learners to identify unique details for writing. Besides, the strategy lays down the foundation of extensive research. In turn, scholars who complete case studies effectively can carry out a comprehensive investigation of many topics. They also gain proper skills to understand and analyze essential concepts. Therefore, knowing how to write a case study enables people to develop skills to collect data in various research studies.

➖ Study Hypothesis

Preparing a case study enables students to develop a research hypothesis . Scholars who analyze modern cases gain significant knowledge that can be used to identify and solve complex issues. Basically, students develop a deeper understanding of various concepts. For example, they can predict outcomes related to case study circumstances that they examine. In this case, hypotheses are useful in research studies. Hence, experienced students postulate ideas before making inquiries. Moreover, they engage in different study methods to validate their research proposal. Thus, preparing case studies gives learners the experience of writing a null and alternative hypothesis that guides knowledge.

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Example of a Good Psychology Case Study

In a psychology case study scenario, a doctor diagnosed a 15-year-old French female living with her parents and younger siblings with anxiety, separation anxiety, and attention disorder. The patient lived with her parents, who experienced significant marital problems. Parents had separated several times and were discussing a possible divorce. The patient’s mother reported a history of psychiatric treatment for depression and anxiety. In addition, the father had a history of bipolar disorder and psychiatric treatment.

The patient recorded poor academic performance in several classes. Moreover, parents were looking for a new school because of poor grades recorded in the previous educational year. The patient presented the following symptoms:

• frequent sadness and crying;
• high appetite and overeating;
• anxiety and irritability;
• insomnia and hopelessness;
• loss of concentration;
• low self-esteem and guilt.

In addition to the above symptoms, the patient presented difficulties in interpersonal relationships, persistent negative thoughts about her physical appearance, and blame regarding her parent’s marital challenges. The doctor explored the patient’s medical history to discover she suffered from overweight and asthma. Besides, the patient had accessed supportive psychotherapy and used anti-depressants to stabilize her mental condition. Rejection by a potential boyfriend triggered the first episode of stress. However, her parents’ marital challenges started the current stress and psychological difficulties attack.

The doctor used Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) for children to diagnose the patient with a depressive disorder. DIS is a semi-structured diagnostic interview that allows doctors to assess the presence of a wide range of psychiatric disorders. The doctor used DIS to determine specific symptoms’ presence, chronology, duration, and associated deficiency in this case study. The patient responded to “no,” “somewhat,” and “yes” questions regarding her symptoms. The doctor determined that the patient experienced sadness, hopelessness, loss of interest, short temper, irritation, tiredness, memory loss, sleep disorders, excessive eating, and weight gain. The physician observed that the patient suffered from a depressive disorder that caused anxiety, fear of separation, and attention deficit.

The doctor treated the patient with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which helps to manage depression among French adults. In this case, the patient attended 12 CBT sessions to acquire stress management skills and social interaction capabilities necessary for coping with high-risk situations. This intervention was essential in reducing interpersonal worries and intrapersonal anxiety, like anger and depression. The first 12 sessions were required to train the patient to use active behavior and cognitive coping methods to deal with problems. Thus, the doctor enhanced the intervention with eight sessions of group psychoeducation to ensure the patient obtained social support to maintain the needed temperance.

The first four sessions were used to teach the patient about the impact of negative thoughts on mood. According to a case study, the patient gained adequate knowledge on overcoming dysfunctional thought patterns and increasing positive beliefs. The patient completed a daily log of positive and negative thoughts. Besides, the doctor required her to identify effective ways to challenge dysfunctional thoughts.

The subsequent three sessions allowed the patient to learn more about pleasant activities, time management, and goal-setting activities that can improve mood. Some essential activities in these sessions included recording enjoyable activities, completing a daily and weekly planner, and establishing specific goals and actions for achieving them. The last three sessions focused on how interpersonal relationships affect mood. The physician focused on training the patient on effective ways to increase and maintain social support and enhance assertive communication skills. These skills were necessary for enabling the patient to identify functional relationships and appropriate communication strategies for maintaining such positive associations.

The doctor may have used other methods, like psychological evaluation, to diagnose the patient’s depressive disorder. This method would not involve assessing the patient’s family medical history and social experiences. Psychological evaluation allows physicians to ask patients about their condition and past experiences. The information helps to reveal the core factors undermining patients’ overall health outcomes. Besides, the physician may have adopted peer support as an appropriate intervention method to assist the patient in curbing depression. From a case study, the intervention provides sustainable solutions to existing problems by encouraging patients to embrace desirable behaviors to enhance their mental resilience.

Example of a Good Medical Case Study

In a medical case study scenario, a pharmacist clinician received a referral of a 58-year-old white woman for pharmacotherapy consideration and diabetes management. The patient had a history of multiple medical conditions, like type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and long-standing musculoskeletal pain from a previous car accident. Other medical conditions include anemia, knee replacement, and several hospital admissions for asthma-related complications.

The patient’s medication includes a pre-mixture of insulin lispro protamine suspension and preparation. The patient takes 33 units before breakfast and 23 before supper. The patient reported that she takes a little more insulin during the days when her blood glucose increases. However, she still needs to receive previous instructions on using an insulin adjustment formula. In addition, the patient uses an inhaler to manage her asthmatic condition.

The patient’s current major complaint is an increase in asthma complications. The patient needs prednisone tapers due to previous undesirable outcomes. For example, she reported experiencing growth in her blood glucose readings during her last round of prednisone therapy. The scenario occurred despite her significant reduction in carbohydrate intake. However, the patient reported facing financial challenges that prevent her from purchasing the required fluticasone or salmeterol, which forces her to take prednisone and albuterol to manage the worsening asthma episodes.

Results from a physical examination revealed that the patient appeared obese with minimal distress. According to a case study, she weighed 110 kg and had a height of 5.8 feet. The patient had a blood pressure of 130/78 mmHg and a pulse of 87 bmp. Her lungs were clear to auscultation and were without wheezing or rales. The patient also reported experiencing foot swelling when she remains active or stands for long hours. The patient said she was taking furosemide tablets to control her swelling.

The clinician discovered that the patient experienced persistent and severe asthma with poor control methods. She failed to embrace effective strategies to manage and control her asthmatic condition. The situation worsened her diabetic condition and treatment. In this case, the patient’s financial conditions affected her ability to maintain desirable, appropriate medication behavior. Other factors hindering better health outcomes include insufficient patient education regarding the role of specific medications.

The clinician proposed using a systematic method to evaluate the proper intervention for the patient. The findings emphasized patient-oriented evidence to support the most appropriate intervention. The physician developed an intervention plan that provided the patient with the necessary support throughout her treatment. The main aim was to identify possible side effects, drug interactions, or toxicity issues that require immediate attention.

However, the clinician could use an alternative method, like providing a medication-based intervention to the patient. The clinician would have identified alternative drugs for the patient and recommended a hospital admission for close assessment. This intervention would allow the clinician to identify the most appropriate medication to restore the patient’s overall health by managing asthma and diabetes more effectively. From a case study, the medication-based intervention would enable the patient to gain adequate knowledge of the proper medications and appreciate the need to follow guided prescriptions.

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Example of a Good Marketing Case Study

In a marketing case study scenario, Bivea is a skin and personal care brand start-up that targets the American market. The company has experienced significant growth from a signature product to diverse pharmaceutical inventions. Although Bivea has recorded positive change in the United States (US), there were challenges in promoting success in Asia, Latin American, and Eastern European markets. The clear benefit concept has failed to encourage company growth in the Asian market.

Bivea succeeded with new product rollouts throughout the past decade. The company succeeded in maintaining consistency in its visual and verbal messaging. However, these promotion methods are not suitable for the dynamic market of the twenty-first century. For example, a rise in critical consumers, aggressive compensations, and private labels pose a significant marketing threat to the company. The current challenges include high costs to penetrate the targeted markets and low consumer acceptance.

Bivea management considered introducing private-label skin care products to lower the cost of entering the targeted markets. According to a case study, this intervention allowed the company to create pre-made formulations that retailers could put their labels on and sell under their brand. As a result, the alternative enabled local retailers to lower the high cost and time investment associated with creating their formulas from scratch. Besides, Bivea lowered the operational price related to legal and taxation policies in different countries.

