what is the methodology of a research project

What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples

Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.

The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.

What is research methodology ?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.

Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3

• Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research; the explanations will be of benefit to them.
• You can easily answer any questions about your research if they arise at a later stage.
• A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for researchers to clearly define research questions, hypotheses, and objectives.
• It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design, sampling technique, and data collection and analysis methods.
• A sound research methodology helps researchers ensure that their findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.
• It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while conducting research.
• A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their research efficiently, by ensuring optimum usage of their time and resources.

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Types of research methodology.

There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1

• Quantitative research methodology focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This approach is good for reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type of research helps in testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider populations.
• Qualitative research methodology examines the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of people. It collects and analyzes words and textual data. This research methodology requires fewer participants but is still more time consuming because the time spent per participant is quite large. This method is used in exploratory research where the research problem being investigated is not clearly defined.
• Mixed-method research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method.

What are the types of sampling designs in research methodology?

Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.

• Probability sampling

In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:

• Systematic —sample members are chosen at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time consuming.
• Stratified —researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then a sample can be drawn from each group separately.
• Cluster —the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.
• Convenience —selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.
• Purposive —participants are selected at the researcher’s discretion. Researchers consider the purpose of the study and the understanding of the target audience.
• Snowball —already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.
• Quota —while designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.

What are data collection methods?

During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.

Qualitative research 5

• One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event
• Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
• Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic.
• Qualitative observation : Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

Quantitative research 6

• Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling.
• Interviews: Commonly telephonic or done in-person.
• Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting.
• Document review: Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the research.
• Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

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What are data analysis methods.

The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:

• Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency)
• Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
• Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation)
• Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:

• Correlation: To understand the relationship between two or more variables.
• Cross-tabulation: Analyze the relationship between multiple variables.
• Regression analysis: Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.
• Frequency tables: To understand the frequency of data.
• Analysis of variance: To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an experiment.

Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:

• Content analysis: For analyzing documented information from text and images by determining the presence of certain words or concepts in texts.
• Narrative analysis: For analyzing content obtained from sources such as interviews, field observations, and surveys. The stories and opinions shared by people are used to answer research questions.
• Discourse analysis: For analyzing interactions with people considering the social context, that is, the lifestyle and environment, under which the interaction occurs.
• Grounded theory: Involves hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis to explain why a phenomenon occurred.
• Thematic analysis: To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to address an issue.

How to choose a research methodology?

Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8

• Research objectives, aims, and questions —these would help structure the research design.
• Review existing literature to identify any gaps in knowledge.
• Check the statistical requirements —if data-driven or statistical results are needed then quantitative research is the best. If the research questions can be answered based on people’s opinions and perceptions, then qualitative research is most suitable.
• Sample size —sample size can often determine the feasibility of a research methodology. For a large sample, less effort- and time-intensive methods are appropriate.
• Constraints —constraints of time, geography, and resources can help define the appropriate methodology.

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How to write a research methodology .

A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9

• Research design —should be selected based on the research question and the data required. Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.
• Research method —this can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method.
• Reason for selecting a specific methodology —explain why this methodology is the most suitable to answer your research problem.
• Research instruments —explain the research instruments you plan to use, mainly referring to the data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, etc. Here as well, a reason should be mentioned for selecting the particular instrument.
• Sampling —this involves selecting a representative subset of the population being studied.
• Data collection —involves gathering data using several data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, etc.
• Data analysis —describe the data analysis methods you will use once you’ve collected the data.
• Research limitations —mention any limitations you foresee while conducting your research.
• Validity and reliability —validity helps identify the accuracy and truthfulness of the findings; reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results over time and across different conditions.
• Ethical considerations —research should be conducted ethically. The considerations include obtaining consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and addressing conflicts of interest.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?

A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:

• Research design
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis methods
• Ethical considerations

Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?

A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10

• Participants should not be subjected to harm.
• Respect for the dignity of participants should be prioritized.
• Full consent should be obtained from participants before the study.
• Participants’ privacy should be ensured.
• Confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
• Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research should be maintained.
• The aims and objectives of the research should not be exaggerated.
• Affiliations, sources of funding, and any possible conflicts of interest should be declared.
• Communication in relation to the research should be honest and transparent.
• Misleading information and biased representation of primary data findings should be avoided.

Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?

A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.

Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.

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• Research methodologies. Pfeiffer Library website. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://library.tiffin.edu/researchmethodologies/whatareresearchmethodologies
• Types of research methodology. Eduvoice website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://eduvoice.in/types-research-methodology/
• The basics of research methodology: A key to quality research. Voxco. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.voxco.com/blog/what-is-research-methodology/
• Sampling methods: Types with examples. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/
• What is qualitative research? Methods, types, approaches, examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-qualitative-research-methods-types-examples/
• What is quantitative research? Definition, methods, types, and examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-quantitative-research-types-and-examples/
• Data analysis in research: Types & methods. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/#Data_analysis_in_qualitative_research
• Factors to consider while choosing the right research methodology. PhD Monster website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://www.phdmonster.com/factors-to-consider-while-choosing-the-right-research-methodology/
• What is research methodology? Research and writing guides. Accessed August 14, 2023. https://paperpile.com/g/what-is-research-methodology/
• Ethical considerations. Business research methodology website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/ethical-considerations/

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What Is Research Methodology? Types, Process, Examples In Research Design

Research methodology is the backbone of any successful study, providing a structured approach to collecting and analysing data. It encompasses a broad spectrum of methods, each with specific processes and applications, tailored to answer distinct research questions.

This article will explore various types of research methodologies, delve into their processes, and illustrate with examples how they are applied in real-world research.

Understanding these methodologies is essential for any researcher aiming to conduct thorough and impactful studies.

Types Of Research Methodology

Research methodology contains various strategies and approaches to conduct scientific research, each tailored to specific types of questions and data.

Think of research methodology as the master plan for your study. It guides you on why and how to gather and analyse data, ensuring your approach aligns perfectly with your research question.

This methodology includes deciding between qualitative research, which explores topics in depth through interviews or focus groups, or quantitative research, which quantifies data through surveys and statistical analysis.

There is even an option to mix both, and approach called the mixed method.

If you’re analysing the lived experiences of individuals in a specific setting, qualitative methodologies allow you to capture the nuances of human emotions and behaviours through detailed narratives.

Quantitative methodologies would enable you to measure and compare these experiences in a more structured, numerical format.

Choosing a robust methodology not only provides the rationale for the methods you choose but also highlights the research limitations and ethical considerations, keeping your study transparent and grounded.

It’s a thoughtful composition that gives research its direction and purpose, much like how an architect’s plan is essential before the actual construction begins.

Qualitative Research Methodology

Qualitative research dives deep into the social context of a topic. It collects words and textual data rather than numerical data.

Within the family, qualitative research methodologies can be broken down into several approaches: 

Ethnography: Deeply rooted in the traditions of anthropology, you immerse yourself in the community or social setting you’re studying when conducting an ethnography study.

Case Study Research:  Here, you explore the complexity of a single case in detail. This could be an institution, a group, or an individual. You might look into interviews, documents, and reports, to build a comprehensive picture of the subject.

Grounded Theory:  Here, you try to generate theories from the data itself rather than testing existing hypotheses. You might start with a research question but allow your theories to develop as you gather more data.

Narrative Research:  You explore the stories people tell about their lives and personal experiences in their own words. Through techniques like in-depth interviews or life story collections, you analyse the narrative to understand the individual’s experiences.

Discourse Analysis: You analyse written or spoken words to understand the social norms and power structures that underlie the language used. This method can reveal a lot about the social context and the dynamics of power in communication. 

These methods help to uncover patterns in how people think and interact. For example, in exploring consumer attitudes toward a new product, you would likely conduct focus groups or participant observations to gather qualitative data.

This method helps you understand the motivations and feelings behind consumer choices.

Quantitative Research Methodology

Quantitative research relies on numerical data to find patterns and test hypotheses. This methodology uses statistical analysis to quantify data and uncover relationships between variables.

There are several approaches in quantitative research:

Experimental Research:  This is the gold standard when you aim to determine causality. By manipulating one variable and controlling others, you observe changes in the dependent variables.

Survey Research: A popular approach, because of its efficiency in collecting data from a large sample of participants. By using standardised questions, you can gather data that are easy to analyse statistically. 

Correlational Research: This approach tries to identify relationships between two or more variables without establishing a causal link. The strength and direction of these relationships are quantified, albeit without confirming one variable causes another.

Longitudinal Studies: You track variables over time, providing a dynamic view of how situations evolve. This approach requires commitment and can be resource-intensive, but the depth of data they provide is unparalleled.

Cross-sectional Studies: Offers a snapshot of a population at a single point in time. They are quicker and cheaper than longitudinal studies. 

Mixed Research Methodology

Mixed methods research combines both approaches to benefit from the depth of qualitative data and the breadth of quantitative analysis.

You might start with qualitative interviews to develop hypotheses about health behaviours in a community. Then, you could conduct a large-scale survey to test these hypotheses quantitatively.

This approach is particularly useful when you want to explore a new area where previous data may not exist, giving you a comprehensive insight into both the empirical and social dimensions of a research problem.

Factors To Consider When Deciding On Research Methodology

When you dive into a research project, choosing the right methodology is akin to selecting the best tools for building a house.

It shapes how you approach the research question, gather data, and interpret the results. Here are a couple of crucial factors to keep in mind.

Research Question Compatibility

The type of research question you pose can heavily influence the methodology you choose. Qualitative methodologies are superb for exploratory research where you aim to understand concepts, perceptions, and experiences.

If you’re exploring how patients feel about a new healthcare policy, interviews and focus groups would be instrumental.

Quantitative methods are your go-to for questions that require measurable and statistical data, like assessing the prevalence of a medical condition across different regions.

Data Requirements

Consider what data is necessary to address your research question effectively. Qualitative data can provide depth and detail through:

• images, and

This makes qualitative method ideal for understanding complex social interactions or historical contexts. 

Quantitative data, however, offers the breadth and is often numerical, allowing for a broad analysis of patterns and correlations.

If your study aims to investigate both the breadth and depth, a mixed methods approach might be necessary, enabling you to draw on the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative data.

Resources and Constraints

While deciding on research methodology, you must evaluate the resources available, including:

• funding, and

Quantitative research often requires larger samples and hence, might be more costly and time-consuming.

Qualitative research, while generally less resource-intensive, demands substantial time for data collection and analysis, especially if you conduct lengthy interviews or detailed content analysis.

If resources are limited, adapting your methodology to fit these constraints without compromising the integrity of your research is crucial.

Skill Set and Expertise

Your familiarity and comfort level with various research methodologies will significantly affect your choice.

Conducting sophisticated statistical analyses requires a different skill set than carrying out in-depth qualitative interviews.

If your background is in social science, you might find qualitative methods more within your wheelhouse; whereas, a postgraduate student in epidemiology might be more adept at quantitative methods.

It’s also worth considering the availability of workshops, courses, or collaborators who could complement your skills.

Ethical and Practical Considerations

Different methodologies raise different ethical concerns.

In qualitative research, maintaining anonymity and dealing with sensitive information can be challenging, especially when using direct quotes or detailed descriptions from participants.

Quantitative research might involve considerations around participant consent for large surveys or experiments.

Practically, you need to think about the sampling design to ensure it is representative of the population studied. Non-probability sampling might be quicker and cheaper but can introduce bias, limiting the generalisability of your findings.

By meticulously considering these factors, you tailor your research design to not just answer the research questions effectively but also to reflect the realities of your operational environment.

This thoughtful approach helps ensure that your research is not only robust but also practical and ethical, standing up to both academic scrutiny and real-world application.

What Is Research Methodology? Answered

Research methodology is a crucial framework that guides the entire research process. It involves choosing between various qualitative and quantitative approaches, each tailored to specific research questions and objectives.

Your chosen methodology shapes how data is gathered, analysed, and interpreted, ultimately influencing the reliability and validity of your research findings.

Understanding these methodologies ensures that researchers can effectively write research proposal, address their study’s aims and contribute valuable insights to their field.

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What is research methodology?

The basics of research methodology

Why do you need a research methodology, what needs to be included, why do you need to document your research method, what are the different types of research instruments, qualitative / quantitative / mixed research methodologies, how do you choose the best research methodology for you, frequently asked questions about research methodology, related articles.

When you’re working on your first piece of academic research, there are many different things to focus on, and it can be overwhelming to stay on top of everything. This is especially true of budding or inexperienced researchers.

If you’ve never put together a research proposal before or find yourself in a position where you need to explain your research methodology decisions, there are a few things you need to be aware of.

Once you understand the ins and outs, handling academic research in the future will be less intimidating. We break down the basics below:

A research methodology encompasses the way in which you intend to carry out your research. This includes how you plan to tackle things like collection methods, statistical analysis, participant observations, and more.

You can think of your research methodology as being a formula. One part will be how you plan on putting your research into practice, and another will be why you feel this is the best way to approach it. Your research methodology is ultimately a methodological and systematic plan to resolve your research problem.

In short, you are explaining how you will take your idea and turn it into a study, which in turn will produce valid and reliable results that are in accordance with the aims and objectives of your research. This is true whether your paper plans to make use of qualitative methods or quantitative methods.

The purpose of a research methodology is to explain the reasoning behind your approach to your research - you'll need to support your collection methods, methods of analysis, and other key points of your work.

Think of it like writing a plan or an outline for you what you intend to do.

When carrying out research, it can be easy to go off-track or depart from your standard methodology.

Tip: Having a methodology keeps you accountable and on track with your original aims and objectives, and gives you a suitable and sound plan to keep your project manageable, smooth, and effective.

With all that said, how do you write out your standard approach to a research methodology?

As a general plan, your methodology should include the following information:

• Your research method.  You need to state whether you plan to use quantitative analysis, qualitative analysis, or mixed-method research methods. This will often be determined by what you hope to achieve with your research.
• Explain your reasoning. Why are you taking this methodological approach? Why is this particular methodology the best way to answer your research problem and achieve your objectives?
• Explain your instruments.  This will mainly be about your collection methods. There are varying instruments to use such as interviews, physical surveys, questionnaires, for example. Your methodology will need to detail your reasoning in choosing a particular instrument for your research.
• What will you do with your results?  How are you going to analyze the data once you have gathered it?
• Advise your reader.  If there is anything in your research methodology that your reader might be unfamiliar with, you should explain it in more detail. For example, you should give any background information to your methods that might be relevant or provide your reasoning if you are conducting your research in a non-standard way.
• How will your sampling process go?  What will your sampling procedure be and why? For example, if you will collect data by carrying out semi-structured or unstructured interviews, how will you choose your interviewees and how will you conduct the interviews themselves?
• Any practical limitations?  You should discuss any limitations you foresee being an issue when you’re carrying out your research.

