what were the causes of the spanish american war essay

• History Classics
• Your Profile
• Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)
• This Day In History
• History Podcasts
• History Vault

Spanish American War

By: History.com Editors

Updated: May 2, 2022 | Original: May 14, 2010

The Spanish-American War was an 1898 conflict between the United States and Spain that ended Spanish colonial rule in the Americas and resulted in U.S. acquisition of territories in the western Pacific and Latin America.

Causes: Remember the Maine!

The war originated in the Cuban struggle for independence from Spain, which began in February 1895.

Spain’s brutally repressive measures to halt the rebellion were graphically portrayed for the U.S. public by several sensational newspapers engaging in yellow journalism , and American sympathy for the Cuban rebels rose.

Did you know? The term yellow journalism was coined in the 19th century to describe journalism that relies on eye-catching headlines, exaggeration and sensationalism to increase sales.

The growing popular demand for U.S. intervention became an insistent chorus after the still-unexplained sinking in Havana harbor of the American battleship USS Maine , which had been sent to protect U.S. citizens and property after anti-Spanish rioting in Havana.

War Is Declared

Spain announced an armistice on April 9 and speeded up its new program to grant Cuba limited powers of self-government.

But the U.S. Congress soon afterward issued resolutions that declared Cuba’s right to independence, demanded the withdrawal of Spain’s armed forces from the island, and authorized the use of force by President William McKinley to secure that withdrawal while renouncing any U.S. design for annexing Cuba.

Spain declared war on the United States on April 24, followed by a U.S. declaration of war on the 25th, which was made retroactive to April 21.

Spanish American War Begins

The ensuing war was pathetically one-sided, since Spain had readied neither its army nor its navy for a distant war with the formidable power of the United States.

In the early morning hours of May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey led a U.S. naval squadron into Manila Bay in the Philippines. He destroyed the anchored Spanish fleet in two hours before pausing the Battle of Manila Bay to order his crew a second breakfast. In total, fewer than 10 American seamen were lost, while Spanish losses were estimated at over 370. Manila itself was occupied by U.S. troops by August.

The elusive Spanish Caribbean fleet under Adm. Pascual Cervera was located in Santiago harbor in Cuba by U.S. reconnaissance. An army of regular troops and volunteers under Gen. William Shafter (including then-former assistant secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt and his 1st Volunteer Cavalry, the “Rough Riders”) landed on the coast east of Santiago and slowly advanced on the city in an effort to force Cervera’s fleet out of the harbor.

Cervera led his squadron out of Santiago on July 3 and tried to escape westward along the coast. In the ensuing battle all of his ships came under heavy fire from U.S. guns and were beached in a burning or sinking condition.

Santiago surrendered to Shafter on July 17, thus effectively ending the brief but momentous war.

The Buffalo Soldiers at San Juan Hill: What Really Happened?

Some later accounts of the battle, including Teddy Roosevelt's, downplayed the Black troopers' crucial role in the US victory.

6 Things You May Not Know About the Spanish‑American War

Did you know that the Rough Riders didn’t really ride and that Guam’s capture was surprisingly peaceful?

Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish American War was signed on December 10, 1898. In it, Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States and transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the United States for $20 million.

Philippine insurgents who had fought against Spanish rule soon turned their guns against their new occupiers. The Philippine-American War began in February of 1899 and lasted until 1902. Ten times more U.S. troops died suppressing revolts in the Philippines than in defeating Spain.

Impact of the Spanish-American War

The Spanish American War was an important turning point in the history of both antagonists. Spain’s defeat decisively turned the nation’s attention away from its overseas colonial adventures and inward upon its domestic needs, a process that led to both a cultural and a literary renaissance and two decades of much-needed economic development in Spain.

The victorious United States, on the other hand, emerged from the war a world power with far-flung overseas possessions and a new stake in international politics that would soon lead it to play a determining role in the affairs of Europe and the rest of the globe.

HISTORY Vault

Stream thousands of hours of acclaimed series, probing documentaries and captivating specials commercial-free in HISTORY Vault

Sign up for Inside History

Get HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.

By submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.

More details : Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact Us

• Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars Words: 906
• The Spanish American War and Its Impact Words: 1150
• The Spanish-American War and Its Implications for the US Words: 610
• American Public Opinion of War Words: 722
• American Attitude Towards War Words: 1134
• The American Civil War’s Causes and Effects Words: 572
• Culture and Society of Mexican Americans After Mexican-American War Words: 3575
• The Reaction of the American Citizens to the US Entry into World War I Words: 1093
• African Americans’ Impact on the Civil War Words: 1417
• The Mexican-American War Historical Significance Words: 851
• The Causes and Events That Led to the Civil War Words: 1390
• The Importance of the 1812 War in American History Words: 314
• American Fighting Style During the Revolutionary War Words: 1399
• “The War of 1812” Words: 925
• Civil War: The Second American Revolution Words: 680
• American Experience of the Vietnam War Words: 883
• African Americans in the Revolutionary War Words: 2845
• The American War for Independence Words: 296
• Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace Words: 1117

The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact

The Spanish-American war was the armed conflict in 1898 between two major countries in that historical period. The fight fundamentally changed the world structure, impacting the future economics and political dominance significantly, hence being an essential event in the development of chronicles (Marolda 4). The research paper will look into the reasons behind the war, its progress, and its effects on the different participants as well as other parties.

First, the background event leading to the war will be discussed. Political dominance over the country was entitled to Spain, as Cuba was its colony. It should be noted that most of the former colonies of Spain were either possessed by other states or gained independence in 1825 (Marolda 16). After numerous wars because of the colonies, the low point of Spanish colonialism was marked (Losang and Demhardt 100). As a result, the metropolitan country itself was in a critical state where it could not adequately manage its provinces.

In such a way, the main reason for the conflict itself was the Cuban crisis. Local people strived to gain independence from the country-suppressor and fully enjoy the benefits of their productions (Marolda 28). The struggle captures the attention of the US because of several factors. Despite the fact that Spain was a metropolitan country, the economic supremacy in the region belonged to the United States. The estimated US investments counted $50 million annually, while the amount of US trade was attributed to about $100 million (Marolda 34). In addition to that, 90% of Cuba’s total exports were transported to the US in 1894, while the country provided 40% of the island’s imports (Losang and Demhardt 102). Therefore, the struggle for Cuban independence disrupted US economic interests and positioned the country against the Spanish side.

Apart from that, the American sentiment played an important role in causing the armed conflict, which emerged in the more critical concept later. The American media posted information about so-called “Concentration areas” in Cuba, where the local people were treated in an inappropriate way (Chaplin 16). The Spanish government did not provide them with adequate shelter, provision, and medical care, which expectedly resulted in death from exposure, hunger, and disease (Marolda 25). Such stories were graphically depicted in the American journals and newspapers, especially in such sensational institutions like New York World and New York Journalasaplin 4). As a result, they caused humanitarian concern among the American population, which was added to traditional sympathy for colonial people struggling for their nation’s independence. Such a social mindset created the demand for intervention, which gained support in the US Congress.