The private-label skin care products enabled the company to create a stable and reliable network of local retailers. For instance, the organization successfully attracted local companies in skin and personal care products. In this case, the visual and verbal messaging promotion technique successfully attracted and maintained a stable network of retailers. However, this marketing approach hindered the company from establishing its brand effectively.

Although Bivea succeeded in creating a reliable network of retailers, alternative approaches would assist the institution in selling its brand to local consumers. For example, the management would launch online-based marketing strategies to reach younger consumers through various social media platforms. This intervention would allow the company to attract a new segment of customers and establish a strong brand in the Asian market. The new marketing strategy would enable the company to understand the unique needs of young consumers. The resulting evidence would help Bivea to diversify its products to meet the needs of the new customer segment. From a case study, other benefits include an added competitive advantage as Bevia promotes its brand in the Asian market.

Example of a Good Business Case Study

In a business case study scenario, a company ABC experienced stiff competition from upcoming organizations due to inefficient operational systems. ABC was a cosmetic company that focused on producing and distributing beauty products. The company relied on a conventional operating model that remained unchanged over the last decade. The management disregarded the need to embrace change or adopt technology-based solutions. However, such practices exposed the company to stiff competition from emerging cosmetic firms that embraced innovative solutions, like intelligent machines, advanced analytics, and digital connectivity. The company recorded a drop in overall revenue in the previous financial year.

The company had 20% Baby Boomers, 70% Generation Z, and 10% Millennial employees. This diverse workforce posed significant operational challenges as the company needed to catch up in embracing new technological solutions. Most of the Baby Boomers held leadership positions and believed the company should use proven strategies. In addition, they thought that all employees should receive appraisals based on their overall performance levels. On the other hand, Generation X employees considered job security the most crucial aspect of their careers. Workers in this generation should have improved their overall skills and expertise. These traits of older employees discouraged Millennials from embracing technology-based and innovative solutions that can enhance their productivity. The result was a demoralized workforce that failed to meet the company’s expectations.

The management established a team of experts to review the current situation in the firm and propose a practical solution that could boost the company’s productivity. The team interviewed employees to determine the primary cause of existing challenges affecting overall productivity. Results obtained from a case study revealed that generational difference was the primary barrier to the company’s progress. There was a significant breakdown in communication between older employees. For example, Millennials overlooked the need to express their concerns and views to senior managers who were Baby Boomers. In turn, Baby Boomer and Generation Z employees regarded Millennials as negligent and non-cooperative. These social challenges hindered the flow of information within the company and discouraged employees’ ability to implement desirable changes.

Experts noted that the company should embrace new technologies to improve performance. The findings revealed that most of the activities in the company were similar and redundant. Furthermore, most of the activities were straightforward and did not require specialized skills for execution. According to a case study, experts realized the company could adopt technology-based solutions to automate most operations. Other proposals included training employees to understand the need to embrace technology-based solutions. The team of experts proposed a collaborative approach where the company would seek professional support from professionals on practical technological solutions to automate the production of cosmetic products.

The management hired Siemens to provide automation solutions to the production process. Siemens provided automated solutions through automotive-embedded software developments aligned with ABC’s needs. All employees received adequate training on operating computerized systems. Other support services included employee mentoring and team-building activities to encourage employees to embrace modern technology. The strategy was crucial in ensuring that Baby Boomer and Generation X employees appreciated the need to integrate technology-based solutions to enhance efficiency. However, most older employees felt intimidated by Millennials, who had well-versed knowledge about new technologies. On their part, Millennials thought that Baby Boomer and Generation Z employees created systemic barriers to embracing latest technologies. Other challenges included increased operational costs due to a large and less effective workforce.

The company may have adopted alternative solutions by laying off older employees and hiring more Millennials to champion technology-based solutions. The management should have opted to promote employees interested in the technology-based to take up management roles. This strategy would ensure speedy implementation of effective solutions to encourage efficiency and lower operational costs. From a case study, the management would provide Millennials with a supportive work environment to ensure that they create new and innovative interventions to address emerging issues.

Example of a Good Legal Case Study

In a legal case study scenario, an African American artist composed a rap song and posted it on YouTube. The song gained two million viewers within two days. Another White artist created a parody of the rap song after one week. The parody had five million views within the first day of release on YouTube. The views for the original song constantly increased to 8 million over the next five weeks. However, the parody gained popularity too, gaining over 15 million views within five weeks.

The African American artist filed a legal suit against the White musician for violating the copyright rules. The complainant argued that the White musician used the original song for personal economic gain. The plaintiff argued that the large number of followers for the parody translated to a monetary value. The complainant explained that the White musician targeted the African American artist for personal economic gain. The cultural difference between Whites and Blacks, including discrimination toward minority groups, allowed the parody song to gain popularity.

The defendant filed a response and argued that the primary purpose of the parody was to create humor. The large following on YouTube indicated people’s tendency to appreciate comedy and satire. The defendant encouraged the court to reject the legal application because the economic value gained from the parody was a justifiable reward for creating humor. The respondent explained that comedy is a talent and jesters focus on creating satire. According to a case study, the income earned from comedy is not the primary motivation for creating a comic parody. The respondent explained that the parody did not violate the First Amendment as the primary intention was fair use. With this regard, the defendant explained that the parody allowed the original song to gain popularity, as evidenced by an increase in viewers from two to eight million. In this case, the satire was composed for fair use instead of imposing unhealthy competition against the original song.

The judge of the district court ruled in favor of the defendant. The judge cited the First Amendment as the constitutional law that protects parody work in the United States (US). The Constitution regards parody as a unique form of expression where artists can criticize or provide commentary on the original work. Such rights allow people to find fault or comment about the artist or something connected to the original work. The White artist did not violate the fair use exception enumerated in section 107 of the Copyright Act. It focuses on the purpose and character of the use, the nature of the amount and substantiality of the original work, and the effect on the market value of the targeted piece of art. The judge explained that the White artist intended to create humor, which may have increased the value of the original song.

The judge’s evaluation revealed that the parody was fair use since the White artist intended to make a social commentary. The White artist’s intention was not to attract any commercial gain. However, the realized economic growth was a reward for creating humor. The judge explained that the monetary gain realized was a form of appreciation from the audience who value the social role of parodies. As a result, the judge rejected the argument by the complainant that all White artists took advantage of cultural differences to criticize the rap song for their personal economic gains.

The judge made a correct ruling by applying constitutional law in safeguarding the social role of parody work. Artists are central to communicating essential messages about community and social or cultural values. The First Amendment and Fair Use Act are necessary legislatures allowing people to express their views regarding a piece of art. Positive criticism by other artists is a crucial function that enables people to improve the value of their work.

This legal case study has academic value since it reveals effective ways of applying constitutional law in promoting and protecting different art genres. Law students can use the commentaries to understand how to apply the Constitution in instances that lead to a conflict of interest. Such practices are necessary in considering the public interest when making legal decisions. It also requires critical thinking to safeguard each party’s fundamental and constitutional rights. The example of parody is unique since it promotes people’s right to express contrary opinions without fear of intimidation. From a case study, legal students should appreciate such values to use their profession to support an inclusive society where people have equal rights to express their views.

Types of Case Studies

A practical case study is a process-oriented paper. For example, students explore and describe the nature of a process. In this case, it is prudent for learners to explain what happens over time in the aspect under analysis. Besides, this description allows readers to understand how some characteristics came into existence. Therefore, when writing case studies, authors should provide a clear description of people, events, or institutions that transpired in the aspect under analysis.

🔸 Collective Case Study

Writing a collective case study allows people to analyze a group to understand the manifestation of a specific behavior or health condition. Scholars may study people in a particular setting or explore the entire community to gain insights into an existing challenge, research question, or topic of interest. A good example of writing a collective case study is when a psychologist explores how access to resources in a community affects the overall psychological well-being of its members. Psychologists strive to establish an existing or implied relationship between two variables.