In any dissertation, thesis, or academic journal, you will always find a chapter dedicated to explaining the research methodology of the person who carried out the study, also referred to as the methodology section of the work.

A good research methodology will explain what you are going to do and why, while a poor methodology will lead to a messy or disorganized approach.

You should also be able to justify in this section your reasoning for why you intend to carry out your research in a particular way, especially if it might be a particularly unique method.

Having a sound methodology in place can also help you with the following:

• When another researcher at a later date wishes to try and replicate your research, they will need your explanations and guidelines.
• In the event that you receive any criticism or questioning on the research you carried out at a later point, you will be able to refer back to it and succinctly explain the how and why of your approach.
• It provides you with a plan to follow throughout your research. When you are drafting your methodology approach, you need to be sure that the method you are using is the right one for your goal. This will help you with both explaining and understanding your method.
• It affords you the opportunity to document from the outset what you intend to achieve with your research, from start to finish.

A research instrument is a tool you will use to help you collect, measure and analyze the data you use as part of your research.

The choice of research instrument will usually be yours to make as the researcher and will be whichever best suits your methodology.

There are many different research instruments you can use in collecting data for your research.

Generally, they can be grouped as follows:

• Interviews (either as a group or one-on-one). You can carry out interviews in many different ways. For example, your interview can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. The difference between them is how formal the set of questions is that is asked of the interviewee. In a group interview, you may choose to ask the interviewees to give you their opinions or perceptions on certain topics.
• Surveys (online or in-person). In survey research, you are posing questions in which you ask for a response from the person taking the survey. You may wish to have either free-answer questions such as essay-style questions, or you may wish to use closed questions such as multiple choice. You may even wish to make the survey a mixture of both.
• Focus Groups.  Similar to the group interview above, you may wish to ask a focus group to discuss a particular topic or opinion while you make a note of the answers given.
• Observations.  This is a good research instrument to use if you are looking into human behaviors. Different ways of researching this include studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in their everyday life, or something more structured. A structured observation is research conducted at a set time and place where researchers observe behavior as planned and agreed upon with participants.

These are the most common ways of carrying out research, but it is really dependent on your needs as a researcher and what approach you think is best to take.

It is also possible to combine a number of research instruments if this is necessary and appropriate in answering your research problem.

There are three different types of methodologies, and they are distinguished by whether they focus on words, numbers, or both.

➡️ Want to learn more about the differences between qualitative and quantitative research, and how to use both methods? Check out our guide for that!

If you've done your due diligence, you'll have an idea of which methodology approach is best suited to your research.

It’s likely that you will have carried out considerable reading and homework before you reach this point and you may have taken inspiration from other similar studies that have yielded good results.

Still, it is important to consider different options before setting your research in stone. Exploring different options available will help you to explain why the choice you ultimately make is preferable to other methods.

If proving your research problem requires you to gather large volumes of numerical data to test hypotheses, a quantitative research method is likely to provide you with the most usable results.

If instead you’re looking to try and learn more about people, and their perception of events, your methodology is more exploratory in nature and would therefore probably be better served using a qualitative research methodology.

It helps to always bring things back to the question: what do I want to achieve with my research?

Once you have conducted your research, you need to analyze it. Here are some helpful guides for qualitative data analysis:

➡️  How to do a content analysis

➡️  How to do a thematic analysis

➡️  How to do a rhetorical analysis

Research methodology refers to the techniques used to find and analyze information for a study, ensuring that the results are valid, reliable and that they address the research objective.

Data can typically be organized into four different categories or methods: observational, experimental, simulation, and derived.

Writing a methodology section is a process of introducing your methods and instruments, discussing your analysis, providing more background information, addressing your research limitations, and more.

Your research methodology section will need a clear research question and proposed research approach. You'll need to add a background, introduce your research question, write your methodology and add the works you cited during your data collecting phase.

The research methodology section of your study will indicate how valid your findings are and how well-informed your paper is. It also assists future researchers planning to use the same methodology, who want to cite your study or replicate it.

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The Ultimate Guide To Research Methodology

Research methodology is a crucial aspect of any investigative process, serving as the blueprint for the entire research journey. If you are stuck in the methodology section of your research paper , then this blog will guide you on what is a research methodology, its types and how to successfully conduct one. 

Table of Contents

What Is Research Methodology?

Research methodology can be defined as the systematic framework that guides researchers in designing, conducting, and analyzing their investigations. It encompasses a structured set of processes, techniques, and tools employed to gather and interpret data, ensuring the reliability and validity of the research findings. 

Research methodology is not confined to a singular approach; rather, it encapsulates a diverse range of methods tailored to the specific requirements of the research objectives.

Here is why Research methodology is important in academic and professional settings.

Facilitating Rigorous Inquiry

Research methodology forms the backbone of rigorous inquiry. It provides a structured approach that aids researchers in formulating precise thesis statements , selecting appropriate methodologies, and executing systematic investigations. This, in turn, enhances the quality and credibility of the research outcomes.

Ensuring Reproducibility And Reliability

In both academic and professional contexts, the ability to reproduce research outcomes is paramount. A well-defined research methodology establishes clear procedures, making it possible for others to replicate the study. This not only validates the findings but also contributes to the cumulative nature of knowledge.

Guiding Decision-Making Processes

In professional settings, decisions often hinge on reliable data and insights. Research methodology equips professionals with the tools to gather pertinent information, analyze it rigorously, and derive meaningful conclusions.

This informed decision-making is instrumental in achieving organizational goals and staying ahead in competitive environments.

Contributing To Academic Excellence

For academic researchers, adherence to robust research methodology is a hallmark of excellence. Institutions value research that adheres to high standards of methodology, fostering a culture of academic rigour and intellectual integrity. Furthermore, it prepares students with critical skills applicable beyond academia.

Enhancing Problem-Solving Abilities

Research methodology instills a problem-solving mindset by encouraging researchers to approach challenges systematically. It equips individuals with the skills to dissect complex issues, formulate hypotheses , and devise effective strategies for investigation.

Understanding Research Methodology

In the pursuit of knowledge and discovery, understanding the fundamentals of research methodology is paramount. 

Basics Of Research

Research, in its essence, is a systematic and organized process of inquiry aimed at expanding our understanding of a particular subject or phenomenon. It involves the exploration of existing knowledge, the formulation of hypotheses, and the collection and analysis of data to draw meaningful conclusions. 

Research is a dynamic and iterative process that contributes to the continuous evolution of knowledge in various disciplines.

Types of Research

Research takes on various forms, each tailored to the nature of the inquiry. Broadly classified, research can be categorized into two main types:

• Quantitative Research: This type involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and statistical significance. It is particularly useful for testing hypotheses and making predictions.
• Qualitative Research: Qualitative research focuses on understanding the depth and details of a phenomenon through non-numerical data. It often involves methods such as interviews, focus groups, and content analysis, providing rich insights into complex issues.

Components Of Research Methodology

To conduct effective research, one must go through the different components of research methodology. These components form the scaffolding that supports the entire research process, ensuring its coherence and validity.

Research Design

Research design serves as the blueprint for the entire research project. It outlines the overall structure and strategy for conducting the study. The three primary types of research design are:

• Exploratory Research: Aimed at gaining insights and familiarity with the topic, often used in the early stages of research.
• Descriptive Research: Involves portraying an accurate profile of a situation or phenomenon, answering the ‘what,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’ and ‘when’ questions.
• Explanatory Research: Seeks to identify the causes and effects of a phenomenon, explaining the ‘why’ and ‘how.’

Data Collection Methods

Choosing the right data collection methods is crucial for obtaining reliable and relevant information. Common methods include:

• Surveys and Questionnaires: Employed to gather information from a large number of respondents through standardized questions.
• Interviews: In-depth conversations with participants, offering qualitative insights.
• Observation: Systematic watching and recording of behaviour, events, or processes in their natural setting.

Data Analysis Techniques

Once data is collected, analysis becomes imperative to derive meaningful conclusions. Different methodologies exist for quantitative and qualitative data:

• Quantitative Data Analysis: Involves statistical techniques such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and regression analysis to interpret numerical data.
• Qualitative Data Analysis: Methods like content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory are employed to extract patterns, themes, and meanings from non-numerical data.

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Choosing a Research Method

Selecting an appropriate research method is a critical decision in the research process. It determines the approach, tools, and techniques that will be used to answer the research questions. 

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data, providing a structured and objective approach to understanding and explaining phenomena.

Experimental Research

Experimental research involves manipulating variables to observe the effect on another variable under controlled conditions. It aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Key Characteristics:

• Controlled Environment: Experiments are conducted in a controlled setting to minimize external influences.
• Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to different experimental conditions.
• Quantitative Data: Data collected is numerical, allowing for statistical analysis.

Applications: Commonly used in scientific studies and psychology to test hypotheses and identify causal relationships.

Survey Research

Survey research gathers information from a sample of individuals through standardized questionnaires or interviews. It aims to collect data on opinions, attitudes, and behaviours.

• Structured Instruments: Surveys use structured instruments, such as questionnaires, to collect data.
• Large Sample Size: Surveys often target a large and diverse group of participants.
• Quantitative Data Analysis: Responses are quantified for statistical analysis.

Applications: Widely employed in social sciences, marketing, and public opinion research to understand trends and preferences.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research seeks to portray an accurate profile of a situation or phenomenon. It focuses on answering the ‘what,’ ‘who,’ ‘where,’ and ‘when’ questions.

• Observation and Data Collection: This involves observing and documenting without manipulating variables.
• Objective Description: Aim to provide an unbiased and factual account of the subject.
• Quantitative or Qualitative Data: T his can include both types of data, depending on the research focus.

Applications: Useful in situations where researchers want to understand and describe a phenomenon without altering it, common in social sciences and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research emphasizes exploring and understanding the depth and complexity of phenomena through non-numerical data.

A case study is an in-depth exploration of a particular person, group, event, or situation. It involves detailed, context-rich analysis.

• Rich Data Collection: Uses various data sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents.
• Contextual Understanding: Aims to understand the context and unique characteristics of the case.
• Holistic Approach: Examines the case in its entirety.

Applications: Common in social sciences, psychology, and business to investigate complex and specific instances.

Ethnography

Ethnography involves immersing the researcher in the culture or community being studied to gain a deep understanding of their behaviours, beliefs, and practices.

• Participant Observation: Researchers actively participate in the community or setting.
• Holistic Perspective: Focuses on the interconnectedness of cultural elements.
• Qualitative Data: In-depth narratives and descriptions are central to ethnographic studies.

Applications: Widely used in anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies to explore and document cultural practices.

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory aims to develop theories grounded in the data itself. It involves systematic data collection and analysis to construct theories from the ground up.

• Constant Comparison: Data is continually compared and analyzed during the research process.
• Inductive Reasoning: Theories emerge from the data rather than being imposed on it.
• Iterative Process: The research design evolves as the study progresses.

Applications: Commonly applied in sociology, nursing, and management studies to generate theories from empirical data.

Research design is the structural framework that outlines the systematic process and plan for conducting a study. It serves as the blueprint, guiding researchers on how to collect, analyze, and interpret data.

Exploratory, Descriptive, And Explanatory Designs

Exploratory design.

Exploratory research design is employed when a researcher aims to explore a relatively unknown subject or gain insights into a complex phenomenon.

• Flexibility: Allows for flexibility in data collection and analysis.
• Open-Ended Questions: Uses open-ended questions to gather a broad range of information.
• Preliminary Nature: Often used in the initial stages of research to formulate hypotheses.

Applications: Valuable in the early stages of investigation, especially when the researcher seeks a deeper understanding of a subject before formalizing research questions.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research design focuses on portraying an accurate profile of a situation, group, or phenomenon.

• Structured Data Collection: Involves systematic and structured data collection methods.
• Objective Presentation: Aims to provide an unbiased and factual account of the subject.
• Quantitative or Qualitative Data: Can incorporate both types of data, depending on the research objectives.

Applications: Widely used in social sciences, marketing, and educational research to provide detailed and objective descriptions.

Explanatory Design

Explanatory research design aims to identify the causes and effects of a phenomenon, explaining the ‘why’ and ‘how’ behind observed relationships.

• Causal Relationships: Seeks to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Controlled Variables : Often involves controlling certain variables to isolate causal factors.
• Quantitative Analysis: Primarily relies on quantitative data analysis techniques.

Applications: Commonly employed in scientific studies and social sciences to delve into the underlying reasons behind observed patterns.

Cross-Sectional Vs. Longitudinal Designs

Cross-sectional design.

Cross-sectional designs collect data from participants at a single point in time.

• Snapshot View: Provides a snapshot of a population at a specific moment.
• Efficiency: More efficient in terms of time and resources.
• Limited Temporal Insights: Offers limited insights into changes over time.

Applications: Suitable for studying characteristics or behaviours that are stable or not expected to change rapidly.

Longitudinal Design

Longitudinal designs involve the collection of data from the same participants over an extended period.

• Temporal Sequence: Allows for the examination of changes over time.
• Causality Assessment: Facilitates the assessment of cause-and-effect relationships.
• Resource-Intensive: Requires more time and resources compared to cross-sectional designs.

Applications: Ideal for studying developmental processes, trends, or the impact of interventions over time.

Experimental Vs Non-experimental Designs

Experimental design.

Experimental designs involve manipulating variables under controlled conditions to observe the effect on another variable.

• Causality Inference: Enables the inference of cause-and-effect relationships.
• Quantitative Data: Primarily involves the collection and analysis of numerical data.

Applications: Commonly used in scientific studies, psychology, and medical research to establish causal relationships.

Non-Experimental Design

Non-experimental designs observe and describe phenomena without manipulating variables.

• Natural Settings: Data is often collected in natural settings without intervention.
• Descriptive or Correlational: Focuses on describing relationships or correlations between variables.
• Quantitative or Qualitative Data: This can involve either type of data, depending on the research approach.

Applications: Suitable for studying complex phenomena in real-world settings where manipulation may not be ethical or feasible.

Effective data collection is fundamental to the success of any research endeavour. 

Designing Effective Surveys

Objective Design:

• Clearly define the research objectives to guide the survey design.
• Craft questions that align with the study’s goals and avoid ambiguity.

Structured Format:

• Use a structured format with standardized questions for consistency.
• Include a mix of closed-ended and open-ended questions for detailed insights.

Pilot Testing:

• Conduct pilot tests to identify and rectify potential issues with survey design.
• Ensure clarity, relevance, and appropriateness of questions.

Sampling Strategy:

• Develop a robust sampling strategy to ensure a representative participant group.
• Consider random sampling or stratified sampling based on the research goals.

Conducting Interviews

Establishing Rapport:

• Build rapport with participants to create a comfortable and open environment.
• Clearly communicate the purpose of the interview and the value of participants’ input.

