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What is Logical Thinking? A Beginner's Guide 

What is Logical Thinking? A Beginner's Guide: Discover the essence of Logical Thinking in this detailed guide. Unveil its importance in problem-solving, decision-making, and analytical reasoning. Learn techniques to develop this crucial skill, understand common logical fallacies, and explore how Logical Thinking can be applied effectively in various aspects of life and work.

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Whether you're solving a complex problem, engaging in critical discussions, or just navigating your daily routines, Logical Thinking plays a pivotal role in ensuring that your thoughts and actions are rational and coherent. In this blog, we will discuss What is Logical Thinking in detail, its importance, and its components. You'll also learn about the various ways that make up Logical Thinking and how to develop this essential skill.    

Table of contents  

1)  Understanding Logical Thinking 

2)  Components of Logical Thinking 

3)  Why is Logical Thinking important? 

4)  What are Logical Thinking skills?   

5)  Developing Logical Thinking skills 

6)  Exercises to improve Logical Thinking 

7)  Conclusion 

Understanding Logical Thinking  

Logical Thinking is the capacity to employ reason and systematic processes to analyse information, establish connections, and reach well-founded conclusions. It entails a structured and rational approach to problem-solving and decision-making. 

For example, consider a scenario where you're presented with a puzzle. To logically think through it, you would assess the provided clues, break down the problem into smaller elements, and systematically find potential solutions. You'd avoid hasty or emotion-driven judgments and rely on evidence and sound reasoning to arrive at the correct answer, showcasing the essence of Logical Thinking in problem-solving.

C omponents of Logical Thinking  

After knowing What is Logic al Thinking, let’s move on to the key components of Logical Thinking. Logical Thinking comprises several key components that work together to facilitate reasoned analysis and problem-solving. Here are the following key components of Logical Thinking.  

1)  Deductive reasoning : Deductive reasoning involves drawing specific conclusions from general premises or facts. It's like moving from a broad idea to a more specific conclusion. For example, if all humans are mortal, and Socrates is a human, then you can logically conclude that Socrates is mortal. 

2)   I nductive reasoning : Inductive reasoning is the procedure of forming general conclusions based on specific observations or evidence. It's the opposite of deductive reasoning. For instance, if you observe that the sun has risen every day, you might inductively reason that the sun will rise again tomorrow.  

3)  Causal inference : Causal inference is the ability to identify cause-and-effect relationships between events, actions, or variables. It involves understanding that one event or action can lead to another event as a consequence . In essence, it's the recognition that a specific cause produces a particular effect.  

4)  Analogy : Analogical reasoning or analogy involves drawing similarities and making comparisons between two or more situations, objects, or concepts. It's a way of applying knowledge or understanding from one context to another by recognising shared features or characteristics. Analogical reasoning is powerful because it allows you to transfer what you know in one domain to another, making it easier to comprehend and solve new problems. 

Why is Logical Thinking Important?  

1)  Effective problem-solving : Logical Thinking equips individuals with the ability to dissect complex problems, identify patterns, and devise systematic solutions. Whether it's troubleshooting a technical issue or resolving personal dilemmas, Logical Thinking ensures that problems are approached with a structured and efficient methodology. 

2)  Enhanced decision-making : Making sound decisions is a cornerstone of success in both personal and professional life. Logical Thinking allows individuals to evaluate options, consider consequences, and choose the most rational course of action. This is particularly critical in high-stakes situations. 

3)   Critical thinking : Logical Thinking is at the core of critical thinking. It encourages individuals to question assumptions, seek evidence, and challenge existing beliefs. This capacity for critical analysis fosters a deeper understanding of complex issues and prevents the acceptance of unfounded or biased information. 

4)  Effective communication : In discussions and debates, Logical Thinking helps individuals express their ideas and viewpoints clearly and persuasively. It enables individuals to construct well-structured arguments, provide evidence, and counter opposing views, fostering productive and respectful communication. 

5)  Academic and professional success : Logical Thinking is highly valued in educational settings and the workplace. It allows students to excel academically by tackling challenging coursework and assignments. In the professional world, it's a key attribute for problem-solving, innovation, and career advancement. 

6)  Avoiding Logical fallacies : Logical Thinking equips individuals with the ability to recognise and avoid common logical fallacies such as circular reasoning, straw man arguments, and ad hominem attacks. This safeguards them from being deceived or manipulated by flawed or deceptive arguments. 

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What are Logical Thinking skills ?  

Logical Thinking skills are cognitive abilities that allow individuals to process information, analyse it systematically, and draw reasonable conclusions. These skills enable people to approach problems, decisions, and challenges with a structured and rational mindset .  

Developing Logical Thinking skills  

Developing strong Logical Thinking skills is essential for improved problem-solving, decision-making, and critical analysis. Here are some key strategies to help you enhance your Logical Thinking abilities.   

1)  Practice critical thinking : Engage in activities that require critical thinking, such as analysing articles, solving puzzles, or evaluating arguments. Regular practice sharpens your analytical skills.  

2)  L earn formal logic : Study the principles of formal logic, which provide a structured approach to reasoning. This can include topics like syllogisms, propositional logic, and predicate logic. 

3)  I dentify assumptions : When faced with a problem or argument, be aware of underlying assumptions. Question these assumptions and consider how they impact the overall reasoning. 

4)  B reak down problems : When tackling complex problems, break them down into smaller, more manageable components. Analyse each component individually before looking at the problem as a whole . 

5)   Seek diverse perspectives : Engage in discussions and debates with people who hold different viewpoints. This helps you consider a range of perspectives and strengthens your ability to construct and counter -arguments. 

6)  Read widely : Reading a variety of materials, from academic articles to literature, exposes you to different modes of reasoning and argumentation. This broadens your thinking and enhances your ability to connect ideas.  

7)  Solve puzzles and brain teasers : Engaging in puzzles, riddles, and brain teasers challenges your mind and encourages creative problem-solving. It's an enjoyable way to exercise your Logical Thinking. 

8)  Develop mathematical skills : Mathematics is a discipline that heavily relies on Logical Thinking. Learning and practising mathematical concepts and problem-solving techniques can significantly boost your logical reasoning skills. 

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Exercises to improve Logical Thinking  

Enhancing your Logical Thinking skills is achievable through various exercises and activities. Here are some practical exercises to help you strengthen your Logical Thinking abilities:  

1)   Sudoku puzzles : Solve Sudoku puzzles, as they require logical deduction to fill in the missing numbers.  

2)   Crossword puzzles : Crosswords challenge your vocabulary and logical word placement.  

3)  Brain teasers : Engage in brain teasers and riddles that encourage creative problem-solving.  

4)  Chess and board games : Play strategic board games like chess, checkers, or strategic video games that require forward thinking and planning.  

5)  Logical argumentation : Engage in debates or discussions where you must construct reasoned arguments and counter opposing viewpoints.  

6)  Coding and programming : Learn coding and programming languages which promote structured and Logical Thinking in problem-solving. 

7)  Mathematical challenges : Solve mathematical problems and equations, as mathematics is inherently logical.  

8)   Mensa puzzles : Work on Mensa puzzles, which are designed to test and strengthen Logical Thinking skills. 

9)  Logic games : Play logic-based games like Minesweeper or Mastermind.  

10)   Logical analogy exercises : Practice solving analogy exercises, which test your ability to find relationships between words or concepts.  

11)  Visual logic puzzles : Tackle visual logic puzzles like nonograms or logic grid puzzles. 

12)  Critical reading : Read books, articles, or academic papers and critically analyse the arguments and evidence presented. 

13)  Coding challenges : Participate in online coding challenges and competitions that require logical problem-solving in coding. 

14)  Scientific method : Conduct simple science experiments or projects, applying the scientific method to develop hypotheses and draw logical conclusions.  

15)   Poker or card games : Play card games like poker, where you must strategi se and make logical decisions based on probabilities and information. 

16)  Analyse real-world situations : Analyse real-world situations or news stories, evaluating the information, causes, and potential consequences. 

These exercises will help you practice and enhance your Logical Thinking skills in a fun and engaging way, making them an integral part of your problem-solving and decision-making toolkit. 

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Concluson  

In this blog, we have discussed What is Logical Thinking, its importance, its components and ways to improve this skill. When you learn how to think logically, you start gathering each and every information as much as possible, analyse the facts, and methodically choose the best way to go forward with your decision. Logical Thinking is considered the most important tool in brainstorming ideas, assessing issues and finding solutions. 

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How to Think Logically (And Permanently Solve Serious Problems)

Anthony Metivier | March 5, 2024 | Podcast , Thinking

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Yes, but not so fast.

You want to make sure you’re using the right kinds of logic for the problems at hand.

For example, you might need a non-classical logic instead of classical logic to approach a particular problem.

You see, logical thinkers do what I’m doing now:

They put the brakes on when they encounter problems and start to spin those problems around.

Why? Because logic itself often involves digging deeper and analyzing different perspectives.

For example, one of the forms of logical thinking you’re about to discover would have you instantly ask… 

Is there more than one kind of logic for solving life’s problems quickly? Or can I explore alternatives outside of logic? 

A logical thinker might do the same thing to the very idea of a “problem” itself.

This is done by “mentally rotating” the topic at hand and seeing how it might in fact not be a problem at all.

It might be a path to a solution. 

How to Think Logically: 9 Ways to Improve Your Logical Thinking Skills

At the end of the day, using the right form of logic is more about the best possible solution than the problem, but we do need to make sure we understand the problem first.

If you’ve listened to Elon Musk talk about first principles thinking, that’s a form of logic he’s using to help humans thrive on distant planets after earth dies. And communicate better here on our precious planet while we still can.

Those are real problems, and the right forms of logic are needed.

The best part?

There are a whole lot more ways to think logically to solve global and personal problems alike, so let’s get started 

One: Take A Deep Dive Into Logical Thinking

Improving logical reasoning begins by knowing the types of logic at your disposal.

Exploring the history of logic is well worth your time because it will help you see how humans discovered these principles and refined them over time through practice . 

As you’ll soon discover, many cultures have identified and used logical forms such as:

• Philosophical logic
• Informal logic
• Formal logic
• Modal logic
• Mathematical logic
• Paraconsistent logic
• Semantic logic
• Inferential logic
• Systematic logic

Related to this, you have the difference between what philosopher Elijah Millgram calls theoretical reasoning vs. practical reasoning. The first involves figuring out the facts, the second is the process of determining what courses of action to take based on what is ideally a set of accurate facts.

Now, usually what people who want to think more logically are actually after is the first category, or philosophical logic . This is also called “reasoning” and includes the skills of:

• Causal inference

Deductive reasoning is what we think of when we think of Sherlock Holmes , who builds his cases by arguing from general principles. He uses these to describe a specific series of events and solve various mysteries. 

Inductive reasoning is essentially the reverse of this process. Instead of using general principles to arrive at specifics, you use specific details to generalize. For example, you might notice that I post on this blog almost every week, and use inductive reasoning to logically determine that I am a consistent blogger. 

Causal inference helps you understand the scientific reason why and how things change. For example, why are you reading this article? I can logically infer that it is because you want to experience change and become a better thinker.

(Or maybe you want to experience more, such as all of these 11 benefits of critical thinking .)

Analogy or analogical reasoning involves making comparisons based on established examples or models. 

For example, we know that nearly every memory champion openly admits that they have normal memory that doesn’t work especially well without using mnemonic devices . By analogy, we can infer that any person with average memory abilities can become a memory champion. 

How long should you study logic? I’d suggest at least 90 days so you can get the bird’s eye overview and enough of the granular details.

Logical thinkers always make sure they have a bird’s eye view and the granular details at the same time.

Plus, as you’ll soon discover on this page, there are other fields you can read from to improve your logical thinking.

Two: Understand the Problems You’re Trying to Solve Deeply

Ever taken a quiz and realized you answered before thinking about the question? You could have gotten it correctly, but your impulses took over and you lost precious points. 

It’s not that you were being illogical. You just didn’t take the time to fully understand the question, and the reason why you failed to do so might have been logical. For example, from one perspective, in some contexts it might be perfectly logical to rush through an exam if you’re running out of time. 

But generally, we want to be sure that we deeply understand the problems we face. That is why Abraham Lincoln famously said:

“Give me six hours to chop down a tree and I will spend the first four sharpening the axe.” 

Lincoln is using an analogy here, one in which the “axe” stands in as an analogy. It speaks to spending the time needed to make sure you’re using the right tools for the job. Moreover, you make sure they are in top shape before you use them.

All the more reason to learn more about the different forms of logic. It will put more tools in your tool box and enable you to keep them sharp.

Here are 9 more critical thinking strategies to help you keep your axe sharp.

Three: Learn More About Language

A lot of people struggle to think logically because they don’t understand enough about what words mean.

Logical thinking involves nuance, so the more you know about words and their meanings, the greater mental precision in decision-making you’ll enjoy. 

To improve, here’s how to memorize vocabulary . It will help you add more meanings to words and add more definitions to those you already know. Learning word origins and how prefixes and suffixes work will help you too.

On top of learning more about words and their meanings, learning about language and logic will help, such as studying syllogisms and logical fallacies .

Go deep and learn as much as you can about fallacies so you really know your stuff. It’s easy to fall into thinking traps if you don’t.

For example, some people like to accuse others of slippery slope fallacy, without realizing that there are actually six kinds of this fallacy. 

If you want to think logically, it pays to be thorough. That’s why we’ll focus on thoroughness next.

Four: Read Quickly Without Sacrificing Thoroughness

Improving vocabulary is huge for improving logical thinking, and it will help you read faster .

But to improve your logical skills over time, you need to read thoroughly. 

I suggest you read bigger books and more of them, starting with the key textbooks in your field of interest. 

By going for the biggest and most authoritative books, you’ll be reading more logically .

Establishing foundations in your mind by reading authoritative textbooks will help you develop pattern recognition. This skill leads to faster use of the logical forms of inference we discussed in the first part of this article.

Five: Listen To Long Form Content

Short form content is causing people to make snap judgments and interrupt people before they’ve heard the full story. Logical thinkers protect themselves by practicing listening for long periods of time.

Not only is it helpful to read longer books, but you’ll learn to think much more logically when you listen to logical people think out loud.

Debates are a great way to do this and the Internet makes it possible to find many of them. 

It’s important to pay attention to both sides of the argument, however.

As you listen, practice thinking yourself by mentally rehearsing the evidence you would provide in support of your views. Also think about how you would respond.

Another tip:

Notice the holes in the arguments proposed by the debaters and list out the ways you would fill in the gaps. 

And if you want to remember more of what goes on during debates, Memory Palace Mastery is here to help.

Six: Expand Your Competence Using Multiple Media

I’ve just suggested that you experience “thinking out loud” and model it yourself.

But you’ll want to go beyond completing logical exercises in your mind. You should also:

To practice speaking logically, engage in as many discussions as you can about real problems. Sure, there’s a place for talking about movies and sports. But if you want to know how to think more logically, you’ve got to practice it yourself in real time.

Writing is always key for developing logical thinking, so I suggest you keep a journal. This simple practice will help you see your own thinking process and improve it over time. 

Combined, you will have many opportunities for self-analysis. If you can record your conversations and look at transcripts of them, all the better. 

Seven: Ask Better Questions

A lot of us ask the typical W5 questions and let it rest at that:

But to practice thinking logically, you want to go beyond these questions. Ask in addition to these questions: 

• According to whom?
• According to what precedent?
• Where isn’t this true?
• When hasn’t this been the case?

There are many variations on these questions you can ask, and I cover more along these lines in our community’s post on how to think faster .

Eight: Learn Game Theory

One of the lesser known ways to learn logical thinking is to study games and metagames. 

In brief, game theory studies areas of competition where people regularly make decisions. These decisions are influenced by other people in the area and in turn influence others. 

By modeling the ways people interact in competitive contexts, you can learn to think more logically and avoid cognitive biases that harm your performance in life. 

You’ll enjoy avoiding many problems because game theory helps train your mind to anticipate the possible outcomes of various decisions. By thinking through consequences in advance, you save yourself a lot of trouble.

Note: You can perform game theory on the past as well by thinking through what would have happened had people acted differently. This philosophical approach is called working through the counterfactuals of a historical situation and can be used on your personal life and large groups.

Some people think that game theory has limited value for everyday life, but I don’t think they’re being… logical about that. We all find ourselves in situations where we are influenced to act in certain ways and understanding these pressures will help you respond in much better ways. 

A key example is by using the Monty Hall Problem or Three Door Problem to make decisions . 

Logical exercises like The Monty Hall Problem help you think through what to do when you face choices in life.

Some people squabble over whether it is in fact logical to use this problem in life, but I can attest to its value.

For example, when I see an opportunity to do something different and feel like I want to default to my previous choices, I bring this game theoretical example to mind and remind myself to travel the “path less travelled.” 

Is the math on my side?

I think so, because I’ve gone on many adventures that logic dictates could not have happened had I chosen to stick with the same thing.

To learn more about these situations, check out the stories I share in The Victorious Mind: How to Master Memory, Meditation and Mental Well-Being .

Nine: Use Rules And Embrace Limitations

 I didn’t use to like rules. In some ways I still don’t.

But one day I was enjoying dinner with Tony Buzan, memory expert, mind map innovator and co-founder of the World Memory Championships. 

I told him about how I sometimes would switch memory systems while under time trials for numbers and playing cards. 

He said, “The rules will set you free.” 

Tony Buzan with Anthony Metivier and Phil Chambers

This is important because life, as in memory training, often gives us the opportunity to use multiple techniques.

For example, when remembering numbers, we could choose the Dominic System or the Major System , though as I discovered, it doesn’t pay off to switch from one to the other during a time trial.

But by willing to limit ourselves and stick to the “rules” of just one system, we can improve our performance.

This is true in life too, where you can learn certain rules of thumb and stick to them.

To take another example, learning the logic of Chip and Dan Heath’s W.R.A.P. technique and practicing it over time has been a tremendously helpful problem solving model for me. In fact, it’s probably the approach that has improved my critical thinking the fastest .

In fact, it’s so helpful, it is “illogical” to forget not to use it when making decisions. That’s why I memorized it using a special memory technique called ars combinatoria , something that was very important in the history of how logical thinking developed.

What rules of thumb that help you “limit” yourself to a productive form of thinking and decision making can you adopt? 

Thinking Logically Is A Rewarding Process To Enjoy For Life

Have you enjoyed learning these nine ways to improve your logical thinking? 

I hope so and hope you will make practicing some of these approaches a personal hobby.

You can easily practice logical thinking while meditating or working with an alternative to logic like Zen.

As a final tip, it would only be logical for me to recommend the opposite of logic. 

You see, there are practices like Zen which evolved to help us see and experience the limits of logic. Zen turns language against itself to help us experience mental relief from the problems we think so hard about. 

One of the best critical thinking books that situates the topic in the larger realm of computational thinking for both humans and machines is Gödel Escher Bach . For a collection of koans to explore, The Gateless Gate by Mumon is an interesting source.

I mention the opposite of logic not only because it is logical to do so. To fully experience the rewards of logical thinking, you need to be able to step outside of thinking altogether. 

Questioning deeply is not enough. We need to question the process of questioning itself as a lifelong learning habit.

So on that note, let the questioning begin. Let me know which of these ways to improve your thinking you’re going to try out and what questions about logic do you still have?