Collective investigations may use qualitative research methods to evaluate several research works and determine a pattern of findings that explains the relationship between resources and psychological well-being in the targeted community. Alternatively, writing a collective case study may involve a quantitative research approach where individuals gather primary evidence from the targeted group to determine how access to scarce resources influences their overall mental well-being. Maslow hierarchy of needs theory is an excellent example of a model that resulted from a collective report. Maslow studied a large group of people to make justifiable conclusions about how the hierarchy of needs affects their satisfaction levels.

🔸 Descriptive Case Study

Writing a descriptive case study relates to a real-world situation that affects people or groups and how they find justifiable solutions. Basically, scholars create a concise and thorough account of the facts regarding the case. They make expert commentary to assist the targeted audience in understanding the causes of the underlying research problem, some factors that influence possible solutions, and the expected outcomes. Other significant findings from writing a descriptive case study include lessons learned and their connection to existing theories, concepts, policies, and applicable tools. Descriptive case studies are helpful teaching tools that lead to better insights into existing issues. Results from a descriptive research work offer essential lessons relevant to the described or related problems.

Researchers use descriptive case studies to analyze and evaluate the identified solution critically. This approach helps to determine whether the solution and its implementation achieved the intended goals. Results can explain why specific solutions may fail to achieve intended outcomes. One can describe the possibility of adopting alternative solutions when the initial ones fail. Kolb’s experiential learning theory is an excellent example of a concept that resulted from writing a descriptive case study. This theory has a four-stage learning cycle where learners encounter varying degrees of experience. For example, students undergo the experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting stages to demonstrate effective learning. These conclusions resulted from an extensive case study of how people acquire and apply knowledge in their real lives.

🔸 Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study uses a situation to gain new insights into the incident. A good example is when some individuals show interest in gaining insights into adult obesity rates. They may conduct a case study with female African American adults and a diet or exercise program. The scope of writing an instrumental case study would be understanding the relationship between obesity and specific eating or physical exercise habits. The findings from writing an instrumental case study may reveal why some female African American adults become obese despite maintaining healthy eating habits or engaging in regular physical activity. In turn, Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory is an excellent example of an approach that can be used for writing an instrumental case study. Pavlov discovered that pairing a neutral stimulus with absolute inducement that triggers an unconditional response leads to a conditioned incentive. The interaction triggers a conditioned response that is like the initial unconditioned action. This theory reveals why people acquire unique behaviors or health conditions depending on their interactions with the immediate environment.

🔸 Intrinsic Case Study

An intrinsic case study has the central focus as the subject itself. For instance, psychologists may establish a survey to understand how a person’s experience shapes some behaviors. Intrinsic case studies start from vague objectives and lead to specific outcomes. One may develop questions regarding observed behaviors and past experiences. Results reveal the connection between lived experiences, unique characters, and conduct.

Self-actualization theory by Carl Rogers is an excellent example of a good approach to writing an intrinsic case study. For example, self-actualization refers to the lifelong process where people maintain and enhance their self-concept. Some individuals reflect and reinterpret their past experiences to improve their overall outcomes. Unique experiences motivate them to improve their general capacities and make the necessary improvements and behavioral adjustments. Rogers established that the congruence between a person’s ideal self and actual behaviors leads to self-actualization. Such outcomes enable people to become inherently excellent and creative in addressing situations when they write intrinsic case studies.

🔸 Exploratory Case Study

Researchers use an exploratory case study to provide an in-depth analysis of a specific subject of interest. They conduct extensive and complex investigations on identified issues. Exploratory case studies aim to understand the meaning and implication of collected research data and create new perceptions toward the core subject. The main advantage of this investigation is the ability to narrow down the topic and formulate a clear hypothesis and problem statement.

Operant conditioning within behaviorism by Edward Thorndike is an excellent example of a theory for writing an exploratory case study. Thorndike examined the relationship between events and classical conditioning. He also examined the connection between operant conditioning and learning from possible consequences of specific behaviors. Writing an exploratory study requires an in-depth analysis of the various stimuli that influence people to adopt behaviors as a primary way of response. Some consequences that people realize from specific actions affect them to acquire some conduct.

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Top 5 Data-Collecting Methods for Writing a Case Study Example

1️⃣ observation research method.

Researchers use an observation method when examining things and collecting relevant research data. For example, one may observe animals or humans in their natural settings. This method enables investigators to avoid direct interactions with targeted subjects when writing a case study. Such practices lead to writing accurate findings due to lower risks of interruptions.

2️⃣ Survey Study

Scholars use surveys to obtain data from written or multiple-choice answers about different subjects from targeted respondents. For example, an individual may conduct an online survey to minimize interactions with participants. This method helps to gather internal and external feedback regarding products, policies, or issues directly affecting people. In this case, researchers can collect qualitative data from surveys to make justifiable conclusions concerning the topic of interest.

3️⃣ Researching Focus Groups

Focus group methods are essential in gathering research information from participants. Scholars may engage people from a specific group to gather qualitative evidence of their feelings, opinions, or emotions. This method does not focus on collecting statistical evidence about issues of concern. Instead, researchers use focus groups to understand how people feel about or perceive a situation directly affecting them. For example, for writing a case study, companies can use focus groups to understand better how their consumers recognize or think about a new product.

4️⃣ Conducting Interviews for Writing a Case Study

Interviews involve a personal or face-to-face interaction between researchers and identified respondents. Scholars share their interview questions with participants before the interview. This approach is essential in ensuring that respondents are comfortable participating in the proposed study. In this case, participants fill out consent forms after understanding the research and its purpose. The method supports collecting qualitative or quantitative data from respondents, depending on the study’s nature. For example, quantitative interviews result in objective research data, like the frequency of a particular activity or the probability of an event. In turn, the process requires assigning a numerical value to each response to obtain quantitative data. Qualitative interviews have similar closed-ended questions for all respondents.

5️⃣ Design Thinking Research

Design thinking is a data collection method focusing on brainstorming with participants to obtain unique ideas or resolutions to existing research problems. For example, when writing a case study, managers may use this method to receive possible solutions from their employees regarding an existing conflict situation. Design thinking sessions may be face-to-face or virtual, depending on specific locations of respondents and investigators. As a result, design thinking leads to qualitative data regarding the subject of interest.

Presenting a Perfect Case Study in 10 Sections

I. introduction and background in a case study.

A case study’s introduction and background section should have a hook and an attention-getter to capture the reader’s attention. For example, a college essay introduction determines whether readers can sacrifice their time to read the information presented. This paragraph should summarize the main ideas regarding the research topic. Other important details include writing a thesis statement , which includes the main concepts presented in a case study.

II. Parties Involved

When writing case studies, authors should describe the main participants involved in a scenario with its methodology and research method. Starting from a topic sentence , this section should reveal the relationship between participants and other key aspects. In addition, information regarding the methods used to identify participants is necessary since it improves the quality of the evidence presented. This section helps to determine how the key parties’ relationship influences the outcomes.

III. Problem

Authors of case studies should provide a clear explanation of the problem under investigation. For example, each case study should have a unique situation with several possible solutions. A clear problem description sets the stage for understanding the researcher’s key objectives for writing a case study. In turn, the research problem should be feasible with possible solutions related to identified subjects.

IV. Possible Solutions

A good case study should present at least one possible solution to the identified problem. The relationship between subjects and other key aspects should lead to a practical solution. Moreover, researchers should justify why identified solutions are applicable. Hence, the answer should be viable within the identified scope.

V. Discussion

One should provide a comprehensive discussion on the choices’ validity. Constructive discussions are necessary to provide additional research information to make essential interpretations. Readers should rely on the discourse to appreciate that proposed solutions are valid in addressing the identified research problem sufficiently. Researchers should avoid vague and misleading arguments when writing a case study.

VI. Alternative Solutions

For writing this section, authors should describe alternative solutions relating to a particular case study. For example, a viable statement should have multiple solutions, each with unique benefits or problems. On the other hand, the target audience should be able to evaluate alternative solutions to research issues identified. This approach allows readers to determine the effectiveness of the identified solution. Besides, each person may have independent and valid opinions on why some solutions are more reasonable than others.

VII. Limitations

Practical solutions have possible setbacks during their implementation. Researchers should identify potential problems associated with their findings or case studies. Including limitations to identified solutions reveals the ability to apply critical thinking in determining the most applicable solutions. However, potential problems should be realistic and functional within each case study’s research scope.