Open-Ended Questions:

• Frame open-ended questions to encourage detailed responses.
• Allow participants to express their thoughts and perspectives freely.

Active Listening:

• Practice active listening to understand areas and gather rich data.
• Avoid interrupting and maintain a non-judgmental stance during the interview.

Ethical Considerations:

• Obtain informed consent and assure participants of confidentiality.
• Be transparent about the study’s purpose and potential implications.

Observation

1. participant observation.

Immersive Participation:

• Actively immerse yourself in the setting or group being observed.
• Develop a deep understanding of behaviours, interactions, and context.

Field Notes:

• Maintain detailed and reflective field notes during observations.
• Document observed patterns, unexpected events, and participant reactions.

Ethical Awareness:

• Be conscious of ethical considerations, ensuring respect for participants.
• Balance the role of observer and participant to minimize bias.

2. Non-participant Observation

Objective Observation:

• Maintain a more detached and objective stance during non-participant observation.
• Focus on recording behaviours, events, and patterns without direct involvement.

Data Reliability:

• Enhance the reliability of data by reducing observer bias.
• Develop clear observation protocols and guidelines.

Contextual Understanding:

• Strive for a thorough understanding of the observed context.
• Consider combining non-participant observation with other methods for triangulation.

Archival Research

1. using existing data.

Identifying Relevant Archives:

• Locate and access archives relevant to the research topic.
• Collaborate with institutions or repositories holding valuable data.

Data Verification:

• Verify the accuracy and reliability of archived data.
• Cross-reference with other sources to ensure data integrity.

Ethical Use:

• Adhere to ethical guidelines when using existing data.
• Respect copyright and intellectual property rights.

2. Challenges and Considerations

Incomplete or Inaccurate Archives:

• Address the possibility of incomplete or inaccurate archival records.
• Acknowledge limitations and uncertainties in the data.

Temporal Bias:

• Recognize potential temporal biases in archived data.
• Consider the historical context and changes that may impact interpretation.

Access Limitations:

• Address potential limitations in accessing certain archives.
• Seek alternative sources or collaborate with institutions to overcome barriers.

Common Challenges in Research Methodology

Conducting research is a complex and dynamic process, often accompanied by a myriad of challenges. Addressing these challenges is crucial to ensure the reliability and validity of research findings.

Sampling Issues

Sampling bias:.

• The presence of sampling bias can lead to an unrepresentative sample, affecting the generalizability of findings.
• Employ random sampling methods and ensure the inclusion of diverse participants to reduce bias.

Sample Size Determination:

• Determining an appropriate sample size is a delicate balance. Too small a sample may lack statistical power, while an excessively large sample may strain resources.
• Conduct a power analysis to determine the optimal sample size based on the research objectives and expected effect size.

Data Quality And Validity

Measurement error:.

• Inaccuracies in measurement tools or data collection methods can introduce measurement errors, impacting the validity of results.
• Pilot test instruments, calibrate equipment, and use standardized measures to enhance the reliability of data.

Construct Validity:

• Ensuring that the chosen measures accurately capture the intended constructs is a persistent challenge.
• Use established measurement instruments and employ multiple measures to assess the same construct for triangulation.

Time And Resource Constraints

Timeline pressures:.

• Limited timeframes can compromise the depth and thoroughness of the research process.
• Develop a realistic timeline, prioritize tasks, and communicate expectations with stakeholders to manage time constraints effectively.

Resource Availability:

• Inadequate resources, whether financial or human, can impede the execution of research activities.
• Seek external funding, collaborate with other researchers, and explore alternative methods that require fewer resources.

Managing Bias in Research

Selection bias:.

• Selecting participants in a way that systematically skews the sample can introduce selection bias.
• Employ randomization techniques, use stratified sampling, and transparently report participant recruitment methods.

Confirmation Bias:

• Researchers may unintentionally favour information that confirms their preconceived beliefs or hypotheses.
• Adopt a systematic and open-minded approach, use blinded study designs, and engage in peer review to mitigate confirmation bias.

Tips On How To Write A Research Methodology

Conducting successful research relies not only on the application of sound methodologies but also on strategic planning and effective collaboration. Here are some tips to enhance the success of your research methodology:

Tip 1. Clear Research Objectives

Well-defined research objectives guide the entire research process. Clearly articulate the purpose of your study, outlining specific research questions or hypotheses.

Tip 2. Comprehensive Literature Review

A thorough literature review provides a foundation for understanding existing knowledge and identifying gaps. Invest time in reviewing relevant literature to inform your research design and methodology.

Tip 3. Detailed Research Plan

A detailed plan serves as a roadmap, ensuring all aspects of the research are systematically addressed. Develop a detailed research plan outlining timelines, milestones, and tasks.

Tip 4. Ethical Considerations

Ethical practices are fundamental to maintaining the integrity of research. Address ethical considerations early, obtain necessary approvals, and ensure participant rights are safeguarded.

Tip 5. Stay Updated On Methodologies

Research methodologies evolve, and staying updated is essential for employing the most effective techniques. Engage in continuous learning by attending workshops, conferences, and reading recent publications.

Tip 6. Adaptability In Methods

Unforeseen challenges may arise during research, necessitating adaptability in methods. Be flexible and willing to modify your approach when needed, ensuring the integrity of the study.

Tip 7. Iterative Approach

Research is often an iterative process, and refining methods based on ongoing findings enhance the study’s robustness. Regularly review and refine your research design and methods as the study progresses.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the research methodology.

Research methodology is the systematic process of planning, executing, and evaluating scientific investigation. It encompasses the techniques, tools, and procedures used to collect, analyze, and interpret data, ensuring the reliability and validity of research findings.

What are the methodologies in research?

Research methodologies include qualitative and quantitative approaches. Qualitative methods involve in-depth exploration of non-numerical data, while quantitative methods use statistical analysis to examine numerical data. Mixed methods combine both approaches for a comprehensive understanding of research questions.

How to write research methodology?

To write a research methodology, clearly outline the study’s design, data collection, and analysis procedures. Specify research tools, participants, and sampling methods. Justify choices and discuss limitations. Ensure clarity, coherence, and alignment with research objectives for a robust methodology section.

How to write the methodology section of a research paper?

In the methodology section of a research paper, describe the study’s design, data collection, and analysis methods. Detail procedures, tools, participants, and sampling. Justify choices, address ethical considerations, and explain how the methodology aligns with research objectives, ensuring clarity and rigour.

What is mixed research methodology?

Mixed research methodology combines both qualitative and quantitative research approaches within a single study. This approach aims to enhance the details and depth of research findings by providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem or question.

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Here's What You Need to Understand About Research Methodology

Table of Contents

Research methodology involves a systematic and well-structured approach to conducting scholarly or scientific inquiries. Knowing the significance of research methodology and its different components is crucial as it serves as the basis for any study.

Typically, your research topic will start as a broad idea you want to investigate more thoroughly. Once you’ve identified a research problem and created research questions , you must choose the appropriate methodology and frameworks to address those questions effectively.

What is the definition of a research methodology?

Research methodology is the process or the way you intend to execute your study. The methodology section of a research paper outlines how you plan to conduct your study. It covers various steps such as collecting data, statistical analysis, observing participants, and other procedures involved in the research process

The methods section should give a description of the process that will convert your idea into a study. Additionally, the outcomes of your process must provide valid and reliable results resonant with the aims and objectives of your research. This thumb rule holds complete validity, no matter whether your paper has inclinations for qualitative or quantitative usage.

Studying research methods used in related studies can provide helpful insights and direction for your own research. Now easily discover papers related to your topic on SciSpace and utilize our AI research assistant, Copilot , to quickly review the methodologies applied in different papers.

The need for a good research methodology

While deciding on your approach towards your research, the reason or factors you weighed in choosing a particular problem and formulating a research topic need to be validated and explained. A research methodology helps you do exactly that. Moreover, a good research methodology lets you build your argument to validate your research work performed through various data collection methods, analytical methods, and other essential points.

Just imagine it as a strategy documented to provide an overview of what you intend to do.

While undertaking any research writing or performing the research itself, you may get drifted in not something of much importance. In such a case, a research methodology helps you to get back to your outlined work methodology.

A research methodology helps in keeping you accountable for your work. Additionally, it can help you evaluate whether your work is in sync with your original aims and objectives or not. Besides, a good research methodology enables you to navigate your research process smoothly and swiftly while providing effective planning to achieve your desired results.

What is the basic structure of a research methodology?

Usually, you must ensure to include the following stated aspects while deciding over the basic structure of your research methodology:

1. Your research procedure

Explain what research methods you’re going to use. Whether you intend to proceed with quantitative or qualitative, or a composite of both approaches, you need to state that explicitly. The option among the three depends on your research’s aim, objectives, and scope.

2. Provide the rationality behind your chosen approach

Based on logic and reason, let your readers know why you have chosen said research methodologies. Additionally, you have to build strong arguments supporting why your chosen research method is the best way to achieve the desired outcome.

3. Explain your mechanism

The mechanism encompasses the research methods or instruments you will use to develop your research methodology. It usually refers to your data collection methods. You can use interviews, surveys, physical questionnaires, etc., of the many available mechanisms as research methodology instruments. The data collection method is determined by the type of research and whether the data is quantitative data(includes numerical data) or qualitative data (perception, morale, etc.) Moreover, you need to put logical reasoning behind choosing a particular instrument.

4. Significance of outcomes

The results will be available once you have finished experimenting. However, you should also explain how you plan to use the data to interpret the findings. This section also aids in understanding the problem from within, breaking it down into pieces, and viewing the research problem from various perspectives.

5. Reader’s advice

Anything that you feel must be explained to spread more awareness among readers and focus groups must be included and described in detail. You should not just specify your research methodology on the assumption that a reader is aware of the topic.  

All the relevant information that explains and simplifies your research paper must be included in the methodology section. If you are conducting your research in a non-traditional manner, give a logical justification and list its benefits.

6. Explain your sample space

Include information about the sample and sample space in the methodology section. The term "sample" refers to a smaller set of data that a researcher selects or chooses from a larger group of people or focus groups using a predetermined selection method. Let your readers know how you are going to distinguish between relevant and non-relevant samples. How you figured out those exact numbers to back your research methodology, i.e. the sample spacing of instruments, must be discussed thoroughly.

For example, if you are going to conduct a survey or interview, then by what procedure will you select the interviewees (or sample size in case of surveys), and how exactly will the interview or survey be conducted.

7. Challenges and limitations

This part, which is frequently assumed to be unnecessary, is actually very important. The challenges and limitations that your chosen strategy inherently possesses must be specified while you are conducting different types of research.

The importance of a good research methodology

You must have observed that all research papers, dissertations, or theses carry a chapter entirely dedicated to research methodology. This section helps maintain your credibility as a better interpreter of results rather than a manipulator.

A good research methodology always explains the procedure, data collection methods and techniques, aim, and scope of the research. In a research study, it leads to a well-organized, rationality-based approach, while the paper lacking it is often observed as messy or disorganized.

You should pay special attention to validating your chosen way towards the research methodology. This becomes extremely important in case you select an unconventional or a distinct method of execution.

Curating and developing a strong, effective research methodology can assist you in addressing a variety of situations, such as:

• When someone tries to duplicate or expand upon your research after few years.
• If a contradiction or conflict of facts occurs at a later time. This gives you the security you need to deal with these contradictions while still being able to defend your approach.
• Gaining a tactical approach in getting your research completed in time. Just ensure you are using the right approach while drafting your research methodology, and it can help you achieve your desired outcomes. Additionally, it provides a better explanation and understanding of the research question itself.
• Documenting the results so that the final outcome of the research stays as you intended it to be while starting.

Instruments you could use while writing a good research methodology

As a researcher, you must choose which tools or data collection methods that fit best in terms of the relevance of your research. This decision has to be wise.

There exists many research equipments or tools that you can use to carry out your research process. These are classified as:

a. Interviews (One-on-One or a Group)

An interview aimed to get your desired research outcomes can be undertaken in many different ways. For example, you can design your interview as structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. What sets them apart is the degree of formality in the questions. On the other hand, in a group interview, your aim should be to collect more opinions and group perceptions from the focus groups on a certain topic rather than looking out for some formal answers.

In surveys, you are in better control if you specifically draft the questions you seek the response for. For example, you may choose to include free-style questions that can be answered descriptively, or you may provide a multiple-choice type response for questions. Besides, you can also opt to choose both ways, deciding what suits your research process and purpose better.

c. Sample Groups

Similar to the group interviews, here, you can select a group of individuals and assign them a topic to discuss or freely express their opinions over that. You can simultaneously note down the answers and later draft them appropriately, deciding on the relevance of every response.

d. Observations

If your research domain is humanities or sociology, observations are the best-proven method to draw your research methodology. Of course, you can always include studying the spontaneous response of the participants towards a situation or conducting the same but in a more structured manner. A structured observation means putting the participants in a situation at a previously decided time and then studying their responses.

Of all the tools described above, it is you who should wisely choose the instruments and decide what’s the best fit for your research. You must not restrict yourself from multiple methods or a combination of a few instruments if appropriate in drafting a good research methodology.

Types of research methodology

A research methodology exists in various forms. Depending upon their approach, whether centered around words, numbers, or both, methodologies are distinguished as qualitative, quantitative, or an amalgamation of both.

1. Qualitative research methodology

When a research methodology primarily focuses on words and textual data, then it is generally referred to as qualitative research methodology. This type is usually preferred among researchers when the aim and scope of the research are mainly theoretical and explanatory.

The instruments used are observations, interviews, and sample groups. You can use this methodology if you are trying to study human behavior or response in some situations. Generally, qualitative research methodology is widely used in sociology, psychology, and other related domains.

2. Quantitative research methodology

If your research is majorly centered on data, figures, and stats, then analyzing these numerical data is often referred to as quantitative research methodology. You can use quantitative research methodology if your research requires you to validate or justify the obtained results.

In quantitative methods, surveys, tests, experiments, and evaluations of current databases can be advantageously used as instruments If your research involves testing some hypothesis, then use this methodology.

3. Amalgam methodology

As the name suggests, the amalgam methodology uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches. This methodology is used when a part of the research requires you to verify the facts and figures, whereas the other part demands you to discover the theoretical and explanatory nature of the research question.

The instruments for the amalgam methodology require you to conduct interviews and surveys, including tests and experiments. The outcome of this methodology can be insightful and valuable as it provides precise test results in line with theoretical explanations and reasoning.

The amalgam method, makes your work both factual and rational at the same time.

Final words: How to decide which is the best research methodology?

If you have kept your sincerity and awareness intact with the aims and scope of research well enough, you must have got an idea of which research methodology suits your work best.