It is significant to be noted that Spain made actions to resolve the conflict and address its colonial problems. In 1897, the new ministry in Spain offered concessions to the colonial people (Marolda 35). Those measures included abandoning the reconcentration policy and granting the Cuban intelligence opportunity to create their parliament with limited self-government powers (Chaplin 17). However, these propositions were made too late, as the insurgent leaders aimed the total political independence at that moment. Consequently, the war continued, and some battles forced the US to intervene because the US citizens’ safety was questioned (Marolda 63). As a result, the American authorities sent the battleship Maine as a tool to grant security for US citizens and property in the region.

The occasion for the start of the war was the explosion of the battleship Maine mentioned above. Although there was no reliable evidence for the Spanish side’s responsibility for the disaster, the US public stimulated by the influence of the aforementioned yellow journalism helped Spain unquestionably guilty (Marolda 101). The strength of the demand and public pressure upon the government was incredibly high. The widespread rallying cry, which sounded like “Remember Maine , to hell with Spain!” quickly became popular (Chaplin 21). The movement was supported by the religious leaders, which created even higher pressure on the US Congress.

At last, the opposition faded after the speech in the Senate by Sen. Redfield Proctor of Vermont. Returning from the tour in Cuba, he described the situation and convinced the politicians in tof necessity to declare the war (Marolda 32). Moreover, one of the arguments to start the conflict was that Spain was unable to end it with the victory (Chaplin 14). The US side offered the mediation of the dispute in the region to reach peace with the insurgents and noted that nothing but independence for the colony was expected.

The Spanish side had a dilemma of resolving this conflict. On the one hand, the country was not ready for the war and its consequences. On the other hand, the action of abandonment on the island meant the government’s disestablishment, including the monarchy (Losang and Demhardt 108). Moreover, the Spanish politicians sought support from other European countries, which did not take any action except for weak verbal cooperation (Marolda 47). In the conclusion of lengthy disputes and debates, the American side demanded Spain to relinquish Cuba, which severed the relations and resulted in the war declaration.

Even though the United States was only interested in Cuba and this region in the very beginning, the process and outcome of the war affewar-affectedcantly more territories and parties. It should be noted that both participants were equally unprepared for the war. As a result of the war mainly dependent on sea power, the evident advantage was on the US side (Marolda 59). Using the powerful new battleships in the North Atlantic Squadron, the American ships attacked the Spanish naval vessels anchored in Manila Bay (Losang and Demhardt 110). The troops’ motivation and perception of the situation played a significant role in the victory of Americans (Marolda 37). Officers and men were extremely confident in their supremacy, while opponents felt they were doomed to defeat and clearly understood their country’s position (Chaplin 19). Therefore, the American party without many losses occupied Manila, weakening Spanish squadrons, and decreasing their war resources.

The armed conflict in Caribbeathe n theatre was characterized by the battles on Cuba and Puerto Rico campaign. As the US-controlled the naval access to the region, Spain could not bring support to the fleet present in Cuba (Marolda 93). The US army consisted of regular soldiers and volunteers, as the public was sympathizing with the insurgents and willed to help (Chaplin 23). The American garrison aimed to trap the Spanish fleet between the army and ships, in such a way making them surrender without any fight and subsequent losses (Losang and Demhardt 113). On July 1, 1898, the Battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill took place, which impacted the progress of the American army into the island (Marolda 23). These events significantly changed the course of action by allowing the troops to penetrate Santiago’s outer defenses. Even though commanders thought about pausing the battles and await while the incidences of malaria and other diseases became less, the Spanish fleet’s attempt to escape impacted contrary decisions (Marolda 49). All the Spanish ships were destroyed or remained in an inoperative condition, meaning that the American party won the battle (Marolda 76). In addition to that, the American commanders occupied Puerto Rico as well. As the situation was with the struggle in the Philippines, the American army experienced few losses.

When the war was practically over, Spain asked French commissioners to arrange the termination of hostilities. According to the protocol signed on August 12, 1898, which resulted from negotiations in Washington, Spain agreed to surrender Cuba (Marolda 108). Furthermore, the agreement stated that the metropolitan country would cede Puerto Rico and the Mariana Islands in favor of the United States. In the Philippines, the US troops would stay in Manila until the peace treaty would be formed and agreed upon (Marolda 99). It was evident that the American politicians had not considered acquiring the territory on the other side of the globe when they started the armed conflict. Despite this fact, McKinley (US president) and his advisers aimed to retrain the US presence in the strategically important region for enhancing the influence in the Far East region (Losang and Demhardt 120). Moreover, given the European aggressions in China, the basement in the Philippines could be action for the security of the US market interests in the area. As a result, the American government demanthe ded transfer of the possession of about 7000 islands and their inhabitants to them (Marolda 93). Spain reluctantly met the requirement, and in the endpoint, the Spanish parties asked to pay them $20 million for the public buildings and works in the Philippines (Marolda 96). The agreement was fixed by the Treaty of Paris, which was the official end of the war movements.

The effects of the Spanish-American war had a long-term impact. Even though the conflict itself was relatively inexpensive in both material and human resources, it became a significant turning point in the participants’ history. The immediate consequences of the war in Spain were destructive for the nation (Marolda 12). However, the tragedy was followed by the renewal in intellectual, cultural, and material aspects. The government and society began to pay particular atten to the internal politics, development, and progress. Transportation, industry, development of mineral resources production fostered in the country, helping it to reestablish economic strength (Losang and Demhardt 115). Therefore, at the beginning of the 20th century, there was a dramatic rising in all social aspects in Spain.

The outcome of the armed conflict for the USA was different but dramatic to the same extent. First, the country increased its land possessions in the world, making it more strategically secure amongst other nations (Marolda 109). Although the stimulus to begin the war was the aim to bring peace to Cuba, the situation was completely different in the result. The country won critical battles in different world regions, which helped it ensure its access to foreign markets (Losang and Demhardt 121). It should be highlighted that shortly after the conflict ended, the US entered the Philippine-American war and experienced even more significant losses than in the fights with Spain (Marolda 111). Despite this fact, generally, the outcome was positive for the country.

There were more changes in the strategic aspect of the country’s politics. The US parties became confident in the necessity to build the Canal in Panama for greater flexibility in transportation. Thus, the US made the Caribbean its lake, and the effect of this event can be observed up to nowadays (Marolda 114). The politicians also understood the importance of the sea weapon and training of men to sea conflicts. Hence, men were stimulated to join the US Navy, which grew significantly after the war, becoming the world’s second largest fleet (Chaplin 25). Besides, the US army, which was seen to be poorly developed in the course of the war, required reforms (Marolda 110). In the course of the war, more men were lost because of exposure and diseases rather than from weapon defeat. That is why the government paid close attention to the development of its soldiery in order to prevent the inevitable unwanted conquests. The US became one of the world’s most strategically influential and essential countries, which had an impact in the Caribbean, the Far East, and later in European relations.