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How logical reasoning works

What is logical reasoning?

Logical reasoning is the process of using rational and systematic series of steps to come to a conclusion for a given statement. The situations that ask for logical reasoning require structure, a relationship between given facts and chains of reasoning that are sensible. Because you have to study a problem objectively with logical reasoning, analysing is an important factor within the process. Logical reasoning starts with a proposition or statement. This statement can be both true or false.  

Why is logical reasoning important?

Logical reasoning, in combination with other cognitive skills, is an important skill you use during all kinds of daily situations. It helps you make important decisions, discern the truth, solve problems, come up with new ideas and set achievable goals. Logical reasoning is also an important aspect of measuring intelligence during an IQ-test.  

The three types of logical reasoning

Logical reasoning can be divided into deductive-, inductive- and abductive reasoning. While inductive reasoning starts with a specific instance and moves into a generalized conclusion, deductive reasoning goes from a generalized principle that is known to be true to a specific conclusion that is true. And abductive reasoning is making a probable conclusion from what you know.  

We’ll explain each type of logical reasoning further:

Inductive reasoning

With inductive reasoning, a number of specific observations lead to a general rule. With this method, the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the truth of a conclusion. With inductive reasoning, there is an element of probability. In other words, forming a generalization based on what is known or observed.   While this sounds like the theory you will use during a debate or discussion, this is something you do every day in much simpler situations as well. We’ll explain this type of logical reasoning with an example: There are 28 balls within a basket, which are either red or white. To estimate the amount of red and white balls, you take a sample of four balls. The sample you took, exists out of three red and one white ball. Using good inductive generalization would be that there are 21 red and 7 white balls in the basket. As already explained, the conclusion drawn from his type of reasoning isn’t certain but is probable based on the evidence given (the sample of balls you took). Questions which require to perform inductive reasoning are a part of IQ-tests. An example of a little more complex question like just explained with the balls is the one of the image below. To come to a conclusion to solve this problem, both inductive reasoning and pattern recognition skills are required. Looking at the sequence of tiles with different patterns of dots, which tile should be on the place of the question mark? A, B, C, D, E or F?  

Deductive reasoning

With deductive reasoning, factual statements are used to come to a logical conclusion. If all the premises (factual statements) are true, the terms are clear and all the rules of deductive logic are followed to come to a conclusion, then the conclusion will also be true. In this case, the conclusion isn’t probable, but certain. Deductive reasoning is also known as “top-down” logic, because it (in most cases) starts with a general statement and will end with a specific conclusion.

We’ll explain deductive reasoning with an example, with 2 given premises:

It’s dangerous to drive while it’s freezing (premise 1)

It is currently freezing outside (premise 2)

So, we now know that it is dangerous to drive when it is freezing, and it is currently freezing outside. Using deductive reasoning, these two premises can help us form necessarily true conclusion, which is:

It is currently dangerous to drive outside (conclusion)

Situations in which you use deductive reasoning can come in many forms, such as mathematics. Whether you are designing your own garden or managing your time, you use deductive reasoning while doing math daily. An example is solving the following math problem:

All corners of a rectangle are always 180° (premise 1)

The following rectangle has one right angle, which is always 90° (premise 2)

The second angle is 60° (premise 3)  

How much degrees is the third angle (X)? To answer this question, you can use the three premises to come to the conclusion how much degrees the third hook is. The conclusion should be 180° (premise 1) -90° (premise 2) - 60° (premise 3) = 30° (conclusion)

Abductive reasoning

With abductive reasoning, the major premise is evident but the minor premise(s) is probable. Therefore, defining a conclusion would also make this conclusion probable. You start with an observation, followed by finding the most likely explanation for the observations. In other words, it is a type of logical reasoning you use when you form a conclusion with the (little) information that is known. An example of using abductive reasoning to come to a conclusion is a decision made by a jury. In this case, a group of people have to come to a solution based on the available evidence and witness testimonies. Based on this possibly incomplete information, they form a conclusion. A more common example is when you wake up in the morning, and you head downstairs. In the kitchen, you find a plate on the table, a half-eaten sandwich and half a glass of milk. From the premises that are available, you will come up with the most likely explanation for this. Which could be that your partner woke up before you and left in a hurry, without finishing his or her breakfast.  

How does logical thinking relate to problem-solving?

As previously mentioned, the different types of logical reasoning (inductive, deductive and abductive) help you to form conclusions based on the current situation and known facts. This very closely correlates to problem-solving, as finding the most probable solution to resolve a problem is a similar conclusion. Logical thinking, and thereby problem solving, goes through the following five steps to draw a conclusion and/or find a solution:

Collecting information about the current situation. Determining what the current problem is, and what premises apply. Let’s say you want to go out for a drive, but it’s freezing outside.

Analyzing this information. What information is relevant to the situation, and what isn’t. In this case, the fact that it’s freezing is relevant for your safety on the road. The fact that you might get cold isn’t, as you’d be in your car.

Forming a conclusion. What can you conclude from this information? The roads might be more dangerous because it’s freezing.

Support your conclusion. You might look at traffic information to see that there have been more accidents today, in which case, that supports the conclusion that driving is more dangerous today.

• Defend your conclusion. Is this conclusion correct for your case? If you don’t have winter tires it would be more accurate than when you do.  

How to improve logical thinking and problem-solving skills?

Because there are so many different situations in which you use logical thinking and problem-solving, this isn’t a cognitive skill you can train specifically. Luckily, there are many methods that might help you to improve your logical thinking skills. These include methods to keep your general cognitive abilities healthy as well as methods to train your logical thinking skills. These are:

Learning something new

Social interaction

Healthy nutrition

Ensure enough sleep

Avoid stress

Preferably no alcohol

Spend time on creative hobbies

Practice questioning

Try to anticipate the outcome of your decisions

Brain training to challenge your logical reasoning skills

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The Most Important Logical Thinking Skills (With Examples)

• Logical Skills
• Promotional Skills
• Bookkeeping Skills
• Typing Skills
• Sales Skills
• Science And Math Skills
• Physical Strength And Dexterity Skills
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Find a Job You Really Want In

Logical thinking skills like critical-thinking, research, and creative thinking are valuable assets in the workplace. These skills are sought after by many employers, who want employees that take into account facts and data before deciding on an important course of action. This is because such solutions will ensure the organization’s processes can continue to operate efficiently.

So, if you’re a job seeker or employee looking to explore and brush up on your logical thinking skills, you’re in luck. This article will cover examples of logical thinking skills in the workplace, as well as what you can do to showcase those skills on your resume and in interviews.

Key Takeaways:

Logical thinking is problem solving based on reasoning that follows a strictly structured progression of analysis.

Critical thinking, research, creativity, mathematics, reading, active listening, and organization are all important logical thinking skills in the workplace.

Logical thinking provides objectivity for decision making that multiple people can accept.

Deduction follows valid premises to reach a logical conclusion.

It can be very helpful to demonstrate logical thinking skills at a job interview.

What is logical thinking?

10 examples of logical thinking skills, examples of logical thinking in the workplace, what is deductive reasoning, logical thinking in a job interview, logical thinking skills faq, final thoughts.

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Logical thinking is the ability to reason out an issue after observing and analyzing it from all angles . You can then form a conclusion that makes the most sense. It also includes the ability to take note of reactions and feedback to aid in the formation of the conclusion.

Logical thinking skills enable you to present your justification for the actions you take, the strategies you use, and the decisions you make. You can easily stand in front of your clients, peers, and supervisors and defend your product, service, and course of action if the necessity arises.

Logical thinking is an excellent way of solving complex problems. You can break the problem into smaller parts; solve them individually in a sequence, then present the complete solution. However, it is not infallible.

So, when a problem in the workplace feels overwhelming, you may want to think about it logically first.

Logical thinking skills are a skill set that enables you to reason logically when solving problems. They enable you to provide well-reasoned answers to any issues that arise. They also empower you to make decisions that most people will consider rational.

Critical-thinking skills. If you are a critical thinker, then you can analyze and evaluate a problem before making judgments. You need to improve your critical thinking process to become a logical thinker.

Your critical thinking skills will improve your ability to solve problems. You will be the go-to employee concerning crises. People can rely on you to be reasonable whenever an issue arises instead of letting biases rule you.

Research skills. If you are a good researcher , then you can search and locate data that can be useful when presenting information on your preferred subject.

The more relevant information you have about a particular subject, the more accurate your conclusions are likely to be. The sources you use must be reputable and relevant.

For this reason, your ability to ferret out information will affect how well you can reason logically.

Creative thinking skills. If you are a creative thinker , then you can find innovative solutions to problems.

You are the kind of person that can think outside the box when brainstorming ideas and potential solutions. Your thinking is not rigid. Instead, you tend to look at issues in ways other people have not thought of before.

While logical thinking is based on data and facts, that doesn’t mean it is rigid. You can creatively find ways of sourcing that data or experimenting so that you can form logical conclusions. Your strategic thinking skills will also help enable you to analyze reactions or collect feedback .

Mathematical skills. If you are skilled in mathematics , then you can work well with numbers and represent mathematical ideas using visual symbols. Your brain must be able to compute information.

Business is a numbers game. That means you must have some knowledge of mathematics. You must be able to perform basic mathematical tasks involving addition, subtractions, divisions, multiplications, etc.

So, to become a logical thinker, you must be comfortable working with numbers. You will encounter them in many business-related complex problems. And your ability to understand them will determine whether you can reach an accurate logical conclusion that helps your organization.

Reading skills. If you are a good reader , then you can make sense of the letters and symbols that you see. Your ability to read will determine your competency concerning your logical thinking and reasoning skills.

And that skill set will come in handy when you are presented with different sets of work-related statements from which you are meant to conclude. Such statements may be part of your company policy, technical manual, etc.

Active listening skills. Active listening is an important communication skill to have. If you are an active listener, then you can hear, understand what is being said, remember it, and respond to it if necessary.

Not all instructions are written. You may need to listen to someone to get the information you need to solve problems before you write it down. In that case, your active listening skills will determine how well you can remember the information so that you can use it to reason things out logically.

Information ordering skills. If you have information ordering skills, then you can arrange things based on a specified order following the set rules or conditions. These things may include mathematical operations, words, pictures, etc.

Different organizations have different business processes. The workflow in one organization will be not similar to that of another organization even if both belong to the same industry.

Your ability to order information will depend on an organization’s culture . And it will have a major impact on how you can think and reason concerning solutions to your company problems.

If you follow the wrong order, then no matter how good your problem-solving techniques are your conclusions may be wrong for your organization.

Persuasion skills. Logical thinking can be useful when persuading others, especially in the workplace.

For example, lets say one of your co-workers wants to take a project in an impulsive direction, which will increase the budget. However, after you do your research, you realize a budget increase would be impossible.

You can then use your logical thinking skills to explain the situation to your co-worker , including details facts and numbers, which will help dissuade them from making an uninformed decision.

Decision making skills. Decision making skills go hand and hand with logical thinking, as being able to think logically about solutions and research topics will make it far easier to make informed decisions.

After all, no one likes making a decision that feels like a shot in the dark, so knowing crucial information about the options aviable to you, and thinking about them logically, can improve your confidence around decision making.

Confidence skills. Confidence that stems from an emotional and irrational place will always be fragile, but when you have more knowledge available to you through logical thinking, you can be more confident in your confidence skills.

For instance, if an employee asked you to answer an important question, you will have a lot more confidence in your answer if you can think logically about it, as opposed to having an air of uncertainty.

To improve your logic skills, it would be wise to practice how to solve problems based on facts and data. Below are examples of logical thinking in the workplace that will help you understand this kind of reasoning so that you can improve your thinking:

The human resource department in your organization has determined that leadership skills are important for anyone looking to go into a senior management position. So, it decides that it needs proof of leadership before hiring anyone internally. To find the right person for the senior management position , every candidate must undertake a project that involves a team of five. Whoever leads the winning team will get the senior managerial position.

This example shows a logical conclusion that is reached by your organization’s human resource department. In this case, your HR department has utilized logical thinking to determine the best internal candidate for the senior manager position.

It could be summarized as follows:

Statement 1: People with excellent leadership skills that produce winning teams make great senior managers. Statement 2: Candidate A is an excellent leader that has produced a winning team. Conclusion: Candidate A will make an excellent senior manager .

A marketing company researches working women on behalf of one of their clients – a robotics company. They find out that these women feel overwhelmed with responsibilities at home and in the workplace. As a result, they do not have enough time to clean, take care of their children, and stay productive in the workplace. A robotics company uses this research to create a robot cleaner that can be operated remotely . Then they advertise this cleaner specifically to working women with the tag line, “Working women can do it all with a little bit of help.” As a result of this marketing campaign, their revenues double within a year.

This example shows a logical conclusion reached by a robotics company after receiving the results of marketing research on working women. In this case, logical thinking has enabled the company to come up with a new marketing strategy for their cleaning product.

Statement 1: Working women struggle to keep their homes clean. Statement 2: Robot cleaners can take over cleaning duties for women who struggle to keep their homes clean. Conclusion: Robot cleaner can help working women keep their homes clean.

CalcX. Inc. has created a customer survey concerning its new finance software. The goal of the survey is to determine what customers like best about the software. After reading through over 100 customer reviews and ratings, it emerges that 60% of customers love the new user interface because it’s easy to navigate. CalcX. Inc. then decides to improve its marketing strategy. It decides to train every salesperson to talk about the easy navigation feature and how superior it is to the competition. So, every time a client objects to the price, the sales rep could admit that it is expensive, but the excellent user interface makes up for the price. At the end of the year, it emerges that this strategy has improved sales revenues by 10%.

The above example shows how logical thinking has helped CalcX. Sell more software and improve its bottom line.

Statement 1: If the majority of customers like a particular software feature, then sales reps should use it to overcome objections and increase revenues. Statement 2: 60% of the surveyed customers like the user interface of the new software, and; they think it makes navigation easier. Conclusion: The sales reps should market the new software’s user interface and the fact that it is easy to navigate to improve the company’s bottom line.

A political candidate hires a focus group to discuss hot-button issues they feel strongly about. It emerges that the group is torn on sexual reproductive health issues, but most support the issue of internal security . However, nearly everyone is opposed to the lower wages being paid due to the current economic crisis. Based on the results of this research, the candidate decides to focus on improving the economy and security mechanisms in the country. He also decides to let go of the sexual productive health issues because it would potentially cause him to lose some support.

In this case, the political candidate has made logical conclusions on what topics he should use to campaign for his seat with minimal controversies so that he doesn’t lose many votes.

This situation could be summarized as follows:

Statement 1: Most people find sexual reproductive health issues controversial and cannot agree. Statement 2: Most people feel that the internal security of the country is in jeopardy and something should be done about it. Statement 3: Most people want higher wages and an improved economy. Statement 4: Political candidates who want to win must avoid controversy and speak up on things that matter to people. Conclusion: To win, political candidates must focus on higher wages, an improved economy, and the internal security of the country while avoiding sexual reproductive health matters.

Deductive reasoning is an aspect of logical reasoning. It is a top-down reasoning approach that enables you to form a specific logical conclusion based on generalities. Therefore, you can use one or more statements, usually referred to as premises, to conclude something.

For example:

Statement 1: All mothers are women Statement 2: Daisy is a mother. Conclusion: Daisy is a woman.

Based on the above examples, all mothers are classified as women, and since Daisy is a mother, then it’s logical to deduce that she is a woman too.

It’s worth noting though, that deductive reasoning does not always produce an accurate conclusion based on reality.

Statement 1: All caregivers in this room are nurses. Statement 2: This dog, Tom, is a caregiver . Conclusion: This dog, Tom, is a nurse .

From the above example, we have deduced that Tom, the dog, is a nurse simply because the first statement stated that all caregivers are nurses. And yet, in reality, we know that dogs cannot be nurses. They do not have the mental capacity to become engaged in the profession.

For this reason, you must bear in mind that an argument can be validly based on the conditions but it can also be unsound if some statements are based on a fallacy.

Since logical thinking is so important in the workplace, most job interviewers will want to see you demonstrate this skill at the job interview. It is very important to keep in mind your logical thinking skills when you talk about yourself at the interview.

There are many ways in which an interviewer may ask you to demonstrate your logical thinking skills. For example:

You may have to solve an example problem. If the interviewer provides you a problem similar to one you might find at your job, make sure to critically analyze the problem to deduce a solution.

You may be asked about a previous problem or conflict you had to solve. This classic question provides you the opportunity to show your skills in action, so make sure to highlight the objectivity and logic of your problem solving.

Show your logic when talking about yourself. When given the opportunity to talk about yourself, highlight how logic comes into play in your decision making. This could be in how you picked the job position, why you choose your career or education, or what it is about yourself that makes you a great candidate.

Why is it important to think logically?

It’s important to think logically because it allows you to analyze a situation and come up with a logical solution. It allows for you to reason through the important decisions and solve problems with a better understanding of what needs to be done. This is necessary for developing a strong career.

Why is logic important?

Logic is important because it helps develop critical thinking skills. Critical thinking skills are important because they help you analyze and evaluate a problem before you make a decision. It also helps you improve your problem-solving skills to allow you to make better decisions.

How do you improve your logical thinking skills?

When improving your logical thinking skills make sure you spend time on a creative hobby and practice questioning. Creative hobbies can help reduce stress levels, and lower stress leads to having an easier time focusing on tasks and making logical thinking. Creative hobbies can include things like drawing, painting, and writing.

Another way to improve your logical thinking is to start asking questions about things. Asking questions allows for you to discover new things and learn about new topics you may not have thought about before.

What are logical thinking skills you need to succeed at work?

There are many logical thinking skills you need to succeed in the workplace. Our top four picks include:

Observation

Active Listening

Problem-solving

Logical thinking skills are valuable skills to have. You need to develop them so that you can become an asset to any organization that hires you. Be sure to include them in your resume and cover letter .

And if you make it to the interview, also ensure that you highlight these skills. You can do all this by highlighting the career accomplishments that required you to use logical thinking in the workplace.

It’s Your Yale – Consider Critical Thinking Skills to Articulate Your Work Quality

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Roger Raber has been a content writer at Zippia for over a year and has authored several hundred articles. Having retired after 28 years of teaching writing and research at both the high school and college levels, Roger enjoys providing career details that help inform people who are curious about a new job or career. Roger holds a BA in English from Cleveland State University and a MA from Marygrove college.

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Logical Thinking

What is logical thinking.

Logical thinking is a fundamental cognitive ability that allows individuals to analyze, reason, and make sound decisions based on objective facts and evidence. It entails the ability to think critically, systematically, and coherentlWithin the context of problem-solving and decision-making, logical thinking enables individuals to identify patterns, recognize relationships, and draw logical conclusions.

Key Features of Logical Thinking

1. Deductive Reasoning: Logical thinking involves deducing specific conclusions from general principles or premises. It follows a top-down approach, using logic and established rules to reach valid conclusions.

2. Inductive Reasoning: This component of logical thinking involves inferring general principles or conclusions from specific observations or instances. Inductive reasoning utilizes patterns, data, and examples to arrive at probable conclusions.

3. Analytical Skills: Logical thinking requires strong analytical skills to break down complex problems or situations into smaller, more manageable components. By breaking down the elements and identifying the relationships between them, individuals can better understand the larger picture and draw logical conclusions.

