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The C Programming Handbook for Beginners

C is one of the oldest, most widely known, and most influential programming languages.

It is used in many industries because it is a highly flexible and powerful language.

Learning C is a worthwhile endeavor – no matter your starting point or aspirations – because it builds a solid foundation in the skills you will need for the rest of your programming career.

It helps you understand how a computer works underneath the hood, such as how it stores and retrieves information and what the internal architecture looks like.

With that said, C can be a difficult language to learn, especially for beginners, as it can be cryptic.

This handbook aims to teach you C programming fundamentals and is written with the beginner programmer in mind.

There are no prerequisites, and no previous knowledge of any programming concepts is assumed.

If you have never programmed before and are a complete beginner, you have come to the right place.

Here is what you are going to learn in this handbook:

Chapter 1: Introduction to C Programming

• Chapter 2: Variables and Data Types in C
• Chapter 3: Operators in C
• Chapter 4: Conditional Statements in C
• Chapter 5: Loops in C
• Chapter 6: Arrays in C
• Chapter 7: Strings in C

Further learning: Advanced C Topics

Without further ado, let’s get started with learning C!

In this introductory chapter, you will learn the main characteristics and use cases of the C programming language.

You will also learn the basics of C syntax and familiarize yourself with the general structure of all C programs.

By the end of the chapter, you will have set up a development environment for C programming so you can follow along with the coding examples in this book on your local machine.

You will have successfully written, compiled, and executed your first simple C program that prints the text "Hello, world!" to the screen.

You will have also learned some core C language features, such as comments for documenting and explaining your code and escape sequences for representing nonprintable characters in text.

What Is Programming?

Computers are not that smart.

Even though they can process data tirelessly and can perform operations at a very high speed, they cannot think for themselves. They need someone to tell them what to do next.

Humans tell computers what to do and exactly how to do it by giving them detailed and step-by-step instructions to follow.

A collection of detailed instructions is known as a program.

Programming is the process of writing the collection of instructions that a computer can understand and execute to perform a specific task and solve a particular problem.

A programming language is used to write the instructions.

And the humans who write the instructions and supply them to the computer are known as programmers.

Low-level VS High-Level VS Middle-level Programming Languages – What's The Difference?

There are three types of programming languages: low-level languages, high-level languages, and middle-level languages.

Low-level languages include machine language (also known as binary) and assembly language.

Both languages provide little to no abstraction from the computer's hardware. The language instructions are closely related to or correspond directly to specific machine instructions.

This 'closeness to the machine' allows for speed, efficiency, less consumption of memory, and fine-grained control over the computer's hardware.

Machine language is the lowest level of programming languages.

The instructions consist of series of 0 s and 1 s that correspond directly to a particular computer’s instructions and locations memory.

Instructions are also directly executed by the computer’s processor.

Even though machine language was the language of choice for writing programs in the early days of computing, it is not a human-readable language and is time-consuming to write.

Assembly language allows the programmer to work closely with the machine on a slightly higher level.

It uses mnemonics and symbols that correspond directly to a particular machine’s instruction set instead of using sequences of 0 s and 1 s.

Next, high-level languages, like Python and JavaScript, are far removed from the instruction set of a particular machine architecture.

Their syntax resembles the English language, making them easier to work with and understand.

Programs written in high-level languages are also portable and machine-independent. That is, a program can run on any system that supports that language.

With that said, they tend to be slower, consume more memory, and make it harder to work with low-level hardware and systems because of how abstract they are.

Lastly, middle-level languages, like C and C++, act as a bridge between low-level and high-level programming languages.

They allow for closeness and a level of control over computer hardware. At the same time, they also offer a level of abstraction with instructions that are more human-readable and understandable for programmers to write.

What Is the C Programming Language?

C is a general-purpose and procedural programming language.

A procedural language is a type of programming language that follows a step-by-step approach to solving a problem.

It uses a series of instructions, otherwise known as procedures or functions, that are executed in a specific order to perform tasks and accomplish goals. These intructions tell the computer step by step what to do and in what order.

So, C programs are divided into smaller, more specific functions that accomplish a certain task and get executed sequentially, one after another, following a top-down approach.

This promotes code readability and maintainability.

A Brief History of the C Programming Language

C was developed in the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell Laboratories.

The development of C was closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system at Bell Labs.

Historically, operating systems were typically written in Assembly language and without portability in mind.

During the development of Unix, there was a need for a more efficient and portable programming language for writing operating systems.

Dennis Ritchie went on to create a language called B, which was an evolution from an earlier language called BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language).

It aimed to bridge the gap between the low-level capabilities of Assembly and the high-level languages used at the time, such as Fortran.

B was not powerful enough to support Unix development, so Dennis Ritchie developed a new language that took inspiration from B and BCPL and had some additional features. He named this language C.

C’s simple design, speed, efficiency, performance, and close relationship with a computer’s hardware made it an attractive choice for systems programming. This led to the Unix operating system being rewritten in C.

C Language Characteristics and Use Cases

Despite C being a relatively old language (compared to other, more modern, programming languages in use today), it has stood the test of time and still remains popular.

According to the TIOBE index , which measures the popularity of programming languages each month, C is the second most popular programming language as of August 2023.

This is because C is considered the "mother of programming languages" and is one of the most foundational languages of computer science.

Most modern and popular languages used today either use C under the hood or are inspired by it.

For example, Python’s default implementation and interpreter, CPython, is written in C. And languages such as C++ and C# are extensions of C and provide additional functionality.

Even though C was originally designed with systems programming in mind, it is widely used in many other areas of computing.

C programs are portable and easy to implement, meaning they can be executed across different platforms with minimal changes.

C also allows for efficient and direct memory manipulation and management, making it an ideal language for performance-critical applications.

And C provides higher-level abstractions along with low-level capabilities, which allows programmers to have fine-grained control over hardware resources when they need to.

These characteristics make C an ideal language for creating operating systems, embedded systems, system utilities, Internet of things (IoT) devices, database systems, and various other applications.

C is used pretty much everywhere today.

How to Set Up a Development Environment for C Programming on Your Local Machine

To start writing C programs on your local machine, you will need the following:

• A C Compiler
• An Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

C is a compiled programming language, like Go, Java, Swift, and Rust.

Compiled languages are different from interpeted languages, such as PHP, Ruby, Python, and JavaScript.

The difference between compiled and interpeted languages is that a compiled language is directly translated to machine code all at once.

This process is done by a special program called a compiler.

The compiler reads the entire source code, checks it for errors, and then translates the entire program into machine code. This is a language the computer can understand and it's directly associated with the particular instructions of the computer.

This process creates a standalone binary executable file containing sequences of 0 s and 1 s which is a more computer-friendly form of the initial source code. This file contains instructions that the computer can understand and run directly.

An interpeted language, on the other hand, doesn’t get translated into machine code all at once and doesn’t produce a binary executable file.

Instead, an interpreter reads and executes the source code one instruction at a time, line by line. The interpreter reads each line, translates it into machine code, and then immediately runs it.

If you are using a Unix or a Unix-like system such as macOS or Linux, you probably have the popular GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) already installed on your machine.

If you are running either of those operating systems, open the terminal application and type the following command:

If you're using macOS and have not installed the command line developer tools, a dialog box will pop-up asking you to install them – so if you see that, go ahead and do so.

If you have already installed the command line tools, you will see an output with the version of the compiler, which will look similar to the following:

If you are using Windows, you can check out Code::Blocks or look into installing Linux on Windows with WSL . Feel free to pick whatever programming environment works best for you.

An IDE is where you write, edit, save, run, and debug your C programs. You can think of it like a word processor but for writing code.

Visual Studio Code is a great editor for writing code, and offers many IDE-like features.

It is free, open-source, supports many programming languages, and is available for all operating systems.

Once you have downloaded Visual Studio Code, install the C/C++ extension .

It’s also a good idea to enable auto-saving by selecting: "File" -> "Auto Save".

If you want to learn more, you can look through the Visual Studio Code documentation for C/C++ .

With your local machine all set up, you are ready to write your first C program!

How to Write Your First C Program

To get started, open Visual Studio Code and create a new folder for your C program by navigating to "File" -> "Open" -> "New Folder".

Give this folder a name, for example, c-practice , and then select "Create" -> “Open".

You should now have the c-practice folder open in Visual Studio Code.

Inside the folder you just created, create a new C file.

Hold down the Command key and press N on macOS or hold down the Control and press N for Windows/Linux to create an Untitled-1 file.

Hold down the Command key and press S on macOS or hold down the Control key and press S for Windows/Linux, and save the file as a main.c file.

Finally, click "Save".

Make sure that you save the file you created with a .c extension, or it won’t be a valid C file.

You should now have the main.c file you just created open in Visual Studio Code.

Next, add the following code:

Let’s go over each line and explain what is happening in the program.

What Are Header Files in C?

Let’s start with the first line, #include <stdio.h> .

The #include part of #include <stdio.h> is a preprocessor command that tells the C compiler to include a file.

Specifically, it tells the compiler to include the stdio.h header file.