VIII. Action Plan

The action plan entails the steps that companies, parties, or other stakeholders should take to address the problem. For example, practical solutions are achievable when executing using the necessary steps. The action plan should entail chronological execution steps that lead to desired outcomes. Readers should follow through with the proposed action plan to understand how they lead to the intended results.

IX. Outcome

Good case studies should include the anticipated or realized outcomes. People present their focus on enlightening the audience on effective ways to address existing research problems. In this case, appropriate investigations should consist of plausible results that align with study objectives. For instance, one should explain the outcomes realized from an adopted solution.

X. Conclusion

When all sections of a case study are written, scholars need to end their papers with good conclusion examples . This last paragraph is needed since any problem, solution, outcome, limitation, or action must lead to a specific conclusion. Hence, people need to provide a summary of all sections in their final paragraph of a case study.

Note: Some sections can be skipped, depending on assignment requirements and case study length.

Creating a Correct Case Study Outline

The outline of a case study should contain the main points presented in chronological order. Writers need to cover only significant issues in essay outline . Besides, they include supporting evidence to support the main points. In turn, one should create a clear thesis statement from the identified main issues, which should appear at the beginning of essay structure . The effective thesis statement must capture the reader’s attention and provide a general topic overview.

Other Design Features for Writing a Case Study

Case studies should have a formal tone and key ideas presented chronologically. The introduction should have an attention-getter and a thesis statement. Each paragraph should begin with a justifiable claim, followed by supporting evidence and transitioning statement. In practice, each section should dwell on one idea. However, authors should avoid complex, unclear terms that may obstruct the intended meaning. Hence, they should avoid unnecessary repetitions when presenting research information and writing a case study.

Difference From Writing and Overall Structure of a Client’s Case Study

Writing a case study for a client would differ because it should involve the client’s description. For example, the writer must accurately describe the client’s company under analysis when writing a business case study. Although employees may participate in providing the correct information and evidence, one should provide detailed and accurate company’s descriptions. Other important sections include an introduction to the existing problems, desired resolution plan, progress, and results.

Summing Up on How to Write a Good Case Study

Writing a case study is essential in developing a deeper understanding of different concepts. Basically, these papers must have a clear description of individuals, groups, events, or institutions, while scholars must focus on some aspects of the actions under analysis. In this case, they mix different types of evidence, providing readers with essential details. These research works are process-oriented and describe how vital concepts came into existence. In turn, people must learn about how to write a good case study because they gain skills to process descriptive information. As a result, they gain valid experience to design a good hypothesis based on increased knowledge of different concepts.

• A case study is a detailed exploration of a unique subject, individual, community, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon.
• The basic writing format of a case study should include an introduction with a thesis statement, an analysis of an existing problem, recommendations, a discussion, an identification of alternative solutions, limitations, an action plan, outcomes, and a conclusion.
• All case studies should follow a similar structure regardless of their area of study.
• Students can use different data collection methods in their research, including but not limited to observation, survey, focus group, interview, and design thinking.

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• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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The case study approach

Sarah crowe.

1 Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Kathrin Cresswell

2 Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Ann Robertson

3 School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Anthony Avery

Aziz sheikh.

The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach. The paper concludes with key pointers to aid those designing and appraising proposals for conducting case study research, and a checklist to help readers assess the quality of case study reports.

Introduction

The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Our aim in writing this piece is to provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of case studies.

The illustrative 'grand round', 'case report' and 'case series' have a long tradition in clinical practice and research. Presenting detailed critiques, typically of one or more patients, aims to provide insights into aspects of the clinical case and, in doing so, illustrate broader lessons that may be learnt. In research, the conceptually-related case study approach can be used, for example, to describe in detail a patient's episode of care, explore professional attitudes to and experiences of a new policy initiative or service development or more generally to 'investigate contemporary phenomena within its real-life context' [ 1 ]. Based on our experiences of conducting a range of case studies, we reflect on when to consider using this approach, discuss the key steps involved and illustrate, with examples, some of the practical challenges of attaining an in-depth understanding of a 'case' as an integrated whole. In keeping with previously published work, we acknowledge the importance of theory to underpin the design, selection, conduct and interpretation of case studies[ 2 ]. In so doing, we make passing reference to the different epistemological approaches used in case study research by key theoreticians and methodologists in this field of enquiry.

This paper is structured around the following main questions: What is a case study? What are case studies used for? How are case studies conducted? What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided? We draw in particular on four of our own recently published examples of case studies (see Tables ​ Tables1, 1 , ​ ,2, 2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4) 4 ) and those of others to illustrate our discussion[ 3 - 7 ].

Example of a case study investigating the reasons for differences in recruitment rates of minority ethnic people in asthma research[ 3 ]

Example of a case study investigating the process of planning and implementing a service in Primary Care Organisations[ 4 ]

Example of a case study investigating the introduction of the electronic health records[ 5 ]

Example of a case study investigating the formal and informal ways students learn about patient safety[ 6 ]

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table ​ (Table5), 5 ), the central tenet being the need to explore an event or phenomenon in depth and in its natural context. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design; this is in contrast to an "experimental" design (such as a randomised controlled trial) in which the investigator seeks to exert control over and manipulate the variable(s) of interest.

Definitions of a case study

Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study: intrinsic , instrumental and collective [ 8 ]. An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon, which distinguishes it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case (some of which may be better than others) to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon. The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular issue.

These are however not necessarily mutually exclusive categories. In the first of our examples (Table ​ (Table1), 1 ), we undertook an intrinsic case study to investigate the issue of recruitment of minority ethnic people into the specific context of asthma research studies, but it developed into a instrumental case study through seeking to understand the issue of recruitment of these marginalised populations more generally, generating a number of the findings that are potentially transferable to other disease contexts[ 3 ]. In contrast, the other three examples (see Tables ​ Tables2, 2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4) 4 ) employed collective case study designs to study the introduction of workforce reconfiguration in primary care, the implementation of electronic health records into hospitals, and to understand the ways in which healthcare students learn about patient safety considerations[ 4 - 6 ]. Although our study focusing on the introduction of General Practitioners with Specialist Interests (Table ​ (Table2) 2 ) was explicitly collective in design (four contrasting primary care organisations were studied), is was also instrumental in that this particular professional group was studied as an exemplar of the more general phenomenon of workforce redesign[ 4 ].

What are case studies used for?

According to Yin, case studies can be used to explain, describe or explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur[ 1 ]. These can, for example, help to understand and explain causal links and pathways resulting from a new policy initiative or service development (see Tables ​ Tables2 2 and ​ and3, 3 , for example)[ 1 ]. In contrast to experimental designs, which seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the environment (like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new drug to randomly selected individuals and then comparing outcomes with controls),[ 9 ] the case study approach lends itself well to capturing information on more explanatory ' how ', 'what' and ' why ' questions, such as ' how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground?'. The case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another. This in turn can help develop or refine theory, as shown in our study of the teaching of patient safety in undergraduate curricula (Table ​ (Table4 4 )[ 6 , 10 ]. Key questions to consider when selecting the most appropriate study design are whether it is desirable or indeed possible to undertake a formal experimental investigation in which individuals and/or organisations are allocated to an intervention or control arm? Or whether the wish is to obtain a more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more appropriately studied using a case study design.

Case studies may be approached in different ways depending on the epistemological standpoint of the researcher, that is, whether they take a critical (questioning one's own and others' assumptions), interpretivist (trying to understand individual and shared social meanings) or positivist approach (orientating towards the criteria of natural sciences, such as focusing on generalisability considerations) (Table ​ (Table6). 6 ). Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context of conducting health services research. Doolin has, for example, noted that in the context of undertaking interpretative case studies, researchers can usefully draw on a critical, reflective perspective which seeks to take into account the wider social and political environment that has shaped the case[ 11 ].

Example of epistemological approaches that may be used in case study research

How are case studies conducted?

Here, we focus on the main stages of research activity when planning and undertaking a case study; the crucial stages are: defining the case; selecting the case(s); collecting and analysing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings.