4. Critical Thinking: Logical thinking relies heavily on critical thinking to evaluate arguments, ideas, and evidence objectively. It involves questioning assumptions, identifying biases, and applying logical principles to assess the validity of statements and arguments.

5. Problem-solving: Individuals with strong logical thinking skills excel in problem-solving. They can approach problems analytically, logically, and systematically, breaking them down into smaller parts, assessing possible solutions, and choosing the most effective course of action.

6. Decision-making: Logical thinking is closely linked to effective decision-making. By evaluating all available information, assessing potential outcomes, and considering the logical consequences of each option, individuals can make informed decisions that are rational and objective.

Why is Logical Thinking Important?

Logical thinking is a crucial skillset in various aspects of life and work. Whether in academic pursuits, professional endeavors, or everyday situations, honing logical thinking abilities can lead to better problem-solving, more effective decision-making, and improved overall cognitive functioning.

In academic settings, logical thinking enables students to excel in subjects such as mathematics, science, and philosophy, where reasoning and analytical skills are paramount. In the workplace, logical thinking is highly valued across disciplines, including business, engineering, law, and technology, as it allows employees to solve complex problems and make sound decisions based on objective analysis.

Furthermore, logical thinking fosters a more rational and critical approach to information, discouraging the acceptance of fallacious arguments or misinformation. It promotes a deeper understanding of complex issues and encourages individuals to challenge assumptions, leading to a more well-informed and intellectually engaged society.

Why Assess a Candidate's Logical Thinking Skill Level?

Assessing a candidate's logical thinking skill level is essential for organizations seeking to hire individuals who can approach complex problems with precision and make informed decisions based on objective analysis. Evaluating logical thinking abilities during the hiring process can provide numerous benefits, including:

Better Problem-Solving: Logical thinking is directly linked to effective problem-solving. By assessing a candidate's logical thinking skills, organizations can identify individuals who possess the ability to analyze and break down complex problems into manageable components, leading to more efficient and innovative solutions.

Enhanced Decision-Making: Logical thinking enables individuals to weigh evidence, consider multiple perspectives, and draw logical conclusions. By assessing a candidate's logical thinking abilities, organizations can identify individuals who can make well-informed and rational decisions based on objective analysis, minimizing the risks associated with subjective or biased decision-making.

Improved Critical Thinking: Critical thinking is closely intertwined with logical thinking. By evaluating a candidate's logical thinking abilities, organizations can gauge their capacity to evaluate arguments, identify logical fallacies, and assess the validity of information. This ensures that organizations hire individuals who can think critically and approach information with a logical and analytical mindset.

Efficient Resource Allocation: Assessing a candidate's logical thinking skill level helps organizations allocate resources more effectively. Individuals with strong logical thinking abilities can analyze situations, identify potential challenges or risks, and develop well-structured action plans. This allows organizations to optimize their resources and mitigate potential setbacks or roadblocks.

Promotion of Innovation: Logical thinking is crucial for fostering innovation and creativity within organizations. Candidates with strong logical thinking skills are more likely to think outside the box, consider alternative solutions, and explore new possibilities. Assessing logical thinking abilities can help organizations identify individuals who can bring fresh perspectives and contribute to innovative problem-solving.

Reduced Errors and Mistakes: Effective logical thinking minimizes errors and mistakes in decision-making and problem-solving processes. By assessing a candidate's logical thinking skills, organizations can ensure that they hire individuals who can critically evaluate information, identify inconsistencies, and avoid errors that may have significant consequences in critical or sensitive situations.

By assessing a candidate's logical thinking skill level, organizations can ensure that they hire individuals who possess the cognitive abilities necessary for success in problem-solving, decision-making, and critical analysis. Alooba's comprehensive assessment platform can help organizations evaluate logical thinking skills effectively and identify top-quality candidates to drive their success.

Assessing a Candidate's Logical Thinking Skill Level with Alooba

Alooba's advanced assessment platform offers a seamless solution for evaluating a candidate's logical thinking skill level. With our comprehensive range of assessment tools and features, organizations can confidently and efficiently assess candidates' logical thinking abilities. Here's how Alooba can help:

Customizable Tests : Alooba allows organizations to create customized logical thinking tests tailored to their specific needs. Whether it's deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, analytical skills, or critical thinking, organizations can design tests that accurately measure a candidate's logical thinking abilities.

Versatile Test Formats : Alooba offers various test formats designed to assess logical thinking skills effectively. From multiple-choice tests that evaluate a candidate's conceptual understanding to practical assessments where candidates analyze data or write SQL statements, Alooba covers a wide range of logical thinking scenarios.

Objective Evaluation : Alooba's assessment platform utilizes an autograding system for objective evaluation of logical thinking tests. This ensures consistent and fair assessment results, enabling organizations to compare and rank candidates based on their logical thinking abilities accurately.

In-depth Assessments : For a more comprehensive evaluation of logical thinking skills, Alooba provides in-depth assessments. These assessments allow candidates to demonstrate their logical thinking abilities through tasks such as diagramming, coding, or written responses. Expert evaluators manually assess these tasks, providing valuable insights into a candidate's capabilities.

Alooba Interview Product : Alooba's structured interviews with predefined topics and questions offer an additional avenue to assess a candidate's logical thinking skills. Interviewers can use a marking guide for objective evaluation, ensuring consistency in the assessment process.

Alooba's Vision : Alooba's vision is to create a world where everyone can get the job they deserve. By assessing candidates' logical thinking skill level, organizations can make fair and informed hiring decisions, matching top-quality candidates with the opportunities they deserve.

With Alooba's comprehensive assessment platform, organizations can confidently evaluate and measure a candidate's logical thinking skill level. Save time, streamline your hiring process, and discover the candidates with the logical thinking abilities your organization needs to excel. Unleash the power of logical thinking assessments with Alooba.

Components of Logical Thinking

Logical thinking encompasses various subtopics, each contributing to an individual's overall proficiency in this valuable cognitive skill. Understanding the components of logical thinking provides a comprehensive view of the abilities necessary for effective problem-solving and decision-making. Here are some key components to consider:

Deductive Reasoning : Deductive reasoning involves drawing specific conclusions from general principles or premises. It requires individuals to apply logical rules and principles to reach valid and sound conclusions based on the given information.

Inductive Reasoning : Inductive reasoning involves making general conclusions based on specific observations or instances. Individuals utilize patterns, data, and examples to infer broader principles, allowing them to form probable conclusions.

Analytical Skills : Analytical skills are crucial for logical thinking, enabling individuals to break down complex problems or situations into smaller, more manageable components. This component focuses on identifying relationships, patterns, and underlying structures to gain a deeper understanding of the overall problem.

Critical Thinking : Critical thinking is closely associated with logical thinking, requiring individuals to assess, analyze, and evaluate arguments and evidence objectively. It involves questioning assumptions, identifying biases, and employing logical principles to determine the validity and soundness of statements and arguments.

Problem-Solving Strategies : Logical thinking plays a significant role in effective problem-solving strategies. It involves the systematic and coherent approach of breaking down problems, identifying the core issues, exploring possible solutions, and selecting the most appropriate course of action.

Decision-Making Processes : Logical thinking provides the foundation for robust decision-making processes. It allows individuals to evaluate all available information objectively, consider potential outcomes, and analyze the logical consequences of each decision. Logical thinking ensures rational and informed decision-making.

Pattern Recognition : Pattern recognition is vital in logical thinking, as it involves the ability to identify regularities, repetitions, and systematic relationships within data or information. Individuals proficient in pattern recognition can detect underlying structures and use them to draw logical insights.

Logical Communication : Logical thinking also extends to effective communication. It includes the ability to present ideas, arguments, and solutions in a logical and coherent manner, allowing others to understand and follow the train of thought.

By understanding and developing these key components, individuals can enhance their logical thinking skills, enabling them to approach problems and decision-making with precision and clarity. With Alooba's assessment platform, you can measure and evaluate these components to identify candidates who possess strong logical thinking abilities, ensuring you make informed hiring decisions.

Practical Applications of Logical Thinking

Logical thinking is a versatile cognitive skill that finds application in various aspects of life, work, and decision-making processes. By utilizing logical thinking, individuals can approach challenges, solve problems, and navigate complex situations with clarity and sound judgment. Here are some practical applications where logical thinking is commonly employed:

Problem-Solving: Logical thinking is essential for effective problem-solving. Whether it's troubleshooting technical issues, resolving conflicts, or finding innovative solutions, logical thinking enables individuals to break down problems, analyze the components, and apply logical reasoning to identify the most suitable course of action.

Critical Analysis: Logical thinking plays a significant role in critical analysis. It helps individuals evaluate information, arguments, and evidence objectively, enabling them to identify flaws, inconsistencies, or biases. By employing logical thinking, individuals can make informed judgments and arrive at well-supported conclusions.

Decision-Making: Logical thinking provides a foundation for rational decision-making. It allows individuals to consider all available information, assess potential outcomes, and analyze the logical implications of each decision. Logical thinking helps individuals make sound decisions based on objective analysis, minimizing the influence of emotions or biases.

Scientific and Mathematical Reasoning: Logical thinking is fundamental in scientific and mathematical reasoning processes. It involves following logical steps, applying rules and principles, and drawing logical conclusions. In fields such as physics, computer science, and mathematics, logical thinking ensures rigorous and accurate problem-solving.

Data Analysis: Logical thinking is crucial in data analysis. It enables individuals to identify patterns, make connections between variables, and draw logical insights from large datasets. By applying logical thinking, individuals can derive meaningful information from data, leading to informed decisions and insights.

Strategic Planning: Logical thinking is invaluable in strategic planning processes. It assists individuals in assessing the current situation, identifying goals, analyzing potential options, and formulating logical strategies. Logical thinking ensures that plans are coherent, feasible, and aligned with the organization's objectives.

Communication: Logical thinking enhances effective communication. It enables individuals to organize their thoughts in a logical and coherent manner, ensuring clear and concise communication of ideas, arguments, and instructions. Logical thinking helps individuals convey their message effectively and facilitate understanding.

By recognizing the practical applications of logical thinking, individuals and organizations can harness this cognitive skill to their advantage. Alooba's assessment platform allows you to evaluate and identify candidates with strong logical thinking skills, ensuring you have the right talent to tackle complex challenges and make informed decisions.

Roles that Require Strong Logical Thinking Skills

Logical thinking is a valuable skillset that plays a crucial role in numerous job functions. Certain roles particularly benefit from individuals who possess strong logical thinking skills. Here are some of the key roles where logical thinking abilities are highly relevant:

Data Analyst : Data analysts rely on logical thinking to interpret and analyze complex data sets. They apply logical reasoning to identify patterns, draw meaningful insights, and make data-driven recommendations.

Data Scientist : Data scientists leverage logical thinking to apply statistical models, algorithms, and machine learning techniques. They use logical reasoning to process data, test hypotheses, and develop predictive models.

Data Engineer : Data engineers employ logical thinking to design, construct, and maintain data systems. They utilize logical reasoning to develop efficient database architectures and ensure data integrity.

Insights Analyst : Insights analysts rely on logical thinking to interpret market trends, consumer behavior, and business performance. They use logical reasoning to draw meaningful conclusions from data and provide valuable insights.

Marketing Analyst : Marketing analysts utilize logical thinking to evaluate marketing strategies, measure campaign effectiveness, and analyze customer data. They apply logical reasoning to optimize marketing initiatives and drive business growth.

Product Analyst : Product analysts use logical thinking to assess market trends, user feedback, and product performance. They apply logical reasoning to identify opportunities for improvement and make data-informed decisions for product development.

Analytics Engineer : Analytics engineers employ logical thinking to design and develop systems for data analysis. They apply logical reasoning to implement data pipelines, automate data processes, and ensure accurate data reporting.

Artificial Intelligence Engineer : Artificial intelligence engineers rely on logical thinking to develop intelligent systems and algorithms. They apply logical reasoning to design and optimize algorithms for machine learning and decision-making.

Back-End Engineer : Back-end engineers use logical thinking to develop and maintain server-side applications. They apply logical reasoning to ensure seamless data flow, optimize system performance, and resolve technical issues.

Data Architect : Data architects employ logical thinking to design and structure data systems. They use logical reasoning to create data models, define data governance policies, and ensure data accuracy and integrity.

Data Governance Analyst : Data governance analysts rely on logical thinking to establish and enforce data management policies. They apply logical reasoning to ensure compliance, data quality, and secure data access.

Deep Learning Engineer : Deep learning engineers utilize logical thinking to design and implement deep learning models. They use logical reasoning to optimize neural networks, analyze model performance, and improve complex algorithms.

These roles showcase the significance of logical thinking in various job functions. By evaluating candidates' logical thinking skills using Alooba's assessment platform, organizations can identify top talent for these roles and ensure that their teams possess the necessary cognitive abilities to excel in these positions.

Associated Roles

Analytics engineer.

Analytics Engineers are responsible for preparing data for analytical or operational uses. These professionals bridge the gap between data engineering and data analysis, ensuring data is not only available but also accessible, reliable, and well-organized. They typically work with data warehousing tools, ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) processes, and data modeling, often using SQL, Python, and various data visualization tools. Their role is crucial in enabling data-driven decision making across all functions of an organization.

Artificial Intelligence Engineer

Artificial Intelligence Engineers are responsible for designing, developing, and deploying intelligent systems and solutions that leverage AI and machine learning technologies. They work across various domains such as healthcare, finance, and technology, employing algorithms, data modeling, and software engineering skills. Their role involves not only technical prowess but also collaboration with cross-functional teams to align AI solutions with business objectives. Familiarity with programming languages like Python, frameworks like TensorFlow or PyTorch, and cloud platforms is essential.

Back-End Engineer

Back-End Engineers focus on server-side web application logic and integration. They write clean, scalable, and testable code to connect the web application with the underlying services and databases. These professionals work in a variety of environments, including cloud platforms like AWS and Azure, and are proficient in programming languages such as Java, C#, and NodeJS. Their expertise extends to database management, API development, and implementing security and data protection solutions. Collaboration with front-end developers and other team members is key to creating cohesive and efficient applications.

Data Analyst

Data Analysts draw meaningful insights from complex datasets with the goal of making better decisions. Data Analysts work wherever an organization has data - these days that could be in any function, such as product, sales, marketing, HR, operations, and more.

Data Architect

Data Architects are responsible for designing, creating, deploying, and managing an organization's data architecture. They define how data is stored, consumed, integrated, and managed by different data entities and IT systems, as well as any applications using or processing that data. Data Architects ensure data solutions are built for performance and design analytics applications for various platforms. Their role is pivotal in aligning data management and digital transformation initiatives with business objectives.

Data Engineer

Data Engineers are responsible for moving data from A to B, ensuring data is always quickly accessible, correct and in the hands of those who need it. Data Engineers are the data pipeline builders and maintainers.

Data Governance Analyst

Data Governance Analysts play a crucial role in managing and protecting an organization's data assets. They establish and enforce policies and standards that govern data usage, quality, and security. These analysts collaborate with various departments to ensure data compliance and integrity, and they work with data management tools to maintain the organization's data framework. Their goal is to optimize data practices for accuracy, security, and efficiency.

Data Scientist

Data Scientists are experts in statistical analysis and use their skills to interpret and extract meaning from data. They operate across various domains, including finance, healthcare, and technology, developing models to predict future trends, identify patterns, and provide actionable insights. Data Scientists typically have proficiency in programming languages like Python or R and are skilled in using machine learning techniques, statistical modeling, and data visualization tools such as Tableau or PowerBI.

Deep Learning Engineer

Deep Learning Engineers’ role centers on the development and optimization of AI models, leveraging deep learning techniques. They are involved in designing and implementing algorithms, deploying models on various platforms, and contributing to cutting-edge research. This role requires a blend of technical expertise in Python, PyTorch or TensorFlow, and a deep understanding of neural network architectures.

Insights Analyst

Insights Analysts play a pivotal role in transforming complex data sets into actionable insights, driving business growth and efficiency. They specialize in analyzing customer behavior, market trends, and operational data, utilizing advanced tools such as SQL, Python, and BI platforms like Tableau and Power BI. Their expertise aids in decision-making across multiple channels, ensuring data-driven strategies align with business objectives.

Marketing Analyst

Marketing Analysts specialize in interpreting data to enhance marketing efforts. They analyze market trends, consumer behavior, and campaign performance to inform marketing strategies. Proficient in data analysis tools and techniques, they bridge the gap between data and marketing decision-making. Their role is crucial in tailoring marketing efforts to target audiences effectively and efficiently.

Product Analyst

Product Analysts utilize data to optimize product strategies and enhance user experiences. They work closely with product teams, leveraging skills in SQL, data visualization (e.g., Tableau), and data analysis to drive product development. Their role includes translating business requirements into technical specifications, conducting A/B testing, and presenting data-driven insights to inform product decisions. Product Analysts are key in understanding customer needs and driving product innovation.

Other names for Logical Thinking include Problem Solving , and Critical Thinking .

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Logical Thought

Logical thought is essentially a process of figuring things out step by step. Think of it like putting together a puzzle where each piece must fit perfectly with the others to form a complete picture. It’s a way of thinking that helps connect ideas in a rational, sensible order. It starts with simple truths, builds on them, and leads to a solid conclusion, just like following a set of directions to get to a particular place.

Another way to describe logical thought is considering it as a tool we use to find out what’s true and what’s not. It’s like being a detective with a magnifying glass, examining each clue carefully to solve a mystery. Logical thought involves checking that each clue makes sense with the last one, ensuring there are no gaps or mistakes, and steadily moving toward solving the case.

In the world of logical thought, several key varieties are like different paths you might take in reaching the same destination:

• Deductive reasoning : This method is like following a recipe step-by-step. If each step is done correctly, you should end up with the expected result.
• Inductive reasoning : Here, you’re making an educated guess about what is likely to be true, based on patterns you’ve observed in the past.
• Abductive reasoning : This approach involves looking at incomplete information and making the best possible guess about what it means.

Examples of Logical Thought

If you wake up and the streets are wet, using abductive reasoning , you might conclude that it rained overnight. This is logical because a wet street often follows rain, even though you didn’t see the rain yourself.

In math class, you might use deductive reasoning when a problem says “All squares have four sides,” and you see a shape with four sides, postulating it must be a square. This is logical because you’re applying a general rule to a specific example.

Scientists often use inductive reasoning when they observe the same results in their experiments several times, leading them to propose a general rule. This forms the basis of many scientific laws and theories.

Why is it Important?

Logical thought is critical because it helps us navigate through our lives with clarity and good judgment. It guides us in school, where logic can turn complex problems into manageable ones. In daily decisions, logical thought helps us weigh our options carefully to avoid mistakes. Think of it as the brain’s GPS, guiding us through the maze of life’s choices and challenges. It’s especially vital in the world of science and technology, where accurate, logical conclusions lead to breakthroughs and innovations. Logical thought also underpins our justice system, ensuring that laws are based on solid reasoning.

The techniques and importance of logical thought stretch back to ancient philosophers like Aristotle , who sowed the seeds for the systematic study of logic. Aristotle developed a framework for reasoning that still influences how we approach logical thinking today.

Controversies

Despite the usefulness of logical thought, it’s not without its debates. Some people argue that it might not always lead us to the truth, as our perspectives can distort reality. Then there’s the dispute on whether emotions and logic can coexist, with some arguing that emotions can cloud logical judgment, while others say emotions provide insights that pure logic cannot.