Header files are external libraries.

This means that some developers have written some functionality and features that are not included at the core of the C language.

By adding header files to your code, you get additional functionality that you can use in your programs without having to write the code from scratch.

The stdio.h header file stands for standard input-output.

It contains function definitions for input and output operations, such as functions for gathering user data and printing data to the console.

Specifically, it provides functions such as printf() and scanf() .

So, this line is necessary for the function we have later on in our program, printf() , to work.

If you don't include the stdio.h file at the top of your code, the compiler will not understand what the printf() function is.

What is the main() function in C?

Next, int main(void) {} is the main function and starting point of every C program.

It is the first thing that is called when the program is executed.

Every C program must include a main() function.

The int keyword in int main(void) {} indicates the return value of the main() function.

In this case, the function will return an integer number.

And the void keyword inside the main() function indicates that the function receives no arguments.

Anything inside the curly braces, {} , is considered the body of the function – here is where you include the code you want to write. Any code written here will always run first.

This line acts as a boilerplate and starting point for all C programs. It lets the computer know where to begin reading the code when it executes your programs.

What Are Comments in C?

In C programming, comments are lines of text that get ignored by the compiler.

Writing comments is a way to provide additional information and describe the logic, purpose, and functionality of your code.

Comments provide a way to document your code and make it more readable and understandable for anyone who will read and work with it.

Having comments in your source code is also helpful for your future self. So when you come back to the code in a few months and don't remember how the code works, these comments can help.

Comments are also helpful for debugging and troubleshooting. You can temporarily comment out lines of code to isolate problems.

This will allow you to ignore a section of code and concentrate on the piece of code you are testing and working on without having to delete anything.

There are two types of comments in C:

• Single-line comments
• Multi-line comments

Single-line comments start with two forward slashes, // , and continue until the end of the line.

Here is the syntax for creating a single-line comment in C:

Any text written after the forward slashes and on the same line gets ignored by the compiler.

Multi-line comments start with a forward slash, / , followed by an asterisk, * , and end with an asterisk, followed by a forward slash.

As the name suggests, they span multiple lines.

They offer a way to write slightly longer explanations or notes within your code and explain in more detail how it works.

Here is the syntax for creating a multi-line comment in C:

What is the printf() function in C?

Inside the function's body, the line printf("Hello, World!\n"); prints the text Hello, World! to the console (this text is also known as a string).

Whenever you want to display something, use the printf() function.

Surround the text you want to display in double quotation marks, "" , and make sure it is inside the parentheses of the printf() function.

The semicolon, ; , terminates the statement. All statements need to end with a semicolon in C, as it identifies the end of the statement.

You can think of a semicolon similar to how a full stop/period ends a sentence.

What Are Escape Sequences in C?

Did you notice the \n at the end of printf("Hello, World!\n"); ?

It's called an escape sequence, which means that it is a character that creates a newline and tells the cursor to move to the next line when it sees it.

In programming, an escape sequence is a combination of characters that represents a special character within a string.

They provide a way to include special characters that are difficult to represent directly in a string.

They consist of a backslash, \ , also known as the escape character, followed by one or more additional characters.

The escape sequence for a newline character is \n .

Another escape sequence is \t . The \t represrents a tab character, and will insert a space within a string.

How to Compile and Run Your first C Program

In the previous section, you wrote your first C program:

Any code you write in the C programming language is called source code.

Your computer doesn’t understand any of the C statements you have written, so this source code needs to be translated into a different format that the computer can understand. Here is where the compiler you installed earlier comes in handy.

The compiler will read the program and translate it into a format closer to the computer’s native language and make your program suitable for execution.

You will be able to see the output of your program, which should be Hello, world! .

The compilation of a C program consists of four steps: preprocessing, compilation, assembling, and linking.

The first step is preprocessing.

The preprocessor scans through the source code to find preprocessor directives, which are any lines that start with a # symbol, such as #include .

Once the preprocessor finds these lines, it substitutes them with something else.

For example, when the preprocessor finds the line #include <stdio.h> , the #include tells the preprocessor to include all the code from the stdio.h header file.

So, it replaces the #include <stdio.h> line with the actual contents of the stdio.h file.

The output of this phase is a modified version of the source code.

After preprocessing, the next step is the compilation phase, where the modified source code gets translated into the corresponding assembly code.

If there are any errors, compilation will fail, and you will need to fix the errors to continue.

The next step is the assembly phase, where the assembler converts the generated assembly code statements into machine code instructions.

The output of this phase is an object file, which contains the machine code instructions.

The last step is the linking phase.

Linking is the process of combining the object file generated from the assembly phase with any necessary libraries to create the final executable binary file.

Now, let’s go over the commands you need to enter to compile your main.c file.

In Visual Studio Code, open the built-in terminal by selecting "Terminal" -> "New Terminal".

Inside the terminal, enter the following command:

The gcc part of the command refers to the C compiler, and main.c is the file that contains the C code that you want to compile.

Next, enter the following command:

The ls command lists the contents of the current directory.

The output of this command shows an a.out file – this is the executable file containing the source code statements in their corresponding binary instructions.

The a.out is the default name of the executable file created during the compilation process.

To run this file, enter the following command:

This command tells the computer to look in the current directory, ./ , for a file named a.out .

The above command generates the following output:

You also have the option to name the executable file instead of leaving it with the default a.out name.

Say you wanted to name the executable file helloWorld .

If you wanted to do this, you would need to enter the following command:

This command with the -o option (which stands for output) tells the gcc compiler to create an executable file named helloWorld .

To run the new executable file that you just created, enter the following command:

This is the output of the above command:

Note that whenever you make a change to your source code file, you have to repeat the process of compiling and running your program from the beginning to see the changes you made.

Chapter 2: Variables and Data Types

In this chapter, you will learn the basics of variables and data types – the fundamental storage units that allow you to preserve and manipulate data in your programs.

By the end of this chapter, you will know how to declare and initialize variables.

You will also have learned about various data types available in C, such as integers, floating-point numbers, and characters, which dictate how information is processed and stored within a program's memory.

Finally, you'll have learned how to receive user input in your programs, and how to use constants to store values that you don't want to be changed.

What Is a Variable in C?

Variables store different kind of data in the computer's memory, and take up a certain amount of space.

By storing information in a variable, you can retrieve and manipule it, perform various calculations, or even use it to make decisions in your program.

The stored data is given a name, and that is how you are able to access it when you need it.

How to Declare Variables in C

Before you can use a variable, you need to declare it – this step lets the compiler know that it should allocate some memory for it.

C is a strongly typed language, so to declare a variable in C, you first need to specify the type of data the variable will hold, such as an integer to store a whole number, a floating-point number for numbers with decimal places, or a char for a single character.

That way, during compilation time, the compiler knows if the variable is able to perform the actions it was set out to do.

Once you have specified the data type, you give the variable a name.

The general syntax for declaring variables looks something like this:

Let's take the following example:

In the example above, I declared a variable named age that will hold integer values.

What Are the Naming Conventions for Variables in C?

When it comes to variable names, they must begin either with a letter or an underscore.

For example, age and _age are valid variable names.

Also, they can contain any uppercase or lowercase letters, numbers, or an underscore character. There can be no other special symbols besides an underscore.

Lastly, variable names are case-sensitive. For example, age is different from Age .

How to Initialize Variables in C

Once you've declared a variable, it is a good practice to intialize it, which involves assigning an initial value to the variable.

The general syntax for initialzing a variable looks like this:

The assignment operator, = , is used to assign the value to the variable_name .

Let's take the previous example and assign age a value:

I initialized the variable age by assigning it an integer value of 29 .

With that said, you can combine the initialization and declaration steps instead of performing them separately:

How to Update Variable Values in C

The values of variables can change.

For example, you can change the value of age without having to specify its type again.

Here is how you would change its value from 29 to 30 :

Note that the data type of the new value being assigned must match the declared data type of the variable.

If it doesn't, the program will not run as expected. The compiler will raise an error during compilation time.

What Are the Basic Data Types in C?

Data types specify the type of form that information can have in C programs. And they determine what kind of operations can be performed on that information.

There are various built-in data types in C such as char , int , and float .

Each of the data types requires different allocation of memory.

Before exploring each one in more detail, let’s first go over the difference between signed and unsigned data types in C.

Signed data types can represent both positive and negative values.

On the other hand, unsigned data types can represent only non-negative values (zero and positive values).

Wondering when to use signed and when to use unsigned data types?

Use signed data types when you need to represent both positive and negative values, such as when working with numbers that can have positive and negative variations.

And use unsigned data types when you want to ensure that a variable can only hold non-negative values, such as when dealing with quantities.

Now, let's look at C data types in more detail.

What Is the char Data Type in C?

The most basic data type in C is char .

It stands for "character" and it is one of the simplest and most fundamental data types in the C programming language.

You use it to store a single individual character such as an uppercase and lowercase letter of the ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) chart.

Some examples of char s are 'a' and 'Z' .

It can also store symbols such as '!' , and digits such as '7' .