To conclude, the Spanish-American war was a significant event that resulted in long-term consequences in world politics and structure. It can be called the battle of the empire and democracy, as participants had different ideologies. The US decision to enter the war was partially stimulated by the social mind, whereas Spanish politicians decided solely on the basis of considerations for the monarchy. The effect of the outcome can be observed nowadays by looking at the influence of the United States.

Works Cited

Chaplin, Nathan. “The American Press During the Spanish American War: Race, Reconcentration, and Paternalism.” Creighton University , 2018, pp. 1-26.

Losang, Eric, and Imre Demhardt. “Change of Sovereignty and Cartographic Advance: Cartographic Implications of the Spanish-American War of 1898.” Dissemination of Cartographic Knowledge, 2017, pp. 99-128.

Marolda, Edward, editor. Theodore Roosevelt, the U.S. Navy and the Spanish-American War. Springer, 2016.

Cite this paper

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2022, January 15). The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact. https://studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/

"The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact." StudyCorgi , 15 Jan. 2022, studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) 'The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact'. 15 January.

1. StudyCorgi . "The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact." January 15, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact." January 15, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact." January 15, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/.

This paper, “The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact”, was written and voluntary submitted to our free essay database by a straight-A student. Please ensure you properly reference the paper if you're using it to write your assignment.

Before publication, the StudyCorgi editorial team proofread and checked the paper to make sure it meets the highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, fact accuracy, copyright issues, and inclusive language. Last updated: January 15, 2022 .

If you are the author of this paper and no longer wish to have it published on StudyCorgi, request the removal . Please use the “ Donate your paper ” form to submit an essay.

Top of page

Primary Source Set The Spanish-American War: The United States Becomes a World Power

The resources in this primary source set are intended for classroom use. If your use will be beyond a single classroom, please review the copyright and fair use guidelines.

Teacher’s Guide

To help your students analyze these primary sources, get a graphic organizer and guides: Analysis Tool and Guides

The Spanish-American War lasted only about ten weeks in 1898. However, the war had far-reaching effects for both the United States and Spain.

Causes of the War

The conflict had complex beginnings. By the 1890s, Cuba had unsuccessfully battled Spain for independence for many years. In 1895, the Cuban revolutionary José Marti led an expedition to the island, attempting to seize power from Spain. As a result of U.S. economic interests in Cuba, the U.S. government sought to stabilize the situation. An agreement was negotiated between the United States and Spain by which Cuba would become self-governing on January 1, 1898.

Events derailed this plan. Following a January riot in Havana, President William McKinley sent the USS Maine to Havana to protect U.S. citizens and interests. On February 15, an explosion sank the Maine, killing 266 men on board. On April 19, Congress passed the Teller Amendment, which said that the United States would not establish permanent control over Cuba. The United States declared war on Spain on April 25.

Although Cuba played a key role in the start of the war, battles between the U.S. and Spain took place around the world. In fact, the first hostilities took place in the Philippines on May 1, in the Battle of Manila Bay. Fighting did not occur in Cuba until June; a key battle took place on July 1. One of the leaders of U.S. forces in this battle was Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, who led a cavalry regiment known as the Rough Riders.

In May, U.S. troops landed in Puerto Rico, where they faced little Spanish opposition. By August 2, the Spanish and the Americans began to negotiate an end to the conflict, with the Spanish accepting the peace terms laid out by President McKinley.

Hostilities formally ended on August 12, 1898. The Treaty of Paris, ending the Spanish-American War, was signed on December 10. Spain gave up Guam, Puerto Rico, its possessions in the West Indies, and the Philippines in exchange for a U.S. payment of $20 million. The United States occupied Cuba but, as provided for in the Teller Amendment, did not try to annex it.

Media Coverage

The war helped fuel major changes in U.S. news media. U.S. newspapers covered the war with gusto. Technological innovations changed reportage and documentation. New technology that made it easier for newspapers to publish photographs allowed the papers to publish more illustrations and less text. Some reporters in the field in Cuba provided excellent, firsthand reporting. Reporters who used telegraphs as the basis for their stories, however, typically relied on secondhand information.

Major newspaper owners—including Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal—viewed public interest in the war as an opportunity to sell newspapers. The papers, in a circulation war, featured sensational coverage and attention-grabbing photographs of events in Cuba. Although the cause of the explosion of the USS Maine was unknown, for example, New York newspapers blamed Spain. Historians once held that biased coverage of the war, often referred to as yellow journalism, was a cause of the war. Today, however, historians find less evidence for that claim.

At the time of the war’s outbreak, film was a new medium, and the conflict became a popular topic. Short films showed such scenes as servicemen exercising, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders on their horses, and funeral processions of dead soldiers. Motion pictures began to move from being seen as a fad to an accepted method of documenting historical events--even though some films depicting events from the war were actually re-enactments.

Victory in the Spanish-American War transformed the United States, a former colony, to an imperial power. Many Americans saw this development as a natural part of the nation’s “Manifest Destiny”--the belief that expansion of the United States was both right and inevitable.

Opposition to this new role also existed. In June 1898, the American Anti-Imperialist League was formed to fight annexation of the Philippines. Its members included former President Grover Cleveland, industrialist Andrew Carnegie, author Mark Twain, and labor leader Samuel Gompers.

A recognized war hero, Theodore Roosevelt instantly became credible as a political candidate. Roosevelt was elected governor of New York in 1898 and vice president of the United States in 1901. He became the youngest president to date later that year, when President McKinley was assassinated just months into his second term.

Suggestions for Teachers

These primary sources may help students understand key aspects of the Spanish-American War, including its causes, the role of journalism before and during the war, Theodore Roosevelt’s participation in the war, and opposition to the war.

• Focus students’ attention on primary sources about the USS Maine. Compare and contrast treatments of the sinking in different documents. How did people respond to the sinking of the Maine? How were events involving the Maine covered in the media? Ask students to think about what claim or argument each document makes about the sinking of the Maine. What evidence does each document present as support? What evidence do students find to evaluate whether media coverage was sensationalized or factual?
• Focus on the “The Big Type War of the Yellow Kids” cartoon. What can students infer from this cartoon about the role of newspapers in the war? Challenge students to determine its creator’s point of view or purpose, and to explain how it is conveyed in the cartoon. Students might also look at other documents in the set to find evidence that supports or contradicts the point of view in this cartoon.
• This set includes a short film of Roosevelt’s Rough Riders. Students might compare and contrast this film to Skirmish of Rough Riders, a reenactment made in New Jersey, according to the catalog record. What clues are there to indicate which film is an actuality and which is a reenactment? Why is it important to be able to identify when a film is a re-creation of a scene? For additional reenactments, search The Spanish-American War in Motion Pictures using the term “reenactment.”
• Ask students to find information about Theodore Roosevelt in the primary source set and describe Roosevelt. How is he presented in each primary source? What aspects of Roosevelt’s life or character would lead people to believe that he should run for public office? Students may research other military heroes who went into politics. Would students conclude that the American people have found military heroes to be good government leaders as well?
• What evidence can students find in the primary source set that some people were opposed to the war or some aspects of the war? What arguments can be made for or against the new role of the United States as an imperial power? Have students integrate the information from a number of primary sources and prepare a pamphlet or editorial responding to the Anti-Imperialist League’s leaflet.