Before deciding which research methodology answers your research question, you must invest significant time in reading and doing your homework for that. Taking references that yield relevant results should be your first approach to establishing a research methodology.

Moreover, you should never refrain from exploring other options. Before setting your work in stone, you must try all the available options as it explains why the choice of research methodology that you finally make is more appropriate than the other available options.

You should always go for a quantitative research methodology if your research requires gathering large amounts of data, figures, and statistics. This research methodology will provide you with results if your research paper involves the validation of some hypothesis.

Whereas, if  you are looking for more explanations, reasons, opinions, and public perceptions around a theory, you must use qualitative research methodology.The choice of an appropriate research methodology ultimately depends on what you want to achieve through your research.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about Research Methodology

1. how to write a research methodology.

You can always provide a separate section for research methodology where you should specify details about the methods and instruments used during the research, discussions on result analysis, including insights into the background information, and conveying the research limitations.

2. What are the types of research methodology?

There generally exists four types of research methodology i.e.

• Observation
• Experimental
• Derivational

3. What is the true meaning of research methodology?

The set of techniques or procedures followed to discover and analyze the information gathered to validate or justify a research outcome is generally called Research Methodology.

4. Where lies the importance of research methodology?

Your research methodology directly reflects the validity of your research outcomes and how well-informed your research work is. Moreover, it can help future researchers cite or refer to your research if they plan to use a similar research methodology.

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The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

• Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
• Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
• In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
• The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
• The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
• The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
• In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

• The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
• The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II.  Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

• Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
• Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
• The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
• The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

• Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
• Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
• Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
• Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
• Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
• Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
• Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
• Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE:   Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE:   If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III.  Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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How To Choose Your Research Methodology

Qualitative vs quantitative vs mixed methods.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA). Expert Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2021

Without a doubt, one of the most common questions we receive at Grad Coach is “ How do I choose the right methodology for my research? ”. It’s easy to see why – with so many options on the research design table, it’s easy to get intimidated, especially with all the complex lingo!

In this post, we’ll explain the three overarching types of research – qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods – and how you can go about choosing the best methodological approach for your research.

Overview: Choosing Your Methodology

Understanding the options – Qualitative research – Quantitative research – Mixed methods-based research

Choosing a research methodology – Nature of the research – Research area norms – Practicalities

1. Understanding the options

Before we jump into the question of how to choose a research methodology, it’s useful to take a step back to understand the three overarching types of research – qualitative , quantitative and mixed methods -based research. Each of these options takes a different methodological approach.

Qualitative research utilises data that is not numbers-based. In other words, qualitative research focuses on words , descriptions , concepts or ideas – while quantitative research makes use of numbers and statistics. Qualitative research investigates the “softer side” of things to explore and describe, while quantitative research focuses on the “hard numbers”, to measure differences between variables and the relationships between them.

Importantly, qualitative research methods are typically used to explore and gain a deeper understanding of the complexity of a situation – to draw a rich picture . In contrast to this, quantitative methods are usually used to confirm or test hypotheses . In other words, they have distinctly different purposes. The table below highlights a few of the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research – you can learn more about the differences here.

• Uses an inductive approach
• Is used to build theories
• Takes a subjective approach
• Adopts an open and flexible approach
• The researcher is close to the respondents
• Interviews and focus groups are oftentimes used to collect word-based data.
• Generally, draws on small sample sizes
• Uses qualitative data analysis techniques (e.g. content analysis , thematic analysis , etc)
• Uses a deductive approach
• Is used to test theories
• Takes an objective approach
• Adopts a closed, highly planned approach
• The research is disconnected from respondents
• Surveys or laboratory equipment are often used to collect number-based data.
• Generally, requires large sample sizes
• Uses statistical analysis techniques to make sense of the data

Mixed methods -based research, as you’d expect, attempts to bring these two types of research together, drawing on both qualitative and quantitative data. Quite often, mixed methods-based studies will use qualitative research to explore a situation and develop a potential model of understanding (this is called a conceptual framework), and then go on to use quantitative methods to test that model empirically.

In other words, while qualitative and quantitative methods (and the philosophies that underpin them) are completely different, they are not at odds with each other. It’s not a competition of qualitative vs quantitative. On the contrary, they can be used together to develop a high-quality piece of research. Of course, this is easier said than done, so we usually recommend that first-time researchers stick to a single approach , unless the nature of their study truly warrants a mixed-methods approach.

The key takeaway here, and the reason we started by looking at the three options, is that it’s important to understand that each methodological approach has a different purpose – for example, to explore and understand situations (qualitative), to test and measure (quantitative) or to do both. They’re not simply alternative tools for the same job. 

Right – now that we’ve got that out of the way, let’s look at how you can go about choosing the right methodology for your research.

2. How to choose a research methodology

To choose the right research methodology for your dissertation or thesis, you need to consider three important factors . Based on these three factors, you can decide on your overarching approach – qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods. Once you’ve made that decision, you can flesh out the finer details of your methodology, such as the sampling , data collection methods and analysis techniques (we discuss these separately in other posts ).

The three factors you need to consider are:

• The nature of your research aims, objectives and research questions
• The methodological approaches taken in the existing literature
• Practicalities and constraints

Let’s take a look at each of these.

Factor #1: The nature of your research

As I mentioned earlier, each type of research (and therefore, research methodology), whether qualitative, quantitative or mixed, has a different purpose and helps solve a different type of question. So, it’s logical that the key deciding factor in terms of which research methodology you adopt is the nature of your research aims, objectives and research questions .

But, what types of research exist?

Broadly speaking, research can fall into one of three categories:

• Exploratory – getting a better understanding of an issue and potentially developing a theory regarding it
• Confirmatory – confirming a potential theory or hypothesis by testing it empirically
• A mix of both – building a potential theory or hypothesis and then testing it

As a rule of thumb, exploratory research tends to adopt a qualitative approach , whereas confirmatory research tends to use quantitative methods . This isn’t set in stone, but it’s a very useful heuristic. Naturally then, research that combines a mix of both, or is seeking to develop a theory from the ground up and then test that theory, would utilize a mixed-methods approach.

Let’s look at an example in action.

If your research aims were to understand the perspectives of war veterans regarding certain political matters, you’d likely adopt a qualitative methodology, making use of interviews to collect data and one or more qualitative data analysis methods to make sense of the data.

If, on the other hand, your research aims involved testing a set of hypotheses regarding the link between political leaning and income levels, you’d likely adopt a quantitative methodology, using numbers-based data from a survey to measure the links between variables and/or constructs .

So, the first (and most important thing) thing you need to consider when deciding which methodological approach to use for your research project is the nature of your research aims , objectives and research questions. Specifically, you need to assess whether your research leans in an exploratory or confirmatory direction or involves a mix of both.

The importance of achieving solid alignment between these three factors and your methodology can’t be overstated. If they’re misaligned, you’re going to be forcing a square peg into a round hole. In other words, you’ll be using the wrong tool for the job, and your research will become a disjointed mess.

If your research is a mix of both exploratory and confirmatory, but you have a tight word count limit, you may need to consider trimming down the scope a little and focusing on one or the other. One methodology executed well has a far better chance of earning marks than a poorly executed mixed methods approach. So, don’t try to be a hero, unless there is a very strong underpinning logic.

Need a helping hand?

Factor #2: The disciplinary norms

Choosing the right methodology for your research also involves looking at the approaches used by other researchers in the field, and studies with similar research aims and objectives to yours. Oftentimes, within a discipline, there is a common methodological approach (or set of approaches) used in studies. While this doesn’t mean you should follow the herd “just because”, you should at least consider these approaches and evaluate their merit within your context.

A major benefit of reviewing the research methodologies used by similar studies in your field is that you can often piggyback on the data collection techniques that other (more experienced) researchers have developed. For example, if you’re undertaking a quantitative study, you can often find tried and tested survey scales with high Cronbach’s alphas. These are usually included in the appendices of journal articles, so you don’t even have to contact the original authors. By using these, you’ll save a lot of time and ensure that your study stands on the proverbial “shoulders of giants” by using high-quality measurement instruments .

Of course, when reviewing existing literature, keep point #1 front of mind. In other words, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and questions. Don’t fall into the trap of adopting the methodological “norm” of other studies just because it’s popular. Only adopt that which is relevant to your research.

Factor #3: Practicalities

When choosing a research methodology, there will always be a tension between doing what’s theoretically best (i.e., the most scientifically rigorous research design ) and doing what’s practical , given your constraints . This is the nature of doing research and there are always trade-offs, as with anything else.

But what constraints, you ask?

When you’re evaluating your methodological options, you need to consider the following constraints:

• Data access
• Equipment and software
• Your knowledge and skills

Let’s look at each of these.

Constraint #1: Data access

The first practical constraint you need to consider is your access to data . If you’re going to be undertaking primary research , you need to think critically about the sample of respondents you realistically have access to. For example, if you plan to use in-person interviews , you need to ask yourself how many people you’ll need to interview, whether they’ll be agreeable to being interviewed, where they’re located, and so on.

If you’re wanting to undertake a quantitative approach using surveys to collect data, you’ll need to consider how many responses you’ll require to achieve statistically significant results. For many statistical tests, a sample of a few hundred respondents is typically needed to develop convincing conclusions.

So, think carefully about what data you’ll need access to, how much data you’ll need and how you’ll collect it. The last thing you want is to spend a huge amount of time on your research only to find that you can’t get access to the required data.

Constraint #2: Time

The next constraint is time. If you’re undertaking research as part of a PhD, you may have a fairly open-ended time limit, but this is unlikely to be the case for undergrad and Masters-level projects. So, pay attention to your timeline, as the data collection and analysis components of different methodologies have a major impact on time requirements . Also, keep in mind that these stages of the research often take a lot longer than originally anticipated.

Another practical implication of time limits is that it will directly impact which time horizon you can use – i.e. longitudinal vs cross-sectional . For example, if you’ve got a 6-month limit for your entire research project, it’s quite unlikely that you’ll be able to adopt a longitudinal time horizon. 

Constraint #3: Money

As with so many things, money is another important constraint you’ll need to consider when deciding on your research methodology. While some research designs will cost near zero to execute, others may require a substantial budget .

Some of the costs that may arise include:

• Software costs – e.g. survey hosting services, analysis software, etc.
• Promotion costs – e.g. advertising a survey to attract respondents
• Incentive costs – e.g. providing a prize or cash payment incentive to attract respondents
• Equipment rental costs – e.g. recording equipment, lab equipment, etc.
• Travel costs
• Food & beverages

These are just a handful of costs that can creep into your research budget. Like most projects, the actual costs tend to be higher than the estimates, so be sure to err on the conservative side and expect the unexpected. It’s critically important that you’re honest with yourself about these costs, or you could end up getting stuck midway through your project because you’ve run out of money.

Constraint #4: Equipment & software

Another practical consideration is the hardware and/or software you’ll need in order to undertake your research. Of course, this variable will depend on the type of data you’re collecting and analysing. For example, you may need lab equipment to analyse substances, or you may need specific analysis software to analyse statistical data. So, be sure to think about what hardware and/or software you’ll need for each potential methodological approach, and whether you have access to these.

Constraint #5: Your knowledge and skillset

The final practical constraint is a big one. Naturally, the research process involves a lot of learning and development along the way, so you will accrue knowledge and skills as you progress. However, when considering your methodological options, you should still consider your current position on the ladder.

Some of the questions you should ask yourself are:

• Am I more of a “numbers person” or a “words person”?
• How much do I know about the analysis methods I’ll potentially use (e.g. statistical analysis)?
• How much do I know about the software and/or hardware that I’ll potentially use?
• How excited am I to learn new research skills and gain new knowledge?
• How much time do I have to learn the things I need to learn?

Answering these questions honestly will provide you with another set of criteria against which you can evaluate the research methodology options you’ve shortlisted.

So, as you can see, there is a wide range of practicalities and constraints that you need to take into account when you’re deciding on a research methodology. These practicalities create a tension between the “ideal” methodology and the methodology that you can realistically pull off. This is perfectly normal, and it’s your job to find the option that presents the best set of trade-offs.

Recap: Choosing a methodology

In this post, we’ve discussed how to go about choosing a research methodology. The three major deciding factors we looked at were:

• Exploratory
• Confirmatory
• Combination
• Research area norms
• Hardware and software
• Your knowledge and skillset

If you have any questions, feel free to leave a comment below. If you’d like a helping hand with your research methodology, check out our 1-on-1 research coaching service , or book a free consultation with a friendly Grad Coach.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

Very useful and informative especially for beginners

Nice article! I’m a beginner in the field of cybersecurity research. I am a Telecom and Network Engineer and Also aiming for PhD scholarship.

I find the article very informative especially for my decitation it has been helpful and an eye opener.

Hi I am Anna ,

I am a PHD candidate in the area of cyber security, maybe we can link up

The Examples shows by you, for sure they are really direct me and others to knows and practices the Research Design and prepration.

I found the post very informative and practical.

I struggle so much with designs of the research for sure!

I’m the process of constructing my research design and I want to know if the data analysis I plan to present in my thesis defense proposal possibly change especially after I gathered the data already.

Thank you so much this site is such a life saver. How I wish 1-1 coaching is available in our country but sadly it’s not.

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What are research methodologies?

According to Dawson (2019), a research methodology is the primary principle that will guide your research.  It becomes the general approach in conducting research on your topic and determines what research method you will use. A research methodology is different from a research method because research methods are the tools you use to gather your data (Dawson, 2019).  You must consider several issues when it comes to selecting the most appropriate methodology for your topic.  Issues might include research limitations and ethical dilemmas that might impact the quality of your research.  Descriptions of each type of methodology are included below.

Quantitative Research Methodologies

Quantitative research methodologies are meant to create numeric statistics by using survey research to gather data (Dawson, 2019).  This approach tends to reach a larger amount of people in a shorter amount of time.  According to Labaree (2020), there are three parts that make up a quantitative research methodology:

• Sample population
• How you will collect your data (this is the research method)
• How you will analyze your data

Once you decide on a methodology, you can consider the method to which you will apply your methodology.

Qualitative Research Methodologies

Qualitative research methodologies examine the behaviors, opinions, and experiences of individuals through methods of examination (Dawson, 2019).  This type of approach typically requires less participants, but more time with each participant.  It gives research subjects the opportunity to provide their own opinion on a certain topic.