Here is an example of how to create a variable that will hold a char value:

Notice how I used single quotation marks around the single character.

This is because you can't use double quotes when working with char s.

Double quotes are used for strings.

Regarding memory allocation, a signed char lets you store numbers ranging from [-128 to 127 ], and uses at least 1 byte (or 8 bits) of memory.

An unsigned char stores numbers ranging from [0 to 255] .

What Is the int Data Type in C?

An int is a an integer, which is also known as a whole number.

It can hold a positive or negative value or 0 , but it can't hold numbers that contain decimal points (like 3.5 ).

Some examples of integers are 0 , -3 ,and 9 .

Here is how you create a variable that will hold an int value:

When you declare an int , the computer allocates at least 2 bytes (or 16 bits) of memory.

With that said, on most modern systems, an int typically allocates 4 bytes (or 32 bits) of memory.

The range of available numbers for a signed int is [-32,768 to 32,767] when it takes up 2 bytes and [-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647] when it takes up 4 bytes of memory.

The range of numbers for an unsigned int doesn't include any of the negative numbers in the range mentioned for signed int s.

So, the range of numbers for unsigned ints that take up 2 bytes of memory is [0 to 65,535] and the range is [0 to 4,294,967,295] for those that take up 4 bytes.

To represent smaller numbers, you can use another data type – the short int . It typically takes up 2 bytes (or 16 bits) of memory.

A signed short int allows for numbers in a range from [-32,768 to 32,767] .

An unsigned short int allows for numbers in a range from [0 to 65,535] .

Use a short when you want to work with smaller integers, or when memory optimisation is critically important.

If you need to work with larger integers, you can also use other data types like long int or long long int , which provide a larger range and higher precision.

A long int typically takes up at least 4 bytes of memory (or 32 bits).

The values for a signed long int range from [-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647] .

And the values for an unsigned long int range from [0 to 4,294,967,295] .

The long long int data type is able to use even larger numbers than a long int . It usually takes up 8 bytes (or 64 bits) of memory.

A signed long long int allows for a range from [-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807]

And an unsigned long long int has a range of numbers from [0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615] .

What Is The float Data Type in C?

The float data type is used to hold numbers with a decimal value (which are also known as real numbers).

It holds 4 bytes (or 32 bits) of memory and it is a single-precision floating-point type.

Here is how you create a variable that will hold a float value:

A double is a floating point value and is the most commonly used floating-point data type in C.

It holds 8 bytes (or 64 bits) of memory, and it is a double-precision floating-point type.

Here is how you create a variable that will hold a double value:

When choosing which floating-point data type to use, consider the trade-off between memory usage and precision.

A float has less precision that a double but consumes less memory.

Use a float when memory usage is a concern (such as when working with a system with limited resources) or when you need to perform calculations where high precision is not critical.

If you require higher precision and accuracy for your calculations and memory usage is not critical, you can use a double .

What Are Format Codes in C?

Format codes are used in input and output functions, such as scanf() and printf() , respectively.

They act as placeholders and substitutes for variables.

Specifically, they specify the expected format of input and output.

They tell the program how to format or interpret the data being passed to or read from the scanf() and printf() functions.

The syntax for format codes is the % character and the format specifier for the data type of the variable.

In the example above, age is the variable in the program. It is of type int .

The format code – or placeholder – for integer values is %i . This indicates that an integer should be printed.

In the program's output, %i is replaced with the value of age , which is 29 .

Here is a table with the format specifiers for each data type:

How to Recieve User Input Using the scanf() Function

Earlier you saw how to print something to the console using the printf() function.

But what happens when you want to receive user input? This is where the scanf() function comes in.

The scanf() function reads user input, which is typically entered via a keyboard.

The user enters a value, presses the Enter key, and the value is saved in a variable.

The general syntax for using scanf() looks something similar to the following:

Let's break it down:

• format_string is the string that lets the computer know what to expect. It specifies the expected format of the input. For example, is it a word, a number, or something else?
• &variable is the pointer to the variable where you want to store the value gathered from the user input.

Let's take a look at an example of scanf() in action:

In the example above, I first have to include the stdio.h header file, which provides input and output functions in C.

Then, in the main() function, I declare a variable named number that will hold integer values. This variable will store the user input.

Then, I prompt the user to enter a number using the printf() function.

Next, I use scanf() to read and save the value that the user enters.

The format specifier %i lets the computer known that it should expect an integer input.

Note also the & symbol before the variable name. Forgetting to add it will cause an error.

Lastly, after receiving the input, I display the received value to the console using another printf() function.

What are Constants in C?

As you saw earlier on, variable values can be changed throughout the life of a program.

With that said, there may be times when you don’t want a value to be changed. This is where constants come in handy.

In C, a constant is a variable with a value that cannot be changed after declaration and during the program's execution.

You can create a constant in a similar way to how you create variables.

The differences between constants and variables is that with constants you have to use the const keyword before mentioning the data type.

And when working with constants, you should always specify a value.

The general syntax for declaring constants in C looks like this:

Here, data_type represents the data type of the constant, constant_name is the name you choose for the constant, and value is the value of the constant.

It is also best practice to use all upper case letters when declaring a constant’s name.

Let’s see an example of how to create a constant in C:

In this example, LUCKY_NUM is defined as a constant with a value of 7 .

The constant's name, LUCKY_NUM , is in uppercase letters, as this is a best practice and convention that improves the readability of your code and distinguishes constants from variables.

Once defined, it cannot be modified in the program.

If you try to change its value, the C compiler will generate an error indicating that you are attempting to modify a constant.

Chapter 3: Operators

Operators are essential building blocks in all programming languages.

They let you perform various operations on variables and values using symbols.

And they let you compare variables and values against each other for decision-making computatons.

In this chapter, you will learn about the most common operators in C programming.

You will first learn about arithmetic operators, which allow you to perform basic mathematical calculations.

You will then learn about relational (also known as comparisson operators), which help you compare values.

And you will learn about logical operators, which allow you to make decisions based on conditions.

After understanding these fundamental operators, you'll learn about some additional operators, such as assignment operators, and increment and decrement operators.

By the end of this chapter, you will have a solid grasp of how to use different operators to manipulate data.

What Are the Arithmetic Operators in C?

Arithmetic operators are used to perform basic arithmetic operations on numeric data types.

Operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and calculating the remainder after division.

These are the main arithmetic operators in C:

Let's see examples of each one in action.

How to Use the Addition ( + ) Operator

The addition operator adds two operands together and returns their sum.

How to Use the Subtraction ( - ) Operator

The subtraction operator subtracts the second operand from the first operand and returns their difference.

How to Use the Multiplication ( * ) Operator

The multiplication operator multiplies two operands and returns their product.

How to Use the Division ( / ) Operator

The division operator divides the first operand by the second operand and returns their quotient.

How to Use the Modulo ( % ) Operator

The modulo operator returns the remainder of the first operand when divided by the second operand.

The modulo operator is commonly used to determine whether an integer is even or odd.

If the remainder of the operation is 1 , then the integer is odd. If there is no remainder, then the integer is even.

What Are The Relational Operators in C?

Relational operators are used to compare values and return a result.

The result is a Boolean value. A Boolean value is either true (represented by 1 ) or false (represented by 0 ).

These operators are commonly used in decision-making statements such as if statements, and while loops.

These are the relational operators in C:

Let’s see an example of each one in action.

How to Use the Equal to ( == ) Operator

The equal to operator checks if two values are equal.

It essentially asks the question, "Are these two values equal?"

Note that you use the comparisson operator (two equal signs – == ) and not the assignment operator ( = ) which is used for assigning a value to a variable.

The result is 1 (true), because a and b are equal.

How to Use the Not equal to ( != ) Operator

The not equal to operator checks if two values are NOT equal.

The result is 1 (true), because a and b are not equal.

How to Use the Greater than ( > ) Operator

This operator compares two values to check if one is greater than the other.

The result is 1 (true), because a is greater than b .

How to Use the Less than ( < ) Operator

This operator compares two values to check if one is less than the other.

The result is 0 (false), because a is not less than b .

How to Use the Greater than or Equal to ( >= ) Operator

This operator compares two values to check if one is greater than or equal to the other.

The result is 1 (true), because a is equal to b .

How to Use the Less than or equal to ( <= ) Operator

This operator compares two values to check if one is less than or equal the other.

The result is 1 (true), because a is less than b .

Logical Operators

Logical operators operate on Boolean values and return a Boolean value.

Here are the logical operators used in C:

Let's go into more detail on each one in the following sections.

How to Use the AND ( && ) Operator

The logical AND ( && ) operator checks whether all operands are true .

The result is true only when all operands are true .

Here is the truth table for the AND ( && ) operator when you are working with two operands:

The result of (10 == 10) && (20 == 20) is true because both operands are true .

Let's look at another example:

The result of (10 == 20) && (20 == 20) is false because one of the operands is false .

When the first operand is false , the second operand is not evaluated (since there's no point - it's already determined that the first operand is false, so the result can only be false ).