To wrap things up, logical thought is a timeless tool for seeking truth and understanding in our complex world. Although there are disagreements about its applications and limitations, the value of logical thought in developing critical, informed perspectives cannot be overstated. So, learning to think logically benefits us all, from making better personal decisions to advancing society as a whole.

Related Topics

Logical fallacies.

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that can undermine the logic of an argument . They might be mistakes made by accident or used on purpose to persuade others. Recognizing these fallacies is a big part of thinking logically and not being tricked by faulty reasoning.

Problem-Solving

Logical thought is central to solving problems effectively. It helps us identify the true source of a problem and find a solution that actually works, rather than just treating the symptoms.

Decision Making

Every day we make countless decisions, and logical thought helps us navigate these choices. By weighing evidence and considering the possible outcomes, we can make decisions that are likely to lead to better results in our lives.

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The Logic Tree: The Ultimate Critical Thinking Framework

Critical Thinking: Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is a central business skill, and yet it's the one many people struggle with most. This course will show you how to apply critical thinking techniques to common business examples, avoid misunderstandings, and get at the root of any problem.

Logical thinking is the most valuable asset any business professional can have. That's why logic trees are such a valuable tool—they can help you identify a problem, break it down, and build it back up to a solution.

MECE Principle

Using the MECE principle can help ensure you categorize without gaps or overlaps. Check out this course from GLOBIS Unlimited for a practical demonstration of how it works!

If you work in business—any aspect of a business, from R&D to sales to back-office data entry—you’ve probably experienced an unpleasant surprise or two. Not every marketing campaign boosts sales the way we want. Not every event has the turnout we hope for. Not every promotion we expect comes our way.

Particularly with problems that have fiscal casualties, you’ll want to do a little analysis and find out what happened. And one of the absolute best tools to apply to your analysis is critical thinking.

Critical thinking applies logic to solve problems systematically. According to the World Economic Forum’s “Future of Jobs Report” in 2020, “The top skills . . . which employers see as rising in prominence in the lead up to 2025 include . . . critical thinking and analysis, as well as problem-solving.”

And 2020 wasn’t the first year critical thinking made the list.

When it comes to problem-solving, logic trees are a go-to critical thinking framework. Done right, they’ll get you to the root of a problem (pun intended) and even help you find solutions.

What is a logic tree?

A logic tree takes a complex problem and breaks it up systematically, drilling down into smaller, more manageable components. If you’ve seen an image like this, you’ve seen a logic tree:

Looks pretty simple, right? It is! But there are some important rules to follow to make sure your logic tree grows up big and strong—and, more importantly, leads you to the answers you seek.

The Logic Tree and the Case of the Missing Sandwich

Logic trees are often used for complex issues, which is why they’re also called “issue trees” or “decision trees.” But consider a simple (though still frustrating) problem faced by many office workers in the days before COVID-19 . . .

It’s lunchtime at your workplace, so you head to the office fridge—only to find your lunch is gone. You stare in disbelief at the empty space where your sandwich should be. A mocking smudge of condensation stares back.

As you are a logical person (not prone to throwing tantrums), you decide to approach this problem with critical thinking . You march back to your desk, grab a pen and paper, and write down four words: “Who took my sandwich?”

You’ve planted your logic tree.

Decide what you really need to know.

Before you jump into the branches, remind yourself that logic trees stem from problems—but knee-jerk responses often misidentify problems. So once you’ve got your initial question down, take a step back. Is there a branch that should have come before the first one you made?

Setting aside the sandwich problem for just a moment, consider you’re exploring a different issue: “How can I get promoted?” Think about the reason you’re asking that question. What’s the actual problem you need to solve?

Maybe you should have asked, “How can I earn more money?” That opens far more possibilities than just getting promoted—you could look for another job, start a side business, or invest in your buddy’s startup. “How can I get promoted?” becomes just one branch on a bigger tree.

This is how logic trees (and critical thinking in general) not only help you identify solutions, but think outside the box —innovate.

Beware emotional bias in the branches.

You decide to start your logic tree with “Who took my sandwich?” From that root problem, you might break up the question into its seemingly logical components: “someone inside the office ate my sandwich” (Mary Anne, maybe? Or Phil?) and “someone came in off the street and stole it” (a hungry ninja, perhaps?).

Already, your logic tree is telling you something important.

The fact that you’ve defined the first two branches of your logic tree as “culprit here or there” means you’re sure there’s a thief in your midst. You’ve (perhaps subconsciously) ruled out the possibility that you forgot your sandwich at home or left it on the bus. The logic tree you’ve started will also not remind you if you didn’t make a lunch at all today because you’ll be eating out with Mary Anne and Phil.

Logic trees will only tell you what you ask them to tell you. They can only answer the questions you lay down. Don’t let your emotions limit the possibilities. Try to be aware of the assumptions you’re baking in.

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3 Ways the MECE Principle Makes Data Organization Easy

Apply MECE to the branches of your logic tree.

Now that you’ve got your first two branches, you set to work breaking them down further. This is a good time to remember to follow the MECE principle . MECE stands for “mutually exclusive, collectively exhaustive.” In other words, it means you want to build the branches of your logic tree without gaps or duplicates.

Remember, logic trees are a critical thinking tool, and critical thinking is about systematic problem-solving. The MECE component of logic trees helps keep the system clean by eliminating possibilities, which increases efficiency toward finding an answer.

For example, if one branch says, “Someone in the office took my sandwich” and another says, “Someone on this floor took my sandwich,” you’re setting yourself up for some overlap. (Surely, this floor is in the office, no?)

It seems unlikely that someone came in off the street and took your sandwich, so you focus on the other possibility: an inside job. That leads to two new MECE-friendly branches: someone from your team, or someone from another team? Then more branches under those: Someone who decided your lunch looked way more delicious than their own, or someone who innocently mistook your lunch for theirs?

Aha! Looking at the breakdown, the answer strikes you. You bought that sandwich from Sandwich Heaven—the same place your teammate Rick sometimes buys his lunch. You check the fridge again, and sure enough, there’s another sandwich almost identical to yours (except this one has tomato, gross).

Don’t expect logic trees to end with “the answer.”

Logic trees aren’t about quick fixes. They’re about training your mind to reach reliable solutions.

While you may be tempted to rush off and have a chat with Rick about stealing your sandwich, it’ll serve you much better to reflect on why he took your sandwich in the first place. You and Rick bought sandwiches from the same shop, which makes it easy to mix them up. That may be the answer—but is it a solution ?

At the end of your logic tree, pose some further questions: Should you and Rick decide to put your sandwiches on different shelves in the fridge? Should you make it a point to label yours with your name? Or should you stop going to Sandwich Heaven every day?

This follow-up is important, even for logic trees targeting more serious issues. If you’re trying to determine why sales are down, perhaps your logic tree will reveal you’re targeting the wrong customers. In that case, what steps can you take to reset your targets?

The Payoff of Learning Logic Trees

While they might sound like a lot of work (and yes, they can be a bit overwhelming at first), logic trees can actually save you a lot of time once you get the hang of them. Even better, you don’t have to slave away at mastering them on your own. There’s no reason a logic tree needs to be a solitary activity (even if you’re hunting down a sandwich thief).

In fact, if you’re working on a critical business issue, you really shouldn’t try to go it alone. Ask your boss, your team, a consultant, or another colleague to review your work. They don’t even have to understand the problem in depth—the point is to get a fresh pair of eyes on your logic tree and, by extension, your problem.

Finally, keep in mind that there’s no guarantee a logic tree will bring you to the perfect answer. What they will do is train your critical thinking skills and help widen your view of the problems you face.

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7 Module 7: Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving

This module is about how a solid working knowledge of psychological principles can help you to think more effectively, so you can succeed in school and life. You might be inclined to believe that—because you have been thinking for as long as you can remember, because you are able to figure out the solution to many problems, because you feel capable of using logic to argue a point, because you can evaluate whether the things you read and hear make sense—you do not need any special training in thinking. But this, of course, is one of the key barriers to helping people think better. If you do not believe that there is anything wrong, why try to fix it?

The human brain is indeed a remarkable thinking machine, capable of amazing, complex, creative, logical thoughts. Why, then, are we telling you that you need to learn how to think? Mainly because one major lesson from cognitive psychology is that these capabilities of the human brain are relatively infrequently realized. Many psychologists believe that people are essentially “cognitive misers.” It is not that we are lazy, but that we have a tendency to expend the least amount of mental effort necessary. Although you may not realize it, it actually takes a great deal of energy to think. Careful, deliberative reasoning and critical thinking are very difficult. Because we seem to be successful without going to the trouble of using these skills well, it feels unnecessary to develop them. As you shall see, however, there are many pitfalls in the cognitive processes described in this module. When people do not devote extra effort to learning and improving reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking skills, they make many errors.

As is true for memory, if you develop the cognitive skills presented in this module, you will be more successful in school. It is important that you realize, however, that these skills will help you far beyond school, even more so than a good memory will. Although it is somewhat useful to have a good memory, ten years from now no potential employer will care how many questions you got right on multiple choice exams during college. All of them will, however, recognize whether you are a logical, analytical, critical thinker. With these thinking skills, you will be an effective, persuasive communicator and an excellent problem solver.

The module begins by describing different kinds of thought and knowledge, especially conceptual knowledge and critical thinking. An understanding of these differences will be valuable as you progress through school and encounter different assignments that require you to tap into different kinds of knowledge. The second section covers deductive and inductive reasoning, which are processes we use to construct and evaluate strong arguments. They are essential skills to have whenever you are trying to persuade someone (including yourself) of some point, or to respond to someone’s efforts to persuade you. The module ends with a section about problem solving. A solid understanding of the key processes involved in problem solving will help you to handle many daily challenges.

7.1. Different kinds of thought

7.2. Reasoning and Judgment

7.3. Problem Solving

READING WITH PURPOSE

Remember and understand.

By reading and studying Module 7, you should be able to remember and describe:

• Concepts and inferences (7.1)
• Procedural knowledge (7.1)
• Metacognition (7.1)
• Characteristics of critical thinking:  skepticism; identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; reasoning and problem solving skills  (7.1)
• Reasoning:  deductive reasoning, deductively valid argument, inductive reasoning, inductively strong argument, availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic  (7.2)
• Fixation:  functional fixedness, mental set  (7.3)
• Algorithms, heuristics, and the role of confirmation bias (7.3)
• Effective problem solving sequence (7.3)

By reading and thinking about how the concepts in Module 6 apply to real life, you should be able to:

• Identify which type of knowledge a piece of information is (7.1)
• Recognize examples of deductive and inductive reasoning (7.2)
• Recognize judgments that have probably been influenced by the availability heuristic (7.2)
• Recognize examples of problem solving heuristics and algorithms (7.3)

Analyze, Evaluate, and Create

By reading and thinking about Module 6, participating in classroom activities, and completing out-of-class assignments, you should be able to:

• Use the principles of critical thinking to evaluate information (7.1)
• Explain whether examples of reasoning arguments are deductively valid or inductively strong (7.2)
• Outline how you could try to solve a problem from your life using the effective problem solving sequence (7.3)

7.1. Different kinds of thought and knowledge

• Take a few minutes to write down everything that you know about dogs.
• Do you believe that:
• Psychic ability exists?
• Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness?
• Magnet therapy is effective for relieving pain?
• Aerobic exercise is an effective treatment for depression?
• UFO’s from outer space have visited earth?

On what do you base your belief or disbelief for the questions above?

Of course, we all know what is meant by the words  think  and  knowledge . You probably also realize that they are not unitary concepts; there are different kinds of thought and knowledge. In this section, let us look at some of these differences. If you are familiar with these different kinds of thought and pay attention to them in your classes, it will help you to focus on the right goals, learn more effectively, and succeed in school. Different assignments and requirements in school call on you to use different kinds of knowledge or thought, so it will be very helpful for you to learn to recognize them (Anderson, et al. 2001).

Factual and conceptual knowledge

Module 5 introduced the idea of declarative memory, which is composed of facts and episodes. If you have ever played a trivia game or watched Jeopardy on TV, you realize that the human brain is able to hold an extraordinary number of facts. Likewise, you realize that each of us has an enormous store of episodes, essentially facts about events that happened in our own lives. It may be difficult to keep that in mind when we are struggling to retrieve one of those facts while taking an exam, however. Part of the problem is that, in contradiction to the advice from Module 5, many students continue to try to memorize course material as a series of unrelated facts (picture a history student simply trying to memorize history as a set of unrelated dates without any coherent story tying them together). Facts in the real world are not random and unorganized, however. It is the way that they are organized that constitutes a second key kind of knowledge, conceptual.

Concepts are nothing more than our mental representations of categories of things in the world. For example, think about dogs. When you do this, you might remember specific facts about dogs, such as they have fur and they bark. You may also recall dogs that you have encountered and picture them in your mind. All of this information (and more) makes up your concept of dog. You can have concepts of simple categories (e.g., triangle), complex categories (e.g., small dogs that sleep all day, eat out of the garbage, and bark at leaves), kinds of people (e.g., psychology professors), events (e.g., birthday parties), and abstract ideas (e.g., justice). Gregory Murphy (2002) refers to concepts as the “glue that holds our mental life together” (p. 1). Very simply, summarizing the world by using concepts is one of the most important cognitive tasks that we do. Our conceptual knowledge  is  our knowledge about the world. Individual concepts are related to each other to form a rich interconnected network of knowledge. For example, think about how the following concepts might be related to each other: dog, pet, play, Frisbee, chew toy, shoe. Or, of more obvious use to you now, how these concepts are related: working memory, long-term memory, declarative memory, procedural memory, and rehearsal? Because our minds have a natural tendency to organize information conceptually, when students try to remember course material as isolated facts, they are working against their strengths.

One last important point about concepts is that they allow you to instantly know a great deal of information about something. For example, if someone hands you a small red object and says, “here is an apple,” they do not have to tell you, “it is something you can eat.” You already know that you can eat it because it is true by virtue of the fact that the object is an apple; this is called drawing an  inference , assuming that something is true on the basis of your previous knowledge (for example, of category membership or of how the world works) or logical reasoning.

Procedural knowledge

Physical skills, such as tying your shoes, doing a cartwheel, and driving a car (or doing all three at the same time, but don’t try this at home) are certainly a kind of knowledge. They are procedural knowledge, the same idea as procedural memory that you saw in Module 5. Mental skills, such as reading, debating, and planning a psychology experiment, are procedural knowledge, as well. In short, procedural knowledge is the knowledge how to do something (Cohen & Eichenbaum, 1993).

Metacognitive knowledge

Floyd used to think that he had a great memory. Now, he has a better memory. Why? Because he finally realized that his memory was not as great as he once thought it was. Because Floyd eventually learned that he often forgets where he put things, he finally developed the habit of putting things in the same place. (Unfortunately, he did not learn this lesson before losing at least 5 watches and a wedding ring.) Because he finally realized that he often forgets to do things, he finally started using the To Do list app on his phone. And so on. Floyd’s insights about the real limitations of his memory have allowed him to remember things that he used to forget.

All of us have knowledge about the way our own minds work. You may know that you have a good memory for people’s names and a poor memory for math formulas. Someone else might realize that they have difficulty remembering to do things, like stopping at the store on the way home. Others still know that they tend to overlook details. This knowledge about our own thinking is actually quite important; it is called metacognitive knowledge, or  metacognition . Like other kinds of thinking skills, it is subject to error. For example, in unpublished research, one of the authors surveyed about 120 General Psychology students on the first day of the term. Among other questions, the students were asked them to predict their grade in the class and report their current Grade Point Average. Two-thirds of the students predicted that their grade in the course would be higher than their GPA. (The reality is that at our college, students tend to earn lower grades in psychology than their overall GPA.) Another example: Students routinely report that they thought they had done well on an exam, only to discover, to their dismay, that they were wrong (more on that important problem in a moment). Both errors reveal a breakdown in metacognition.

The Dunning-Kruger Effect

In general, most college students probably do not study enough. For example, using data from the National Survey of Student Engagement, Fosnacht, McCormack, and Lerma (2018) reported that first-year students at 4-year colleges in the U.S. averaged less than 14 hours per week preparing for classes. The typical suggestion is that you should spend two hours outside of class for every hour in class, or 24 – 30 hours per week for a full-time student. Clearly, students in general are nowhere near that recommended mark. Many observers, including some faculty, believe that this shortfall is a result of students being too busy or lazy. Now, it may be true that many students are too busy, with work and family obligations, for example. Others, are not particularly motivated in school, and therefore might correctly be labeled lazy. A third possible explanation, however, is that some students might not think they need to spend this much time. And this is a matter of metacognition. Consider the scenario that we mentioned above, students thinking they had done well on an exam only to discover that they did not. Justin Kruger and David Dunning examined scenarios very much like this in 1999. Kruger and Dunning gave research participants tests measuring humor, logic, and grammar. Then, they asked the participants to assess their own abilities and test performance in these areas. They found that participants in general tended to overestimate their abilities, already a problem with metacognition. Importantly, the participants who scored the lowest overestimated their abilities the most. Specifically, students who scored in the bottom quarter (averaging in the 12th percentile) thought they had scored in the 62nd percentile. This has become known as the  Dunning-Kruger effect . Many individual faculty members have replicated these results with their own student on their course exams, including the authors of this book. Think about it. Some students who just took an exam and performed poorly believe that they did well before seeing their score. It seems very likely that these are the very same students who stopped studying the night before because they thought they were “done.” Quite simply, it is not just that they did not know the material. They did not know that they did not know the material. That is poor metacognition.

In order to develop good metacognitive skills, you should continually monitor your thinking and seek frequent feedback on the accuracy of your thinking (Medina, Castleberry, & Persky 2017). For example, in classes get in the habit of predicting your exam grades. As soon as possible after taking an exam, try to find out which questions you missed and try to figure out why. If you do this soon enough, you may be able to recall the way it felt when you originally answered the question. Did you feel confident that you had answered the question correctly? Then you have just discovered an opportunity to improve your metacognition. Be on the lookout for that feeling and respond with caution.

concept :  a mental representation of a category of things in the world

Dunning-Kruger effect : individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

inference : an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

metacognition :  knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

Critical thinking

One particular kind of knowledge or thinking skill that is related to metacognition is  critical thinking (Chew, 2020). You may have noticed that critical thinking is an objective in many college courses, and thus it could be a legitimate topic to cover in nearly any college course. It is particularly appropriate in psychology, however. As the science of (behavior and) mental processes, psychology is obviously well suited to be the discipline through which you should be introduced to this important way of thinking.

More importantly, there is a particular need to use critical thinking in psychology. We are all, in a way, experts in human behavior and mental processes, having engaged in them literally since birth. Thus, perhaps more than in any other class, students typically approach psychology with very clear ideas and opinions about its subject matter. That is, students already “know” a lot about psychology. The problem is, “it ain’t so much the things we don’t know that get us into trouble. It’s the things we know that just ain’t so” (Ward, quoted in Gilovich 1991). Indeed, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain wrong. Randolph Smith (2002) wrote a book about critical thinking in psychology called  Challenging Your Preconceptions,  highlighting this fact. On the other hand, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain right! But wait, how do you know which of your preconceptions are right and which are wrong? And when you come across a research finding or theory in this class that contradicts your preconceptions, what will you do? Will you stick to your original idea, discounting the information from the class? Will you immediately change your mind? Critical thinking can help us sort through this confusing mess.