Additional Resources

Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers

The Spanish-American War in Motion Pictures

An American Time Capsule: Three Centuries of Broadsides and Other Printed Ephemera

Principal Causes and Consequences of the Spanish-American War Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Causes of the spanish-american war, the consequences of the spanish-american war, list of references.

By far and large, the Spanish-American war is viewed by most scholars as one of the major turning points in the history of both America and Spain in terms of their political, social, cultural and even economic structures (Schoultz, 2009).

In essence, the Spanish-American was a short-lived war that was fought between the US and Spain beginning in April 1898 and ending in August this same year. However, in the course of the war, other players like Cuba, Puerto Rico, Germany and the Philippines got involved based on their directly or indirect vested interests in the outcomes of the war.

On one hand, there are scholars who are of the opinion that, in spite of the casualties of the war, the Spanish-American war was a necessary endeavour. To support this argument, such scholars point to the positive results that came from the war—especially with regards to the territories that got colonized (Kaplan, 2003).

On the other hand, some scholars criticize the war basing their arguments on the deaths, loss of properties worth millions of shillings, and signing of some treaties which favoured the winners of the war while looking down upon the losers, among many other effects that will be duly detailed in the course of this paper.

If we are to get the real picture of the Spanish-American war, then it is inherent for us to dig into the annals of history and get authoritative information on the specifics of the war. It is with that in mind that this paper seeks to give a succinct, yet inclusively representative, chronology of the events of the war—with major emphasis being laid on the causes and effects. Once these events are analyzed, a summative recapitulation will be given.

Preliminarily, it is worth noting that, just like many wars in history, the Spanish-American war was a culmination of any factors all coming together at one time. In this section of the paper, some of the major factors that contributed to the war are going to be divided into three broad areas:

• The Spanish world domination and the American need to overthrow them: This will entail the political, economic, social and cultural factors that pushed the two sides towards the war.
• The influence of the mass media and “Yellow Journalism”: Here, emphasis will be laid on the journalistic practices and stories that contributed to the war.
• The Cuban Connection: This will specifically focus on the Cuban interest by both America and Spain and how the need to control it led to the war.

The Spanish World Domination and the American Need to Overthrow Them

According to Lennon (2002), Spain was considered as the most powerful nation on earth around the mid-1600s. During this time, it controlled several colonies across the world especially in Central and South America, the Caribbean and some sections of Asia.

However, as time progressed, Spain lost some of its colonial territories majorly through civil wars and the struggle for independence. In spite of loosing these territories, Spain still managed to hold on to a few of its colonies like Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Islands and the Philippines in Asia.

Shifting our focus temporarily to USA during this time, Musicant, (1998) says that, having been a former colony of Britain; the United States was initially opposed to the issue of colonization as they deemed it as being immoral and unfair to the countries being colonized.

However, as the 20 th century approached and the dominance of countries like Spain continued to spread like a wildfire; some leaders in USA who ascribed to the notions of mercantilism began promoting ideas in favor of imperialism.

A key principle in Imperialism was ethnocentrism—which purported that some cultures and tribes were more superior to others thus necessitating the need for control of the weaker cultures (Lennon, 2002). It is on the basis of such ideologies that leaders like of Roosevelt and William Jennings Brian encouraged the people in USA to embrace the ideologies of colonialism.

Many other people also came up to provide moral justifications for engaging into colonization including the need to spread Christian and protestant ideas, viability for trade encouraged by linking up with other nations and the better culture that would result from blending with other cultures (Immerman, 2010).

Resultantly, the demand for the US acquiring her own territories grew exponentially and by the 1890s; America had acquired a fair share of colonial territories making it a vibrant and easily noticeable player in the game of world power dominance (Roosevelt, 1913/1967).

It is during this time (the 1890s) that the idea of colonizing nearby assets such as Cuba and Puerto Rico came into central focus. After a few futile attempts of peaceful negotiations for the colonization of these countries failed, it was eminently clear that the only way to colonize the likes of Cuba and Puerto Rico was through war or some form of battle (Loveman, 2010).

The influence of Mass Media and “Yellow Journalism”

In the 1890s, very few media organizations existed based on immense costs that were needed to run the outlets (Kaplan, 2003). In America, the domination of the media was by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer.

The competition between these two media bigwigs led to the birth of journalism whereby facts and ideas would be exaggerated or twisted to get public attention and increase the sale of newspapers (Lennon, 2002). This competition is what later came to be known as Yellow Journalism.

Owing to the increasing rivalry between America and Spain in their world dominance and colonization efforts; Hearst and Pulitzer chose to capitalize on the opportunity by exaggerating facts and events—obviously favoring the USA, which was their mother country.

For example, in the bid to make the Spanish look bad and unwilling to allow Cuba to gain their independence; Lennon (2002) reports that Hearst and his journalists produced fictitious and ridiculously salacious stories of how the Spaniards were oppressing the Cubans.

Soon, public interest in USA regarding the alleged suffering and oppression in Cuba began to grow with several people calling upon President McKinley (USA president at that time) to “do something” so as to change the situation and help the Cubans (DeGuzmán, 2005).

It is based on these reports that President McKinley sent American troops into Cuba—something which angered the Spanish and, after a series of other unfortunate events in Cuba which will be explained later, soon led to the war (Schoultz, 2009).

The Cuban Connection

In many ways, the Cuban connection was the major highlight and cause of the war. As was earlier mentioned under the contribution of Yellow Journalism towards the war, the public outcries in USA regarding the Spanish oppression in Cuba pushed the President McKinley towards taking an action—even though, personally, he was not a big proponent of the war (DeGuzmán, 2005).

In January 1898, President McKinley eventually found a reason for justifying his response to the public outcry regarding Cuba when reports by various media indicated that there were escalated riots by Anti-American “Volunatrios and Pro-Spanish people in Havana detesting against the USA saying that it (the US) was poking its nose where it does not belong (Herring, 2008).

It is also around this time that the Spanish Minister to US, Mr. Enrique Dupuy de Lôme is reported to have said that President McKinley was “weak and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd” (Lennon, 2002).

Not being able to stomach the criticisms anymore, President McKinley decided to send US warships to Cuba. A few weeks later, one of the US warships was sunk and, as earlier stated; the yellow journalists together with the US navy soon corroborated a story alleging that the US Maine disaster, which resulted in deaths of around 250 people, was an act of saboteur by the Spanish (Lennon, 2002).

On the other hand, the Cubans who were in dire need for independence had promised support to the USA, in case they decided to help them fight the common enemy—the Spanish. The culmination of these factors is reason why the war eventually erupted.