How to Use the OR ( || ) Operator

The logical OR ( || ) operator checks if at least one of the operands is true .

The result is true only when at least one of the operands is true .

Here is the truth table for the OR ( || ) operator when you are working with two operands:

Let's look at an example:

The result of (10 == 20) || (20 == 20) is true because one of the operands is true .

The result of (20 == 20) || (10 == 20) is true because one of the operands is true

If the first operand is true , then the second operator is not evaluated.

How to Use the NOT ( ! ) Operator

The logical NOT ( ! ) operator negates the operand.

If the operand is true , it returns false .

And if it is false , it returns true .

You may want to use the NOT operator when when you want to flip the value of a condition and return the opposite of what the condition evaluates to.

Here is the truth table for the NOT( ! ) operator:

The result of !(10 == 10) is false .

The condition 10 == 10 is true , but the ! operator negates it so the result is false .

And let's look at another example:

The result of !(10 == 20) is true .

The condition 10 == 20 is false, but the ! operator negates it.

What Is the Assignement Operator in C?

The assignment operator is used to assign a value to a variable.

In the example above, the value 10 is assigned to the variable num using the assignment operator.

The assignment operator works by evaluating the expression on the right-hand side and then storing its result in the variable on the left-hand side.

The type of data assigned should match the data type of the variable.

How to Use Compound Assignment Operators

Compound assignment operators are shorthand notations.

They allow you to modify a variable by performing an operation on it and then storing the result of the operation back into the same variable in a single step.

This can make your code more concise and easier to read.

Some common compound assignment operators in C include:

• += : Addition and assignment
• = : Subtraction and assignment
• = : Multiplication and assignment
• /= : Division and assignment
• %= : Modulo and assignment

Let’s see an example of how the += operator works:

In the example above, I created a variable named num and assigned it an initial value of 10 .

I then wanted to increment the variable by 5 . To do this, I used the += compound operator.

The line num += 5 increments the value of num by 5, and the result (15) is stored back into num in one step.

Note that the num += 5; line works exactly the same as doing num = num + 5 , which would mean num = 10 + 5 , but with fewer lines of code.

What Are the Increment and Decrement Operators in C?

The increment ++ and decrement -- operators increment and decrement a variable by one, respectively.

Let’s look at an example of how to use the ++ operator:

The initial value of the variable num is 10 .

By using the ++ increment operator, the value of num is set to 11 .

This is like perfoming num = num + 1 but with less code.

The shorthand for decrementing a variable by one is -- .

If you wanted to decrement num by one, you would do the following:

By using the -- increment operator, the value of num is now set to 9 . This is like perfoming num = num - 1 .

Chapter 4: Conditional Statements

The examples you have seen so far all execute line by line, from top to bottom.

They are not flexible and dynamic and do not adapt according to user behavior or specific situations.

In this chapter, you will learn how to make decisions and control the flow of a program.

You get to set the rules on what happens next in your programs by setting conditions using conditional statements.

Conditional statements take a specific action based on the result of a comparisson that takes place.

The program will decide what the next steps should be based on whether the conditions are met or not.

Certain parts of the program may not run depending on the results or depending on certain user input. The user can go down different paths depending on the various forks in the road that come up during a program's life.

First, you will learn about the if statement – the foundational building block of decision-making in C.

You will also learn about the else if and else statements that are added to the if statement to provide additional flexibility to the program.

You will then learn about the ternary operator which allows you to condense decision-making logic into a single line of code and improve the readability of your program.

How to Create an if statement in C

The most basic conditional statement in C is the if statement.

It makes a decision based on a condition.

If the given condition evaluates to true only then is the code inside the if block executed.

If the given condition evaluates to false , the code inside the if block is ignored and skipped.

The general syntax for an if statement in C is the following:

In the above code, I created a variable named age that holds an integer value.

I then prompted the user to enter their age and stored the answer in the variable age .

Then, I created a condition that checks whether the value contained in the variable age is less than 18.

If so, I want a message printed to the console letting the user know that to proceed, the user should be at least 18 years of age.

When asked for my age and I enter 16 , I'd get the following output:

The condition ( age < 18 ) evaluates to true so the code in the if block executes.

Then, I re-compile and re-run the program.

This time, when asked for my age, say I enter 28 , but I don't get any output:

This is because the condition evaluates to false and therefore the body of the if block is skipped.

I have also not specified what should happen in the case that the user's age is greater than 18.

To specify what happens in case the user's age is greater than 18, I can use an if else statement.

How to Create an if else statement in C

You can add an else clause to an if statement to provide code that will execute only when the if statement evaluates to false .

The if else statement essentially means that " if this condition is true do the following thing, else do this thing instead".

If the condition inside the parentheses evaluates to true , the code inside the if block will execute.

But if that condition evaluates to false , the code inside the else block will execute.

The else keyword is the solution for when the if condition is false and the code inside the if block doesn't run. It provides an alternative.

The general syntax looks like this:

Now, let's revisit the example from the previous section, and specify what should happen if the user's age is greater than 18:

If the condition is true the code in the if block runs:

If the condition is false the code in the if block is skipped and the code in the else block runs instead:

How to Create an else if statement in C

But what happens when you want to have more than one condition to choose from?

If you wish to chose between more than one option you can introduce an else if statement.

An else if statement essentially means that "If this condition is true, do the following. If it isn't, do this instead. However, if none of the above are true and all else fails, finally do this."

The general syntax looks something like the following:

Let's see how an else if statement works.

Say you have the following example:

If the first if statement is true, the rest of the block will not run:

If the first if statement is false, then the program moves on to the next condition.

If that is true the code inside the else if block executes and the rest of the block doesn't run:

If both of the previous conditions are all false, then the last resort is the else block which is the one to execute:

How to Use the Ternary Operator in C

The ternary operator (also known as the conditional operator) allows you to write an if else statement with fewer lines of code.

It can provide a way of writing more readable and concise code and comes in handy when writing simple conditional expressions.

You would want to use it when you are making making simple decisions and want to keep your code concise and on one line.

However, it's best to stick to a regular if-else statement when you are dealing with more complex decisions as the ternary operator could make your code hard to read.

The general syntax for the ternary operator looks something similar to the following:

• condition is the condition you want to evaluate. This condition will evaluate to either true of false
• ? separates the condition from the two possible expressions
• expression_if_true is executed if the condition evaluates to true
• : separates the expression_if_true from the expression_if_false
• expression_if_false is executed if the condition evaluates to false .

Let's take a look at an example:

In the example above, the condition is (x > 5) .

If x is greater than 5, the condition evaluates to true . And when the condition is true , the value assigned to y will be 100 .

If the condition evaluates to false , the value assigned to y will be 200 .

So, since x is greater than 5 ( x = 10 ), y is assigned the value 100 .

Chapter 5: Loops

In this chapter you will learn about loops, which are essential for automating repetitive tasks without having to write the same code multiple times.

Loops allow you to execute a specific block of code instructions repeatedly over and over again until a certain condition is met.

You will learn about the different types of loops, such as the for , while and do-while loops, and understand their syntax and when you should use each one.

You will also learn about the break statement, which allows you to control the execution flow within loops in specific ways.

How to Create a for Loop in C

A for loop allows you to execute a block of code repeatedly based on a specified condition.

It's useful when you know how many times you want to repeat a certain action.

The general syntax for a for loop looks like this:

• initialization is the step where you initialize a loop control variable. It's typically used to set the starting point for your loop.
• condition is the condition that is evaluated before each iteration. If the condition is true , the loop continues. If it's false , the loop terminates. The loop will run as long as the condition remains true.
• increment/decrement is the part responsible for changing the loop control variable after each iteration. It can be an increment ( ++ ), a decrement ( -- ), or any other modification.
• Code to be executed in each iteration is the block of code inside the for loop's body that gets executed in each iteration if the condition is true .

Let's see an example of how a for loop works.

Say you want to print the numbers from 1 to 5 to the console:

In the example above, I first initialize the loop control variable i with a value of 1 .

The condition i <= 5 is true, so the loop's body is executed and "Iteration 1" is printed.

After each iteration, the value of i is incremented by 1 . So, i is incremented to 2 .

The condition is still true , so "Iteration 2" is printed.

The loop will continue as long as i is less than or equal to 5 .

When i becomes 6 , the condition evaluates to false and the loop terminates.

How to Create a while Loop in C

As you saw in the previous section, a for loop is used when you know the exact number of iterations you want the loop to perform.

The while loop is useful when you want to repeat an action based on a condition but don't know the exact number of iterations beforehand.

Here is the general syntax of a while loop:

With a while loop, the condition is evaluated before each iteration. If the condition is true , the loop continues. If it's false, the loop terminates.

The while loop will continue as long as the condition evaluates to true .

Something to note with while loops is that the code in the loop's body is not guaranteed to run even at least one time if a condition is not met.

Let's see an example of how a while loop works:

In the example above, I first initialize a variable count with a value of 1 .

Before it runs any code, the while loop checks a condition.

The condition count <= 5 is true because count is initially 1 . So, the loop's body is executed and "Iteration 1" is printed.