Examples of Qualitative Research Methodologies

• Action research:  This is when the researcher works with a group of people to improve something in a certain environment.  It is a common approach for research in organizational management, community development, education, and agriculture (Dawson, 2019).
• Ethnography:  The process of organizing and describing cultural behaviors (Dawson, 2019).  Researchers may immerse themselves into another culture to receive in "inside look" into the group they are studying.  It is often a time consuming process because the researcher will do this for a long period of time.  This can also be called "participant observation" (Dawson, 2019).
• Feminist research:  The goal of this methodology is to study topics that have been dominated by male test subjects.  It aims to study females and compare the results to previous studies that used male participants (Dawson, 2019).
• Grounded theory:  The process of developing a theory to describe a phenomenon strictly through the data results collected in a study.  It is different from other research methodologies where the researcher attempts to prove a hypothesis that they create before collecting data.  Popular research methods for this approach include focus groups and interviews (Dawson, 2019).

Mixed Method Methodologies

A mixed methodology allows you to implement the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.  In some cases, you may find that your research project would benefit from this.  This approach is beneficial because it allows each methodology to counteract the weaknesses of the other (Dawson, 2019).  You should consider this option carefully, as it can make your research complicated if not planned correctly.

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Research Methodologies

• What are research designs?

What are research methodologies?

Quantitative research methodologies, qualitative research methodologies, mixed method methodologies, selecting a methodology.

• What are research methods?
• Additional Sources

According to Dawson (2019),a research methodology is the primary principle that will guide your research.  It becomes the general approach in conducting research on your topic and determines what research method you will use. A research methodology is different from a research method because research methods are the tools you use to gather your data (Dawson, 2019).  You must consider several issues when it comes to selecting the most appropriate methodology for your topic.  Issues might include research limitations and ethical dilemmas that might impact the quality of your research.  Descriptions of each type of methodology are included below.

Quantitative research methodologies are meant to create numeric statistics by using survey research to gather data (Dawson, 2019).  This approach tends to reach a larger amount of people in a shorter amount of time.  According to Labaree (2020), there are three parts that make up a quantitative research methodology:

• Sample population
• How you will collect your data (this is the research method)
• How you will analyze your data

Once you decide on a methodology, you can consider the method to which you will apply your methodology.

Qualitative research methodologies examine the behaviors, opinions, and experiences of individuals through methods of examination (Dawson, 2019).  This type of approach typically requires less participants, but more time with each participant.  It gives research subjects the opportunity to provide their own opinion on a certain topic.

Examples of Qualitative Research Methodologies

• Action research:  This is when the researcher works with a group of people to improve something in a certain environment.  It is a common approach for research in organizational management, community development, education, and agriculture (Dawson, 2019).
• Ethnography:  The process of organizing and describing cultural behaviors (Dawson, 2019).  Researchers may immerse themselves into another culture to receive in "inside look" into the group they are studying.  It is often a time consuming process because the researcher will do this for a long period of time.  This can also be called "participant observation" (Dawson, 2019).
• Feminist research:  The goal of this methodology is to study topics that have been dominated by male test subjects.  It aims to study females and compare the results to previous studies that used male participants (Dawson, 2019).
• Grounded theory:  The process of developing a theory to describe a phenomenon strictly through the data results collected in a study.  It is different from other research methodologies where the researcher attempts to prove a hypothesis that they create before collecting data.  Popular research methods for this approach include focus groups and interviews (Dawson, 2019).

A mixed methodology allows you to implement the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.  In some cases, you may find that your research project would benefit from this.  This approach is beneficial because it allows each methodology to counteract the weaknesses of the other (Dawson, 2019).  You should consider this option carefully, as it can make your research complicated if not planned correctly.

What should you do to decide on a research methodology?  The most logical way to determine your methodology is to decide whether you plan on conducting qualitative or qualitative research.  You also have the option to implement a mixed methods approach.  Looking back on Dawson's (2019) five "W's" on the previous page , may help you with this process.  You should also look for key words that indicate a specific type of research methodology in your hypothesis or proposal.  Some words may lean more towards one methodology over another.

Quantitative Research Key Words

• How satisfied

Qualitative Research Key Words

• Experiences
• Thoughts/Think
• Relationship
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• What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

Published on 25 February 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research.

It should include:

• The type of research you conducted
• How you collected and analysed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• Why you chose these methods
• Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
• Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
• Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).

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Table of contents

How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, frequently asked questions about methodology.

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Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .

It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.

You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.

Option 1: Start with your “what”

What research problem or question did you investigate?

• Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
• Explore an under-researched topic?
• Establish a causal relationship?

And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

• Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
• Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
• Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?

Option 2: Start with your “why”

Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?

• Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ?

Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .

Quantitative methods

In order to be considered generalisable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.

Here, explain how you operationalised your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion/exclusion criteria, as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.

Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.

• How did you design the questionnaire?
• What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
• Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• What was your sample size and response rate?

Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.

• How did you design the experiment ?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
• What tools did you use?

Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.

• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?

The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on 4–8 July 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.

Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.

Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.

• How did you find and select participants?
• How many participants took part?
• What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
• How long were the interviews?
• How were they recorded?

Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .

• What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
• How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
• How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.

• What type of materials did you analyse?
• How did you select them?

In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness shop’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.

Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.

Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.

Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods here.

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Next, you should indicate how you processed and analysed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:

• How you prepared the data before analysing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
• Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
• Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).

Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis : Categorising and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.

Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .

• Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviours, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
• Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalised beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
• Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalisable.

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives  and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:

• Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
• Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
• Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.

Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research. Developing your methodology involves studying the research methods used in your field and the theories or principles that underpin them, in order to choose the approach that best matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. interviews, experiments , surveys , statistical tests ).

In a dissertation or scientific paper, the methodology chapter or methods section comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

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Home » Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Table of Contents

Research Process

Definition:

Research Process is a systematic and structured approach that involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or information to answer a specific research question or solve a particular problem.

Research Process Steps

Research Process Steps are as follows:

Identify the Research Question or Problem

This is the first step in the research process. It involves identifying a problem or question that needs to be addressed. The research question should be specific, relevant, and focused on a particular area of interest.

Conduct a Literature Review

Once the research question has been identified, the next step is to conduct a literature review. This involves reviewing existing research and literature on the topic to identify any gaps in knowledge or areas where further research is needed. A literature review helps to provide a theoretical framework for the research and also ensures that the research is not duplicating previous work.

Formulate a Hypothesis or Research Objectives

Based on the research question and literature review, the researcher can formulate a hypothesis or research objectives. A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested to determine its validity, while research objectives are specific goals that the researcher aims to achieve through the research.

Design a Research Plan and Methodology

This step involves designing a research plan and methodology that will enable the researcher to collect and analyze data to test the hypothesis or achieve the research objectives. The research plan should include details on the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques that will be used.

Collect and Analyze Data

This step involves collecting and analyzing data according to the research plan and methodology. Data can be collected through various methods, including surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. The data analysis process involves cleaning and organizing the data, applying statistical and analytical techniques to the data, and interpreting the results.

Interpret the Findings and Draw Conclusions

After analyzing the data, the researcher must interpret the findings and draw conclusions. This involves assessing the validity and reliability of the results and determining whether the hypothesis was supported or not. The researcher must also consider any limitations of the research and discuss the implications of the findings.

Communicate the Results

Finally, the researcher must communicate the results of the research through a research report, presentation, or publication. The research report should provide a detailed account of the research process, including the research question, literature review, research methodology, data analysis, findings, and conclusions. The report should also include recommendations for further research in the area.

Review and Revise

The research process is an iterative one, and it is important to review and revise the research plan and methodology as necessary. Researchers should assess the quality of their data and methods, reflect on their findings, and consider areas for improvement.

Ethical Considerations

Throughout the research process, ethical considerations must be taken into account. This includes ensuring that the research design protects the welfare of research participants, obtaining informed consent, maintaining confidentiality and privacy, and avoiding any potential harm to participants or their communities.

Dissemination and Application

The final step in the research process is to disseminate the findings and apply the research to real-world settings. Researchers can share their findings through academic publications, presentations at conferences, or media coverage. The research can be used to inform policy decisions, develop interventions, or improve practice in the relevant field.

Research Process Example

Following is a Research Process Example:

Research Question : What are the effects of a plant-based diet on athletic performance in high school athletes?

Step 1: Background Research Conduct a literature review to gain a better understanding of the existing research on the topic. Read academic articles and research studies related to plant-based diets, athletic performance, and high school athletes.

Step 2: Develop a Hypothesis Based on the literature review, develop a hypothesis that a plant-based diet positively affects athletic performance in high school athletes.

Step 3: Design the Study Design a study to test the hypothesis. Decide on the study population, sample size, and research methods. For this study, you could use a survey to collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance from a sample of high school athletes who follow a plant-based diet and a sample of high school athletes who do not follow a plant-based diet.

Step 4: Collect Data Distribute the survey to the selected sample and collect data on dietary habits and athletic performance.

Step 5: Analyze Data Use statistical analysis to compare the data from the two samples and determine if there is a significant difference in athletic performance between those who follow a plant-based diet and those who do not.

Step 6 : Interpret Results Interpret the results of the analysis in the context of the research question and hypothesis. Discuss any limitations or potential biases in the study design.

Step 7: Draw Conclusions Based on the results, draw conclusions about whether a plant-based diet has a significant effect on athletic performance in high school athletes. If the hypothesis is supported by the data, discuss potential implications and future research directions.

Step 8: Communicate Findings Communicate the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that the findings are understood and valued.

Applications of Research Process

The research process has numerous applications across a wide range of fields and industries. Some examples of applications of the research process include:

• Scientific research: The research process is widely used in scientific research to investigate phenomena in the natural world and develop new theories or technologies. This includes fields such as biology, chemistry, physics, and environmental science.
• Social sciences : The research process is commonly used in social sciences to study human behavior, social structures, and institutions. This includes fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, and economics.
• Education: The research process is used in education to study learning processes, curriculum design, and teaching methodologies. This includes research on student achievement, teacher effectiveness, and educational policy.
• Healthcare: The research process is used in healthcare to investigate medical conditions, develop new treatments, and evaluate healthcare interventions. This includes fields such as medicine, nursing, and public health.
• Business and industry : The research process is used in business and industry to study consumer behavior, market trends, and develop new products or services. This includes market research, product development, and customer satisfaction research.
• Government and policy : The research process is used in government and policy to evaluate the effectiveness of policies and programs, and to inform policy decisions. This includes research on social welfare, crime prevention, and environmental policy.

Purpose of Research Process

The purpose of the research process is to systematically and scientifically investigate a problem or question in order to generate new knowledge or solve a problem. The research process enables researchers to:

• Identify gaps in existing knowledge: By conducting a thorough literature review, researchers can identify gaps in existing knowledge and develop research questions that address these gaps.
• Collect and analyze data : The research process provides a structured approach to collecting and analyzing data. Researchers can use a variety of research methods, including surveys, experiments, and interviews, to collect data that is valid and reliable.
• Test hypotheses : The research process allows researchers to test hypotheses and make evidence-based conclusions. Through the systematic analysis of data, researchers can draw conclusions about the relationships between variables and develop new theories or models.
• Solve problems: The research process can be used to solve practical problems and improve real-world outcomes. For example, researchers can develop interventions to address health or social problems, evaluate the effectiveness of policies or programs, and improve organizational processes.
• Generate new knowledge : The research process is a key way to generate new knowledge and advance understanding in a given field. By conducting rigorous and well-designed research, researchers can make significant contributions to their field and help to shape future research.

Tips for Research Process

Here are some tips for the research process:

• Start with a clear research question : A well-defined research question is the foundation of a successful research project. It should be specific, relevant, and achievable within the given time frame and resources.
• Conduct a thorough literature review: A comprehensive literature review will help you to identify gaps in existing knowledge, build on previous research, and avoid duplication. It will also provide a theoretical framework for your research.
• Choose appropriate research methods: Select research methods that are appropriate for your research question, objectives, and sample size. Ensure that your methods are valid, reliable, and ethical.
• Be organized and systematic: Keep detailed notes throughout the research process, including your research plan, methodology, data collection, and analysis. This will help you to stay organized and ensure that you don’t miss any important details.
• Analyze data rigorously: Use appropriate statistical and analytical techniques to analyze your data. Ensure that your analysis is valid, reliable, and transparent.
• I nterpret results carefully : Interpret your results in the context of your research question and objectives. Consider any limitations or potential biases in your research design, and be cautious in drawing conclusions.
• Communicate effectively: Communicate your research findings clearly and effectively to your target audience. Use appropriate language, visuals, and formats to ensure that your findings are understood and valued.
• Collaborate and seek feedback : Collaborate with other researchers, experts, or stakeholders in your field. Seek feedback on your research design, methods, and findings to ensure that they are relevant, meaningful, and impactful.

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Comprehensive Guide to Research Methodology – Design | Methods | Best Practices

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Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Steps in Research Process
• Classification of Research Design

1. Introduction

This article describes the research process and different research designs in detail. Management and social science research, like other forms of scientific inquiry, require a structured sequence of highly interrelated steps (Zigmund et al., 2010). The research process involves a series of steps or actions essential for the smooth conduct of any research. The figure below illustrates the sequence of the research process. It is to be noted that these steps are not a road map to all kinds of research. Basically, it is applicable for deductive or functionalist research, and it can or needs to be revised to suit the requirements of a specific project. The research process doesn’t need to be followed successively; rather, the steps overlap frequently and are interrelated. The research process offers a comprehensive guideline that can be referred to for any management and social science research. It may happen that later stages can be accomplished before the earlier stages.

The steps involved in the research process are neither mutually exclusive nor separate and distinct. The selection of a research topic at the outset, defining the research problem and objectives, influences the selection of a sample and data collection. The sample selection may affect the design of questionnaire items. For example, suppose an organization wants to know the cause of attrition among lower-category employees with low educational qualifications. In that case, the wording for the questionnaire will be easier than for people in top management positions with professional educational qualifications. The steps may differ based on the objectives of the research. However, research based on deductive logic should follow the steps outlined below:

2. Steps in Research Process

• Problem Identification
• Literature Review
• Formulating Research Questions
• Research Design
• Data Collection
• Data Analysis
• Conclusions and Report Writing.

The quest for research must always be triggered by the longing to explore and gain more knowledge and understanding. The management dilemma encourages the need for a decision. The need may arise owing to the cause that the researchers want to discover or reestablish certain relationships. The orientation might be to solve immediate management issues, discover something new, or have purely academic intentions. For instance, in an organization, the manager may want to know the reason for high attrition and lack of job satisfaction, or a retail store may survey the post-purchase satisfaction among the customers.