Before delving into the effects of the war, it is worth taking note of the following facts about the war. To begin with, the war reportedly began on 3 rd July 1898 with the battle of Santiago de Cuba, the fiercest of the naval battle between the Spanish and Americans. In this battle, the Spanish Caribbean fleet was destroyed courtesy of the American soldiers supported by the Cuban independence fighters thus resulting into the besieging of Santiago de Cuba, and, eventually the entire island (Lennon, 2002).

Moreover, Theodore Roosevelt, together with his Rough Riders, were very monumental in the war based on their dedicated attacks and assaults on San Juan Heights and San Juan Hill—two important hills close to the Santiago Harbor which was in great contention (Roosevelt, 1913/1967). Seeing that they were overpowered by the Americans, the Spanish tried to flee from the Santiago Harbor. However, the Americans captured them, sunk their ships and killed 323 people with only one American dying as a casualty (Lennon, 2002). This paved the way for retreat and surrender.

In finality, the Spanish-American war ended after 109 days with the signing of the “Treaty of Paris” being the major highlight. It is from this point where the treaty was signed that we are going to consider the consequences of the war.

Treaty of Paris and The Political Effects

Primarily, this treaty was signed on the December of 1898 (109 days after the war had began) between the US and Spain—with the Cubans, Puerto Ricans and Filipinos being sidelined from negotiations of the treaty.

So, even though the treaty mentioned Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Filipinos, it is clear that the treaty was mainly signed to benefit and satiate the interests of the Spanish and Americans (who were the war winners) while sidelining the losers and people who had apparently contributed greatly towards the starting and ending of the war (Musicant, 1998).

In the treaty, America’s possessions, in terms of colonial power, was increased as they were given control of Puerto Rico, and Guam while they sold the Philippines for $20 million (Lennon, 2002). Also, the treaty managed to free Cuba who, for long, had been fighting for their freedom. On the other hand, the US gave back the city of St. Augustine Florida to the Spanish.

It is worth mentioning that, unlike the treaties signed previously, the Treaty of Paris did not give the acquired territories a promise of rights for citizenship or statehood. In other words, the treaty considered the acquired territories like Puerto Rico of being unable to self-govern their own based on their inferior ranks going by the imperialistic characteristic of ethnocentrism (DeGuzmán, 2005).

Additionally, America’s name was added to the list of existing colonial empires—something which they had previously fought against and branded as demeaning during the days when they were subjects of Britain (Lennon, 2002). Other treaties, or rather legal amendments also saw their way into the extensions of this treaty.

For example, before the war, US congress (which chiefly constituted of Anti-imperialists) had passed the Teller Amendment committing to grant Cuba Independence. After the war and Cuba being awarded its freedom, the senate (mainly consisting of pro-imperialists) passed the Platt Amendment which forced a peace treaty on Cuba which forbade the Cubans them from getting into treaties with other nations.

According to Herring (2008), the Platt Amendment was considered to be a stab-in-the back move to the Cubans who had trusted the US and helped them during the war, only for US to go against their words after the war.

As a matter of fact, the Platt Amendment gave the US control of Cuba in terms of providing a permanent Navy base in Cuba and giving them freedom to stabilize Cuban Militarily as they wished. It is from such freedoms that later treaties were signed between US and Cuba thus paving way for the rise of imperialistic strongholds of US in Cuba like the famed Guantanamo Bay.

The Philippine-American War

The annexation of the Philippines, as a result of the Treaty of Paris, caused huge problems. In essence, the Filipino had allied with US during the Spanish-American war hoping that they, just like Cuba, would be able to gain their independence. Failing to accord them independence infuriated the Filipinos and made them feel betrayed. Consequently, on the 23 rd day of January 1899, the Filipinos forcefully proclaimed independence and elected Emilio Aguinaldo as their president.

Immediately, the US responded by sending its army to put down the fake Filipino government thus resulting in war and protests from the natives silently supported by Germans who had vested interests in Puerto Rico.

In spite of not having a strong military influence, the Filipinos dragged the US into a hot battle that lasted longer than the Anglo-Spanish war claiming close to 4000 American lives and immense destruction of properties being witnessed.

However, on 21 st March 1901, America finally managed to capture Aguinaldo, forced him to oath loyalty, take a pension from the US and retire peacefully while ensuring that no more revolts were witnessed from the Filipinos. This, eventually, led to the calming down of the Filipinos and thus the halt of the Philippine-American War.

Socio-Economic and Cultural Effects

The Spanish-American war has both positive and negative socio-economic and cultural effects. Starting with the negative side, Loveman (2010) asserts that the war expectedly resulted in the loss of properties, deaths of useful individuals in the society, and the loss of freedoms and political power—all which had a direct negative economic impact.

To this effect, Herring (2008) reports that the collapse of the Spanish empire—especially in losing Cuba—caused national trauma which, in effect, reduced their economic strength.

Still on the negative side, the war resulted in blood between some Spaniards and Americans, Filipinos and the US, Cubans and Spaniards, Germans and Americans (based on the Filipino contention) thus destroying the moral fabric of the relatively good cultural and social environment that previously existed (Musicant, 1998).

On the positive side, however, the war resulted in better economies by some nations, like the US who had new trade avenues in their colonized countries (Lennon, 2002). Cuba’s freedom also had a relative positive impact as the exit of the Spanish paved way for investments by their own people (Schoultz, 2009).

In Spain, modicum economic gains were witnessed from the investments made by Spaniards who came back from US and Cuba pumping money and business ideas into their home economy.

Socially and culturally, some good language patterns emerged. For example, the intermingling between the US and Puerto Rico led to a hybrid of people able to speak English and Spanish on top of their native languages.

Similarly, Filipinos were also able to speak German, Spanish and English on top of their native language (Immerman, 2010). Also, there was an improved interrelation between the Northern and Southern people who, prior to the war were not able to speak to one another (Lennon, 2002).

Other General Impacts of the War

• The birth of opinion-based and hyperbole journalism (Yellow Journalism)
• The shift in global power and recognition of the US as a superpower and the rise of a new generation of imperialist leaders in the USA like Theodore Roosevelt.
• Increased Involvement of Africans into the military based on their monumental impact during the war, for example, Booker T. Washington.

Increased involvement of political groups like the rough riders in national politics

In conclusion, the increase of imperialist leaders getting into the US government led to more expansionist ideas being circulated around the country thus creating the thirst for power consolidation rather than just focusing on progress.

Nonetheless, the lessons learnt from the war by all the involved parties served, and still serve, as a great reminder for the importance of dialogue, peaceful coexistence and good international relations amongst various nations and countries regardless of their different ethnicities.

This, probably, is the reason why, up to date, the politics of international relations still play an irreplaceably key role in the balance of social, political, cultural, technological and social aspects of our lives.