Then, count is incremented to 2 .

The loop will continue as long as count is less than or equal to 5.

This process continues until count becomes 6 , at which point the condition becomes false , and the loop terminates.

Something to be aware of when working with while loops is accidentally creating an infinite loop:

In this case the condition always evaluates to true .

After printing the line of code inside the curly braces, it continuously checks wether it should run the code again.

As the answer is always yes (since the condition it needs to check is always true each and every time), it runs the code again and again and again.

The way to stop the program and escape from the endless loop is running Ctrl C in the terminal.

How to Create a do-while Loop in C

As mentioned in the previous section, the code in the while loop's body is not guaranteed to run even at least one time if the condition is not met.

A do-while loop executes a block of code repeatedly for as long as a condition remains true .

However, in contrast to a while loop, it is guaranteed to run at least once, regardless of whether the condition is true or false from the beginning.

So, the do-while loop is useful when you want to ensure that the loop's body is executed at least once before the condition is checked.

The general syntax for a do-while loop looks like this:

Let's take a look at an example that demonstrates how a do-while loop works:

In the example above I initialize a variable count with a value of 1 .

A do-while loop first does something and then checks a condition.

So, the block of code inside the loop is executed at least one time.

The string "Iteration 1" is printed and then count is incremented to 2 .

The condition count <= 5 is then checked and it evaluates to true , so the loop continues.

After the iteration where count is 6 , the condition becomes false , and the loop terminates.

How to Use the break Statement in C

The break statement is used to immediately exit a loop and terminate its execution.

It's a control flow statement that allows you to interrupt the normal loop execution and move on to the code after the loop.

The break statement is especially useful when you want to exit a loop under specific conditions, even if the loop's termination condition hasn't been met.

You might use it when you encounter a certain value, or when a specific condition is met.

Here's how to use a break statement in a loop:

In the example above, a for loop is set to iterate from 1 to 10 .

Inside the loop, the current value of i is printed on each iteration.

There is also an if statement that checks if the current value of i matches the target value, which is set to 5 .

If i matches the target value, the if statement is triggered and a message is printed.

As a result, the break statement exits the current loop immediately and prematurely.

The program will continue executing the code that is after the loop.

Chapter 6: Arrays

Arrays offer a versatile and organized way to store multiple pieces of related data that are arranged in an ordered sequence.

They allow you to store multiple values of the same data type under a single identifier and perform repetitive tasks on each element.

In this chapter, you will learn how to declare and initialize arrays. You will also learn how to access individual elements within an array using index notation and modify them.

In addition, you will learn how to use loops to iterate through array elements and perform operations on each element.

How to Declare and Initialize an Array in C

To declare an array in C, you first specify the data type of the elements the array will store.

This means you can create arrays of type int , float , char , and so on.

You then specify the array's name, followed by the array's size in square brackets.

The size of the array is the number of elements that it can hold. This number must be a positive integer.

Keep in mind that arrays have a fixed size, and once declared, you cannot change it later on.

Here is the general syntax for declaring an array:

Here is how to declare an array of integers:

In the example above, I created an array named grades that can store 5 int numbers.

After declaring an array, you can initialize it with initial values.

To do this, use the assignment operator, = , followed by curly braces, {} .

The curly braces will enclose the values, and each value needs to be separated by a comma.

Here is how to initialize the grades array:

Keep in mind that the number of values should match the array size, otherwise you will encounter errors.

Something to note here is that you can also partially initialize the array:

In this case, the remaining two elements will be set to 0 .

Another way to initialize arrays is to omit the array's length inside the square brackets and only assign the initial values, like so:

In this example, the array's size is 5 because I assigned it 5 values.

How to Find the Length of an Array in C Using the sizeof() Operator

The sizeof operator comes in handy when you need to calculate the size of an array.

Let's see an example of the sizeof operator in action:

In the example above, sizeof(grades) calculates the total size of the array in bytes.

In this case, the array has five integers.

As mentioned in a previous chapter, on most modern systems an int typically occupies 4 bytes of memory. Therefore, the total size is 5 x 4 = 20 bytes of memory for the entire array.

Here is how you can check how much memory each int occupies using the sizeof operator:

The sizeof(grades[0]) calculates the size of a single element in bytes.

By dividing the total size of the array by the size of a single element, you can calculate the number of elements in the array, which is equal to the array's length:

How to Access Array Elements in C

You can access each element in an array by specifying its index or its position in the array.

Note that in C, indexing starts at 0 instead of 1 .

So, the index of the first element is 0 , the index of the second element is 1 , and so on.

The last element in an array has an index of array_size - 1 .

To access individual elements in the array, you specify the array's name followed by the element's index number inside square brackets ( [] ).

Let's take a look at the following example:

In the example above, to access each item from the integer array grades , I have to specify the array's name along with the item's position in the array inside square brackets.

Remember that the index starts from 0 , so grades[0] gives you the first element, grades[1] gives you the second element, and so on.

Note that if you try to access an element with an index number that is higher than array_size - 1 , the compiler will return a random number:

How to Modify Array Elements in C

Once you know how to access array elements, you can then modify them.

The general syntax for modifying an array element looks like this:

You can change the value of an element by assigning a new value to it using its index.

Let's take the grades array from earlier on:

Here is how you would change the value 75 to 85 :

When modifying arrays, keep in mind that the new value must match the declared data type of the array.

How to Loop Through an Array in C

By looping through an array, you can access and perform operations on each element sequentially.

The for loop is commonly used to iterate through arrays.

When using a for loop to loop through an array, you have to specify the index as the loop variable, and then use the index to access each array element.

The %i placeholders are replaced with the current index i and the value at that index in the grades array, respectively.

You can also use a while loop to iterate through an array:

When using a while loop to loop through an array, you will need an index variable, int i = 0 , to keep track of the current position in the array.

The loop checks the condition (i < 5) and prints the index of the grade as well as the actual grade value.

After each grade is shown, the variable i is increased by one, and the loop continues until it has shown all the grades in the list.

A do-while works in a similar way to the while loop, but it is useful when you want to ensure that the loop body is executed at least once before checking the condition:

You can also use the sizeof operator to loop through an array.

This method is particularly useful to ensure your loop doesn't exceed the array's length:

The line int length = sizeof(grades) / sizeof(grades[0]); calculates the length of the grades array.

The length is calculated by dividing the total size (in bytes) of the array by the size of a single element grades[0] . The result is stored in the length variable.

The loop then iterates through the array using this length value.

For each iteration, it prints the index i and the value of the grade at that index grades[i] .

Chapter 7: Strings

In the previous chapter, you learned the basics of arrays in C.

Now, it's time to learn about strings – a special kind of array.

Strings are everywhere in programming. They are used to represent names, messages, passwords, and more.

In this chapter, you will learn about strings in C and how they are stored as arrays of characters.

You'll also learn the fundamentals of string manipulation.

Specifically, you will learn how to find a string's length and how to copy, concatenate, and compare strings in C.

What Are Strings in C?

A string is a sequence of characters, like letters, numbers, or symbols, that are used to represent text.

In C, strings are actually arrays of characters. And each character in the string has a specific position within the array.

Another unique characteristic of strings in C is that at the end of every one, there is a hidden \0 character called the 'null terminator'.

This terminator lets the computer know where the string ends.

So, the string ' Hello ' in C is stored as ' Hello\0 ' in memory.

How to Create Strings in C

One way to create a string in C is to initialize an array of characters.

The array will contain the characters that make up the string.

Here is how you would initialize an array to create the string 'Hello':

Note how I specified that the array should store 6 characters despite Hello being only 5 characters long. This is due to the null operator.

Make sure to include the null terminator, \0 , as the last character to signify the end of the string.

Let's look at how you would create the string 'Hello world':

In this example, there is a space between the word 'Hello' and the word 'world'.

So, the array must include a blank space character.

To print the string, you use the printf() function, the %s format code and the name of the array:

Another way to create a string in C is to use a string literal.

In this case, you create an array of characters and then assign the string by enclosing it in double quotes:

With string literals, the null terminator ( \0 ) is implied.

Creating strings with string literals is easier, as you don't need to add the null terminator at the end. This method is also much more readable and requires less code.

However, you may want to use character arrays when you want to modify the string's content. String literals are read-only, meaning the content is fixed.

How to Manipulate Strings in C

C provides functions that allow you to perform operations on strings, such as copying, concatenating, and comparing, to name a few.

To use these functions, you first need to include the string.h header file by adding the line #include <string.h> at the top of your file.

How to Find the Length of a String in C

To calculate the length of a string, use the strlen() function:

The strlen() function will return the number of characters that make up the string.

Note that the result does not include the null terminator, \0 .

How to Copy a String in C

To copy one string into another one, you can use the strcpy() function.

You may want to copy a string in C when you need to make changes to it without modifying it. It comes in handy when you need to keep the original string's content intact.

The general syntax for the strcpy() function looks like this:

The strcpy() function copies original_string into destination_string , including the null terminator ( '\0' ).