2.1 Research Problem Identification

Defining the research problem is the first step in the research process. The researchers get the proper direction to conduct their research by first understanding the research problems. Hence, a well-defined research problem is crucial. When the problem is discovered, researchers and management can take further steps to define the problem clearly and precisely. A problem defined with accuracy and conscience helps the researchers utilize the available resources effectively. It is imperative for researchers to explore what exactly is the problem and what are the objectives of the research. The rule generally followed to define the research problem is that the definition should permit the researchers to acquire all details required to address the managerial issues and show guidelines for finding a solution. The researcher should be careful not to define the problem too broadly or narrowly. Examples of broad managerial problems are defining a strategy for enhancing organizational performance and a strategy to elevate the organization’s brand equity. An example of a narrow definition of a problem is how to match competitors’ recruitment strategies. To overcome the possibility of both errors while defining the research problem, the researchers must define the problem with broad, popular terms and devise its components. The broad general statement helps the researchers get a sound perspective on the research problem and avoid the error of defining the problem narrowly. On the other side, the specific component helps to identify the key aspects of the research problem, extend a transparent guideline to proceed further and avoid the error of defining the problem too broadly. In management and social science research, broad management problems need to be converted to information-oriented research problems that focus more on the cause than the symptoms. Some examples of managerial problems converted to research problems are presented in Table below. The conversion of management dilemma to managerial questions and further to research questions can be carried out through exploratory research. Such research incorporates an examination of past research studies, a review of extant literature and organizational records and interviewing experts (Cooper et al., 2016).

2.2 Literature Review

Exploring the existing literature is critical in the research process. Researchers must explore and investigate extant literature to observe whether other researchers have already addressed the identified research problem. A literature review is a systematic search of published work, including periodicals, books, journal papers (conceptual and empirical), and reports, representing theory and empirical work about the research problem and topic at hand. A survey of existing literature is customary in applied research and is an elementary requirement of a basic research report. The internet, electronic databases, websites, and e-library help the researcher to carry out literature surveys systematically and easily.

The literature review aims to study the existing state of knowledge in the domain of interest, to picture key authors, theories, methods, topics, and findings in that domain, and to explore the gaps in knowledge in that domain. A literature review conducted systematically reveals whether initial research questions have already gained substantial attention in the extant literature, whether more interesting newer research questions are available, whether past studies have consistent findings or contradictions exist, flaws in the body of research that the researchers can address, and whether the initial research questions need to be revised as per the findings of the literature review. Furthermore, the review can answer the proposed research questions and help identify theories used in previous studies to address similar research questions. For example, for an organization interested in determining the true cause of turnover, the researcher will study extensively the existing literature on attrition and its causes. By studying relevant journal articles, books, and book chapters, the researcher will discover the causes of attrition in general, find out the existing gaps, and suggest the management carry forward the research to find causes specific to the organization.

As deductive research primarily involves theory testing, the researchers must identify one or more theories that can illuminate the proposed research questions. Through an extensive literature review, researchers may uncover various concepts and constructs related to the phenomenon of interest. A theory will extend support to constructs/variables that are logically relevant to the chosen phenomenon. In the deductive approach, researchers use theory/theories as the logical basis for hypothesis testing. However, researchers must carefully select the theories appropriate for the identified problem to be studied. The hypotheses need to be logically formulated and connected to the research objectives.

2.3 Formulating Research Questions

After problem identification and clarification, with or without an exploratory research approach, the researchers should derive the research objectives. Cautious attention to problem definition helps the researchers devise proper research objectives. Research objectives are the goal to be achieved through research. The research objective drives the research process further. A well-devised research objective enhances the possibility of gathering, relevant information and avoiding unwanted information. The research objectives can be properly developed with the consensus of the researchers and management on the actual managerial and business problems. The researcher should ensure that the research objectives are clearly stated, appropriate, and will yield germane information. The research objective may involve exploring the likelihood of venturing into a new market or may necessitate examining the effect of a new organizational policy on employee performance. The nature and types of objectives lead to choosing an appropriate research design.

Research Objectives:  Research objectives represent the goal of the research the researchers want to accomplish.

2.3.1 Suitable Research Questions

Research questions are important to conduct effective research. Without a clear research question, the researcher may face the risk of unfocused research and will not be sure of what the research is about. Research questions are refined descriptions of the components of the research problem. These are questions related to behavior, events or phenomena of interest that the researchers search for answers in their research. Examples include what factors motivate the employees in an organization to apply the gained knowledge back to their jobs or what needs to be done to enhance the creativity of school-going students. Research questions can best state the objectives of the research. Each component of the research problem needs to be broken down into sub-parts or research questions. Research questions inquire about the information essential concerning the problem components. Properly answered research questions will lead to effective decision-making. While formulating research questions, researchers should be guided by the problem statement, theoretical background, and analytical framework.

Sources of Research Questions

• Extant Literature
• Personal experience
• Societal issues
• Managerial problems
• New theories
• Technological advancement
• Empirical cases
• Contradictory finding

2.3.1.1 Significance of Research Questions

Research questions are critical because they guide scientific and systematic literature search, the decision about appropriate research design, the decision about data collection and target audience, data analysis, selection of right tools and techniques and overall to move in the right direction.

The researcher can utilize different sources for formulating research questions, such as extant literature, personal experience, societal issues, managerial problems, new theories, technological advancement, and contradictory findings. The research question must portray certain attributes. Research questions in quantitative research are more specific compared to qualitative research. Sometimes, some qualitative research follows an open approach without any research questions. The main steps involved in formulating research questions are illustrated in Figure below.

Criteria of Effective Research Questions

• Rateability
• Systematic and logical
• Significant
• Fascinating
• Logical association among variables

The sequence in selecting research questions suggests that the researchers are engrossed in a process of progressive focusing down when developing the research questions. It helps them to slide down from the general research area to research questions. While formulating the research questions, the researchers should understand that ending a research question with a question mark is essential. Without a question mark, a statement cannot be considered as a research question. It is quite possible that the researchers may not get answers to all research questions. The research questions need to be related to each other.

2.4 Planning the Research Design

After formulating research problems and literature surveys, the next stage in the research process is to develop the research design. Research design is the blueprint of research activities to answer research questions. It is a master plan that includes research methods and procedures for gathering and analyzing the relevant information with minimum cost, time, and effort. A research design extends a plan for carrying out the research. The researchers need to decide the source to collect information, the techniques of research design (survey or experiment), sampling techniques, and the cost and schedule of the research. The success of these objectives depends on the purpose of the research. Usually, research purposes are segregated into four types: exploration, description, diagnosis, and experimentation.

There are varied designs, such as experimental or non-experimental hypotheses testing (details of different research designs are outlined in section 2.3 in this chapter). There are four primary research methods for descriptive and causal research: survey, experiments, secondary data, and observations. The selection of an appropriate research method relies on the research objectives, available data sources, the cost and effort of collecting data, and the importance of managerial decisions. If the research objective is exploration, a flexible research design can extend better opportunities to investigate different aspects of the research problem. On the other hand, if the intention is simply to describe any situation or phenomena of interest to examine the relationship between two or more variables, the appropriate design should prioritize minimizing bias and maximizing reliability in data collection and analysis. For example, suppose a researcher wants to conduct exploratory research to know the different types of arthritis common in India. In that case, it may require a flexible design relying on secondary data from hospital records or discussions with doctors or other experts to reach conclusions. However, to invent COVID-vaccination and medicine for the COVID-19 virus, the researchers conducted varied experiments to reach a conclusion.

2.4.1 Hypotheses Development

Exploratory research helps the researchers define the research questions, key variables, and theoretical underpinnings and formulate hypotheses if required in the research. The hypotheses must be logically derived based on the research questions and linked to research objectives. A hypothesis is a tentative proposition regarding a research phenomenon. It may be a tentative statement that indicates an association between two or more variables, guided by any supportive theory, theoretical framework, or analytical model. It is a viable answer to the research questions framed by the researchers. Hypotheses are statements of relationships or propositions that are declarative and can be tested with empirical data. Some examples are:

H 1 : Training influences organizational performance.

H 2 : Training enhances employee performance.

For two more research questions i.e., “to what extent does brand love determine purchase intention?” and “does age and family background moderate the relationship?”, the hypotheses are:

H 1 : Brand love is related to purchase intention.

H 2 : Age and Family status moderate the association between brand love and purchase intention. Figure below provides a pictorial representation of the hypotheses drawn.

However, it is not always feasible for researchers to formulate hypotheses in all situations. Sometimes, researchers may lack all relevant information, and theoretical support may not be available to formulate the hypotheses.

2.5 Sampling Design

This stage of the research process involves an investigation of the population under study. A complete investigation of the population under study is known as a census inquiry. Usually, in census investigation, all units or items of the population are studied with high accuracy and reliability. However, it is usually not practicable and feasible for the researchers to study the entire population. Researchers usually prefer to investigate small, representative subgroups from the population known as sample. The procedure to select the sub-groups/samples is called sampling design. Sampling entails the process of drawing conclusions based on a subgroup of the population. Hence, the sample is a subset of the population. The first question that needs to be addressed in sampling is “who is to be included in the sample?” and this requires the identification of the target population under study. It is difficult for the researcher to define the population and sampling unit. For example, if a researcher wants to investigate the financial savings and vehicle loan association survey. In that case, individuals with existing accounts will be taken, and this sample unit represents the existing customers and not the potential customers. Hence, it is critical in sampling design to determine the specific target population.

Secondly, the issue that concerns the researchers in sampling design is selecting an appropriate sample size, and the third concern is selecting the sampling units. Researchers need to address these concerns to justify the research. Samples can be selected either using probability sampling techniques or non-probability sampling techniques. There are four types of probability sampling such as simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. Non-probability sampling includes convenience, judgmental, quota, and snowball sampling. Depending on the objective, researchers should select the appropriate sampling techniques for their study.

2.6 Fieldwork and Gathering Data

After the formalization of the sampling plan, the fieldwork and data-gathering stage begins. The researcher gathers data after finalizing what to research, among whom, and which method to use. Data gathering involves the process of information collection. Different data collection instruments are available for researchers to collect information or data. Broadly, there are two ways to collect data, such as primary and secondary data collection methods. Primary data include data collected firsthand and are original. Varied methods are available for primary data collection, such as structured and unstructured interviews, focused group discussion, observation, and survey using a structured questionnaire. The data can be collected offline or online. Secondary data included information collected from published or unpublished sources that were already available. Some secondary data collection sources are articles, magazines, company records, expert opinion survey data, feedback of customers, government data, and past research on the subject. For example, to conduct a survey of job satisfaction in an organization, the researcher may circulate a printed questionnaire offline or mail the questionnaire to the selected respondents following an appropriate sampling technique.

Another example could be a study that investigates the purchase preference for luxury cars, and the base model demands primary and empirical information. However, another study that intended to describe the financial investment behavior of existing customers will use secondary data. At this stage, the researchers need to ensure the reliability and validity of the data obtained for the study.

2.7 Data Processing and Analysis

After data gathering, the data needs to be converted or properly coded to answer the research question under study. The information gathered in the data collection phase should be mined from the primary raw data. Data processing starts with data editing, coding, and tabulation. First, it is vital for the researchers to check the data collection forms for missing data, clarity, and consistency in categorization. The editing process involves problems associated with data, such as respondents’ response errors. Editing improves the quality of the data and makes the data usable for tabulation, analysis, and interpretation. Tabulation is a technical process in which classified data are presented in tables. Researchers use computers to feed data to a computer spreadsheet for data analysis. The preparation of a spreadsheet also requires lots of expertise and experience.

After coding the data, the next step is to analyze the data. Data analysis is the utilization of reasoning to make sense of data gathered. Ample statistical techniques are available for the researchers to analyze the data. Based on the research questions, objectives, study types, sampling framework used, data types, and degree of accuracy involved in the research, one can choose from parametric or non-parametric techniques for data analysis. Researchers may adopt univariate, bi-variate or multi-variate methods for data analysis. The analysis may include simple frequency analysis, multiple regression, or structural equation modeling. Different techniques are available for qualitative data, presented in Part 3 of this book.

2.8 Drawing Conclusion and Preparing a Report

After data analysis, the final stage in the research process is the interpretation of the results. The researcher requires analytical skills to interpret the statistical results, link the output with the research objectives, and state the implications of the result.

Research Design:  Research design is the blueprint/systematic steps to carry out research smoothly

Finally, researchers must communicate the result in the form of a report. The preparation of the final report needs to be done with the utmost care. The final report should include the identified research questions, research approach, data collection method, data analysis techniques, study findings, and implications for theory and practice. The structure of the report will be discussed in the last section of this book. The report should be prepared comprehensively to be usable by management or organizations for decision-making.

3. Classification of Research Design

This section highlights the classification of research design. As mentioned in the previous section, research design is the framework for carrying out management and other research. After the identification of a problem, the researchers formulate the research design. A good research design ensures the effectiveness of the research work. The choice of selecting an appropriate design relies on the research objectives. The broad categorization of research design with sub-categorization is detailed in various sub-sections.

3.1 Exploratory Research Design

Methods to Conduct Exploratory Research

• Literature survey
• Secondary sources of data
• Experience survey
• Focused group discussions
• Observations
• Structured and unstructured interviews
• Pilot surveys
• Case Studies

Exploratory research design is the simplest form of research design. The researchers explore the true nature of the problem. When researchers aim to study a new area or examine a new interest, exploratory design is a good option. This research design is flexible and versatile in approach. The information required by the researchers is defined loosely and unstructured. Researchers carrying out qualitative research usually adopt exploratory research design. Exploratory research design serves three purposes (a) it helps the researchers to address their inquisitiveness and quest for better understanding (b) to assess the practicality of carrying out border research (c) and devise methods for further studies.

Methods to Conduct Descriptive Research

• Self-administered survey
• Phone survey
• Mail survey/online survey
• Observation
• Personal interview
• Telephone interview

Exploratory research design has paramount significance in management and social science research. They are crucial for researchers who want to study something new. To cite an example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, physical health, mental health, and safety of school and college-going children were a concern for most people. The online education system was the new normal at that time. Research studying the impact of digitalization, long time spent in online studies on students’ health and mental well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, is of an exploratory kind. One of the disadvantages of exploratory research design is that researchers rarely get specific answers to the research questions.

3.2 Descriptive Research Design

The prime objective of descriptive research design is to describe certain situations or events. This type of design provides an extensive explanation of the research phenomena under study. In descriptive research, the researchers possess prior knowledge about the problem situations. The information is defined with clarity. This kind of research is preplanned and more structured than exploratory research. Researchers must formulate research questions properly and have clarity regarding the types of data needed and the procedure to be followed to achieve the research objectives. Researchers have the luxury of covering a large representative sample. Researchers must answer five Ws and one H – what, who, when, where, why, and how of research issues. What kind of information is required for the research, who are the target respondents, when the information will be collected, where to interact with the respondents, why information is collected from the respondents and how to collect data from the respondents. Descriptive research studies can be cross-sectional or longitudinal. The major objectives for the following descriptive research are given below.