DeGuzmán, M., 2005. ‘Consolidating Anglo-American Identity around the Spanish-American War’, Ch.3 of Spain’s Long Shadow. The Black Legend, Off-Whiteness and Anglo-American Empire, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Herring, G. C., 2008. From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Immerman, R. H., 2010. Empire for liberty: a history of American imperialism from Benjamin Franklin to Paul Wolfowitz . New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Kaplan, R. L., 2003. American journalism goes to war, 1898–2001: a manifesto on media and empire. Media History, 9 (3).

Lennon, K., 2002. Causes and Impacts of the Spanish-American War , https://luceo.net/spanish-american-war/

Loveman, B., 2010. “The New Navy’, Ch.6 of No Higher Law. American foreign policy and the western hemisphere since 1776 , Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Musicant, I., 1998. ‘State of the Union’, Ch.1 of Empire by Default. the Spanish-American war and the dawn of the American century, New York: Henry Holt.

Roosevelt, T., 1913/1967. ‘An Autobiographical Defense’, Ch.11 of The writings of Theodore Roosevelt, New York: Bobbs-Merrill.

Schoultz, L., 2009. That Infernal little Cuban republic: the United States and the Cuban revolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

• Racial Profiling Towards Arabs in America
• The Red Record Rape Analysis
• Critical Issues in Philippine Relations
• Spanish American War: Causes and Consequences
• US International Affairs Between 1890 and 1920
• Roles of American policymakers in American history
• The History of Blacks in Higher Education
• Supercapitalism: The POST WAR: 50s and 60s
• North Carolina State History
• "From the Shadows" by Robert M. Gates
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, May 29). Principal Causes and Consequences of the Spanish-American War. https://ivypanda.com/essays/principal-causes-and-consequences-of-the-spanish-american-war/

"Principal Causes and Consequences of the Spanish-American War." IvyPanda , 29 May 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/principal-causes-and-consequences-of-the-spanish-american-war/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Principal Causes and Consequences of the Spanish-American War'. 29 May.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Principal Causes and Consequences of the Spanish-American War." May 29, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/principal-causes-and-consequences-of-the-spanish-american-war/.

1. IvyPanda . "Principal Causes and Consequences of the Spanish-American War." May 29, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/principal-causes-and-consequences-of-the-spanish-american-war/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Principal Causes and Consequences of the Spanish-American War." May 29, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/principal-causes-and-consequences-of-the-spanish-american-war/.

IvyPanda uses cookies and similar technologies to enhance your experience, enabling functionalities such as:

• Basic site functions
• Ensuring secure, safe transactions
• Secure account login
• Remembering account, browser, and regional preferences
• Remembering privacy and security settings
• Analyzing site traffic and usage
• Personalized search, content, and recommendations
• Displaying relevant, targeted ads on and off IvyPanda

Please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy for detailed information.

Certain technologies we use are essential for critical functions such as security and site integrity, account authentication, security and privacy preferences, internal site usage and maintenance data, and ensuring the site operates correctly for browsing and transactions.

Cookies and similar technologies are used to enhance your experience by:

• Remembering general and regional preferences
• Personalizing content, search, recommendations, and offers

Some functions, such as personalized recommendations, account preferences, or localization, may not work correctly without these technologies. For more details, please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy .

To enable personalized advertising (such as interest-based ads), we may share your data with our marketing and advertising partners using cookies and other technologies. These partners may have their own information collected about you. Turning off the personalized advertising setting won't stop you from seeing IvyPanda ads, but it may make the ads you see less relevant or more repetitive.

Personalized advertising may be considered a "sale" or "sharing" of the information under California and other state privacy laws, and you may have the right to opt out. Turning off personalized advertising allows you to exercise your right to opt out. Learn more in IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy .

22.2 The Spanish-American War and Overseas Empire

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain the origins and events of the Spanish-American War
• Analyze the different American opinions on empire at the conclusion of the Spanish-American War
• Describe how the Spanish-American War intersected with other American expansions to solidify the nation’s new position as an empire

The Spanish-American War was the first significant international military conflict for the United States since its war against Mexico in 1846; it came to represent a critical milestone in the country’s development as an empire. Ostensibly about the rights of Cuban rebels to fight for freedom from Spain, the war had, for the United States at least, a far greater importance in the country’s desire to expand its global reach.

The Spanish-American War was notable not only because the United States succeeded in seizing territory from another empire, but also because it caused the global community to recognize that the United States was a formidable military power. In what Secretary of State John Hay called “a splendid little war,” the United States significantly altered the balance of world power, just as the twentieth century began to unfold ( Figure 22.7 ).

THE CHALLENGE OF DECLARING WAR

Despite its name, the Spanish-American War had less to do with the foreign affairs between the United States and Spain than Spanish control over Cuba. Spain had dominated Central and South America since the late fifteenth century. But, by 1890, the only Spanish colonies that had not yet acquired their independence were Cuba and Puerto Rico. On several occasions prior to the war, Cuban independence fighters in the "Cuba Libre" movement had attempted unsuccessfully to end Spanish control of their lands. In 1895, a similar revolt for independence erupted in Cuba; again, Spanish forces under the command of General Valeriano Weyler repressed the insurrection. Particularly notorious was their policy of re-concentration in which Spanish troops forced rebels from the countryside into military-controlled camps in the cities, where many died from harsh conditions.

As with previous uprisings, Americans were largely sympathetic to the Cuban rebels’ cause, especially as the Spanish response was notably brutal. Evoking the same rhetoric of independence with which they fought the British during the American Revolution, several people quickly rallied to the Cuban fight for freedom. Shippers and other businessmen, particularly in the sugar industry, supported American intervention to safeguard their own interests in the region. Likewise, the “Cuba Libre” movement founded by José Martí , who quickly established offices in New York and Florida, further stirred American interest in the liberation cause. The difference in this uprising, however, was that supporters saw in the renewed U.S. Navy a force that could be a strong ally for Cuba. Additionally, the late 1890s saw the height of yellow journalism , in which newspapers such as the New York Journal , led by William Randolph Hearst, and the New York World , published by Joseph Pulitzer, competed for readership with sensationalistic stories. These publishers, and many others who printed news stories for maximum drama and effect, knew that war would provide sensational copy.

However, even as sensationalist news stories fanned the public’s desire to try out their new navy while supporting freedom, one key figure remained unmoved. President William McKinley, despite commanding a new, powerful navy, also recognized that the new fleet—and soldiers—were untested. Preparing for a reelection bid in 1900, McKinley was reluctant to start a war with Spain over Cuba. McKinley did publicly admonish Spain for its actions against the rebels, and urged Spain to find a peaceful solution in Cuba, but he remained resistant to public pressure for American military intervention.

McKinley’s reticence to involve the United States changed in February 1898. He had ordered one of the newest navy battleships, the USS Maine , to drop anchor off the coast of Cuba in order to observe the situation, and to prepare to evacuate American citizens from Cuba if necessary. Just days after it arrived, on February 15, an explosion destroyed the Maine , killing over 250 American sailors ( Figure 22.8 ). Immediately, yellow journalists jumped on the headline that the explosion was the result of a Spanish attack, and that all Americans should rally to war. The newspaper battle cry quickly emerged, “Remember the Maine!” Recent examinations of the evidence of that time have led many historians to conclude that the explosion was likely an accident due to the storage of gun powder close to the very hot boilers. But in 1898, without ready evidence, the newspapers called for a war that would sell papers, and the American public rallied behind the cry.