One thing to note here is that you need to make sure the destination array has enough space for the original string:

The strcpy() function copies the original string into an empty array and returns the copied string, which also includes the null terminator character ( '\0' ).

How to Concatenate Strings in C

You can concatenate (add) two strings together by using the strcat() function.

The general syntax for the strcat() function looks something like the following:

The strcat() function takes the original string and adds it to the end of destination string.

Make sure that the destination_string has enough memory for the original_string .

Something to note here is that strcat() does not create a new string.

Instead, it modifies the original destination_string , by including the original_string at the end.

Let's see an example of how strcat() works:

How to Compare Strings in C

To compare two strings for equality, you can use the strcmp() function.

The general syntax for the strcmp() function looks like this:

The strcmp() function compares string1 with string2 and returns an integer.

If the return value of strcmp() is 0 , then it means the two strings are the same:

If the return value of strcmp() is less than 0 , then it means the first word comes before the second:

And if the return value of strcmp() is greater than 0 , then it means the first word comes after the second one:

While this handbook has covered a wide range of topics, there is still so much to learn, as programming is so vast.

Once you have built a solid foundation with the basics of C programming, you may want to explore more advanced concepts.

You may want to move on to learning about functions, for example. They allow you to write instructions for a specific task and reuse that code throughout your program.

You may also want to learn about pointers. Pointers in C are like arrows that show you where a specific piece of information is stored in the computer's memory.

Then, you may want to move on to learning about structures. They're like custom data containers that allow you to group different types of information under one name.

Lastly, you may want to learn how to work with files. Working with files in C allows you to read from and write to files. This is useful for tasks like saving user data, reading configuration settings, or sharing data between different programs.

These suggestions are not a definitive guide – just a few ideas for you to continue your C programming learning journey.

If you are interested in learning more, you can check out the following freeCodeCamp resources:

• C Programming Tutorial for Beginners
• Learn C Programming Using the Classic Book by Kernighan and Ritchie
• Unlock the Mysteries of Pointers in C

This marks the end of this introduction to the C programming language.

Thank you so much for sticking with it and making it until the end.

You learned how to work with variables, various data types, and operators.

You also learned how to write conditional statements and loops. And you learned the basics of working with arrays and strings.

Hopefully, you have gained a good understanding of some of the fundamentals of C programming, got some inspiration on what to learn next, and are excited to continue your programming journey.

Happy coding!

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Write a C program to check whether a number is even or odd

Description:

Write a C program to check whether a number is even or odd.

Note: Even number is divided by 2 and give the remainder 0 but odd number is not divisible by 2 for eg. 4 is divisible by 2 and 9 is not divisible by 2.

Conditions:

• Create a variable with name of number.
• Take value from user for number variable.

Enter the Number=9 Number is Odd.

Write a C program to swap value of two variables using the third variable.

You need to create a C program to swap values of two variables using the third variable.

You can use a temp variable as a blank variable to swap the value of x and y.

• Take three variables for eg. x, y and temp.
• Swap the value of x and y variable.

Write a C program to check whether a user is eligible to vote or not.

You need to create a C program to check whether a user is eligible to vote or not.

• Minimum age required for voting is 18.
• You can use decision making statement.

Enter your age=28 User is eligible to vote

Write a C program to check whether an alphabet is Vowel or Consonant

You need to create a C program to check whether an alphabet is Vowel or Consonant.

• Create a character type variable with name of alphabet and take the value from the user.
• You can use conditional statements.

Enter an alphabet: O O is a vowel.

Write a C program to find the maximum number between three numbers

You need to write a C program to find the maximum number between three numbers.

• Create three variables in c with name of number1, number2 and number3
• Find out the maximum number using the nested if-else statement

Enter three numbers: 10 20 30 Number3 is max with value of 30

Write a C program to check whether number is positive, negative or zero

You need to write a C program to check whether number is positive, negative or zero

• Create variable with name of number and the value will taken by user or console
• Create this c program code using else if ladder statement

Enter a number : 10 10 is positive

Write a C program to calculate Electricity bill.

You need to write a C program to calculate electricity bill using if-else statements.

• For first 50 units – Rs. 3.50/unit
• For next 100 units – Rs. 4.00/unit
• For next 100 units – Rs. 5.20/unit
• For units above 250 – Rs. 6.50/unit
• You can use conditional statements.

Enter the units consumed=278.90 Electricity Bill=1282.84 Rupees

Write a C program to print 1 to 10 numbers using the while loop

You need to create a C program to print 1 to 10 numbers using the while loop

• Create a variable for the loop iteration
• Use increment operator in while loop

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• C User-defined functions
• Types of User-defined Functions in C Programming
• C Recursion
• C Storage Class
• C Multidimensional Arrays
• Pass arrays to a function in C
• Relationship Between Arrays and Pointers
• C Pass Addresses and Pointers
• C Dynamic Memory Allocation
• C Array and Pointer Examples
• String Manipulations In C Programming Using Library Functions
• String Examples in C Programming
• C structs and Pointers
• C Structure and Function
• C File Handling
• C Files Examples
• C Keywords and Identifiers
• C Precedence And Associativity Of Operators
• C Preprocessor and Macros
• C Standard Library Functions
• Procedural Language - Instructions in a C program are executed step by step.
• Portable - You can move C programs from one platform to another, and run it without any or minimal changes.
• Speed - C programming is faster than most programming languages like Java, Python, etc.
• General Purpose - C programming can be used to develop operating systems, embedded systems, databases, and so on.

Why Learn C Programming?

• C helps you to understand the internal architecture of a computer, how computer stores and retrieves information.
• After learning C, it will be much easier to learn other programming languages like Java, Python, etc.
• Opportunity to work on open source projects. Some of the largest open-source projects such as Linux kernel, Python interpreter, SQLite database, etc. are written in C programming.

How to learn C Programming?

• Interactive C Course - Want to learn C Programming by solving quizzes and challenges after learning each concept? Enroll in our C Interactive Course for FREE.
• C tutorial from Programiz - We provide step by step C tutorials, examples, and references. Get started with C.
• Official C documentation - Might be hard to follow and understand for beginners. Visit official C Programming documentation.
• Write a lot of C programming code - The only way you can learn programming is by writing a lot of code.

C Resources

• Interactive C Course
• What is C Programming?
• C Programming Examples
• C Programming References

C Data Types

• C Operators
• C Input and Output
• C Control Flow
• C Functions
• C Preprocessors

C File Handling

• C Cheatsheet

C Interview Questions

C programming language tutorial.

• C Language Introduction
• Features of C Programming Language
• C Programming Language Standard
• C Hello World Program
• Compiling a C Program: Behind the Scenes
• Tokens in C
• Keywords in C

C Variables and Constants

• C Variables
• Constants in C
• Const Qualifier in C
• Different ways to declare variable as constant in C
• Scope rules in C
• Internal Linkage and External Linkage in C
• Global Variables in C
• Data Types in C
• Literals in C
• Escape Sequence in C
• Integer Promotions in C
• Character Arithmetic in C
• Type Conversion in C

C Input/Output

• Basic Input and Output in C
• Format Specifiers in C
• printf in C
• Scansets in C
• Formatted and Unformatted Input/Output functions in C with Examples
• Operators in C
• Arithmetic Operators in C
• Unary operators in C
• Relational Operators in C
• Bitwise Operators in C
• C Logical Operators
• Assignment Operators in C
• Increment and Decrement Operators in C
• Conditional or Ternary Operator (?:) in C
• sizeof operator in C
• Operator Precedence and Associativity in C

C Control Statements Decision-Making

• Decision Making in C (if , if..else, Nested if, if-else-if )
• C - if Statement
• C if...else Statement
• C if else if ladder
• Switch Statement in C
• Using Range in switch Case in C
• while loop in C
• do...while Loop in C
• For Versus While
• Continue Statement in C
• Break Statement in C
• goto Statement in C
• User-Defined Function in C
• Parameter Passing Techniques in C
• Function Prototype in C
• How can I return multiple values from a function?
• main Function in C
• Implicit return type int in C
• Callbacks in C
• Nested functions in C
• Variadic functions in C
• _Noreturn function specifier in C
• Predefined Identifier __func__ in C
• C Library math.h Functions

C Arrays & Strings

• Properties of Array in C
• Multidimensional Arrays in C
• Initialization of Multidimensional Array in C
• Pass Array to Functions in C
• How to pass a 2D array as a parameter in C?
• What are the data types for which it is not possible to create an array?
• How to pass an array by value in C ?
• Strings in C
• Array of Strings in C
• What is the difference between single quoted and double quoted declaration of char array?
• C String Functions
• Pointer Arithmetics in C with Examples
• C - Pointer to Pointer (Double Pointer)
• Function Pointer in C
• How to declare a pointer to a function?
• Pointer to an Array | Array Pointer
• Difference between constant pointer, pointers to constant, and constant pointers to constants
• Pointer vs Array in C
• Dangling, Void , Null and Wild Pointers in C
• Near, Far and Huge Pointers in C
• restrict keyword in C