• To explain the characteristics of certain groups such as the Indian population, employees, students, marketing personnel, organizations, sales persons. For example, a university to design a customized online higher studies course for working professionals needs a holistic profile of the interested population.
• To evaluate the portion of individuals in a specific population portraying a typical behavior. For instance, when a researcher is inclined to know the percentage of employees not interested in an online platform introduced for them in their organization.
• To predict for future. For instance, to know the future of physical retail stores due to the widespread expansion of online stores.
• To examine the extent to which management research variables relate to each other. For example, to what extent does work-life balance, salary, and conducive work environment enhance employee job satisfaction?

3.3 Causal Research Design

Usually, causal research design is adopted by researchers to explain causal relationships among phenomena under study. Causal research examines cause-and-effect relationships among variables. Causal research has certain criteria, as already discussed in Chapter 1. Causal research follows a planned and structured design like descriptive research. Though the magnitude of the relationship among variables is examined in descriptive research, the causal association cannot be explained through such research. Experimentation is one of the methods for carrying out causal research.

In causal research, the researchers usually examine the impact of one variable on another. The researchers try to explore the cause-and-effect relationship (nomothetic explanation). How can the researcher know whether cause and effect are associated? There are three criteria for a nomothetic causal relationship when (1) two or more variables are correlated, (2) the cause precedes the effect and (3) the absence of a plausible alternative explanation for the effect other than the proposed cause (Babbie, 2020). First, without establishing a correlation among two or more variables, causation cannot exist. Second, the cause should happen before the effect in time. For instance, it is more sensible to say that children’s religious affiliation is caused by their parents than to reflect that parents’ religious affiliation is due to children; even in some cases, it is plausible that children may convert to other religions later with their parent’s permission. The third significant condition for a causal relationship is that the effect cannot be attributed to any external third variable for establishing causation.

To cite one classic example, there is a causal association between sales of ice cream and death owing to drowning. Intake of more ice creams in summer does lead to a higher death rate due to drowning. The third intervening variable that causes higher death is season or temperature. In summer, higher deaths occur due to swimming and not because of taking ice-creams. The intervening variable season or temperature causes a higher death rate.

To establish a reliable causal relationship among two or more variables, other influencing variables must be controlled to neutralize their impact on the studied variables. For example, to study the effect of factors influencing training transfer in soft skill training, the other intervening variables such as age, gender, and educational qualification need to be controlled. This kind of research sometimes demands experimentation to establish causality. In most cases, causal research is quantitative and needs statistical hypothesis testing.

3.4 Experimental Research Design

Experimental research aims to examine the cause-effect relationship in a controlled setting by isolating the cause from the effect in time. The three criteria suggested by John Stuart Mill mirror in experimental research. In experimental research, the cause is administered to one group of subjects, known as the treatment group and not to the control group, and the researchers observe the difference in mean effect among the subjects of both groups. Whether variation in the cause is connected to variation in effect is observed. To be more specific, the researcher manipulates the independent variable and examines the change in the dependent variable, keeping other variables constant. Researchers used varied methods during the experiments to reduce the plausible effect of other explanations for the effect, along with ancillary methods to investigate the plausibility of those that cannot be ruled out. It is vital in experimental studies to control the extraneous and confounding variables while carrying out the experiments. Ignorance of such variables may lead to spurious relationships among studied variables. However, bringing many of the variables under experimental control is impossible. For example, personal characteristics of the subject like age, sex, intelligence, beliefs and persona. In such cases, the researchers must observe natural variations in the variables of concern. Then, statistical procedures are used to rule out the plausible impact of uncontrolled factors.

Experimental Research Design:  An experiment is a method of collecting evidence to indicate the effect of one variable on another.

Experimental research design can be conducted in a laboratory setting (laboratory experiment) or in a field setting (field experiments) where the phenomena of research interest happen. As an example, one of the most talked about and controversial experiments conducted on understanding human behavior has been the Stanford Prison Experiments, which took place at Stanford University in 1971. The experiments were funded by the US Office of Naval Research, and the principal investigator for the same was Prof Phillip Zimbardo. The major purpose of these experiments was to understand how norms develop and social expectations about roles shape group behavior. Experimental studies are segregated into four categories such as pre-experimental, true-experimental, quasi-experimental and statistical design.

3.4.1 Correlation, Causation and Cofounds

Correlation cannot be treated as causation, and correlation does not always prove causation. In correlation, it is unclear which variable comes first or whether any alternative explanation exists for the assumed effect. Two variables may be correlated due to chance. Correlation is symmetric, while causation is asymmetric. Two variables may be co-related, but their relationship may be affected by a third variable called cofounds. For example, let’s say that high salary and high educational qualifications are correlated. It is difficult to say with confirmation which comes first. Whether a high educational qualification leads to a high salary, or a high salary leads to a high educational qualification. Both possibilities can hold true and necessitate further investigation. Until researchers conclude through their investigation, a mere correlation among these two variables will not give a clear picture of their causal relationship. There is also the possibility of an alternative explanation for the relationship between high salary and high educational qualifications. The link may be due to a third variable called intellect, which results in high salary and high educational qualifications.

In management research, social science, and natural science, three significant pairs of components are required for experimentation: Experimental and control group, independent and dependent variable, and pre-test and post-test.

3.4.1.1 Experimental and Control Group

The group in which an experimental treatment is administered is known as the experimental or treatment group. In contrast, the group in which no experiment is administered is known as the control group. Using control groups enables the researchers to assess the experiment’s effects. For example, suppose a researcher wants to study the impact of rewards on employee productivity in an organization. In that case, the researcher can experiment with two groups of employees. One group will be given external rewards, known as the experimental group, and the other group (control group) will provide no external rewards. Then, the researcher can investigate the causal association between rewards on employees’ productivity through this experiment. The use of a control group is quite common in medical science research. In social science and management research, the use of control groups and experimental studies became popular with several experiments conducted in the late 1920s and early 1930s by F. J. Roethlisberger and W. J. Dickson (1939) to discover the changes required in working conditions to enhance employee satisfaction and productivity. Their series of experiments resulted in the Hawthorne effect.

3.4.1.2 Independent and Dependent Variables

In experimental research, the researchers study the impact of an independent variable on the dependent variable. Usually, experimental stimuli, whether present or absent, are considered independent variables. Independent variables are manipulated in the study, and their effects are assessed and compared. The researchers compare outcomes when the stimulus is present and not present. Hence, the independent variable is the cause, and the dependent variable is the presumed effect. It is to be noted that the independent variable in one study may serve as a dependent variable in another study. For example, an experiment intends to explore the causality between high salary and job satisfaction, job satisfaction is the dependent variable. However, in another experiment designed to explore the causality between job satisfaction and employee productivity, job satisfaction is the independent variable.

3.4.1.3 Pre- and Post-test

In an experiment, the experimenters measure the variable before conducting the experiment on the group known as the pre-test and measure the variable after conducting the experiments is called as post-test. Hence, subjects are exposed to a stimulus called a dependent variable (pre-testing), then exposed to a stimulus, i.e., independent variable, and again assessed with a dependent variable (post-testing). Any discrepancies between the two measurements of dependent variables are ascribed to the independent variable.

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The Research Process

• What is the Research Process?

There are many ways to describe the process of researching a topic for a paper or a project.

This description of the research process consists of ten actions across five stages. This process is cyclical and creative, not linear. Continue to adjust your terms, tools, and questions throughout the process and move back and forth across stages and actions as you explore your topic and find out new information.

Understand your assignment and timeline, and think about and write down the questions you'll be asking while you do your research. You may be asked to turn in a topic proposal for class, and this stage helps you complete your proposal.

Brainstorm the concepts, topics, and phrases you'll use to search for source material, and think about and choose the databases, websites, or other places you'll search.

Explore and search in the databases or other places you've chosen while developing your plan. Look through other databases or sites as new questions arise. Collect more sources than are required for your paper or project. Evaluate and select your sources. Take your time in this stage, and search again for different sources, if needed.

Read your selected sources carefully, taking notes while you do so. Read critically. Answer your existing questions and come up with new questions. Search again, if needed, so you can fill any gaps in knowledge and satisfy your curiosity about your topic.

Create your product, whether it's a research paper, a poster, a presentation, or something else. Draft your citations, and check your product against your assignment requirements. Edit your draft, proofread, incorporate feedback and turn it in.

• Next: Prepare >>
• Last Updated: Sep 16, 2024 10:38 AM
• URL: https://libguides.unomaha.edu/researchprocess

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Press Release

U.S. Department of Energy Announces $18 Million for Teams to Enable the Growth of Hydrogen Production

WASHINGTON, D.C. — The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) today announced $18 million for 9 projects to enable the growth of hydrogen as a replacement for fossil fuels. Hydrogen is increasingly seen as a clean energy source and decarbonization agent for industry and transportation. Current global hydrogen production is roughly 100 million metric tonnes per year and, by 2050, the hydrogen market is projected to grow to $1.4 trillion. These projects seek to detect and quantify hydrogen emissions throughout the supply chain to maximize the climate benefits of hydrogen production. This supports the Biden-Harris Administration’s goal to make America a leader in the clean energy economy.  

“The ability to detect and quantify hydrogen will enable the safe and economical expansion of the hydrogen economy while mitigating its climate impact,” said ARPA-E Director Dr. Evelyn Wang . “These highly sensitive and selective hydrogen sensors combined with quantitative modeling will enable industry to achieve these goals.”    

This capability will help mitigate any potential near-term warming effects that could result from a larger hydrogen economy. Future hydrogen production is projected to increase by a factor of 5 to 8 (between 470 Mt/yr187 and 800 Mt/yr188) by 2050, as hydrogen use expands to include energy storage, long-distance transportation, and industrial processes.  

Hydrogen detection methods today are primarily focused on leaks that could pose a fire hazard, typically at volumes of parts per million. Significantly lower concentration leaks may have a climate impact without posing an immediate safety hazard. ARPA-E’s Exploratory Topic M: H2SENSE projects will work to create a new generation of sensors that will detect and quantify leaks at parts per billion volume to address this need.  

The following teams selected under H2SENSE will seek to develop fully integrated systems that incorporate sensors, data transmission, dispersion and quantification analyses, and any peripheral components and modeling necessary for operation, calibration, and the accurate quantification of hydrogen:  

• Aerodyne Research (Billerica, MA) will develop a sensor system that employs tracer gases and uses machine learning software to control sampling to produce live emissions results. ($1,880,484)
• Colorado State University (Fort Collins, CO ) will develop and validate a point sensor that uses sound waves following light absorption in a material sample for trace detection of hydrogen in the atmosphere. ($1,954,931)
• National Energy Technology Laboratory (Pittsburgh, PA) will employ fiber optics-based sensors that are selective for hydrogen for a kilometer-scale distance coverage for large-area emissions monitoring. ($1,700,000)  

Access complete project descriptions for each of the projects selected for H2SENSE here .

ARPA-E advances high-potential, high-impact clean energy technologies across a wide range of technical areas that are strategic to America's energy security. Learn more about these efforts and ARPA-E's commitment to ensuring the United States continues to lead the world in developing and deploying advanced clean energy technologies.  

Selection for award negotiations is not a commitment by DOE to issue an award or provide funding. Before funding is issued, DOE and the applicants will undergo a negotiation process, and DOE may cancel negotiations and rescind the selection for any reason during that time. 

Press and General Inquiries: 202-287-5440 [email protected]

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Research Specification - PRP (40-01-02) Employment Advisers (EAs) in musculoskeletal pathways evaluation

Published: 17 September 2024

Version: 1.0 September 2024

Timetable and Budget

Introduction

The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Policy Research Programme (PRP) invites applications for a single research project to conduct a full policy evaluation (process and impact) of a new policy – Employment Advisers (EAs) in MSK.

The project should gather evidence to assess whether integrating EAs within MSK Pathways:

• can be delivered successfully
• has a positive impact on patient health and work outcomes
• delivers value for money.

The evaluation is high profile and a high priority, as part of the new government’s growth agenda.

Good work is good for health and there is a need for greater access to support that can enable people with health conditions to overcome barriers to employment and help them to get into and remain in work.

As part of Spring Budget 2023, the DHSC/DWP Joint Work and Health Directorate (JWHD) was granted funding over 4 years (through DHSC) to introduce Employment Advisers (EAs) into Musculoskeletal (MSK) pathways. The project aims to support individuals to manage MSK conditions, to get into and remain in work, build the evidence base on the impact on health and work outcomes and other health system benefits, improve health inequalities and reduce economic inactivity due to long-term health issues.

EAs in MSK aligns with the wide range of health and work interventions designed to support disabled people and people with health conditions to get into and remain in work, ensuring employment opportunity for all in a just, equal and inclusive society, whilst building the evidence of what works. This not only benefits people’s health and wealth, but kickstarts economic growth by supporting people back into work, supporting the aims of the newly announced National jobs and Careers Service which is similarly focused on getting people into work and helping them get on at work, and intended to be responsive to local employers, inclusive for all users, and works in partnership with other local services.

The project also aims to reduce pressures on the NHS, as community-based support promotes join-up around integration to reduce pressure on and support acute services, including by optimizing clinical time, supporting the Government’s mission to build an NHS fit for the future via a localised approach which aligns with a model where more services are delivered in local communities.

The project builds on the successful EAs in NHS Talking Therapies programme which has been running since 2018 [1]. Establishing non-clinical EAs in NHS Talking Therapies has improved both mental health and work outcomes; and early evidence in the MSK space suggests that vocational rehabilitation and vocational advice have been beneficial for individuals with MSK conditions, resulting in earlier returns to work when compared to individuals not receiving vocational advice.

The EAs in MSK policy will explore this on a larger scale across NHS services. Whilst there is growing evidence to support embedding employment support within healthcare settings, there is a need to fill the evidence gap on the impacts of employment advice on work and health outcomes for people with MSK conditions.

Evidence and evaluation are at the heart of the EAs in MSK roll-out and embedded throughout delivery. Through the evaluation, we aim to gather evidence of the impact of EAs in MSK pathways and build a compelling case for their future adoption. We will employ a test and learn approach, feeding evidence back to policy and delivery throughout the duration of the programme to support effective implementation, as well as future funding decisions in the longer term.

From Q4 2024/25 up to 22 EAs in MSK teams will be set up across 15 Integrated Care Boards (ICBs) in England, increasing by up to 66 teams from 2026/27 and by up to 77 teams from 2027/28. Each team will include 1 Senior EA (SEA) and 4 EAs.

Employment Advisers are non-clinical and will work in a combined way with health practitioners to provide tailored advice and support people to find and maintain work, including by talking to people about their abilities, interests, and goals. They will assess peoples' skills and abilities, helping them to find suitable learning and work opportunities, supporting people to overcome barriers to employment, and providing advice about in-work support, such as workplace adjustments or building relationships with local employers.

The project aims to support better patient health outcomes, reduce health inequalities, enable health system benefits (such as optimising clinical and waiting times), helping people with MSK conditions to get into work and to get on at work, and improve workforce participation and productivity.