Defining the case

Carefully formulated research question(s), informed by the existing literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and setting(s), are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining the case[ 8 , 12 ]. Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study (i.e. its scope, beginning and end), the relevant social group, organisation or geographical area of interest to the investigator, the types of evidence to be collected, and the priorities for data collection and analysis (see Table ​ Table7 7 )[ 1 ]. A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical contexts and behaviours; using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation of, for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed[ 13 ].

Example of a checklist for rating a case study proposal[ 8 ]

For example, in our evaluation of the introduction of electronic health records in English hospitals (Table ​ (Table3), 3 ), we defined our cases as the NHS Trusts that were receiving the new technology[ 5 ]. Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However, if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently as a grouping of healthcare professionals (e.g. doctors and/or nurses). The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to define. Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the gathered data and the resources available to the research team.

Selecting the case(s)

The decision on how to select the case(s) to study is a very important one that merits some reflection. In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits[ 8 ]. The case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the researchers. This was, for example, the case in our study of the recruitment of minority ethnic participants into asthma research (Table ​ (Table1) 1 ) as our earlier work had demonstrated the marginalisation of minority ethnic people with asthma, despite evidence of disproportionate asthma morbidity[ 14 , 15 ]. In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al.[ 16 ] studied an elderly married couple living with dementia to explore how dementia had impacted on their understanding of home, their everyday life and their relationships.

For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case can work well[ 8 ]. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the particular case which is chosen is of less importance than selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an issue or phenomenon. For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors' responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one NHS acute hospital trust[ 17 ]. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory.

In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. This offers the advantage of allowing comparisons to be made across several cases and/or replication. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory (i.e. analytical generalisation) or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case (i.e. replication logic)[ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications (i.e. predicting similar results) if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations.

The selected case study site(s) should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site(s) well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question(s). Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. For example, our selection of case study sites in the evaluation of the implementation and adoption of electronic health record systems (see Table ​ Table3) 3 ) was heavily influenced by NHS Connecting for Health, the government agency that was responsible for overseeing the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT)[ 5 ]. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites (through a competitive bidding process) to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.

It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who (or the site(s) which) comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study (e.g. the risk of inadvertently breaching anonymity or confidentiality) and to ensure that potential participants/participating sites are provided with sufficient information to make an informed choice about joining the study. The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation.

In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ]. We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation. Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites.

Collecting the data

In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative (e.g. questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data) and more commonly qualitative techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations). The use of multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question)[ 8 , 18 - 21 ]. An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different angles can help develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon (Table ​ (Table2 2 )[ 4 ].

Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone.

In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed (e.g. the nature of different cancer care programmes), before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons (e.g. to explore why one programme is more effective than another). It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth.

Analysing, interpreting and reporting case studies

Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data (whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative) is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases. Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ]. Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package.

The Framework approach is a practical approach, comprising of five stages (familiarisation; identifying a thematic framework; indexing; charting; mapping and interpretation) , to managing and analysing large datasets particularly if time is limited, as was the case in our study of recruitment of South Asians into asthma research (Table ​ (Table1 1 )[ 3 , 24 ]. Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating different sources of data and examining emerging themes. For example, we drew on a socio-technical framework to help explain the connections between different elements - technology; people; and the organisational settings within which they worked - in our study of the introduction of electronic health record systems (Table ​ (Table3 3 )[ 5 ]. Our study of patient safety in undergraduate curricula drew on an evaluation-based approach to design and analysis, which emphasised the importance of the academic, organisational and practice contexts through which students learn (Table ​ (Table4 4 )[ 6 ].

Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and theory testing. They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical (as opposed to statistical) generalisation beyond the particular cases studied[ 12 ]. These theoretical lenses should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be "forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed.

When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases. Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and individual participants (if agreed in advance) by allocating appropriate codes or withholding descriptors. In the example given in Table ​ Table3, 3 , we decided against providing detailed information on the NHS sites and individual participants in order to avoid the risk of inadvertent disclosure of identities[ 5 , 25 ].

What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided?

The case study approach is, as with all research, not without its limitations. When investigating the formal and informal ways undergraduate students learn about patient safety (Table ​ (Table4), 4 ), for example, we rapidly accumulated a large quantity of data. The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources. This highlights a more general point of the importance of avoiding the temptation to collect as much data as possible; adequate time also needs to be set aside for data analysis and interpretation of what are often highly complex datasets.

Case study research has sometimes been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalisation (i.e. producing findings that may be transferable to other settings)[ 1 ]. There are several ways to address these concerns, including: the use of theoretical sampling (i.e. drawing on a particular conceptual framework); respondent validation (i.e. participants checking emerging findings and the researcher's interpretation, and providing an opinion as to whether they feel these are accurate); and transparency throughout the research process (see Table ​ Table8 8 )[ 8 , 18 - 21 , 23 , 26 ]. Transparency can be achieved by describing in detail the steps involved in case selection, data collection, the reasons for the particular methods chosen, and the researcher's background and level of involvement (i.e. being explicit about how the researcher has influenced data collection and interpretation). Seeking potential, alternative explanations, and being explicit about how interpretations and conclusions were reached, help readers to judge the trustworthiness of the case study report. Stake provides a critique checklist for a case study report (Table ​ (Table9 9 )[ 8 ].

Potential pitfalls and mitigating actions when undertaking case study research

Stake's checklist for assessing the quality of a case study report[ 8 ]

Conclusions

The case study approach allows, amongst other things, critical events, interventions, policy developments and programme-based service reforms to be studied in detail in a real-life context. It should therefore be considered when an experimental design is either inappropriate to answer the research questions posed or impossible to undertake. Considering the frequency with which implementations of innovations are now taking place in healthcare settings and how well the case study approach lends itself to in-depth, complex health service research, we believe this approach should be more widely considered by researchers. Though inherently challenging, the research case study can, if carefully conceptualised and thoughtfully undertaken and reported, yield powerful insights into many important aspects of health and healthcare delivery.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

AS conceived this article. SC, KC and AR wrote this paper with GH, AA and AS all commenting on various drafts. SC and AS are guarantors.

Pre-publication history

The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/11/100/prepub

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the participants and colleagues who contributed to the individual case studies that we have drawn on. This work received no direct funding, but it has been informed by projects funded by Asthma UK, the NHS Service Delivery Organisation, NHS Connecting for Health Evaluation Programme, and Patient Safety Research Portfolio. We would also like to thank the expert reviewers for their insightful and constructive feedback. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Allison Worth who commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

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Top 6 Types Of Case Study And Its Features And Methods

Published by positive words research on march 19, 2019 march 19, 2019.

Before we can talk about types of case study and the features, we have to know- what is a case study?  It is a method of research that uses a well-detailed, thorough and exhaustive examination of the subject matter at hand and its condition as at that time.  A case study is a form of research that is why it is called case study research.

There are different types of studies for different sets of researchers, and each has a different case study format. It is usually a learning tool for Teachers, historians, social workers, etc. the researcher recognizes definite problems by thorough investigation and several discussions on the issue in question . They are then able to identify the key contributors and aggravating situations.

Case Study Structure

By virtue of its Nature and for you to know how to write a case study you have to pay attention to structure. Every form of writing must have a structure for it to be considered as organized. Generally, it is divided into:

In this article, we will help you to learn more about case study writing by discussing the types and its features.

6 Types of Case Study

1. historical case study.

This method involves the observation of the advancement of a particular concept over a period of time. It is an all-inclusive analysis and report from a historical angle. Most times professional case study writing service makes use of this method in order to give a case study help acasestudy.com is a good place to check for such.  This method pays attention to dates and timeline in relation to presently occurring situations and occurrences.

2. Observational Case Study

Using this method, data is gathered by participant observation which is then augmented by formal or informal interview. A good example would be observing workers in the staff break room within a company.  In this case, the researcher can choose to observe some group of persons and their interaction with certain concepts and ideologies in order to gather data about the subject.

3. Illustrative case studies

This is a form of descriptive learning that uses one or more occurrences of an event to demonstrate the situation at hand. The aim is to give the readers an in-depth common idea about the topic being treated. When writing such a case study , the idea is to have whoever reads it inclined to the common understanding of the topic.