But what is critical thinking? The goal of critical thinking is simple to state (but extraordinarily difficult to achieve): it is to be right, to draw the correct conclusions, to believe in things that are true and to disbelieve things that are false. We will provide two definitions of critical thinking (or, if you like, one large definition with two distinct parts). First, a more conceptual one: Critical thinking is thinking like a scientist in your everyday life (Schmaltz, Jansen, & Wenckowski, 2017).  Our second definition is more operational; it is simply a list of skills that are essential to be a critical thinker. Critical thinking entails solid reasoning and problem solving skills; skepticism; and an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. Excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills contribute to critical thinking. So, you can consider the subject matter of sections 7.2 and 7.3 to be part of critical thinking. Because we will be devoting considerable time to these concepts in the rest of the module, let us begin with a discussion about the other aspects of critical thinking.

Let’s address that first part of the definition. Scientists form hypotheses, or predictions about some possible future observations. Then, they collect data, or information (think of this as making those future observations). They do their best to make unbiased observations using reliable techniques that have been verified by others. Then, and only then, they draw a conclusion about what those observations mean. Oh, and do not forget the most important part. “Conclusion” is probably not the most appropriate word because this conclusion is only tentative. A scientist is always prepared that someone else might come along and produce new observations that would require a new conclusion be drawn. Wow! If you like to be right, you could do a lot worse than using a process like this.

A Critical Thinker’s Toolkit 

Now for the second part of the definition. Good critical thinkers (and scientists) rely on a variety of tools to evaluate information. Perhaps the most recognizable tool for critical thinking is  skepticism (and this term provides the clearest link to the thinking like a scientist definition, as you are about to see). Some people intend it as an insult when they call someone a skeptic. But if someone calls you a skeptic, if they are using the term correctly, you should consider it a great compliment. Simply put, skepticism is a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided. People from Missouri should recognize this principle, as Missouri is known as the Show-Me State. As a skeptic, you are not inclined to believe something just because someone said so, because someone else believes it, or because it sounds reasonable. You must be persuaded by high quality evidence.

Of course, if that evidence is produced, you have a responsibility as a skeptic to change your belief. Failure to change a belief in the face of good evidence is not skepticism; skepticism has open mindedness at its core. M. Neil Browne and Stuart Keeley (2018) use the term weak sense critical thinking to describe critical thinking behaviors that are used only to strengthen a prior belief. Strong sense critical thinking, on the other hand, has as its goal reaching the best conclusion. Sometimes that means strengthening your prior belief, but sometimes it means changing your belief to accommodate the better evidence.

Many times, a failure to think critically or weak sense critical thinking is related to a  bias , an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice. Everybody has biases, but many people are unaware of them. Awareness of your own biases gives you the opportunity to control or counteract them. Unfortunately, however, many people are happy to let their biases creep into their attempts to persuade others; indeed, it is a key part of their persuasive strategy. To see how these biases influence messages, just look at the different descriptions and explanations of the same events given by people of different ages or income brackets, or conservative versus liberal commentators, or by commentators from different parts of the world. Of course, to be successful, these people who are consciously using their biases must disguise them. Even undisguised biases can be difficult to identify, so disguised ones can be nearly impossible.

Here are some common sources of biases:

• Personal values and beliefs.  Some people believe that human beings are basically driven to seek power and that they are typically in competition with one another over scarce resources. These beliefs are similar to the world-view that political scientists call “realism.” Other people believe that human beings prefer to cooperate and that, given the chance, they will do so. These beliefs are similar to the world-view known as “idealism.” For many people, these deeply held beliefs can influence, or bias, their interpretations of such wide ranging situations as the behavior of nations and their leaders or the behavior of the driver in the car ahead of you. For example, if your worldview is that people are typically in competition and someone cuts you off on the highway, you may assume that the driver did it purposely to get ahead of you. Other types of beliefs about the way the world is or the way the world should be, for example, political beliefs, can similarly become a significant source of bias.
• Racism, sexism, ageism and other forms of prejudice and bigotry.  These are, sadly, a common source of bias in many people. They are essentially a special kind of “belief about the way the world is.” These beliefs—for example, that women do not make effective leaders—lead people to ignore contradictory evidence (examples of effective women leaders, or research that disputes the belief) and to interpret ambiguous evidence in a way consistent with the belief.
• Self-interest.  When particular people benefit from things turning out a certain way, they can sometimes be very susceptible to letting that interest bias them. For example, a company that will earn a profit if they sell their product may have a bias in the way that they give information about their product. A union that will benefit if its members get a generous contract might have a bias in the way it presents information about salaries at competing organizations. (Note that our inclusion of examples describing both companies and unions is an explicit attempt to control for our own personal biases). Home buyers are often dismayed to discover that they purchased their dream house from someone whose self-interest led them to lie about flooding problems in the basement or back yard. This principle, the biasing power of self-interest, is likely what led to the famous phrase  Caveat Emptor  (let the buyer beware) .  

Knowing that these types of biases exist will help you evaluate evidence more critically. Do not forget, though, that people are not always keen to let you discover the sources of biases in their arguments. For example, companies or political organizations can sometimes disguise their support of a research study by contracting with a university professor, who comes complete with a seemingly unbiased institutional affiliation, to conduct the study.

People’s biases, conscious or unconscious, can lead them to make omissions, distortions, and assumptions that undermine our ability to correctly evaluate evidence. It is essential that you look for these elements. Always ask, what is missing, what is not as it appears, and what is being assumed here? For example, consider this (fictional) chart from an ad reporting customer satisfaction at 4 local health clubs.

Clearly, from the results of the chart, one would be tempted to give Club C a try, as customer satisfaction is much higher than for the other 3 clubs.

There are so many distortions and omissions in this chart, however, that it is actually quite meaningless. First, how was satisfaction measured? Do the bars represent responses to a survey? If so, how were the questions asked? Most importantly, where is the missing scale for the chart? Although the differences look quite large, are they really?

Well, here is the same chart, with a different scale, this time labeled:

Club C is not so impressive any more, is it? In fact, all of the health clubs have customer satisfaction ratings (whatever that means) between 85% and 88%. In the first chart, the entire scale of the graph included only the percentages between 83 and 89. This “judicious” choice of scale—some would call it a distortion—and omission of that scale from the chart make the tiny differences among the clubs seem important, however.

Also, in order to be a critical thinker, you need to learn to pay attention to the assumptions that underlie a message. Let us briefly illustrate the role of assumptions by touching on some people’s beliefs about the criminal justice system in the US. Some believe that a major problem with our judicial system is that many criminals go free because of legal technicalities. Others believe that a major problem is that many innocent people are convicted of crimes. The simple fact is, both types of errors occur. A person’s conclusion about which flaw in our judicial system is the greater tragedy is based on an assumption about which of these is the more serious error (letting the guilty go free or convicting the innocent). This type of assumption is called a value assumption (Browne and Keeley, 2018). It reflects the differences in values that people develop, differences that may lead us to disregard valid evidence that does not fit in with our particular values.

Oh, by the way, some students probably noticed this, but the seven tips for evaluating information that we shared in Module 1 are related to this. Actually, they are part of this section. The tips are, to a very large degree, set of ideas you can use to help you identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. If you do not remember this section, we strongly recommend you take a few minutes to review it.

skepticism :  a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

bias : an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

• Which of your beliefs (or disbeliefs) from the Activate exercise for this section were derived from a process of critical thinking? If some of your beliefs were not based on critical thinking, are you willing to reassess these beliefs? If the answer is no, why do you think that is? If the answer is yes, what concrete steps will you take?

7.2 Reasoning and Judgment

• What percentage of kidnappings are committed by strangers?
• Which area of the house is riskiest: kitchen, bathroom, or stairs?
• What is the most common cancer in the US?
• What percentage of workplace homicides are committed by co-workers?

An essential set of procedural thinking skills is  reasoning , the ability to generate and evaluate solid conclusions from a set of statements or evidence. You should note that these conclusions (when they are generated instead of being evaluated) are one key type of inference that we described in Section 7.1. There are two main types of reasoning, deductive and inductive.

Deductive reasoning

Suppose your teacher tells you that if you get an A on the final exam in a course, you will get an A for the whole course. Then, you get an A on the final exam. What will your final course grade be? Most people can see instantly that you can conclude with certainty that you will get an A for the course. This is a type of reasoning called  deductive reasoning , which is defined as reasoning in which a conclusion is guaranteed to be true as long as the statements leading to it are true. The three statements can be listed as an  argument , with two beginning statements and a conclusion:

Statement 1: If you get an A on the final exam, you will get an A for the course

Statement 2: You get an A on the final exam

Conclusion: You will get an A for the course

This particular arrangement, in which true beginning statements lead to a guaranteed true conclusion, is known as a  deductively valid argument . Although deductive reasoning is often the subject of abstract, brain-teasing, puzzle-like word problems, it is actually an extremely important type of everyday reasoning. It is just hard to recognize sometimes. For example, imagine that you are looking for your car keys and you realize that they are either in the kitchen drawer or in your book bag. After looking in the kitchen drawer, you instantly know that they must be in your book bag. That conclusion results from a simple deductive reasoning argument. In addition, solid deductive reasoning skills are necessary for you to succeed in the sciences, philosophy, math, computer programming, and any endeavor involving the use of logic to persuade others to your point of view or to evaluate others’ arguments.

Cognitive psychologists, and before them philosophers, have been quite interested in deductive reasoning, not so much for its practical applications, but for the insights it can offer them about the ways that human beings think. One of the early ideas to emerge from the examination of deductive reasoning is that people learn (or develop) mental versions of rules that allow them to solve these types of reasoning problems (Braine, 1978; Braine, Reiser, & Rumain, 1984). The best way to see this point of view is to realize that there are different possible rules, and some of them are very simple. For example, consider this rule of logic:

therefore q

Logical rules are often presented abstractly, as letters, in order to imply that they can be used in very many specific situations. Here is a concrete version of the of the same rule:

I’ll either have pizza or a hamburger for dinner tonight (p or q)

I won’t have pizza (not p)

Therefore, I’ll have a hamburger (therefore q)

This kind of reasoning seems so natural, so easy, that it is quite plausible that we would use a version of this rule in our daily lives. At least, it seems more plausible than some of the alternative possibilities—for example, that we need to have experience with the specific situation (pizza or hamburger, in this case) in order to solve this type of problem easily. So perhaps there is a form of natural logic (Rips, 1990) that contains very simple versions of logical rules. When we are faced with a reasoning problem that maps onto one of these rules, we use the rule.

But be very careful; things are not always as easy as they seem. Even these simple rules are not so simple. For example, consider the following rule. Many people fail to realize that this rule is just as valid as the pizza or hamburger rule above.

if p, then q

therefore, not p

Concrete version:

If I eat dinner, then I will have dessert

I did not have dessert

Therefore, I did not eat dinner

The simple fact is, it can be very difficult for people to apply rules of deductive logic correctly; as a result, they make many errors when trying to do so. Is this a deductively valid argument or not?

Students who like school study a lot

Students who study a lot get good grades

Jane does not like school

Therefore, Jane does not get good grades

Many people are surprised to discover that this is not a logically valid argument; the conclusion is not guaranteed to be true from the beginning statements. Although the first statement says that students who like school study a lot, it does NOT say that students who do not like school do not study a lot. In other words, it may very well be possible to study a lot without liking school. Even people who sometimes get problems like this right might not be using the rules of deductive reasoning. Instead, they might just be making judgments for examples they know, in this case, remembering instances of people who get good grades despite not liking school.

Making deductive reasoning even more difficult is the fact that there are two important properties that an argument may have. One, it can be valid or invalid (meaning that the conclusion does or does not follow logically from the statements leading up to it). Two, an argument (or more correctly, its conclusion) can be true or false. Here is an example of an argument that is logically valid, but has a false conclusion (at least we think it is false).

Either you are eleven feet tall or the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth.

You are not eleven feet tall

Therefore the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth

This argument has the exact same form as the pizza or hamburger argument above, making it is deductively valid. The conclusion is so false, however, that it is absurd (of course, the reason the conclusion is false is that the first statement is false). When people are judging arguments, they tend to not observe the difference between deductive validity and the empirical truth of statements or conclusions. If the elements of an argument happen to be true, people are likely to judge the argument logically valid; if the elements are false, they will very likely judge it invalid (Markovits & Bouffard-Bouchard, 1992; Moshman & Franks, 1986). Thus, it seems a stretch to say that people are using these logical rules to judge the validity of arguments. Many psychologists believe that most people actually have very limited deductive reasoning skills (Johnson-Laird, 1999). They argue that when faced with a problem for which deductive logic is required, people resort to some simpler technique, such as matching terms that appear in the statements and the conclusion (Evans, 1982). This might not seem like a problem, but what if reasoners believe that the elements are true and they happen to be wrong; they will would believe that they are using a form of reasoning that guarantees they are correct and yet be wrong.

deductive reasoning :  a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

argument :  a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

deductively valid argument :  an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

Inductive reasoning and judgment

Every day, you make many judgments about the likelihood of one thing or another. Whether you realize it or not, you are practicing  inductive reasoning   on a daily basis. In inductive reasoning arguments, a conclusion is likely whenever the statements preceding it are true. The first thing to notice about inductive reasoning is that, by definition, you can never be sure about your conclusion; you can only estimate how likely the conclusion is. Inductive reasoning may lead you to focus on Memory Encoding and Recoding when you study for the exam, but it is possible the instructor will ask more questions about Memory Retrieval instead. Unlike deductive reasoning, the conclusions you reach through inductive reasoning are only probable, not certain. That is why scientists consider inductive reasoning weaker than deductive reasoning. But imagine how hard it would be for us to function if we could not act unless we were certain about the outcome.

Inductive reasoning can be represented as logical arguments consisting of statements and a conclusion, just as deductive reasoning can be. In an inductive argument, you are given some statements and a conclusion (or you are given some statements and must draw a conclusion). An argument is  inductively strong   if the conclusion would be very probable whenever the statements are true. So, for example, here is an inductively strong argument:

• Statement #1: The forecaster on Channel 2 said it is going to rain today.
• Statement #2: The forecaster on Channel 5 said it is going to rain today.
• Statement #3: It is very cloudy and humid.
• Statement #4: You just heard thunder.
• Conclusion (or judgment): It is going to rain today.

Think of the statements as evidence, on the basis of which you will draw a conclusion. So, based on the evidence presented in the four statements, it is very likely that it will rain today. Will it definitely rain today? Certainly not. We can all think of times that the weather forecaster was wrong.

A true story: Some years ago psychology student was watching a baseball playoff game between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Los Angeles Dodgers. A graphic on the screen had just informed the audience that the Cardinal at bat, (Hall of Fame shortstop) Ozzie Smith, a switch hitter batting left-handed for this plate appearance, had never, in nearly 3000 career at-bats, hit a home run left-handed. The student, who had just learned about inductive reasoning in his psychology class, turned to his companion (a Cardinals fan) and smugly said, “It is an inductively strong argument that Ozzie Smith will not hit a home run.” He turned back to face the television just in time to watch the ball sail over the right field fence for a home run. Although the student felt foolish at the time, he was not wrong. It was an inductively strong argument; 3000 at-bats is an awful lot of evidence suggesting that the Wizard of Ozz (as he was known) would not be hitting one out of the park (think of each at-bat without a home run as a statement in an inductive argument). Sadly (for the die-hard Cubs fan and Cardinals-hating student), despite the strength of the argument, the conclusion was wrong.

Given the possibility that we might draw an incorrect conclusion even with an inductively strong argument, we really want to be sure that we do, in fact, make inductively strong arguments. If we judge something probable, it had better be probable. If we judge something nearly impossible, it had better not happen. Think of inductive reasoning, then, as making reasonably accurate judgments of the probability of some conclusion given a set of evidence.

We base many decisions in our lives on inductive reasoning. For example:

Statement #1: Psychology is not my best subject

Statement #2: My psychology instructor has a reputation for giving difficult exams

Statement #3: My first psychology exam was much harder than I expected

Judgment: The next exam will probably be very difficult.

Decision: I will study tonight instead of watching Netflix.

Some other examples of judgments that people commonly make in a school context include judgments of the likelihood that:

• A particular class will be interesting/useful/difficult
• You will be able to finish writing a paper by next week if you go out tonight
• Your laptop’s battery will last through the next trip to the library
• You will not miss anything important if you skip class tomorrow
• Your instructor will not notice if you skip class tomorrow
• You will be able to find a book that you will need for a paper
• There will be an essay question about Memory Encoding on the next exam

Tversky and Kahneman (1983) recognized that there are two general ways that we might make these judgments; they termed them extensional (i.e., following the laws of probability) and intuitive (i.e., using shortcuts or heuristics, see below). We will use a similar distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 thinking, as described by Keith Stanovich and his colleagues (Evans and Stanovich, 2013; Stanovich and West, 2000). Type 1 thinking is fast, automatic, effortful, and emotional. In fact, it is hardly fair to call it reasoning at all, as judgments just seem to pop into one’s head. Type 2 thinking , on the other hand, is slow, effortful, and logical. So obviously, it is more likely to lead to a correct judgment, or an optimal decision. The problem is, we tend to over-rely on Type 1. Now, we are not saying that Type 2 is the right way to go for every decision or judgment we make. It seems a bit much, for example, to engage in a step-by-step logical reasoning procedure to decide whether we will have chicken or fish for dinner tonight.

Many bad decisions in some very important contexts, however, can be traced back to poor judgments of the likelihood of certain risks or outcomes that result from the use of Type 1 when a more logical reasoning process would have been more appropriate. For example:

Statement #1: It is late at night.

Statement #2: Albert has been drinking beer for the past five hours at a party.

Statement #3: Albert is not exactly sure where he is or how far away home is.

Judgment: Albert will have no difficulty walking home.

Decision: He walks home alone.

As you can see in this example, the three statements backing up the judgment do not really support it. In other words, this argument is not inductively strong because it is based on judgments that ignore the laws of probability. What are the chances that someone facing these conditions will be able to walk home alone easily? And one need not be drunk to make poor decisions based on judgments that just pop into our heads.

The truth is that many of our probability judgments do not come very close to what the laws of probability say they should be. Think about it. In order for us to reason in accordance with these laws, we would need to know the laws of probability, which would allow us to calculate the relationship between particular pieces of evidence and the probability of some outcome (i.e., how much likelihood should change given a piece of evidence), and we would have to do these heavy math calculations in our heads. After all, that is what Type 2 requires. Needless to say, even if we were motivated, we often do not even know how to apply Type 2 reasoning in many cases.

So what do we do when we don’t have the knowledge, skills, or time required to make the correct mathematical judgment? Do we hold off and wait until we can get better evidence? Do we read up on probability and fire up our calculator app so we can compute the correct probability? Of course not. We rely on Type 1 thinking. We “wing it.” That is, we come up with a likelihood estimate using some means at our disposal. Psychologists use the term heuristic to describe the type of “winging it” we are talking about. A  heuristic   is a shortcut strategy that we use to make some judgment or solve some problem (see Section 7.3). Heuristics are easy and quick, think of them as the basic procedures that are characteristic of Type 1.  They can absolutely lead to reasonably good judgments and decisions in some situations (like choosing between chicken and fish for dinner). They are, however, far from foolproof. There are, in fact, quite a lot of situations in which heuristics can lead us to make incorrect judgments, and in many cases the decisions based on those judgments can have serious consequences.