C User-Defined Data Types

• C Structures
• dot (.) Operator in C
• Structure Member Alignment, Padding and Data Packing
• Flexible Array Members in a structure in C
• Bit Fields in C
• Difference Between Structure and Union in C
• Anonymous Union and Structure in C
• Enumeration (or enum) in C

C Storage Classes

• Storage Classes in C
• extern Keyword in C
• Static Variables in C
• Initialization of static variables in C
• Static functions in C
• Understanding "volatile" qualifier in C | Set 2 (Examples)
• Understanding "register" keyword in C

C Memory Management

• Memory Layout of C Programs
• Dynamic Memory Allocation in C using malloc(), calloc(), free() and realloc()
• Difference Between malloc() and calloc() with Examples
• What is Memory Leak? How can we avoid?
• Dynamic Array in C
• How to dynamically allocate a 2D array in C?
• Dynamically Growing Array in C

C Preprocessor

• C Preprocessor Directives
• How a Preprocessor works in C?
• Header Files in C
• What’s difference between header files "stdio.h" and "stdlib.h" ?
• How to write your own header file in C?
• Macros and its types in C
• Interesting Facts about Macros and Preprocessors in C
• # and ## Operators in C
• How to print a variable name in C?
• Multiline macros in C
• Variable length arguments for Macros
• Branch prediction macros in GCC
• typedef versus #define in C
• Difference between #define and const in C?
• Basics of File Handling in C
• C fopen() function with Examples
• EOF, getc() and feof() in C
• fgets() and gets() in C language
• fseek() vs rewind() in C
• What is return type of getchar(), fgetc() and getc() ?
• Read/Write Structure From/to a File in C
• C Program to print contents of file
• C program to delete a file
• C Program to merge contents of two files into a third file
• What is the difference between printf, sprintf and fprintf?
• Difference between getc(), getchar(), getch() and getche()

Miscellaneous

• time.h header file in C with Examples
• Input-output system calls in C | Create, Open, Close, Read, Write
• Signals in C language
• Program error signals
• Socket Programming in C
• _Generics Keyword in C
• Multithreading in C
• C Programming Interview Questions (2024)
• Commonly Asked C Programming Interview Questions | Set 1
• Commonly Asked C Programming Interview Questions | Set 2
• Commonly Asked C Programming Interview Questions | Set 3

In this C Tutorial , you’ll learn all C programming basic to advanced concepts like variables, arrays, pointers, strings, loops, etc. This C Programming Tutorial is designed for both beginners as well as experienced professionals, who’re looking to learn and enhance their knowledge of the C programming language.

C is a general-purpose, procedural, high-level programming language used in the development of computer software and applications, system programming, games, and more.

• C language was developed by Dennis M. Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1972 .
• It is a powerful and flexible language which was first developed for the programming of the UNIX operating System .
• C is one of the most widely used programming languages.

C programming language is known for its simplicity and efficiency. It is the best choice to start with programming as it gives you a foundational understanding of programming.

Print Hello World using C Programming

“Give this C code a try, and here’s a fun challenge: print ‘Hello World’ along with your name!”

Getting Started With C Programming Tutorial

Start your coding adventure with our free C Tutorial. A perfect C programming tutorial for beginners and advanced coders alike, this tutorial is your key to unlocking the magic of C programming. With clear explanations and fun examples.

C Arrays & Strings

C error handling.

• Setting Up C Development Environment
• C Identifiers
• Different Ways to Declare Variable as Constant in C
• Scope Rules in C
• Data Type Modifiers in C

C Input/Output Basic Input and Output in C Format Specifiers in C printf in C scanf in C Scansets in C Formatted and Unformatted Input and Output Functions C Operators

• Unary Operators in C
• Logical Operators in C
• size of Operator in C
• Decision-Making in C
• C if Statement
• C if…else Statement
• C if-else-if Ladder
• Using Range in switch case in C
• while looping in C
• do…while Loop in C
• for versus while Loop
• continue Statement in C
• break Statement in C
• Importance of Function Prototype in C
• Return Multiple Values From a Function
• Implicit Return Type int in C
• Nested Functions in C
• _Noreturn Function Specifier in C
• Maths Functions in C
• Initialization of Multidimensional Arrays in C
• Pass a 2D Array as a Parameter in C
• Data Types for Which Array is Not Possible
• Pass an Array by Value in C
• An Array of Strings in C
• Difference Between Single Quoted and Double Quoted Initialization
• String Functions in C
• Pointer Arithmetics in C
• Pointer to Pointer (Double Pointer) in C
• Declare Function Pointer in C
• Pointer to an Array in C
• Constant Pointer in C
• Dangling, Void, Null and Wild Pointers
• restrict Keyword in C
• Flexible Array Members in a Structure in C
• Initialization of Static Variables in C
• Static Functions in C
• Understanding “volatile” Qualifier in C
• Understanding the “register” Keyword in C
• Dynamic Memory Allocation in C
• Difference Between malloc() and calloc()
• What is a Memory Leak?
• Dynamically Allocate a 2D Array in C
• How a Preprocessor Works in C?
• Difference Between Header Files “stdio.h” and “stdlib.h”
• Write Your Own Header File in C
• Macros and their Types in C
• Interesting Facts About Macros and Preprocessors in C
• Print a Variable Name in C
• Multiline Macros in C
• Variable Length Arguments for Macros
• Branch Prediction Macros in GCC
• Difference Between #define and const in C
• C fopen() Function
• fgets() and gets() in C
• Return Type of getchar(), fgetc() and getc()
• C Program to Print Contents of File
• C Program to Delete a File
• C Program to Merge Contents of Two Files into a Third File
• Difference Between printf, sprintf and fprintf
• Difference Between getc(), getchar(), getch() and getche()
• Error Handling in C
• Using goto for Exception Handling in C
• Error Handling During File Operations in C
• C Program to Handle Divide By Zero and Multiple Exceptions
• Basic C Programs
• Control Flow Programs
• Pattern Printing Programs
• Functions Programs
• Arrays Programs
• Strings Programs
• Conversions Programs
• Pointers Programs
• Structures and Unions Programs
• File I/O Programs
• Date and Time Programs
• More C Programs
• Date and Time in C
• Input-output system calls in C
• Signals in C
• Program Error Signals in C

Top 50 C Programming Interview Questions and Answers Commonly Asked C Programming Interview Questions | Set 1 Commonly Asked C Programming Interview Questions | Set 2 Commonly Asked C Programming Interview Questions | Set 3

Why Learn C?

C programming language is one of the most popular programming language. It is a must learn for software engineering students. C is called the mother of all modern programming languages so learning C will help you to learn other languages easily like Java, C++, C#, Python, etc. C language is faster than other programming languages like Java and Python. It can handle low-level programming and we can compile the C code in a variety of computer platforms.

List of some key advantages of C language :

• Easy to learn.
• Versatile Language, which can be used in both applications and technologies.
• Mid-Level Programming Language.
• Structured Programming Language.

C compiler is a software that translates human-readable C language code into machine code or an intermediate code that can be executed by a computer’s central processing unit (CPU).

There are many C compilers available in the market, such as GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) , Microsoft Visual C++ Compiler , Clang , Intel C++ Compiler , and TinyCC (TCC) .

For this tutorial, we will be using the GNU-based online C compiler provided by GeeksforGeeks which is developed for beginners and is very easy to use compared to other compiler/IDE’s available on the web.

Features of C Language

There are some key features of C language that show the ability and power of C language:

• Simplicity and Efficiency: The simple syntax and structured approach make the C language easy to learn.
• Fast Speed: C is one of the fastest programming language because C is a static programming language, which is faster than dynamic languages like JavaScript and Python. C is also a compiler-based which is the reason for faster code compilation and execution.
• Portable: C provides the feature that you write code once and run it anywhere on any computer. It shows the machine-independent nature of the C language.
• Memory Management: C provides lower level memory management using pointers and functions like realloc(), free(), etc.
• Pointers: C comes with pointers. Through pointers, we can directly access or interact with the memory. We can initialize a pointer as an array, variables, etc.
• Structured Language: C provides the features of structural programming that allows you to code into different parts using functions which can be stored as libraries for reusability.

Applications of C Language

C was used in programs that were used in making operating systems. C was known as a system development language because the code written in C runs as fast as the code written in assembly language.

The use of C is given below:

• Operating Systems
• Language Compilers
• Text Editors
• Print Spoolers
• Network Drivers
• Modern Programs
• Language Interpreters

FAQs on C Language

Q1. how to learn c easily.

Answer: 

The first steps towards learning C or any language are to write a hello world program. It gives the understanding of how to write and execute a code. After this, learn the following: Variables Operators Conditionals Loops and Errors Arrays and Strings  Pointers and Memory Functions Structures Recursions 

Q2. Difference between C and C++?

 q3. is c easy to learn for beginners.

While C is one of the easy languages, it is still a good first language choice to start with because almost all programming languages are implemented in it. It means that once you learn C language, it’ll be easy to learn more languages like C++, Java, and C#.

Q4. Why should we learn C first rather than C++?