Most times, these studies are very objective such that they do not require a lot of interpretation. They rarely involve humans because when it does several variables come into play concerning that subject matter.

4. Exploratory or pilot case studies

This is a summarized method done before executing a full-scale investigation. The main reason for this type of study is to assist in classifying questions and choose measurement parameters before the actual investigation. However, if you are not careful, you may be tempted to make a premature conclusion based on the initial summary.

Usually, the goal is to show that more investigations will be required and considered necessary. It is very popular in psychological fields.  For example, some psychologists may decide to do a study of troupers that come home after active combat. Although the end goal is to identify the causes of PTSD, however at the very beginning attention may be put on the veterans themselves to establish PTSD.

5. Cumulative case studies

This is used to gather information put together by different sites at different times, in order to come up with a single body of information which makes it hot to write. The aim of these studies usually is to gather the information from these past studies and form a greater, concrete overview of the topic in question without going through the rigours of extra costs or time being used on fresh studies.

An example here would be a case where a researcher decides not only to study the Vietnam veterans, but also the ones from world war 2 and the Persian Gulf veterans. By this, the researcher is able to give a collective study on the concept as a whole and not fixating on just one place at one time.

6. Critical instance case studies

This method is used mostly to question existing generalizations or extensive claims about concepts. The aim here is to look into two or more findings and examine the situation without forming any generalization. Instead, each situation is considered uniquely. 

Case studies are very important especially in the world of academia, it assists in the world of making new discoveries and improving the old one. They can also be used in almost any field or discipline and most times they do not occur in isolation. You can check online for some case study examples if you need to see practical samples of these, there are a lot of them.

Positive Words Research – Types Of Case Study And Its Features

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Case Study – Guide with Definition, Types & Examples

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Case studies are used in different types of research for describing, evaluating and comparing different variables in a research problem. This approach allows researchers to gather comprehensive, multifaceted data about complex real-world situations through various sources such as interviews, observations, and document review.

A well-formulated case study guides the process and methodology of research.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Case Study – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Case Study
• 3 Types of case studies
• 4 When to perform a case study
• 5 Case Study: Step-by-step
• 6 Benefits and limitations of a case study

Case Study – In a Nutshell

• Case studies can capture several perspectives or a single focus, depending on the scope of the study.
• Researchers use case studies as a standalone approach or as part of a more extensive study.
• Case studies contribute to the body of knowledge by exploring new focus points and questioning existing theories.

Definition: Case Study

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular phenomenon, subject or group. The study usually employs qualitative methods, although quantitative analysis may be used to measure the relationship between some variables. Case studies document every aspect of the target group or phenomenon to achieve a granular understanding through research.

Types of case studies

There are 6 types of case studies in research. These are:

• Illustrative – It is used to study a known phenomenon to make it easier to understand. It is one of the primary case studies which utilizes a descriptive approach to explain a phenomenon using one or more scenarios.
• Exploratory – It is an initial study conducted before the main study. Exploratory researches are used in social sciences and focus on real-life scenarios. They are conducted to help in the formulation of research questions for complex studies.
• Cumulative – It is primarily used in qualitative research . It can be classified as a type of data analysis. The purpose of the case study is to analyze information from existing sources to gain insights into a research problem.
• Critical instance – It evaluates an event’s cause and effect. A critical case study investigates one or two instances to understand one occurrence rather than generalizing the situation. The case study can also be deployed to cross-examine a universal opinion.
• Descriptive – You can use a descriptive research to build on a hypothesis. It may be used in quantitative research to ascertain relationships between a theory and the subject of a research project.
• Intrinsic – Mainly focuses on a single subject to understand their interaction with factors around them. It is often used in psychology and healthcare research to study individuals and their unique characteristics.

Case studies can be summarized into 3 main groups for general understanding. These are:

• Intrinsic studies to examine unique phenomena or individuals
• Instrumental case studies to study individuals to understand a broader topic
• Collective case studies to investigate multiple cases concurrently.

When to perform a case study

A case study is the right research design for examining and gaining precise, contextual insights about a real-world problem or scenario. It gives researchers a method of studying the main characteristics, definitions and inferences about a case.

They are appropriate for thesis and dissertations as they narrow the focus of a project. This helps to anchor the research and save time and resources by focusing on fewer variables.

Researchers may use a single in-depth case study when investigating one subject. However, several case studies may be conducted simultaneously to draw comparisons from various variables in the research problem.

Examples of research questions and their corresponding case studies:

Case Study: Step-by-step

We can break down the main steps as follows:

Step 1: Select a case

The research questions and the problem statement should present several potential cases. Choose a specific focus to ground your research. The case study should be able to:

• Offer new insights about the subject.
• Question or critique existing notions and assumptions.
• Suggest practical approaches to solve a problem.
• Propose new approaches for research in the future.

Case studies usually focus on outliers rather than deliberate sampling techniques. Thus, they often do not require representative or random samples before research.

Step 2: Build a theoretical framework

Case studies overlook general theories in favor of specific details. However, they should have some relationship with an existing theory so that the research findings contribute to the current understanding of the research subject. A theoretical framework can be used to:

• Challenge an existing theory by investigating deviance that is not considered in the universal assumptions.
• Expand on established theories by proposing new ideas that should be included.
• Exemplify a given theory by showing the relationship between the case and the theory.
• Researchers develop a theoretical framework after a literature review of relevant sources to achieve academic credibility by considering the main theories in conducting analysis.

Step 3: Collect your data

There are various research methods used in the collection of quantitative and qualitative data. Case studies are more concerned with qualitative data from interviews, examination of different literary sources and observation, although some quantitative methods can be used where necessary.

Step 4: Describe and analyze the case

You need to provide a detailed picture of the research subject by proposing a case study that incorporates the main aspects of the study. Researchers can format their findings in a thesis structure with clear sections to draw attention to analysis methods, findings and discourse.

Some case studies can be outlined in narrative prose to delve into the concepts from different perspectives and explain the definitions and consequences. Regardless of the method of presentation, it is essential to provide context and create a link between the case and the literature used in its study.

Benefits and limitations of a case study

Some of the pros and cons of case studies include:

What is a case study in research?

A case study is an in-depth investigation of a research subject, individual, or group. It is a focused research method that analyzes the causes and consequences of a determined phenomenon.

What is the importance of a theoretical framework in a case study?

A theoretical framework highlights the relevant concepts in a research theory to guide the study. It also informs the literature review process of existing primary and secondary sources of information.

When should a case study be conducted?

A case study is used to examine real-world situations. Researchers formulate case studies to identify and investigate real scenarios using existing sources and research problems that aim to study outliers of a research subject.

Where are case studies used?

Case studies are deployed in social sciences and fields such as psychology and healthcare research. They are used to provide focused conclusions in complex research problems.

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Case Study Method Definition, Characteristics, Stages & Sources

Introduction case study method of data collection.

The credit of introducing case study method  goes to Frederic Leplay, an English philosopher. Herbert Spencer adopted it and Healey was the first who supported this method and studied Juvenile Delinquency. Later on sociologists, Anthropologists, Ethnologists and other researcher were interested in the study of various cultures by case study method.

Meaning of Case Study

A case study is a comprehensive study of a social unit of society, which may be a person, family group, institution, community or event. A case study focuses attention on a single unit thoroughly. The aim is that to find out the influencing factors of a social unit and the relationship between these factors and a social unit.

Definitions of Case Study Method

• P.V. Young. Case study is a comprehensive study of a social unit, be it a person, a group of persons, an institution, a community or a family.
• Groode and Hatt. it is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit.
• C.H. Cooley. Case study depends our perception and gives clear insight into life directory.
• Johoda. Case study is a small inclusive and intensive study of an individual in which investigators brings to bear their skills and method.

Keeping the above definitions in view we conclude that case study is a method of studying a social unit and its aspects deeply and thoroughly.

Characteristics of Case Study

Following are the characteristics

• The number of unit to be studied is small.
• It studies a social unit deeply and thoroughly.
• It is qualitative as well as quantitative.
• It covers sufficient wide cycle of time.
• It has continuity in nature.

Stages in a Case Study Method of Data Collection

The techniques and processes of a case study method are given as following.