Let us return to the activity that begins this section. You were asked to judge the likelihood (or frequency) of certain events and risks. You were free to come up with your own evidence (or statements) to make these judgments. This is where a heuristic crops up. As a judgment shortcut, we tend to generate specific examples of those very events to help us decide their likelihood or frequency. For example, if we are asked to judge how common, frequent, or likely a particular type of cancer is, many of our statements would be examples of specific cancer cases:

Statement #1: Andy Kaufman (comedian) had lung cancer.

Statement #2: Colin Powell (US Secretary of State) had prostate cancer.

Statement #3: Bob Marley (musician) had skin and brain cancer

Statement #4: Sandra Day O’Connor (Supreme Court Justice) had breast cancer.

Statement #5: Fred Rogers (children’s entertainer) had stomach cancer.

Statement #6: Robin Roberts (news anchor) had breast cancer.

Statement #7: Bette Davis (actress) had breast cancer.

Judgment: Breast cancer is the most common type.

Your own experience or memory may also tell you that breast cancer is the most common type. But it is not (although it is common). Actually, skin cancer is the most common type in the US. We make the same types of misjudgments all the time because we do not generate the examples or evidence according to their actual frequencies or probabilities. Instead, we have a tendency (or bias) to search for the examples in memory; if they are easy to retrieve, we assume that they are common. To rephrase this in the language of the heuristic, events seem more likely to the extent that they are available to memory. This bias has been termed the  availability heuristic   (Kahneman and Tversky, 1974).

The fact that we use the availability heuristic does not automatically mean that our judgment is wrong. The reason we use heuristics in the first place is that they work fairly well in many cases (and, of course that they are easy to use). So, the easiest examples to think of sometimes are the most common ones. Is it more likely that a member of the U.S. Senate is a man or a woman? Most people have a much easier time generating examples of male senators. And as it turns out, the U.S. Senate has many more men than women (74 to 26 in 2020). In this case, then, the availability heuristic would lead you to make the correct judgment; it is far more likely that a senator would be a man.

In many other cases, however, the availability heuristic will lead us astray. This is because events can be memorable for many reasons other than their frequency. Section 5.2, Encoding Meaning, suggested that one good way to encode the meaning of some information is to form a mental image of it. Thus, information that has been pictured mentally will be more available to memory. Indeed, an event that is vivid and easily pictured will trick many people into supposing that type of event is more common than it actually is. Repetition of information will also make it more memorable. So, if the same event is described to you in a magazine, on the evening news, on a podcast that you listen to, and in your Facebook feed; it will be very available to memory. Again, the availability heuristic will cause you to misperceive the frequency of these types of events.

Most interestingly, information that is unusual is more memorable. Suppose we give you the following list of words to remember: box, flower, letter, platypus, oven, boat, newspaper, purse, drum, car. Very likely, the easiest word to remember would be platypus, the unusual one. The same thing occurs with memories of events. An event may be available to memory because it is unusual, yet the availability heuristic leads us to judge that the event is common. Did you catch that? In these cases, the availability heuristic makes us think the exact opposite of the true frequency. We end up thinking something is common because it is unusual (and therefore memorable). Yikes.

The misapplication of the availability heuristic sometimes has unfortunate results. For example, if you went to K-12 school in the US over the past 10 years, it is extremely likely that you have participated in lockdown and active shooter drills. Of course, everyone is trying to prevent the tragedy of another school shooting. And believe us, we are not trying to minimize how terrible the tragedy is. But the truth of the matter is, school shootings are extremely rare. Because the federal government does not keep a database of school shootings, the Washington Post has maintained their own running tally. Between 1999 and January 2020 (the date of the most recent school shooting with a death in the US at of the time this paragraph was written), the Post reported a total of 254 people died in school shootings in the US. Not 254 per year, 254 total. That is an average of 12 per year. Of course, that is 254 people who should not have died (particularly because many were children), but in a country with approximately 60,000,000 students and teachers, this is a very small risk.

But many students and teachers are terrified that they will be victims of school shootings because of the availability heuristic. It is so easy to think of examples (they are very available to memory) that people believe the event is very common. It is not. And there is a downside to this. We happen to believe that there is an enormous gun violence problem in the United States. According the the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there were 39,773 firearm deaths in the US in 2017. Fifteen of those deaths were in school shootings, according to the Post. 60% of those deaths were suicides. When people pay attention to the school shooting risk (low), they often fail to notice the much larger risk.

And examples like this are by no means unique. The authors of this book have been teaching psychology since the 1990’s. We have been able to make the exact same arguments about the misapplication of the availability heuristics and keep them current by simply swapping out for the “fear of the day.” In the 1990’s it was children being kidnapped by strangers (it was known as “stranger danger”) despite the facts that kidnappings accounted for only 2% of the violent crimes committed against children, and only 24% of kidnappings are committed by strangers (US Department of Justice, 2007). This fear overlapped with the fear of terrorism that gripped the country after the 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and US Pentagon and still plagues the population of the US somewhat in 2020. After a well-publicized, sensational act of violence, people are extremely likely to increase their estimates of the chances that they, too, will be victims of terror. Think about the reality, however. In October of 2001, a terrorist mailed anthrax spores to members of the US government and a number of media companies. A total of five people died as a result of this attack. The nation was nearly paralyzed by the fear of dying from the attack; in reality the probability of an individual person dying was 0.00000002.

The availability heuristic can lead you to make incorrect judgments in a school setting as well. For example, suppose you are trying to decide if you should take a class from a particular math professor. You might try to make a judgment of how good a teacher she is by recalling instances of friends and acquaintances making comments about her teaching skill. You may have some examples that suggest that she is a poor teacher very available to memory, so on the basis of the availability heuristic you judge her a poor teacher and decide to take the class from someone else. What if, however, the instances you recalled were all from the same person, and this person happens to be a very colorful storyteller? The subsequent ease of remembering the instances might not indicate that the professor is a poor teacher after all.

Although the availability heuristic is obviously important, it is not the only judgment heuristic we use. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman examined the role of heuristics in inductive reasoning in a long series of studies. Kahneman received a Nobel Prize in Economics for this research in 2002, and Tversky would have certainly received one as well if he had not died of melanoma at age 59 in 1996 (Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously). Kahneman and Tversky demonstrated repeatedly that people do not reason in ways that are consistent with the laws of probability. They identified several heuristic strategies that people use instead to make judgments about likelihood. The importance of this work for economics (and the reason that Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize) is that earlier economic theories had assumed that people do make judgments rationally, that is, in agreement with the laws of probability.

Another common heuristic that people use for making judgments is the  representativeness heuristic (Kahneman & Tversky 1973). Suppose we describe a person to you. He is quiet and shy, has an unassuming personality, and likes to work with numbers. Is this person more likely to be an accountant or an attorney? If you said accountant, you were probably using the representativeness heuristic. Our imaginary person is judged likely to be an accountant because he resembles, or is representative of the concept of, an accountant. When research participants are asked to make judgments such as these, the only thing that seems to matter is the representativeness of the description. For example, if told that the person described is in a room that contains 70 attorneys and 30 accountants, participants will still assume that he is an accountant.

inductive reasoning :  a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

inductively strong argument :  an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

heuristic :  a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

availability heuristic :  judging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

representativeness heuristic:   judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)

Type 1 thinking : fast, automatic, and emotional thinking.

Type 2 thinking : slow, effortful, and logical thinking.

• What percentage of workplace homicides are co-worker violence?

Many people get these questions wrong. The answers are 10%; stairs; skin; 6%. How close were your answers? Explain how the availability heuristic might have led you to make the incorrect judgments.

• Can you think of some other judgments that you have made (or beliefs that you have) that might have been influenced by the availability heuristic?

7.3 Problem Solving

• Please take a few minutes to list a number of problems that you are facing right now.
• Now write about a problem that you recently solved.
• What is your definition of a problem?

Mary has a problem. Her daughter, ordinarily quite eager to please, appears to delight in being the last person to do anything. Whether getting ready for school, going to piano lessons or karate class, or even going out with her friends, she seems unwilling or unable to get ready on time. Other people have different kinds of problems. For example, many students work at jobs, have numerous family commitments, and are facing a course schedule full of difficult exams, assignments, papers, and speeches. How can they find enough time to devote to their studies and still fulfill their other obligations? Speaking of students and their problems: Show that a ball thrown vertically upward with initial velocity v0 takes twice as much time to return as to reach the highest point (from Spiegel, 1981).

These are three very different situations, but we have called them all problems. What makes them all the same, despite the differences? A psychologist might define a  problem   as a situation with an initial state, a goal state, and a set of possible intermediate states. Somewhat more meaningfully, we might consider a problem a situation in which you are in here one state (e.g., daughter is always late), you want to be there in another state (e.g., daughter is not always late), and with no obvious way to get from here to there. Defined this way, each of the three situations we outlined can now be seen as an example of the same general concept, a problem. At this point, you might begin to wonder what is not a problem, given such a general definition. It seems that nearly every non-routine task we engage in could qualify as a problem. As long as you realize that problems are not necessarily bad (it can be quite fun and satisfying to rise to the challenge and solve a problem), this may be a useful way to think about it.

Can we identify a set of problem-solving skills that would apply to these very different kinds of situations? That task, in a nutshell, is a major goal of this section. Let us try to begin to make sense of the wide variety of ways that problems can be solved with an important observation: the process of solving problems can be divided into two key parts. First, people have to notice, comprehend, and represent the problem properly in their minds (called  problem representation ). Second, they have to apply some kind of solution strategy to the problem. Psychologists have studied both of these key parts of the process in detail.

When you first think about the problem-solving process, you might guess that most of our difficulties would occur because we are failing in the second step, the application of strategies. Although this can be a significant difficulty much of the time, the more important source of difficulty is probably problem representation. In short, we often fail to solve a problem because we are looking at it, or thinking about it, the wrong way.

problem :  a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

problem representation :  noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

Defining and Mentally Representing Problems in Order to Solve Them

So, the main obstacle to solving a problem is that we do not clearly understand exactly what the problem is. Recall the problem with Mary’s daughter always being late. One way to represent, or to think about, this problem is that she is being defiant. She refuses to get ready in time. This type of representation or definition suggests a particular type of solution. Another way to think about the problem, however, is to consider the possibility that she is simply being sidetracked by interesting diversions. This different conception of what the problem is (i.e., different representation) suggests a very different solution strategy. For example, if Mary defines the problem as defiance, she may be tempted to solve the problem using some kind of coercive tactics, that is, to assert her authority as her mother and force her to listen. On the other hand, if Mary defines the problem as distraction, she may try to solve it by simply removing the distracting objects.

As you might guess, when a problem is represented one way, the solution may seem very difficult, or even impossible. Seen another way, the solution might be very easy. For example, consider the following problem (from Nasar, 1998):

Two bicyclists start 20 miles apart and head toward each other, each going at a steady rate of 10 miles per hour. At the same time, a fly that travels at a steady 15 miles per hour starts from the front wheel of the southbound bicycle and flies to the front wheel of the northbound one, then turns around and flies to the front wheel of the southbound one again, and continues in this manner until he is crushed between the two front wheels. Question: what total distance did the fly cover?

Please take a few minutes to try to solve this problem.

Most people represent this problem as a question about a fly because, well, that is how the question is asked. The solution, using this representation, is to figure out how far the fly travels on the first leg of its journey, then add this total to how far it travels on the second leg of its journey (when it turns around and returns to the first bicycle), then continue to add the smaller distance from each leg of the journey until you converge on the correct answer. You would have to be quite skilled at math to solve this problem, and you would probably need some time and pencil and paper to do it.

If you consider a different representation, however, you can solve this problem in your head. Instead of thinking about it as a question about a fly, think about it as a question about the bicycles. They are 20 miles apart, and each is traveling 10 miles per hour. How long will it take for the bicycles to reach each other? Right, one hour. The fly is traveling 15 miles per hour; therefore, it will travel a total of 15 miles back and forth in the hour before the bicycles meet. Represented one way (as a problem about a fly), the problem is quite difficult. Represented another way (as a problem about two bicycles), it is easy. Changing your representation of a problem is sometimes the best—sometimes the only—way to solve it.

Unfortunately, however, changing a problem’s representation is not the easiest thing in the world to do. Often, problem solvers get stuck looking at a problem one way. This is called  fixation . Most people who represent the preceding problem as a problem about a fly probably do not pause to reconsider, and consequently change, their representation. A parent who thinks her daughter is being defiant is unlikely to consider the possibility that her behavior is far less purposeful.

Problem-solving fixation was examined by a group of German psychologists called Gestalt psychologists during the 1930’s and 1940’s. Karl Dunker, for example, discovered an important type of failure to take a different perspective called  functional fixedness . Imagine being a participant in one of his experiments. You are asked to figure out how to mount two candles on a door and are given an assortment of odds and ends, including a small empty cardboard box and some thumbtacks. Perhaps you have already figured out a solution: tack the box to the door so it forms a platform, then put the candles on top of the box. Most people are able to arrive at this solution. Imagine a slight variation of the procedure, however. What if, instead of being empty, the box had matches in it? Most people given this version of the problem do not arrive at the solution given above. Why? Because it seems to people that when the box contains matches, it already has a function; it is a matchbox. People are unlikely to consider a new function for an object that already has a function. This is functional fixedness.

Mental set is a type of fixation in which the problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past, even though the solution may no longer be useful. It is commonly seen when students do math problems for homework. Often, several problems in a row require the reapplication of the same solution strategy. Then, without warning, the next problem in the set requires a new strategy. Many students attempt to apply the formerly successful strategy on the new problem and therefore cannot come up with a correct answer.

The thing to remember is that you cannot solve a problem unless you correctly identify what it is to begin with (initial state) and what you want the end result to be (goal state). That may mean looking at the problem from a different angle and representing it in a new way. The correct representation does not guarantee a successful solution, but it certainly puts you on the right track.

A bit more optimistically, the Gestalt psychologists discovered what may be considered the opposite of fixation, namely  insight . Sometimes the solution to a problem just seems to pop into your head. Wolfgang Kohler examined insight by posing many different problems to chimpanzees, principally problems pertaining to their acquisition of out-of-reach food. In one version, a banana was placed outside of a chimpanzee’s cage and a short stick inside the cage. The stick was too short to retrieve the banana, but was long enough to retrieve a longer stick also located outside of the cage. This second stick was long enough to retrieve the banana. After trying, and failing, to reach the banana with the shorter stick, the chimpanzee would try a couple of random-seeming attempts, react with some apparent frustration or anger, then suddenly rush to the longer stick, the correct solution fully realized at this point. This sudden appearance of the solution, observed many times with many different problems, was termed insight by Kohler.

Lest you think it pertains to chimpanzees only, Karl Dunker demonstrated that children also solve problems through insight in the 1930s. More importantly, you have probably experienced insight yourself. Think back to a time when you were trying to solve a difficult problem. After struggling for a while, you gave up. Hours later, the solution just popped into your head, perhaps when you were taking a walk, eating dinner, or lying in bed.

fixation :  when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

functional fixedness :  a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

mental set :  a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

insight :  a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

Solving Problems by Trial and Error

Correctly identifying the problem and your goal for a solution is a good start, but recall the psychologist’s definition of a problem: it includes a set of possible intermediate states. Viewed this way, a problem can be solved satisfactorily only if one can find a path through some of these intermediate states to the goal. Imagine a fairly routine problem, finding a new route to school when your ordinary route is blocked (by road construction, for example). At each intersection, you may turn left, turn right, or go straight. A satisfactory solution to the problem (of getting to school) is a sequence of selections at each intersection that allows you to wind up at school.

If you had all the time in the world to get to school, you might try choosing intermediate states randomly. At one corner you turn left, the next you go straight, then you go left again, then right, then right, then straight. Unfortunately, trial and error will not necessarily get you where you want to go, and even if it does, it is not the fastest way to get there. For example, when a friend of ours was in college, he got lost on the way to a concert and attempted to find the venue by choosing streets to turn onto randomly (this was long before the use of GPS). Amazingly enough, the strategy worked, although he did end up missing two out of the three bands who played that night.

Trial and error is not all bad, however. B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist psychologist, suggested that people often behave randomly in order to see what effect the behavior has on the environment and what subsequent effect this environmental change has on them. This seems particularly true for the very young person. Picture a child filling a household’s fish tank with toilet paper, for example. To a child trying to develop a repertoire of creative problem-solving strategies, an odd and random behavior might be just the ticket. Eventually, the exasperated parent hopes, the child will discover that many of these random behaviors do not successfully solve problems; in fact, in many cases they create problems. Thus, one would expect a decrease in this random behavior as a child matures. You should realize, however, that the opposite extreme is equally counterproductive. If the children become too rigid, never trying something unexpected and new, their problem solving skills can become too limited.

Effective problem solving seems to call for a happy medium that strikes a balance between using well-founded old strategies and trying new ground and territory. The individual who recognizes a situation in which an old problem-solving strategy would work best, and who can also recognize a situation in which a new untested strategy is necessary is halfway to success.

Solving Problems with Algorithms and Heuristics

For many problems there is a possible strategy available that will guarantee a correct solution. For example, think about math problems. Math lessons often consist of step-by-step procedures that can be used to solve the problems. If you apply the strategy without error, you are guaranteed to arrive at the correct solution to the problem. This approach is called using an  algorithm , a term that denotes the step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution. Because algorithms are sometimes available and come with a guarantee, you might think that most people use them frequently. Unfortunately, however, they do not. As the experience of many students who have struggled through math classes can attest, algorithms can be extremely difficult to use, even when the problem solver knows which algorithm is supposed to work in solving the problem. In problems outside of math class, we often do not even know if an algorithm is available. It is probably fair to say, then, that algorithms are rarely used when people try to solve problems.

Because algorithms are so difficult to use, people often pass up the opportunity to guarantee a correct solution in favor of a strategy that is much easier to use and yields a reasonable chance of coming up with a correct solution. These strategies are called  problem solving heuristics . Similar to what you saw in section 6.2 with reasoning heuristics, a problem solving heuristic is a shortcut strategy that people use when trying to solve problems. It usually works pretty well, but does not guarantee a correct solution to the problem. For example, one problem solving heuristic might be “always move toward the goal” (so when trying to get to school when your regular route is blocked, you would always turn in the direction you think the school is). A heuristic that people might use when doing math homework is “use the same solution strategy that you just used for the previous problem.”

By the way, we hope these last two paragraphs feel familiar to you. They seem to parallel a distinction that you recently learned. Indeed, algorithms and problem-solving heuristics are another example of the distinction between Type 1 thinking and Type 2 thinking.

Although it is probably not worth describing a large number of specific heuristics, two observations about heuristics are worth mentioning. First, heuristics can be very general or they can be very specific, pertaining to a particular type of problem only. For example, “always move toward the goal” is a general strategy that you can apply to countless problem situations. On the other hand, “when you are lost without a functioning gps, pick the most expensive car you can see and follow it” is specific to the problem of being lost. Second, all heuristics are not equally useful. One heuristic that many students know is “when in doubt, choose c for a question on a multiple-choice exam.” This is a dreadful strategy because many instructors intentionally randomize the order of answer choices. Another test-taking heuristic, somewhat more useful, is “look for the answer to one question somewhere else on the exam.”