Click and Explore

Visit Office of the Historian to understand different perspectives on the role of yellow journalism in the Spanish-American War.

McKinley made one final effort to avoid war, when late in March, he called on Spain to end its policy of concentrating the native population in military camps in Cuba, and to formally declare Cuba’s independence. Spain refused, leaving McKinley little choice but to request a declaration of war from Congress. Congress received McKinley’s war message, and on April 19, 1898, they officially recognized Cuba’s independence and authorized McKinley to use military force to remove Spain from the island. Equally important, Congress passed the Teller Amendment to the resolution, which stated that the United States would not annex Cuba following the war, appeasing those who opposed expansionism.

WAR: BRIEF AND DECISIVE

The Spanish-American War lasted approximately ten weeks, and the outcome was clear: The United States triumphed in its goal of helping liberate Cuba from Spanish control. Despite the positive result, the conflict did present significant challenges to the United States military. Although the new navy was powerful, the ships were, as McKinley feared, largely untested. Similarly untested were the American soldiers. The country had fewer than thirty thousand soldiers and sailors, many of whom were unprepared to do battle with a formidable opponent. But volunteers sought to make up the difference. Over one million American men—many lacking a uniform and coming equipped with their own guns—quickly answered McKinley’s call for able-bodied men. Nearly ten thousand African American men also volunteered for service, despite the segregated conditions and additional hardships they faced, including violent uprisings at a few American bases before they departed for Cuba. The government, although grateful for the volunteer effort, was still unprepared to feed and supply such a force, and many suffered malnutrition and malaria for their sacrifice.

To the surprise of the Spanish forces who saw the conflict as a clear war over Cuba, American military strategists prepared for it as a war for empire. More so than simply the liberation of Cuba and the protection of American interests in the Caribbean, military strategists sought to further Mahan’s vision of additional naval bases in the Pacific Ocean, reaching as far as mainland Asia. Such a strategy would also benefit American industrialists who sought to expand their markets into China. Just before leaving his post for volunteer service as a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. cavalry, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt ordered navy ships to attack the Spanish fleet in the Philippines, another island chain under Spanish control. As a result, the first significant military confrontation took place not in Cuba but halfway around the world in the Philippines. Commodore George Dewey led the U.S. Navy in a decisive victory, sinking all of the Spanish ships while taking almost no American losses. By mid-August 1898, U.S. forces had captured Manilla and the remaining Spanish forces had surrendered.

The victory in Cuba took a little longer. In June, seventeen thousand American troops landed in Cuba. Although they initially met with little Spanish resistance, by early July, fierce battles ensued near the Spanish stronghold in Santiago. Most famously, Theodore Roosevelt led his Rough Riders , an all-volunteer cavalry unit made up of adventure-seeking college graduates, and veterans and cowboys from the Southwest, in a charge up Kettle Hill, next to San Juan Hill, which resulted in American forces surrounding Santiago. The victories of the Rough Riders are the best known part of the battles, but in fact, several African American regiments, made up of veteran soldiers, were instrumental to their success. The Spanish fleet made a last-ditch effort to escape to the sea but ran into an American naval blockade that resulted in total destruction, with every Spanish vessel sunk. Lacking any naval support, Spain quickly lost control of Puerto Rico as well, offering virtually no resistance to advancing American forces. By the end of July, the fighting had ended and the war was over. Despite its short duration and limited number of casualties—fewer than 350 soldiers died in combat, about 1,600 were wounded, while almost 3,000 men died from disease—the war carried enormous significance for Americans who celebrated the victory as a reconciliation between North and South.

Defining American

“smoked yankees”: black soldiers in the spanish-american war.

The most popular image of the Spanish-American War is of Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders, charging up San Juan Hill. But less well known is that the Rough Riders struggled mightily in several battles and would have sustained far more serious casualties, if not for the experienced Black veterans—over twenty-five hundred of them—who joined them in battle ( Figure 22.9 ). These soldiers, who had been fighting the Indian wars on the American frontier for many years, were instrumental in the U.S. victory in Cuba.

The choice to serve in the Spanish-American War was not a simple one. Within the Black community, many spoke out both for and against involvement in the war. Many Black Americans felt that because they were not offered the true rights of citizenship it was not their burden to volunteer for war. Others, in contrast, argued that participation in the war offered an opportunity for Black Americans to prove themselves to the rest of the country. While their presence was welcomed by the military which desperately needed experienced soldiers, the Black regiments suffered racism and harsh treatment while training in the southern states before shipping off to battle.

Once in Cuba, however, the “Smoked Yankees,” as the Cubans called the Black American soldiers, fought side-by-side with Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, providing crucial tactical support to some of the most important battles of the war. After the Battle of San Juan, five Black soldiers received the Medal of Honor and twenty-five others were awarded a certificate of merit. One reporter wrote that “if it had not been for the Negro cavalry, the Rough Riders would have been exterminated.” He went on to state that, having grown up in the South, he had never been fond of Black people before witnessing the battle. For some of the soldiers, their recognition made the sacrifice worthwhile. Others, however, struggled with American oppression of Cubans and Puerto Ricans, feeling kinship with the Black residents of these countries now under American rule.

ESTABLISHING PEACE AND CREATING AN EMPIRE

As the war closed, Spanish and American diplomats made arrangements for a peace conference in Paris. They met in October 1898, with the Spanish government committed to regaining control of the Philippines, which they felt were unjustly taken in a war that was solely about Cuban independence. While the Teller Amendment ensured freedom for Cuba, President McKinley was reluctant to relinquish the strategically useful prize of the Philippines. He certainly did not want to give the islands back to Spain, nor did he want another European power to step in to seize them. Neither the Spanish nor the Americans considered giving the islands their independence, since, with the pervasive racism and cultural stereotyping of the day, they believed the Filipino people were not capable of governing themselves. William Howard Taft, the first American governor-general to oversee the administration of the new U.S. possession, accurately captured American sentiments with his frequent reference to Filipinos as “our little brown brothers.”

As the peace negotiations unfolded, Spain agreed to recognize Cuba’s independence, as well as recognize American control of Puerto Rico and Guam. McKinley insisted that the United States maintain control over the Philippines as an annexation, in return for a $20 million payment to Spain. Although Spain was reluctant, they were in no position militarily to deny the American demand. The two sides finalized the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. With it came the international recognition that there was a new American empire that included the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. The American press quickly glorified the nation’s new reach, as expressed in the cartoon below, depicting the glory of the American eagle reaching from the Philippines to the Caribbean ( Figure 22.10 ).