• Choice of a case or selection of a problem.
• Description of the events.
• Factors influencing study.
• Data processing.
• Data recording.

Sources of Data for Case Study

• Personal documents, viz diaries, memories, autobiographies, letters etc of the researcher.
• Qualification and interest of the researcher.
• Life history of the respondents.
• Motives and objectives of the study.

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Big 3 with dean h. rao unnava: march 2024.

New Undergrad Business Major | Barbie Brand Valuation in Financial Times | Students Excel in Global Competitions

• March 26, 2024
• H. Rao Unnava

Dean H. Rao Unnava's March 2024 edition of the Big 3 features:

New Undergrad Business Major to Start in Fall 2025 Led by the Graduate School of Management, the business major will be anchored in math, statistics and economics and also build a pathway for future Aggies to pursue advanced management degrees at UC Davis.  Learn more >

MBA Student Success at Global Competitions UC Davis MBA teams reached the semifinals of three global case competitions focused on finance, sustainability and digital marketing: the Global Investment Banking Competition, the Net Impact Case Competition and the Adobe Analytics Challenge.  Read student's blog >

Barbie Buzz and Brand Value. Is It Real? As the iconic doll celebrated its 65th anniversary, Barbie mania swept the globe. At UC Davis, MBA alumna and lecturer Vanessa Errecarte seized upon the movie's success to develop a teaching case study on IP rebranding and brand valuation. Financial Times published her article right before the Oscars.  Read Financial Times article >

• New undergraduate Business Major.
• Students excel in global business competitions.
• Barbie movie buzz and brand value.

Welcome to the March 2024 edition of the Big 3 video newsletter.

New Bachelor of Science in Business at UC Davis

For many years, we have been asked if UC Davis offers a business major in the undergraduate program. Now we can finally say, “yes”.

We are proud to announce a groundbreaking undergraduate business major to start in the fall of 2025. Decades in the making, the major is a first of its kind partnership at UC Davis between the Graduate School of Management, College of Letters and Science and College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences.

Led by the Graduate School of Management, the business major will be anchored in math, statistics and economics, while building competencies in fundamental areas of business. The major also will be a pathway for future Aggies to pursue advanced degrees at UC Davis, including a Master of Management, Master of Professional Accountancy or Master of Science in Business Analytics.

MBA Student Reach Semis of Three Global Competitions

We are thrilled with the remarkable success of UC Davis students in recent international business competitions.

The Global Investment Banking Competition is the world's largest of its kind, for university students. This year’s case has focused on analyzing the market positioning and strategic initiatives of the beverage company, Diageo. Our MBA student team of Min Zhu, Minh Nguyen, and Nam Nguyen joined the top 15%, or 72 of 500+ teams that advanced to the final round in Vancouver in mid-March.

Earlier this month. A team of Full-Time MBA students was among the top 20 at the Net Impact Case competition hosted by the University of Colorado School of Business.

The MBA competition focused on solving real world sustainability business cases. Fortune 500 company Arrow Electronics sponsored the competition. Teams were tasked to formulate a strategy for Arrow Electronics biodiversity initiatives in conjunction with its environmental, social and governance, ESG, goals. Our student’s participation underscores UC Davis commitment to sustainability and responsible business practices.

Meanwhile, a trio of Master of Science and Business Analytics students distinguished themselves among the top 20 semifinalists in the annual Adobe Analytics Challenge. This prestigious competition attracted over 2000 teams from around the world, providing students with a platform to showcase their skills in digital marketing and analytics.

Barbie Buzz and Brand Value: Is It Real?

Did you catch that rendition of the “I’m Just Ken” during the Academy Awards? The performance capped the amazing success of the Barbie movie. The film shattered Box Office records grossing $1.5 billion worldwide, earned critical acclaim and an Oscar nomination for Best Picture.

As the iconic doll celebrated its 65th anniversary, Barbie mania struck the globe, captivating audiences of all ages. Here at UC Davis, MBA alumna and lecturer, Vanessa Errecarte, seized upon the success of the Barbie movie as an opportunity to develop a teaching case study.

On the eve of the Oscars, the Financial Times published her article, titled: “Barbie buzz and brand value. Is it real?” She examines the implications for intellectual property rebranding and the role of the digital ecosystem in adding brand value.

Vanessa's insights have sparked discussions among students and industry professionals alike, prompting a reevaluation of traditional brand valuation models and emphasizing the importance of connecting digital metrics with financial performance.

Vanessa demonstrates the potential for intellectual property rebrands to generate substantial returns without the need for extensive design or product innovations.

Thank you for watching this month's Big 3.

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The Effects of Climate Change

The effects of human-caused global warming are happening now, are irreversible for people alive today, and will worsen as long as humans add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

• We already see effects scientists predicted, such as the loss of sea ice, melting glaciers and ice sheets, sea level rise, and more intense heat waves.
• Scientists predict global temperature increases from human-made greenhouse gases will continue. Severe weather damage will also increase and intensify.

Earth Will Continue to Warm and the Effects Will Be Profound

Global climate change is not a future problem. Changes to Earth’s climate driven by increased human emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases are already having widespread effects on the environment: glaciers and ice sheets are shrinking, river and lake ice is breaking up earlier, plant and animal geographic ranges are shifting, and plants and trees are blooming sooner.

Effects that scientists had long predicted would result from global climate change are now occurring, such as sea ice loss, accelerated sea level rise, and longer, more intense heat waves.

The magnitude and rate of climate change and associated risks depend strongly on near-term mitigation and adaptation actions, and projected adverse impacts and related losses and damages escalate with every increment of global warming.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Some changes (such as droughts, wildfires, and extreme rainfall) are happening faster than scientists previously assessed. In fact, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) — the United Nations body established to assess the science related to climate change — modern humans have never before seen the observed changes in our global climate, and some of these changes are irreversible over the next hundreds to thousands of years.

Scientists have high confidence that global temperatures will continue to rise for many decades, mainly due to greenhouse gases produced by human activities.

The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment report, published in 2021, found that human emissions of heat-trapping gases have already warmed the climate by nearly 2 degrees Fahrenheit (1.1 degrees Celsius) since 1850-1900. 1 The global average temperature is expected to reach or exceed 1.5 degrees C (about 3 degrees F) within the next few decades. These changes will affect all regions of Earth.

The severity of effects caused by climate change will depend on the path of future human activities. More greenhouse gas emissions will lead to more climate extremes and widespread damaging effects across our planet. However, those future effects depend on the total amount of carbon dioxide we emit. So, if we can reduce emissions, we may avoid some of the worst effects.

The scientific evidence is unequivocal: climate change is a threat to human wellbeing and the health of the planet. Any further delay in concerted global action will miss the brief, rapidly closing window to secure a liveable future.

Here are some of the expected effects of global climate change on the United States, according to the Third and Fourth National Climate Assessment Reports:

Future effects of global climate change in the United States:

U.S. Sea Level Likely to Rise 1 to 6.6 Feet by 2100

Global sea level has risen about 8 inches (0.2 meters) since reliable record-keeping began in 1880. By 2100, scientists project that it will rise at least another foot (0.3 meters), but possibly as high as 6.6 feet (2 meters) in a high-emissions scenario. Sea level is rising because of added water from melting land ice and the expansion of seawater as it warms. Image credit: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0

Climate Changes Will Continue Through This Century and Beyond

Global climate is projected to continue warming over this century and beyond. Image credit: Khagani Hasanov, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Hurricanes Will Become Stronger and More Intense

Scientists project that hurricane-associated storm intensity and rainfall rates will increase as the climate continues to warm. Image credit: NASA

More Droughts and Heat Waves

Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves (periods of abnormally hot weather lasting days to weeks) are projected to become more intense, and cold waves less intense and less frequent. Image credit: NOAA

Longer Wildfire Season

Warming temperatures have extended and intensified wildfire season in the West, where long-term drought in the region has heightened the risk of fires. Scientists estimate that human-caused climate change has already doubled the area of forest burned in recent decades. By around 2050, the amount of land consumed by wildfires in Western states is projected to further increase by two to six times. Even in traditionally rainy regions like the Southeast, wildfires are projected to increase by about 30%.