You really should pay attention to the application of heuristics to test taking. Imagine that while reviewing your answers for a multiple-choice exam before turning it in, you come across a question for which you originally thought the answer was c. Upon reflection, you now think that the answer might be b. Should you change the answer to b, or should you stick with your first impression? Most people will apply the heuristic strategy to “stick with your first impression.” What they do not realize, of course, is that this is a very poor strategy (Lilienfeld et al, 2009). Most of the errors on exams come on questions that were answered wrong originally and were not changed (so they remain wrong). There are many fewer errors where we change a correct answer to an incorrect answer. And, of course, sometimes we change an incorrect answer to a correct answer. In fact, research has shown that it is more common to change a wrong answer to a right answer than vice versa (Bruno, 2001).

The belief in this poor test-taking strategy (stick with your first impression) is based on the  confirmation bias   (Nickerson, 1998; Wason, 1960). You first saw the confirmation bias in Module 1, but because it is so important, we will repeat the information here. People have a bias, or tendency, to notice information that confirms what they already believe. Somebody at one time told you to stick with your first impression, so when you look at the results of an exam you have taken, you will tend to notice the cases that are consistent with that belief. That is, you will notice the cases in which you originally had an answer correct and changed it to the wrong answer. You tend not to notice the other two important (and more common) cases, changing an answer from wrong to right, and leaving a wrong answer unchanged.

Because heuristics by definition do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem, mistakes are bound to occur when we employ them. A poor choice of a specific heuristic will lead to an even higher likelihood of making an error.

algorithm :  a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

problem solving heuristic :  a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

confirmation bias :  people’s tendency to notice information that confirms what they already believe

An Effective Problem-Solving Sequence

You may be left with a big question: If algorithms are hard to use and heuristics often don’t work, how am I supposed to solve problems? Robert Sternberg (1996), as part of his theory of what makes people successfully intelligent (Module 8) described a problem-solving sequence that has been shown to work rather well:

• Identify the existence of a problem.  In school, problem identification is often easy; problems that you encounter in math classes, for example, are conveniently labeled as problems for you. Outside of school, however, realizing that you have a problem is a key difficulty that you must get past in order to begin solving it. You must be very sensitive to the symptoms that indicate a problem.
• Define the problem.  Suppose you realize that you have been having many headaches recently. Very likely, you would identify this as a problem. If you define the problem as “headaches,” the solution would probably be to take aspirin or ibuprofen or some other anti-inflammatory medication. If the headaches keep returning, however, you have not really solved the problem—likely because you have mistaken a symptom for the problem itself. Instead, you must find the root cause of the headaches. Stress might be the real problem. For you to successfully solve many problems it may be necessary for you to overcome your fixations and represent the problems differently. One specific strategy that you might find useful is to try to define the problem from someone else’s perspective. How would your parents, spouse, significant other, doctor, etc. define the problem? Somewhere in these different perspectives may lurk the key definition that will allow you to find an easier and permanent solution.
• Formulate strategy.  Now it is time to begin planning exactly how the problem will be solved. Is there an algorithm or heuristic available for you to use? Remember, heuristics by their very nature guarantee that occasionally you will not be able to solve the problem. One point to keep in mind is that you should look for long-range solutions, which are more likely to address the root cause of a problem than short-range solutions.
• Represent and organize information.  Similar to the way that the problem itself can be defined, or represented in multiple ways, information within the problem is open to different interpretations. Suppose you are studying for a big exam. You have chapters from a textbook and from a supplemental reader, along with lecture notes that all need to be studied. How should you (represent and) organize these materials? Should you separate them by type of material (text versus reader versus lecture notes), or should you separate them by topic? To solve problems effectively, you must learn to find the most useful representation and organization of information.
• Allocate resources.  This is perhaps the simplest principle of the problem solving sequence, but it is extremely difficult for many people. First, you must decide whether time, money, skills, effort, goodwill, or some other resource would help to solve the problem Then, you must make the hard choice of deciding which resources to use, realizing that you cannot devote maximum resources to every problem. Very often, the solution to problem is simply to change how resources are allocated (for example, spending more time studying in order to improve grades).
• Monitor and evaluate solutions.  Pay attention to the solution strategy while you are applying it. If it is not working, you may be able to select another strategy. Another fact you should realize about problem solving is that it never does end. Solving one problem frequently brings up new ones. Good monitoring and evaluation of your problem solutions can help you to anticipate and get a jump on solving the inevitable new problems that will arise.

Please note that this as  an  effective problem-solving sequence, not  the  effective problem solving sequence. Just as you can become fixated and end up representing the problem incorrectly or trying an inefficient solution, you can become stuck applying the problem-solving sequence in an inflexible way. Clearly there are problem situations that can be solved without using these skills in this order.

Additionally, many real-world problems may require that you go back and redefine a problem several times as the situation changes (Sternberg et al. 2000). For example, consider the problem with Mary’s daughter one last time. At first, Mary did represent the problem as one of defiance. When her early strategy of pleading and threatening punishment was unsuccessful, Mary began to observe her daughter more carefully. She noticed that, indeed, her daughter’s attention would be drawn by an irresistible distraction or book. Fresh with a re-representation of the problem, she began a new solution strategy. She began to remind her daughter every few minutes to stay on task and remind her that if she is ready before it is time to leave, she may return to the book or other distracting object at that time. Fortunately, this strategy was successful, so Mary did not have to go back and redefine the problem again.

Pick one or two of the problems that you listed when you first started studying this section and try to work out the steps of Sternberg’s problem solving sequence for each one.

a mental representation of a category of things in the world

an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

Thinking like a scientist in your everyday life for the purpose of drawing correct conclusions. It entails skepticism; an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; and excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills.

a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

fast, automatic, and emotional thinking

slow, effortful, and logical thinking

a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

udging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)

a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

The tendency to notice and pay attention to information that confirms your prior beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms them.

a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Ken Gray; Elizabeth Arnott-Hill; and Or'Shaundra Benson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Number Theory
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Take a guided, problem-solving based approach to learning Logic. These compilations provide unique perspectives and applications you won't find anywhere else.

What's inside

• Introduction
• Puzzles and Riddles
• Multi-Level Thinking
• The Rational Detective
• Syllogisms and Sets
• Logic Machines
• Arithmetic With Logic Gates
• Propositional Logic
• First-Order Logic

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• Intro to Problem Solving
• Coin Rearrangements
• Truth Tellers and Liars
• Operator Searches
• Matchstick Puzzles

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• Elimination Grids
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What is Logical Thinking? Meaning, Skills, Examples

What is Logical Thinking?

Logical thinking is a mental cycle that comprises methodically pondering, breaking down, and analyzing the material. A viewpoint requires clear and objective reasoning to arrive at acceptable resolutions or utilize sound judgment. Logical thinking enables people to discern designs, form relationships, and draw reasonable conclusions based on evidence and consistent criteria.

One of the most important aspects of logical thinking is recognizing and comprehending the connections between diverse bits of data or ideas. Perceiving circumstances and logical conclusion links, identifying similitudes and contrasts, and comprehending how diverse components fit together in a legal system are all part of this. People can use logical thinking to thoroughly examine claims, recognize misrepresentations, and distinguish between substantial and erroneous thinking.

Importance of logical thinking

• Problem-solving: Logical thinking is essential for effective problem-solving. It helps individuals break down complex problems into smaller, manageable parts, analyze the underlying causes, and devise logical strategies to reach solutions.
• Decision-making: Logical thinking aids in making informed and rational decisions. By evaluating the available options, considering the potential outcomes, and weighing the pros and cons, individuals can make decisions that are based on reason rather than emotions or biases.
• Critical thinking: Logical thinking is closely tied to critical thinking. It allows individuals to assess information critically, question assumptions, and examine evidence objectively. This enables them to form well-founded opinions and make informed judgments.
• Communication:  Logical thinking plays a crucial role in effective communication. It helps individuals organize their thoughts coherently, present arguments logically, and convey ideas clearly and in structure.
• Learning and education: Logical thinking is a fundamental skill for learning and education. It helps individuals understand new concepts, connect ideas, and engage in analytical thinking. Students can grasp complex subjects and retain information more effectively by applying logical thinking.

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Ways to improve your logical thinking

• Practice puzzles and games: Engaging in puzzles, brainteasers, and logic games can enhance your logical thinking skills. These activities challenge your ability to analyze information, spot patterns, and make logical deductions.
• Seek out diverse perspectives: Exposing yourself to different viewpoints and perspectives can broaden your thinking and help you develop more comprehensive and logical reasoning. Engage in discussions, read diverse materials, and listen to others’ opinions to expand your cognitive horizons.
• Sharpen your analytical skills: Analytical thinking is inextricably tied to logical reasoning. Improve your analytical abilities by breaking difficult situations down into smaller components, finding crucial aspects, and analyzing their linkages.
• Exercise critical thinking: Critical thinking entails challenging assumptions, scrutinizing evidence, and weighing arguments. Sharpen your logical thinking skills by partaking in critical thinking tasks such as article analysis or discussions.
• Use reasoning in everyday situations: Look for opportunities to use logic in your daily life. Before making a choice or solving an issue, take a step back, analyze the facts objectively, and evaluate the logical consequences.

How can you build logical thinking skills?

Building logical thinking skills can be accomplished through various activities and approaches. Here are some ways to develop and strengthen logical thinking abilities.

• Spending time on creative hobbies: Engaging in creative hobbies offers a unique opportunity to develop logical thinking skills. Activities such as painting, writing, or playing musical instruments require planning, organization, and problem-solving. When you paint a picture or write a story, you need to envision the end result and determine the steps to achieve it. This involves logical sequencing, recognizing patterns, and making decisions based on visual or narrative coherence. Creative hobbies foster analytical thinking by encouraging you to experiment, make connections between elements, and find logical solutions to challenges that arise during the creative process. They cultivate a mindset that values logical reasoning and problem-solving in an artistic context.
• Practising questioning: One of the most effective ways to build logical thinking skills is by developing the habit of questioning. By questioning information, assumptions, and conclusions, you engage in critical thinking and analyze the logical validity of statements. This involves asking probing questions such as “How do you know that?”, “What evidence supports this claim?” or “Are there any logical fallacies in this argument?”. By consistently questioning, you train your mind to think critically and evaluate the soundness of reasoning. This skill is applicable to various aspects of life, from evaluating news articles to solving complex problems, and helps you approach situations with a logical and analytical mindset.
• Socializing with others:  Engaging in conversations and social interactions with diverse individuals effectively enhances logical thinking skills. Interacting with others exposes you to different perspectives, ideas, and thought processes. Engaging in debates or group discussions challenges your assumptions, forces you to consider alternative viewpoints, and evaluates arguments logically. Socializing allows you to practice active listening, critically analyze information, and express your thoughts coherently. It broadens your cognitive frontiers, promotes open-mindedness, and aids in the development of the capacity to think rationally while traversing diverse points of view and engaging in constructive discourse.
• Developing a new skill: Learning a new skill, whether coding, chess, or solving puzzles, is a wonderful way to build logical thinking abilities. Understanding concepts, following logical rules or algorithms, and using problem-solving methods are all required for learning a new skill. Learning to code, for instance, involves breaking down complex problems into smaller, manageable steps and using logical reasoning to devise solutions. Similarly, chess requires strategic thinking, evaluating different moves, and anticipating consequences, all of which require logical thinking. By engaging in skill acquisition, you exercise your logical thinking muscles and cultivate a mindset that embraces systematic and analytical approaches to learning and problem-solving.

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Now, let’s explore the steps to think logically.

• Identify the problem or question: Clearly define the issue or question that requires logical thinking. Break it down into manageable parts.
• Gather relevant information: Collect all the necessary information and data related to the problem or question. Ensure the information is reliable and unbiased.
• Analyze the information: Examine the collected information critically. Look for patterns, connections, and relationships between different elements.
• Apply logical reasoning: Use logical principles, such as deductive or inductive reasoning, to draw conclusions or develop solutions. Follow logical rules and avoid fallacies.
• Evaluate and revise:  Assess the logical validity of your conclusions or solutions. Look for potential weaknesses or errors in your reasoning. Revise and refine your thinking based on the evaluation.

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Components of logical thinking include.

• Rationality: Logical thinking relies on rational thought processes, using reason rather than emotions or biases to reach conclusions.
• Analytical thinking: Logical thinking involves breaking down complex problems or information into smaller parts and examining their relationships and connections.
• Pattern recognition: Recognising patterns and links between diverse parts or information is an important part of logical reasoning.
• Logical reasoning: Using logical concepts like deductive or inductive reasoning to reach logical conclusions or make solid judgments.
• Problem-solving: Logical thinking is essential for effective problem-solving because it allows individuals to analyze issues, establish methods, and arrive at logical answers.
• Critical thinking: Logical thinking and critical thinking are inextricably linked since they both involve analyzing evidence, questioning assumptions, and participating in objective analysis.

Individuals may improve their logical thinking abilities and use them successfully in all facets of life by knowing and developing these components.

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Examples of thinking logically on different occasions

• Making a purchasing decision: When contemplating the purchase of a new electronic item, logical thinking might entail studying several models, comparing their features, reading user reviews, and analyzing their long-term worth. This methodical technique will assist you in making an informed selection based on objective criteria rather than impulsive impulses.
• Workplace problem-solving: A ssume you have a technological problem at work. Identifying the problem, acquiring relevant facts, analyzing probable causes, and testing alternative remedies methodically are all examples of logical reasoning. By following a logical procedure, you may narrow down the problem and develop an effective solution based on data and reasoning.
• Resolving conflicts: In a disagreement with a colleague or friend, logical thinking helps to approach the situation objectively. It involves listening to both sides, analyzing the underlying causes, identifying common ground, and proposing reasoned compromises. By applying logical thinking, you can navigate emotions, focus on facts, and find resolutions that consider multiple perspectives.

Logical thinking is an invaluable skill that aids in making sound decisions, solving problems effectively, and resolving conflicts. It enables individuals to approach various situations with clarity, reason, and critical analysis. By cultivating logical thinking skills through practice and conscious effort, individuals can enhance their cognitive abilities, improve decision-making, and foster constructive interactions in personal and professional settings.

Keerthi Shivakumar

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Yes, logical thinking can be learned and developed through practice, critical thinking exercises, and engaging in activities that promote analytical reasoning.

Logical thinking and critical thinking are closely related but not identical. Critical thinking involves evaluating information, questioning assumptions, and assessing arguments, while logical thinking focuses on reasoning and drawing valid conclusions based on evidence and logical principles.

Absolutely. Logical thinking can be applied in creative fields as it helps organize ideas, identify patterns, and make logical connections that enhance the coherence and effectiveness of creative works.

Developing logical thinking skills can be challenging, especially when faced with complex problems or conflicting information. It requires patience, practice, and a willingness to question assumptions and biases.

Logical thinking is fundamental to academic success as it aids in understanding complex concepts, analyzing information critically, and effectively communicating ideas. It enables students to think deeply, make logical arguments, and excel in problem-solving tasks across various disciplines.

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Analytical Thinking, Critical Analysis, and Problem Solving Guide

• Post author: Samir Saif
• Post published: September 5, 2023
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Analytical thinking; is a mental process that entails dissecting an issue or situation into its constituent parts, investigating their relationships, and reaching conclusions based on facts and logic.

It is not about trusting instincts or making assumptions; rather, it is about studying details, recognizing patterns, and developing a full understanding. Whether you’re a seasoned professional, an aspiring entrepreneur, or a curious mind, improving analytical thinking can help you solve problems more effectively.

Table of Contents

Analytical Thinking’s Importance in Problem Solving

Certainly! Analytical thinking entails the capacity to gather pertinent information, critically assess evidence, and reach logical conclusions. It enables you to:

• Identify Root Causes: Analytical thinking allows you to delve deeper into a problem to find the underlying causes rather than just addressing surface-level symptoms.
• Reduce Risks: Analytical thinking can help discover potential risks and obstacles connected with various solutions. This kind of thinking encourages constant progress and the generation of new ideas.
• Improve Communication: Analytical thinking enables you to deliver clear and well-structured explanations while giving answers to others.
• Adaptability : Analytical thinking gives you a flexible attitude.
• Learning and Development: Analytical thinking improves your cognitive skills, allowing you to learn from prior experiences and apply those lessons to new situations.
• Problem Prevention: By examining previous difficulties, you can find trends and patterns.
• Analytical thinking is, in essence, the foundation of effective problem-solving. It enables you to approach problems methodically, make well-informed judgments, and eventually get better results.

Key Components of Analytical Thinking

Analytical thinking is a multifaceted process including a beautifully woven tapestry of observation, inquiry, and logic. Engage your curiosity as you approach a complex task and see patterns emerge, similar to stars in the night sky.

These patterns direct your thinking toward greater comprehension. Your understanding grows as you progress, and your analytical thinking becomes a light of clarity, guiding people through the fog of complexity.

Your tapestry is complete as you approach the shores of conclusion, a tribute to the power of analytical thinking. Embrace your curiosity, navigate the waters of observation, and let the stars of logic guide you. Remember that the art of analytical thinking is a magnificent journey that leads to enlightenment.

Using analytical reasoning in real-life situations

Absolutely! Let’s get started with analytical thinking! Consider yourself in a busy city, attempting to discover the shortest route to your goal. Instead than taking the first option that comes to mind, you take a moment to think about your possibilities.

This is the initial stage in analytical thinking: evaluating the situation. As you contemplate, you balance the advantages and disadvantages of each route, taking into account issues such as traffic, distance, and potential bypasses. This information gathering approach assists you in making an informed decision.

Breaking down the problem

Then you go to the second phase, which entails breaking the problem down into smaller portions. You break down the difficult job of navigating the city into manageable components, much like a puzzle.

This technique allows you to identify future difficulties and devise creative solutions. For example, you may observe a construction zone on one route but recall a shortcut that may save you time.

Read Also:  Goal Alignment: Key Strategies for Success

Analyzing the information

You employ critical thinking to assess the material you’ve received as you go. As you consider the significance of each component—time, distance, and traffic—patterns and connections emerge.

You begin to make connections and discover that, while a faster route may appear enticing, heavy traffic at certain times of day might make it a frustrating experience.

Make a decision

Making a decision in the last step necessitates a complete comprehension of the circumstance as well as critical analysis. Analytical thinking entails investigating alternatives, comprehending nuances, and making informed decisions.

This approach can lead to optimal, well-thought-out, and adaptable solutions, whether navigating a city, tackling a complex project, or making life decisions. Analytic thinking allows one to make informed judgments that benefit both the situation and the individual.

Strategies to Enhance Analytical Thinking Skills

Developing strong analytical thinking abilities is a journey that opens up new possibilities for comprehension and issue solving.

Consider yourself on an exciting mental journey where every challenge is an opportunity for improvement. Here’s a step-by-step guide to cultivating and improving your analytical thinking talents.

Accept curiosity

Begin by embracing your curiosity. Allow your thoughts to roam, pondering about the hows and whys of the world around you.