This call is for a full policy evaluation through the NIHR to assess the impact of EAs in MSK on employment and health outcomes for individuals with MSK conditions and provide an estimate of the costs and benefits of the service. The evaluation should also develop our understanding of the operation and delivery through an exploration of process. This should include how the programme is structured and functions, how it works and the mechanisms through which the programme has an effect. Lessons learned will be shared with the later sites.

Participating ICBs are expected to fully participate in a formal evaluation of the programme. This will include ICBs:

• Collecting a set of Management Information (MI) specified by the JWHD and reporting the data monthly (on aggregate) to the JWHD ( this is outside the scope of the bid ).
• Engaging with the external researchers throughout the project to share provider/stakeholder experiences to inform an analysis of how the programme is structured and functions, how and what works or doesn’t work and the mechanisms that may support impact (through a process evaluation) and support data capture for the impact evaluation, as required.

Research priorities

EAs in MSK aligns with Integrated Care Boards (ICBs) aims and purposes with reference to reducing health disparities and helping the NHS to support broader social and economic development. The ambition underpinning the introduction of EAs into MSK pathways is to:

• Help people with MSK conditions to get into and remain in work and improve workforce participation and productivity.
• Support better health outcomes for patients, including reducing health disparities.
• Enable health system benefits (such as optimising clinical and waiting times).

Research is needed to evaluate whether EAs in MSK is meeting these objectives and whether it offers value for money. The research priorities are:

• To establish how the programme is structured and functions, how it works and the mechanisms through which the programme has an effect.
• To build an understanding of the most promising integrated work and health models that can be developed at the local level.
• To evaluate the impact of EAs on MSK on the health and employment outcomes of those who receive the intervention, compared to the counterfactual.
• To provide an estimate of the value for money of EAs in MSK.

These are set out in more detail below.

Understanding delivery and identifying lessons learnt

The research should collect evidence on how EAs in MSK is delivered across the range of models and locations, with particular attention to:

Delivery and implementation: how is the intervention operating? Including e.g.

Have learning and networking forums across ICBs/sites been set up/beneficial? (e.g. knowledge sharing, enabling smoother set-up)

Is the ratio of EAs to clients suitable?

Is the training offer suitable and sufficient?

What does the support offer to clients entail?

What types of support are better suited to different types of client (in work but off sick, in work but struggling, out of work, different MSK conditions)?

Are there barriers to the recruitment of SEAs/EAs?

What are the enablers to recruitment/retention of SEAs/EAs?

Does patient experience differ between MSK only and MSK + EA treatment?

Delivery and implementation: how do referrals take place?

How are people being referred to the intervention/who is referring them?

At what stage of MSK treatment are clients being referred to EAs?

How are services encouraging referrals?

What motivates people to take up offer of support?

What barriers prevent people taking up offer of support?

What's the best delivery model(s) of EAs in MSK to take forward in the longer term? What works well and in what circumstances?

What employment barriers do clients face?

What are the key problems clients face regarding employment? (finding/staying in/support).

Impact on health and employment outcomes

JWHD welcomes researchers’ proposals on how to assess the short and longer-term impacts of EAs in MSK on a range of outcomes. Research questions include e.g.:

Do employment and health outcomes differ for those who undertake EA in MSK support compared to those who don't?

Including for example: Job satisfaction; Job enjoyment; Workplace relationships; Adjustments made in work; Career progression, prospects and security; Presenteeism; Motivation and confidence to stay in work, health beliefs, improved experience

Do job search outcomes differ for those who undertake EA in MSK support compared to those who don't?

Do health related outcomes differ for those who undertake EA in MSK support compared to those who don't?

Do employment and sickness absence outcomes differ for those who undertake EA in MSK support compared to those who don't?

Is the intervention equally effective across different types of MSK? (does a one size fits all approach work?) In both work and health outcomes.

Value for money

The research should produce results which will help the JWHD make decisions about continued investment in EAs in MSK.

• Is the intervention cost effective? Does it help reduce pressures on the NHS, including by optimising clinical time?

Possible research approaches

We are open to considering all suitable approaches to the delivery of a robust evaluation which focusses on process, impact and CBA, within the timescales required by our ministers, policy and delivery teams. We welcome innovative approaches and invite applicants to demonstrate their awareness of and plans to mitigate against the challenges to be faced in evaluating EAs in MSK.

We anticipate that the evaluation may include multiple evaluation strands and use a mixed-methods approach. Our initial thoughts about the evaluation, based on the research questions to be addressed have included:

• Process strand during Year One – from start of award to March 2026
• Participant strand – quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews; longitudinal
• Provider strand - quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews; longitudinal
• Econometric strand – impact evaluation and CBA (see details below). We anticipate that evidence gathered from the qualitative and quantitative strands would feed into the impact evaluation and also be used to estimate the total costs and benefits of the policy, to determine the value for money/return on investment
• MI/data strand (see above) – this strand sits outside of the NIHR bid as is for internal monitoring purposes by the JWHD

Econometric strand

Impact evaluation .

This is needed to evaluate the impact of EAs on MSK on the health and employment outcomes of those who receive the intervention compared to the counterfactual.

We welcome discussions with bidders about the possible data sources (e.g. survey, MI (although this has data sharing implications) and also wider data sources (where possible). We can also discuss possibilities re linking with DWP and HMRC admin data (RAPID). We consider the intervention to be light touch, which may have implications for the scale of the data required (e.g. survey sample sizes). It is also a voluntary intervention and introduced at an area level, in stages.

We anticipate that there are several potential options for the control group and welcome suggestions from potential bidders. Depending on the option chosen, it may be challenging to access the control group and we also welcome suggestions about potential approaches to ensuring the data is robust and accessible.

We welcome suggestions for potential methods, including quasi-experimental, theory-based or others as appropriate.

Cost Benefit Analysis: a comparison of the benefits and costs of the intervention

We are interested in both employment and health/wellbeing costs/benefits and aim to be able to quantify, in monetary terms, as many of the costs and benefits of EAs in MSK as feasible, including items for which the market does not provide a satisfactory measure of economic value.

We appreciate that the Green Book [2] recognises that it is currently infeasible or impractical to derive monetary values for some impacts. While these impacts will not form part of a monetised CBA, the Green Book recognises their importance and recommends that supplementary techniques should be used to weigh up non-monetised impacts.

Areas out of scope for this programme of work

Due to commissioning timescales, an early process study (January-May 2025) will be set up – conducted through the DWP Commissioning route – to explore how the programme is being set up across a range of ICBs included in the initial roll-out. This will explore what works, where there are barriers/challenges and lessons learnt which can be shared with the later sites. The DWP early process study is out of scope for this programme of work but should be taken into consideration by the full policy evaluation.

The evaluation will be supported by the monthly collection of standardised Management Information (MI) (as defined by the JWHD) by sites at client level and returned (aggregate data) to the JWHD for monitoring purposes – we will carry out in-house analysis to monitor delivery. This strand sits outside of the commissioned evaluation, as is for internal monitoring purposes, but is raised here for awareness as there is a possibility that we may be able to link MI to survey data if contractors would find this valuable (and if we can make it work from a data sharing perspective).

Eligibility

Eligibility for the NIHR PRP is laid out in our Standard Information for Applicants and applies to all calls unless otherwise stated in the individual research specification.

Expertise required

• Subject specific knowledge: health and work, MSK
• Quantitative and quantitative research
• Process evaluation skills
• Impact evaluation
• Cost-benefit analysis

Applicants are asked to consider the timing and nature of deliverables in their proposals. Policymakers will need research evidence to meet key policy decisions and timescales, so resource needs to be flexible to meet these needs. A meeting to discuss policy needs with DHSC/JWHD officials will be convened as a matter of priority following contracting.

The research can be conducted in phases, linked to the delivery stages. Timescales are fixed, due to ministerial priorities and the timings of future Spending Reviews.

Findings are needed in 3 stages. At each stage outputs should include a presentation of findings (to the JWHD), followed by a report of findings for use by Policy, Delivery and Ministers. The full evaluation findings will be published (after March 28):

• At the end of Year One (March 26) – process evaluation and baseline
• At the end of Year Two (March 27) – interim evidence to inform future Spending Reviews
• At the end of Year Three (March 28) – full evaluation findings.

The evaluation outputs will be essential to help the policy/delivery teams understand how employment advice can be rapidly and effectively integrated into MSK services, highlighting core components and maximising opportunities to support individuals to get into and remain in work. Starting the evaluation at the beginning of the policy roll out is key to understand early implementation issues and feed these back quickly as part of the test and learn process.

The evaluation outputs will help inform design approaches for the later stages of roll out, gather evidence of the impact of EAs in MSK pathways and – if the evidence supports this - build a compelling case for their nationwide adoption through future Spending Reviews.

The evidence gathered from the evaluation will also lead to additional benefits in terms of informing future policy making for MSK health and work interventions, which are currently lacking in impact evidence. Due to the UK’s ageing population, the incidence of MSK conditions is expected to increase hence it is crucial to have a robust evidence base to support future policy decisions.

Budget and duration

Costings can include up to 100% full economic costing (FEC) but should exclude output VAT. Applicants are advised that value for money is one of the key criteria that peer reviewers and commissioning committee members will assess applications against.

Budget : £700,000.

Duration : the evaluation is to start as early as possible after the award is announced and to continue until the end of the project (March 2028), with final findings available as soon as possible after that.

Management arrangements

A research advisory group including, but not limited to, representatives of DHSC and the DWP/DHSC Joint Work and Health Directorate, other stakeholders, and the successful applicants for the research should be established. The advisory group will provide guidance, meeting regularly over the lifetime of the research. The successful applicants should be prepared to review research objectives with the advisory group, and to share emerging findings on an ongoing basis. They will be expected to:

• Provide regular feedback on progress
• Produce timely reports to the advisory group
• Produce a final report for sign off

Research contractors will be expected to work with nominated officials in DHSC, its partners (including the JWHD) and the NIHR. Key documents including, for example, research protocols, research instruments, reports and publications must be provided to DHSC in draft form allowing sufficient time for review.

NIHR Equality, Diversity & Inclusion

Our ambition is to fund more inclusive research undertaken by more diverse research teams, empowered by inclusive decision making about who and what gets our funding. As outlined in the NIHR Equality, Diversity & Inclusion Strategy , we encourage funding applicants to reconsider the role of inclusion and show their commitment to developing and maintaining a healthy research culture.

Guidance on Health and Care Inequalities and associated data collection 

Health and care Inequalities is a high priority area within the Department of Health and Social Care and the NIHR and is often present in a majority of funded projects. We are now assessing all NIHR research proposals in relation to health inequalities . We ask that you please clearly identify in the research plan section of the application whether your application has an inequalities component or theme as well as how this research hopes to impact inequalities or not. Please also detail the core set of inequality breakdown data that will be collected, if applicable. More information on this request can be found in the Standard information for applicants .

References and key documents

[1] EAs in NHS Talking Therapies publications: process evaluation ; client research and impact evaluation .

[2] HM Treasury. The Green Book [Internet] London: HMT. 2022 [updated 16 May 2024; accessed 5 September 2024]. Available from: The Green Book  

[3] HM Treasury. The Magenta Book [Internet] London: HMT. 2011 [updated 1 April 2020; accessed 5 September 2024]. Available from: The Magenta Book  

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• Research Objectives | Definition & Examples

Research Objectives | Definition & Examples

Published on July 12, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on November 20, 2023.

Research objectives describe what your research is trying to achieve and explain why you are pursuing it. They summarize the approach and purpose of your project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement . They should:

• Establish the scope and depth of your project
• Contribute to your research design
• Indicate how your project will contribute to existing knowledge

Table of contents

What is a research objective, why are research objectives important, how to write research aims and objectives, smart research objectives, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research objectives.

Research objectives describe what your research project intends to accomplish. They should guide every step of the research process , including how you collect data , build your argument , and develop your conclusions .

Your research objectives may evolve slightly as your research progresses, but they should always line up with the research carried out and the actual content of your paper.

Research aims

A distinction is often made between research objectives and research aims.

A research aim typically refers to a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear at the end of your problem statement, before your research objectives.

Your research objectives are more specific than your research aim and indicate the particular focus and approach of your project. Though you will only have one research aim, you will likely have several research objectives.

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Research objectives are important because they:

• Establish the scope and depth of your project: This helps you avoid unnecessary research. It also means that your research methods and conclusions can easily be evaluated .
• Contribute to your research design: When you know what your objectives are, you have a clearer idea of what methods are most appropriate for your research.
• Indicate how your project will contribute to extant research: They allow you to display your knowledge of up-to-date research, employ or build on current research methods, and attempt to contribute to recent debates.

Once you’ve established a research problem you want to address, you need to decide how you will address it. This is where your research aim and objectives come in.

Step 1: Decide on a general aim

Your research aim should reflect your research problem and should be relatively broad.

Step 2: Decide on specific objectives

Break down your aim into a limited number of steps that will help you resolve your research problem. What specific aspects of the problem do you want to examine or understand?

Step 3: Formulate your aims and objectives

Once you’ve established your research aim and objectives, you need to explain them clearly and concisely to the reader.

You’ll lay out your aims and objectives at the end of your problem statement, which appears in your introduction. Frame them as clear declarative statements, and use appropriate verbs to accurately characterize the work that you will carry out.

The acronym “SMART” is commonly used in relation to research objectives. It states that your objectives should be:

• Specific: Make sure your objectives aren’t overly vague. Your research needs to be clearly defined in order to get useful results.
• Measurable: Know how you’ll measure whether your objectives have been achieved.
• Achievable: Your objectives may be challenging, but they should be feasible. Make sure that relevant groundwork has been done on your topic or that relevant primary or secondary sources exist. Also ensure that you have access to relevant research facilities (labs, library resources , research databases , etc.).
• Relevant: Make sure that they directly address the research problem you want to work on and that they contribute to the current state of research in your field.
• Time-based: Set clear deadlines for objectives to ensure that the project stays on track.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Scope of research is determined at the beginning of your research process , prior to the data collection stage. Sometimes called “scope of study,” your scope delineates what will and will not be covered in your project. It helps you focus your work and your time, ensuring that you’ll be able to achieve your goals and outcomes.

Defining a scope can be very useful in any research project, from a research proposal to a thesis or dissertation . A scope is needed for all types of research: quantitative , qualitative , and mixed methods .

To define your scope of research, consider the following:

• Budget constraints or any specifics of grant funding
• Your proposed timeline and duration
• Specifics about your population of study, your proposed sample size , and the research methodology you’ll pursue
• Any inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Any anticipated control , extraneous , or confounding variables that could bias your research if not accounted for properly.

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