Changes in Precipitation Patterns

Climate change is having an uneven effect on precipitation (rain and snow) in the United States, with some locations experiencing increased precipitation and flooding, while others suffer from drought. On average, more winter and spring precipitation is projected for the northern United States, and less for the Southwest, over this century. Image credit: Marvin Nauman/FEMA

Frost-Free Season (and Growing Season) will Lengthen

The length of the frost-free season, and the corresponding growing season, has been increasing since the 1980s, with the largest increases occurring in the western United States. Across the United States, the growing season is projected to continue to lengthen, which will affect ecosystems and agriculture.

Global Temperatures Will Continue to Rise

Summer of 2023 was Earth's hottest summer on record, 0.41 degrees Fahrenheit (F) (0.23 degrees Celsius (C)) warmer than any other summer in NASA’s record and 2.1 degrees F (1.2 C) warmer than the average summer between 1951 and 1980. Image credit: NASA

Arctic Is Very Likely to Become Ice-Free

Sea ice cover in the Arctic Ocean is expected to continue decreasing, and the Arctic Ocean will very likely become essentially ice-free in late summer if current projections hold. This change is expected to occur before mid-century.

U.S. Regional Effects

Climate change is bringing different types of challenges to each region of the country. Some of the current and future impacts are summarized below. These findings are from the Third 3 and Fourth 4 National Climate Assessment Reports, released by the U.S. Global Change Research Program .

• Northeast. Heat waves, heavy downpours, and sea level rise pose increasing challenges to many aspects of life in the Northeast. Infrastructure, agriculture, fisheries, and ecosystems will be increasingly compromised. Farmers can explore new crop options, but these adaptations are not cost- or risk-free. Moreover, adaptive capacity , which varies throughout the region, could be overwhelmed by a changing climate. Many states and cities are beginning to incorporate climate change into their planning.
• Northwest. Changes in the timing of peak flows in rivers and streams are reducing water supplies and worsening competing demands for water. Sea level rise, erosion, flooding, risks to infrastructure, and increasing ocean acidity pose major threats. Increasing wildfire incidence and severity, heat waves, insect outbreaks, and tree diseases are causing widespread forest die-off.
• Southeast. Sea level rise poses widespread and continuing threats to the region’s economy and environment. Extreme heat will affect health, energy, agriculture, and more. Decreased water availability will have economic and environmental impacts.
• Midwest. Extreme heat, heavy downpours, and flooding will affect infrastructure, health, agriculture, forestry, transportation, air and water quality, and more. Climate change will also worsen a range of risks to the Great Lakes.
• Southwest. Climate change has caused increased heat, drought, and insect outbreaks. In turn, these changes have made wildfires more numerous and severe. The warming climate has also caused a decline in water supplies, reduced agricultural yields, and triggered heat-related health impacts in cities. In coastal areas, flooding and erosion are additional concerns.

1. IPCC 2021, Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis , the Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

2. IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

3. USGCRP 2014, Third Climate Assessment .

4. USGCRP 2017, Fourth Climate Assessment .

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A Degree of Difference

So, the Earth's average temperature has increased about 2 degrees Fahrenheit during the 20th century. What's the big deal?

What’s the difference between climate change and global warming?

“Global warming” refers to the long-term warming of the planet. “Climate change” encompasses global warming, but refers to the broader range of changes that are happening to our planet, including rising sea levels; shrinking mountain glaciers; accelerating ice melt in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic; and shifts in flower/plant blooming times.

Is it too late to prevent climate change?

Humans have caused major climate changes to happen already, and we have set in motion more changes still. However, if we stopped emitting greenhouse gases today, the rise in global temperatures would begin to flatten within a few years. Temperatures would then plateau but remain well-elevated for many, many centuries.

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Mass movement susceptibility: the case study of Tongo-Gadima landslide, East Cameroon

• Original Paper
• Published: 28 March 2024
• Volume 17 , article number  140 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

• Kouayep Lawou Sylvain   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4729-4224 1 ,
• Samba Assomo Philippe 1 ,
• Michel Rodrigue Oscar Kenmoe 2 ,
• Bombey Quinta 1 &
• Kamgang Kabeyene Beyala Veronique 3  

The causes of mass movement, which occurred on the 5 th October 2021 at Tongo-Gadima and damage grouting drainage infrastructure of the national road, are examined in this paper, in order to set up the novel procedure for investigating landslide in an area with limited inventory geotechnical data. They are evaluated by estimating the annual precipitation on 12-year period and analyzing the relevant geotechnical parameters: water content, degree of saturation, consistency limits, grain size distribution, linear shear strength, uniaxial compressive strength, compressibility test on samples collected on the field in order to understand the behavior of lateritic soil exposed under rainfall as well as zonation of slopes. This investigation will, in turn, enable the stakeholders to implement appropriate mitigation measures across the landslide-induce area. The main characteristics such as concave slope, shallow slid surface occurrence, and rotational trend of Tongo-Gadima landslide were influenced by high annual rainfall reaching the average of 1540 mm. The zonation analysis identified steeping slope (> 20°) called escarpment landscape. High values of water content and degree of saturation induced the swelling behavior of unsaturated soil. It has high plasticity in the lower and median set made up of more than 30% fine clay. The internal friction angle and material cohesion showed poor characteristic 35° and 0.11 bar respectively. The low uniaxial compressive strength ranging between 1.77 and 7.87 MPa suggests that the complete meteoric weathering of rock and the C c /(1 + e 0 ) > 0.20 ratio confirms the very compressible property of soil. The evidence of thixotropic rheoliquefier pattern of the clay matric mixed with gravel and sand is detrimental when meteoric water infiltration transforms the material into landslide-prone mud under constraint. Poor drainage has considerably increased water saturation of clay particles in the prism of rupture and weak mechanical properties of soil have been at the origin of landslide in Tongo-Gadima. Instrumentation and monitoring of slope are the first action to be taken to mitigate landslide in the region.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like thank the board management of the National Civil Engineering Laboratory for the geotechnical analysis performed on soil samples and Mistress Feumba Jeanne for her financial support.

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Sylvain, K.L., Philippe, S.A., Kenmoe, M.R.O. et al. Mass movement susceptibility: the case study of Tongo-Gadima landslide, East Cameroon. Arab J Geosci 17 , 140 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-024-11938-z

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Received : 30 June 2023

Accepted : 14 March 2024

Published : 28 March 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-024-11938-z

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Revealing hidden diversity and community dynamics of land snails through dna barcoding: implications for conservation and ecological studies provisionally accepted.

• 1 Shahid Beheshti University, Iran
• 2 Research Institute of Environmental Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Iran

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

Land snails play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem sustainability within their habitats. Therefore, understanding the characteristics of their communities is vital for ecological studies and the development of effective conservation strategies. In this study, we employed DNA barcoding (COI marker) to identify land snails inhabiting the Hyrcanian forest. Furthermore, we examined the variations in their community composition along elevational gradients. Snail samples were collected from three distinct elevations in three different forest locations within the Hyrcanian area of Iran. Through our comprehensive analysis, we identified a total of 10 OTUs, which were further classified into seven families and nine genera. Five of these genera had never been reported in the study region before. By employing statistical analyses such as ANOVA and PERMANOVA, we determined significant differences in the features of snail communities across different elevations. We observed a decline in OTU richness with increasing elevation; however, the maximum abundance of snails was found at higher elevations. The unique climatic conditions and spatial distribution of precipitation from lowlands to highlands, as well as from west to east, make the Hyrcanian forests an ideal case study area for understanding the dynamics of land snail communities. In summary, this study provides new insights into the land snail communities thriving in the Hyrcanian forests. The findings from our research can contribute to the development of effective conservation management strategies for forest ecosystems. By understanding the factors influencing the distribution and composition of land snail communities, we can make informed decisions to protect and preserve land snails and the balance they maintain within their habitats.

Keywords: snail community composition, Elevational incline, OTU richness, Snail abundance, Soil physicochemical parameters, CCA

Received: 29 Oct 2023; Accepted: 29 Mar 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Mohammadi and Ahmadzadeh. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Faraham Ahmadzadeh, Research Institute of Environmental Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

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