Allow yourself to immerse yourself completely in the complexities of a complex topic, such as climate change. “What are the underlying causes of this phenomenon?” Two decent places to start are “How do different variables interact to shape its outcomes?”.

Improve your observing abilities

Then, put your observation abilities to the test. Pay close attention to details that would otherwise go undetected. Instead of just gazing at the colors and shapes, try to figure out the brushstrokes, the play of light and shadow, and the feelings they create, as if you were studying a painting.

When analyzing data, look underneath the surface figures for trends, anomalies, and patterns that can reveal hidden insights.

Accept critical thinking

Learn to think critically as you progress. Examine your assumptions and look for alternative points of view. Assume you’re looking into a business problem, such as declining sales.

Instead than jumping to conclusions, investigate the matter from all angles. Consider changes in the sector, client preferences, and even internal corporate processes. This broader viewpoint can lead to creative solutions.

Read Also:  Business Development: Strategies and Tips for Success

Experiment with logical reasoning

Also, practice logical reasoning. Improve your ability to connect the dots and build logical chains of reasoning. As if you were assembling a jigsaw puzzle, each piece must fit snugly into the whole.

Consider how numerous variables such as population growth, infrastructure, and transportation systems logically interconnect when dealing with a complex issue such as urban congestion.

Improve your problem-solving skills

Develop your problem-solving abilities as well. For example, if you’re struggling with a personal issue, such as time management, break it down into smaller components. Analyze your daily routine to discover bottlenecks and develop a strategy to overcome them.

Foster continuous learning

Finally, encourage ongoing learning by broadening your knowledge base and investigating new domains. Imagine yourself as a discerning thinker analyzing the world’s intricacies and unraveling secrets.

Remember that progress, not perfection, is the goal. Every task, question, and conundrum you solve puts you one step closer to being an analytical juggernaut. Continue to explore and study to see your critical thinking skills soar to new heights.

Applying analytical reasoning to work

Assume you are a business owner who wants to boost client happiness. An analytical thinker would collect and analyze client input to uncover frequent pain issues.

You can adopt targeted adjustments that address the fundamental causes of unhappiness by detecting patterns in feedback data.

How can you demonstrate analytical skills on a resume?

Analytical skills on your CV can set you apart and leave a lasting impression on potential employers. Make your CV into a canvas, describing specific instances where your analytical skills were put to use.

Share how you methodically dissected a challenging topic or situation, revealing insights that aided your decision-making.

If you were tasked with optimizing a company’s supply chain, for example, dig further into data on inventory levels, production rates, and distribution deadlines.

Explain how your study found a bottleneck in the distribution network, leading to a realignment suggestion that saved the organization time and money.

Storytelling is key. Create a fascinating story about how your analytical abilities helped solve a tough problem, demonstrating your abilities and attracting the reader.

Your CV should read like a motivational trip through your analytical abilities, inspiring companies with your future contributions to their organization.

What is a case study of analytical thinking?

Absolutely! Let me give you an excellent example of analytical thinking that perfectly expresses its essence. Maya, a young scientist in this example, is dedicated to discovering a long-term solution for safe drinking water in rural areas.

She performs extensive research on water supplies, toxins, and local circumstances, looking for patterns and anomalies. She develops the concept that heavy rains increase runoff, resulting in higher levels of water contamination.

Maya designs controlled experiments in a lab setting to test her idea, acquiring quantifiable information through manipulation and observation.

Maya’s investigation continues, and she explores the big picture, imagining a multi-faceted solution that involves rainwater gathering, enhanced filtration systems, and community education.

She anticipates problems and works with engineers, social workers, and community leaders to refine her ideas and ensure their viability.

Her journey exemplifies how analytical thinking can lead to transformational solutions, and it motivates us to tackle complex challenges with curiosity, diligence, and the hope that careful analysis may design a better future.

Final Thoughts

Analytical thinking is more than just a cognitive skill; it’s a mindset that empowers you to unravel complexity, make informed choices, and navigate challenges with confidence.

You will be better able to handle the intricacies of the modern world as your analytical thinking skills increase, whether in business, academics, or daily life. Accept the power of analytical thinking, and your decision-making and problem-solving abilities will soar.

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What Is Logical Thinking – Significance, Components, And Examples

Home Blog Career What Is Logical Thinking – Significance, Components, And Examples

Logical thinking skills play a significant role in developing careers because they help you reason through vital decisions, generate creative ideas, set goals, and solve problems. You may encounter multiple challenges in your life when you enter the job industry or advance your career. Therefore, need strong logical reasoning skills to solve your problems.

But you must know ‘what is logical thinking’ before you move forward or come up with solutions.

What Is Logical Thinking?

Logical thinking is your ability to think in a disciplined manner or base significant thoughts on evidence and facts. The process involves incorporating logic into an individual’s thinking abilities when analyzing a problem to devise a solution. Logical thinking may require Soft Skills Courses because it involves progressive analysis systems.

Now that you know the logical thinking meaning, you can undertake Knowledgehut Training to become probable, reasonable, and actionable with your thoughts. Many fields, such as project management , can benefit from logical thinking skills. Also, consider obtaining some accredited PMP certification programs as well.

Importance Of Logical Thinking

According to a global report , problem-solving, a critical and logical thinking aspect, is one of the top skills employers look for in job candidates. So, it explains the demand for logical thinking or reasoning abilities.

You have already gone through the logical reasoning meaning earlier. Now, it is time to understand its importance through the following points.

1. It Encourages Independent Abilities

You may require multiple demonstrations and examples in your life to learn and comprehend processes. However, prolonged and frequent demonstration systems do not work because problem-solving requires reasoning and analysis. So, you must acquire independent reasoning abilities that define logical thinking.

2. It Promotes Creativity and Innovation

Think out of the box to devise creative solutions to your problems. Here is where logical thinking comes in handy because it allows you to innovate better ideas and give a controlled sense to the events happening in your life.

3. It Helps Enhance Analytical Thinking

You weigh down all possible results and evaluate different options to ensure a favorable outcome for your decisions. Logical reasoning enables you to master multiple choice questions in various ways to get the desired answer by thinking better about the solution.

4. It Helps Strengthen the Brain

If you think about logical reasoning meaning, it involves diverse tasks that help activate various parts of your brain - memory, visual-shape memory, verbal-logic memory, etc. The process helps strengthen your brain and enables you to distinguish significant facets of life.

5. It Helps Enhance Focus

Logical thinking is one of the best ways to increase your concentration. The reasoning ability tests require your focus on problem-solving and include multiple methods and strategies to keep you hooked and develop positive self-esteem.

Ways To Improve Your Logical Thinking

Logical thinking ability definition helps you understand that you must possess this significant skill to move forward in life. So, you must improve and develop your logical thinking through proper activities and exercises. Here is a breakdown of tips to help improve your logical thinking abilities.

• Learn from your life’s mistakes.  
• Anticipate what lies ahead of you and other future happenings.  
• Take complex mental tests.  
• Stimulate your brain through multiple activities.  
• Differentiate between observation and inferences.  
• Try to recognize repetitive patterns like a sequence of numbers.  
• Indulge in analytical values like critical thinking, interpreting, deciding, and concluding facts.

Logical Thinking Skills

The best way to define logical reasoning skills is the ability to focus on tasks and activities by following a chain of thought processes and relating statements to one another. The process allows you to find a logical solution to your problem.

How To Build Logical Thinking Skills?

Work on your logical thinking development to enhance your problem-solving abilities. Here is a breakdown of the techniques to help you overcome your thinking obstacles and understand what the concept of logical thinking is.

• Do not view things from your perspective and understand other people’s opinions.  
• Think before you start doing things by devising efficient strategies.  
• Analyze the meaning of words and sentences carefully.  
• Enhance your thinking skills through games and mystery books.

How To Think Logically in Five Steps?

Logical reasoning means rationalizing your thoughts and creating positive outcomes. The process combines situational awareness and the ability to regulate emotions to enable efficient decision-making. Here is how you can think logically before making decisions.

1. Take Part in Creative Activities

Creative activities like painting, writing, drawing, music, etc., help stimulate your brain and promote logical thinking. Creative thinking also helps develop problem-solving abilities to make you a better performer.

2. Practice Asking Meaningful Questions

Try asking questions regularly to gain a comprehensive perspective of the facts. It will enable you to approach problems creatively and logically and devise solutions strategically.

3. Spend Time with Other People

Try developing meaningful relationships with other people to help broaden your views and perspectives. Socializing with them will help you think logically and provide alternative viewpoints to solutions.

4. Learn New Skills

You must learn new skills frequently to sharpen your logical reasoning abilities. Take opportunities to learn as often as possible and practice your skills daily to help thoughtfully approach situations.

5. Visualize the Outcome of Your Decisions

You must consider your decisions and their impact on your future to help assess positive outcomes. Visualizing the outcome of your choices and decisions will help you strengthen your logical thinking skills.

Components Of Logical Thinking

When someone asks you what the meaning of logical thinking is, your answer should be emotional reasoning and intelligence. It means you possess self-awareness of your feelings and prevent them from affecting your decision-making process.

You must know four significant components after understanding  what  the logical thinking concept is.   

1. Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning or Deduction is a significant component of logical thinking that seeks to reach specific conclusions. The process makes it easier for you to gain a simplified understanding and indulge in rational and logical thought processes.

2. Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning or induction enables you to think more logically and rely on generalizations. Your general notions depend on anecdotal experiences, facts, and personal observations of your life that are either true or false.

3. Causal Inference

Causal inference involves recognizing the change and evolvement in reasoning things to help you think logically. The process enables taking specific actions and making a logical or causal inference to reason your activities.

Analogical reasoning or analogy enables you to find the things between two different perspectives. Analogy helps you know and understand every situation to help you think logically and make rational decisions.

Example s Of Thinking Logically on Different Occasions  

What is a logical thinking example? I f you are asking yourself this question, look at the following situations for reference.  

1. Logical Thinking When You Are in Disagreement

You and your friend discuss the upcoming cricket match, and both disagree on who will be the opening batsman. You try logically reasoning out the facts and back out by stating that your friend’s prediction is correct.

2. Logical Thinking to Complete Your Work

You had planned a day out with friends for the weekend, but you got caught up with some pending work. The logical way to sort the situation would be to complete your work beforehand and head out for your getaway.

3. Logical Thinking When Making a Tough Decision

You get a good job opportunity in another city, but it makes you emotional thinking you have to leave your hometown. The logical way is to think of the opportunities awaiting you in the other place and decide to take the job.   

4. Logical Thinking When You Do Not Know the Answer

If you do not know the answer to a few questions about your recent assignment, the logical way of solving them is by approaching your teacher and asking for clarification.   

5. Other Logical Thinking Examples

Logical thinking involves reasoning skills to study problems and find rational conclusions or solutions. One of the best examples is the following situation.

You are facing some problems in the office. So, you use the available facts using your logical reasoning skills to address them.

Here is another example of logical reasoning.

You develop a fever ahead of an important meeting that you cannot miss at any cost. The logical way to solve the problem is to attend the meeting virtually instead of remaining physically present.

In Conclusion

Logical thinking is an act of analyzing situations and using reasoning abilities to study the problem and make a rational conclusion.  When you become a logical thinker, you gather all the information you can, assess the facts, and methodically decide the best way to move forward with your decision. Most people consider logical thinking an essential tool to brainstorm ideas, analyze problems, and find answers at home, workplace, or in educational institutions.

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

You can consider yourself a logical thinker if you are attentive, get your facts straight, and have clear ideas about situations.

Yes, logical thinking is a soft skill that is tangible, easy to practice, and improves your reasoning abilities.

Economists, software developers, accountants, chemical engineers, technical writers, criminologists, and other related careers use logical thinking.

Logical thinkers are good at observing and analyzing situations, feedback, and reactions to draw rational conclusions.

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Logical Reasoning Questions and Answers

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Logical Reasoning _ Verbal Reasoning

• Verbal Reasoning: Logical Arrangement Of Words
• Placement | Reasoning | Blood Relationship
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• Cubes: Verbal Reasoning Questions and Answers
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Logical Reasoning _ Non-Verbal Reasoning

• Mirror Image: Verbal Reasoning
• Picture Analogies Questions - Non Verbal Reasoning

Logical Reasoning involves the ability to use and understand logical connections between facts or ideas.

• In verbal reasoning , questions are expressed in words or statements and require the reader to think critically about the language used in order to choose the correct answer from the given options.
• Non-verbal reasoning meanwhile involves questions presented as images and figures, requiring the reader to comprehend how one element relates to another before selecting the right answer out of a list of potential answers.

Logical Reasoning is a key component of many competitive and reasoning ability-testing exams in India and abroad. Reasoning questions allow organizations to assess a candidate’s problem-solving skills, critical thinking capabilities, and capacity for logical and analytical thinking. 

Aptitude Questions such as Quantitative Aptitude and Logical Reasoning are considered essential skills for success in a wide range of competitive exams worldwide. These two sections often form the backbone of entrance exams, whether it’s for a public sector job in India or a university admission test in the United States.

Go through the following article to learn more about the various types of reasoning ability queries generally included in competitive tests.

Logical Reasoning Topics

Logical Reasoning is a crucial section in various competitive exams, and aspirants must study these topics to improve their problem-solving abilities and score better.

Types of Questions included in logical reasoning:

• Verbal Questions
• Puzzle Questions
• Image-Based Questions
• Sequence Questions

Topic-wise practice questions on logical reasoning:

• Number Series
• Letter and Symbol Series
• Verbal Classification
• Essential Part
• Artificial Language
• Matching Definitions
• Making Judgments
• Logical Problems
• Logical Games
• Analyzing Arguments
• Course of Action
• Statement and Conclusion
• Theme Detection
• Cause and Effect
• Statement and Argument
• Logical Deduction
• Letter Series
• Verification of the Truth of the Statement
• Coding Decoding
• Assertion and Reason
• Statement and Assumptions
• Logical Venn Diagram

Verbal Reasoning

Verbal reasoning is the cognitive ability to understand and interpret information presented in written or spoken language and apply logical reasoning to draw conclusions and solve problems.

It involves analyzing and evaluating information, making inferences and deductions, and identifying relationships between concepts and ideas. Verbal reasoning often tests a candidate’s language comprehension, critical thinking, and analytical skills and is commonly used in aptitude tests, job interviews, and higher education admissions.

A strong grasp of verbal reasoning can help individuals communicate effectively, think critically, and make informed decisions in their personal and professional lives.

Verbal Reasoning Questions and Answers Topics

• Logical Sequence of Words
• Blood Relation Test
• Series Completion
• Cube and Cuboid
• Seating Arrangement
• Character Puzzles
• Direction Sense Test
• Classification
• Data Sufficiency
• Arithmetic Reasoning
• Verification of Truth

Non-Verbal Reasoning

Non-verbal reasoning is the cognitive ability that involves questions presented as images and figures, requiring the reader to comprehend how one element relates to another before selecting the right answer out of a list of potential answers.

Non-verbal reasoning often tests a candidate’s ability to think creatively, solve problems, and make quick decisions, and is commonly used in aptitude tests, job interviews, and higher education admissions.

A strong grasp of non-verbal reasoning can help individuals develop their creativity, spatial awareness, and problem-solving abilities, making them more effective at tackling complex challenges in their personal and professional lives.

If you are a government exam aspirant or a student preparing for college placements, the reasoning is the topic that you need to practice thoroughly. Below are some topics that need to be practiced well for the reasoning section of the exam. So, let’s go through the following article to learn more about the various types of reasoning queries generally included in competitive tests.

Non-Verbal Reasoning Questions and Answers Topics

• Analytical Reasoning
• Mirror Images
• Water Images
• Embedded Images
• Pattern Completion
• Figure Matrix
• Paper Folding
• Paper Cutting
• Rule Detection
• Grouping of Images
• Dot Situation
• Shape Construction
• Image Analysis
• Cubes and Dice
• Picture Analogies

Logical reasoning is an important assessment tool for a wide range of competitive examinations. Questions in this section are designed to judge a candidate’s analytical and logical thinking abilities. Various types of reasoning questions are included in this section to test the student’s capacity for problem-solving, deduction, and inference.

Practicing questions is the only way to prepare for the reasoning test section. This way, even those who may struggle in this section can have an equal chance at success during exams or applications. The article contains concepts, questions, and topics of the reasoning section from the competitive exams and the placement exams’ point of view. 

FAQs – Logical Reasoning

Q1. what is logical reasoning  .

Logical reasoning involves the ability to use and understand logical connections between facts or ideas. The reasoning is a critical component of many tests and interviews. In order to perform well, it can be beneficial to practice doing reasoning questions with solutions available. 

Q2. What are logical reasoning questions? 

Logical reasoning questions can be both verbal and non-verbal: In verbal logical reasoning questions, questions are expressed in words or statements and require the reader to think critically about the language used in order to choose the correct answer from the given options and in non-verbal logical reasoning questions, it involves questions presented as images and figures, requiring the reader to comprehend how one element relates to another before selecting the right answer out of a list of potential answers.

Q3. What is the approach to solving reasoning questions? 

Follow the steps given below for preparation: 1. Practice with a timer and solve questions within the time limit. 2. Read the question carefully and try to understand the logic behind it. 3. Practice as many questions as you can and brush up on your skills.

Q4. Which book is good for the preparation of reasoning question sets? 

Students can practice from the following books: 1. A Modern Approach to Verbal & Non-Verbal Reasoning by R.S. Agarwal 2. Shortcuts in Reasoning (Verbal, Non-Verbal, Analytical & Critical) for Competitive Exams by Disha Experts 3. How to Crack Test of Reasoning by Arihant Experts

Q5. What is the syllabus of the Reasoning Aptitude section for competitive exams? 

Reasoning Aptitude covers a wide range of topics. Those topics are already given in the article. Aspirants must go through the article to learn about those topics and practice them thoroughly.

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The Annenberg School of Journalism at the University of Southern California seeks a highly qualified adjunct instructor to teach  JOUR 499: Problem Solving with AI. This course dives into real-time case studies that examine how AI tools are opening up new frontiers in newsrooms, writers’ rooms and boardrooms. 

Applicants should have at least three years’ experience working in a related field. Teaching experience is desirable. A strong candidate demonstrates a thoughtful understanding of current issues in the industry, including equity and inclusion in journalism.

Applicants should send a letter describing their background, interests and areas of expertise, and an up-to-date resume or curriculum vitae through USC’s job site.

The USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism is among the nation’s leading institutions devoted to the study of communication, journalism and public relations.  With an enrollment of 2,400 undergraduate and graduate students, USC Annenberg scholars, both students and faculty, are defining these fields for the 21st century and beyond.

The hourly range for this position is $36.37 – $45.46. When extending an offer of employment, the University of Southern California considers factors such as (but not limited to) the scope and responsibilities of the position, the candidate’s work experience, education/training, key skills, federal, state and local laws, contractual stipulations, as well as external market and organizational considerations. USC reserves the “Adjunct” appointment for faculty teaching less than full-time at USC, who are employed full-time in a primary profession or career elsewhere. Adjunct faculty typically teach only one course per year, but in exceptional cases, may teach one course per semester, if approved by the dean. Applicants should send a letter describing their background, interests and areas of expertise, and an up-to-date resume or curriculum vitae through the Careers at USC website.

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