C is a ‘ mother of all languages .’ It provides a solid understanding of fundamental programming concepts and is considered easier to grasp. C offers versatile applications, from software development to game programming, making it an excellent choice for building a strong programming foundation.

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Important Topics To Learn

Computer Programming is a step-by-step method of planning and developing varied sets of computer programs to accomplish a particular computing outcome. There are several programming languages available therefore finalizing the correct programming language isn't a simple task. Just like human languages, programming languages conjointly follow grammar known as syntax. There are bound basic program code parts that are common for all programming languages. Some of them are as given below:

• Syntax and semantics: Understanding the fundamental structure and meaning of a programming language, including data types, variables, operators, and control flow, is referred to as syntax and semantics.
• Object-oriented programming: Understanding how to construct and handle objects using a programming language, including ideas like classes, inheritance, and polymorphism, is known as object-oriented programming.
• Functional programming: Understanding how to build and modify functions using a programming language, including ideas like closures, recursion, and immutability, is known as functional programming.
• Concurrency and parallelism: Understanding how to design and manage concurrent and parallel processes using a programming language, including threads, locks, and message forwarding.
• Using libraries: effectively using the built-in functions and modules that come with a programming language's standard libraries and Understanding third-party libraries can help you expand the capabilities of a programming language by finding, installing, and using additional libraries.
• Integration: Understanding how to utilize a programming language to interface with other programming languages and systems, including ideas like web services, APIs, and inter-process communication, is known as interoperability.
• Debugging: Understanding how to identify and correct software mistakes as well as how to handle exceptions and errors robustly are all parts of debugging and error handling. Performance optimization involves knowing how to develop efficient code as well as how to evaluate and enhance a program's performance.

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How Hard is it to Learn Coding?

Coding can be tough to learn, but how difficult it depends on the learner and the particular technology or programming language being used. Learning the fundamentals of coding may be simpler for some people than it is for others.

Learning the syntax and structure of a programming language, as well as the fundamental ideas of computer science like algorithms and data structures, may take some time for a beginner. But it is feasible to become an expert coder with effort and experience.

What Language should I start first?

Many programming languages are appropriate for beginners, although some are seen to be more suited for those just getting started. Among the preferred options for new programmers are:

• Python: It   is a high-level, interpreted language renowned for its straightforward and understandable syntax. In addition to scientific computing, data analysis, and machine learning, it is frequently used for scripting and automation.
• Java:  It is a well-liked general-purpose language that is renowned for its "write once, run anywhere" attitude. As a result, Java code may run without change on a variety of systems. Java is a programming language used to create desktop, online, and mobile applications.
• C#: Windows desktop and mobile app development, as well as game creation, are all common uses for the well-liked language C#. In terms of syntax and organization, it is comparable to Java.

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C stands out as one of the most extensively used programming languages in academic settings. For students new to the C language, completing assignments assigned by professors can pose a significant challenge. Before delving into writing even a simple C Programming code, a solid understanding of the language's fundamental concepts is essential. The syntax complexity of C often makes it difficult for many students to independently fulfill C assignments. We strive to address such challenges. Our extensive team comprises experts with Master's and PhDs in Computer Science/Programming, dedicated to assisting students and ensuring they achieve A+ grades. For years, we have been providing C assignment help to students worldwide. With a team of over 900 dedicated programmers, we have solidified our position as the leading provider of C programming assignment help.

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Expand Your C Programming Knowledge with Our Informative Blogs

Discover a wealth of practical insights and valuable resources through our enlightening C programming blogs. Dive into a diverse range of C programming topics, where we share industry updates, practical advice, and helpful tips to approach your assignments with confidence. Our blogs are carefully curated to provide you with the most recent trends and developments in the world of C programming. Enhance your skills, stay updated, and unlock new possibilities in C programming by exploring our engaging and informative blog section.

What Are The Advantages Of C Over Java?C and Java are some of the most commonly used programming languages today. Each has unique features that make it appropriate for the disciplines in which it is applied. But C has been found to be more prevalent than Java when it comes to application development...

C Programming Homework Help – The Best of the Best in the UKThe C programming language is one of the most common languages and the most preferred by the majority of institutions when it comes to introducing learners to programming. Most of the high-level programming languages we have today are a lot...

How to Complete Your C Programming Homework with Linux?Almost everyone is familiar with Windows, but a lot of courses use Linux and so you should be prepared to program under Linux. Most programming is similar to Windows but the biggest difference is fork since that has no equivalent on Windows. Whe...

File handling is a crucial aspect of programming, playing a pivotal role in successfully completing your C homework and projects. In C, files serve as repositories for data on secondary storage devices, allowing us to read, write, update, and delete information. The file handling process begi...

Pointers in C are a fundamental concept that holds immense power and significance in the programming world. As both a blessing and a challenge, they allow programmers to directly manipulate memory, providing unparalleled control and efficiency in handling data. Understanding pointers is essen...

As a programming student or developer, you must be familiar with the power and versatility of the C programming language. C is renowned for its efficiency and flexibility, making it a popular choice for handling data structures in Homework. Among the essential data structures, arrays play a p...

C, as a powerful and widely-used programming language, lays the foundation for countless applications and systems. As a programmer, understanding data types in C is not just a necessity but a fundamental skill for successfully handling Homework and crafting efficient and robust programs. If y...

Control structures are essential components of any programming language, and in C, they play a crucial role in defining the flow of execution. As a programmer, understanding and mastering control structures is essential for successfully solving C homework and creating efficient, error-free co...

In the ever-evolving world of computer science and programming, students often find themselves grappling with complex assignments that involve working with the BASH shell. While BASH is a powerful tool, mastering it can be quite challenging, especially for beginners. In this article, we will ...

Embarking on programming assignments, particularly those revolving around the C language, unfolds a journey marked by both challenges and rewards. For students and aspiring programmers, the mastery of C programming assignments stands as a pivotal milestone on the path to coding proficiency. Thi...

System programming is a vital component of computer science, demanding a profound comprehension of low-level operations and languages. Among the languages tailored for this purpose, C stands out as a formidable and widely embraced choice. This blog embarks on an exploration of C in system pro...

In the realm of C programming, the mastery of libraries and APIs stands as a linchpin for developers seeking efficiency and versatility in their projects. This blog, titled "Mastering C: The Ultimate Guide to Libraries and APIs for C Programmers," serves as a comprehensive journey into the fo...

In the fast-evolving landscape of programming languages, C has stood the test of time as a versatile and powerful language. Originally developed in the early 1970s, C has become a cornerstone in the world of software development, finding applications in various domains. This blog explores the ...

In the rapidly evolving landscape of computer science education, the programming language C continues to hold a significant place in top university programs. As a cornerstone language, C not only lays the foundation for understanding fundamental programming concepts but also serves as a bridg...

C programming assignments stand as pivotal components in the academic odyssey of students pursuing computer science or related disciplines. Yet, the mastery of C programming intricacies poses a formidable challenge, often leaving students grappling with various obstacles throughout their assign...

In the dynamic realm of programming, harnessing the prowess of Advanced Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) has become imperative for crafting resilient and feature-rich applications. Particularly within the domain of C programming, the integration of advanced APIs not only fosters effici...

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Why making assignments in C with our pros is your success way

Starting your C studies at high school, college, or university, you think it will be a highway yet the paths you may go can be rocky. C offers lots of merits due to its module structure but there are also some challenges that require C programming help of a real pro to gain success and get A marks for the homework done. What can go wrong?

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Make your C studies stressless with our help!

C is not as hard as it seems at first glance. To master C coding, you will need perseverance, just as with any other skill. The syntax of this programming language has 32 keywords. As a result, learning this coding language is relatively easy. If you’re having any issues with C programming, don’t hesitate to contact our verified programmers. They will be happy to help!

The procedural programming language C was explicitly designed for creating operating systems. Low-level memory access, minimal keywords, and clean style are the three key features of the C programming language. All this makes it ideal for system programming.

The main benefit of learning C programming is understanding the basic architecture of how things function. However, there are other benefits as well, including:

• As a middle-level language, C reduces the gap between high-level and low-level programming languages. In addition to creating operating systems, it may be used in application-level programming.
• C aids in comprehending the foundational concepts of Computer Theories. Since most computer-related theories are built on the C programming language, working on them necessitates a solid understanding of the language. So if you want to deal with CPU cache, memory, or network adapters, mastering C programming is a must.
• C has fewer libraries than other high-level languages, so you won’t be wholly dependent on this programming language to implement some basic tasks. Implementing them independently will also help you develop analytical skills.
• In terms of execution speed, C is really fast. C programs are substantially quicker to execute than programs written in any other programming language because it doesn’t require any additional processing overheads.
• C is widely popular in Robotics, Hardware, and other industries where microcontrollers are used.

C is a machine-independent coding language mainly used in compilers, application and system software, operating systems, network drivers, databases, etc. It is also considered a programming basis while studying any other programming language.

C is ideal for developing embedded system drivers and apps. This language is the most widely used due to the availability of machine-level hardware APIs, dynamic memory allocation, and the presence of C compilers.

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