Domestically, the country was neither unified in their support of the treaty nor in the idea of the United States building an empire at all. Many prominent Americans, including Jane Addams, former President Grover Cleveland, Andrew Carnegie, Mark Twain, and Samuel Gompers, felt strongly that the country should not be pursuing an empire, and, in 1898, they formed the Anti-Imperialist League to oppose this expansionism. The reasons for their opposition were varied: Some felt that empire building went against the principles of democracy and freedom upon which the country was founded, some worried about competition from foreign workers, and some held the xenophobic viewpoint that the assimilation of other races would hurt the country. Regardless of their reasons, the group, taken together, presented a formidable challenge. As foreign treaties require a two-thirds majority in the U.S. Senate to pass, the Anti-Imperialist League’s pressure led them to a clear split, with the possibility of defeat of the treaty seeming imminent. Less than a week before the scheduled vote, however, news of a Filipino uprising against American forces reached the United States. Undecided senators were convinced of the need to maintain an American presence in the region and preempt the intervention of another European power, and the Senate formally ratified the treaty on February 6, 1899.

The newly formed American empire was not immediately secure, as Filipino rebels, led by Emilio Aguinaldo ( Figure 22.11 ), fought back against American forces stationed there. The Filipinos’ war for independence lasted three years, with over four thousand American and twenty thousand Filipino combatant deaths; the civilian death toll is estimated as high as 250,000. Finally, in 1901, President McKinley appointed William Howard Taft as the civil governor of the Philippines in an effort to disengage the American military from direct confrontations with the Filipino people. Under Taft’s leadership, Americans built a new transportation infrastructure, hospitals, and schools, hoping to win over the local population. The rebels quickly lost influence, and Aguinaldo was captured by American forces and forced to swear allegiance to the United States. The Taft Commission, as it became known, continued to introduce reforms to modernize and improve daily life for the country despite pockets of resistance that continued to fight through the spring of 1902. Much of the commission’s rule centered on legislative reforms to local government structure and national agencies, with the commission offering appointments to resistance leaders in exchange for their support. The Philippines continued under American rule until they became self-governing in 1946.

After the conclusion of the Spanish-American War and the successful passage of the peace treaty with Spain, the United States continued to acquire other territories. Seeking an expanded international presence, as well as control of maritime routes and naval stations, the United States grew to include Hawaii, which was granted territorial status in 1900, and Alaska, which, although purchased from Russia decades earlier, only became a recognized territory in 1912. In both cases, their status as territories granted U.S. citizenship to their residents. The Foraker Act of 1900 established Puerto Rico as an American territory with its own civil government. It was not until 1917 that Puerto Ricans were granted American citizenship. Guam and Samoa, which had been under United States control since the late nineteenth century, remained under the control of the U.S. Navy. Cuba, which after the war was technically a free country, adopted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution. While the Teller Amendment had prohibited the United States from annexing the country, a subsequent amendment, the Platt Amendment, secured the right of the United States to interfere in Cuban affairs if threats to a stable government emerged. The Platt Amendment also guaranteed the United States its own naval and coaling station on the island’s southern Guantanamo Bay and prohibited Cuba from making treaties with other countries that might eventually threaten their independence. While Cuba remained an independent nation on paper, in all practicality the United States governed Cuba’s foreign policy and economic agreements.

Explore the resources at U.S. History Scene to better understand the long and involved history of Hawaii with respect to its intersection with the United States.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/us-history/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: P. Scott Corbett, Volker Janssen, John M. Lund, Todd Pfannestiel, Sylvie Waskiewicz, Paul Vickery
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: U.S. History
• Publication date: Dec 30, 2014
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/us-history/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/us-history/pages/22-2-the-spanish-american-war-and-overseas-empire

© Jul 18, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Where did the Spanish-American War take place?
• How did the Spanish-American War end?

What were the causes of the Spanish-American War?

The immediate cause of the Spanish-American War was Cuba's struggle for independence from Spain. Newspapers in the U.S. printed sensationalized accounts of Spanish atrocities, fueling humanitarian concerns. The mysterious destruction of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana’s harbour on February 15, 1898, led to a declaration of war against Spain two months later.

Related Questions

The Spanish American War (1898)

April 21, 1898–August 12, 1898

The Spanish American War was fought between the United States and Spain. The U.S. won the short war, which took place primarily in Cuba. The outcome signaled the emergence of the United States as a global power and the end of Spain’s empire in the Americas.

This 1898 print by Louis Dalrymple is called “Uncle Sam’s Picnic.” It depicts Uncle Sam helping four girls labeled Philippines, Ladrones, Porto Rico, and Cuba. On the old man’s hat are the words, “Monroe Doctrine.” Image Source: Library of Congress .

Spanish American War Summary

The Spanish-American War (April–August 1898) was fought between the United States and Spain, primarily on the island of Cuba. American forces were able to capture the port city of Santiago, defeating Spanish land and sea forces. In the aftermath of the victory, Spain ceded Guan, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the U.S., and Cuba became an independent nation. The outcome of the war signaled the emergence of the United States as a global power, the end of Spain’s empire in the Americas, and the rise to prominence of Theodore Roosevelt who became the 26th President of the United States in 1901 . 

Spanish American War Facts

• President: William McKinley was President of the United States during the Spanish American War.
• Belligerents: The United States of America and Cuban Insurgents fought against Spain during the war.
• Start Date: The Spanish American War started on April 21, 1898, when the U.S. Navy blockaded Cuba and Spain severed diplomatic ties with the U.S.
• End Date: Fighting ended on August 12, 1898.
• Duration: The war lasted for about 4 months.
• Location: Major battles were fought in the Philippines and Cuba.
• Who Won: The United States won the Spanish American War.
• Outcome: Cuba gained independence and the U.S. gained Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
• Slogan: The popular slogan was “Remember the Maine!,” which was used as a rallying cry for Americans following the destruction of the USS Maine on February 15, 1898.
• Fun Fact: Former Confederates, including Joseph Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee , served with U.S. forces during the war.

Spanish American War Dates

Important dates in the Spanish American War.

• April 25, 1898 — President William McKinley signed the Declaration of War.
• May 1, 1898 — The Battle of Manila Bay takes place in the Philippines. The U.S. Navy defeated the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.
• June 22, 1898 — U.S. ground forces landed at Daiquiri.
• July 1, 1898 — U.S. forces won the Battle of El Caney and the Battle of San Juan Heights.
• July 3, 1898 — The U.S. Navy defeated the Spanish Navy at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba.
• July 17, 1898 — Spanish forces in Cuba surrendered.
• August 12, 1898 — U.S. and Spanish officials signed the Protocol of Peace, ending hostilities in the Spanish American War.
• December 10, 1898 — The two nations signed the Treaty of Paris.
• February 6, 1899 — The U.S. Senate ratified the 1898 Treaty of Paris.

The Shrinking Spanish Empire

By 1895, Spain’s empire had been reduced to Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, some Pacific islands, and African territories. 

Cubans revolted in 1895, which was viewed in the United States as a struggle for freedom from a corrupt monarchy — reminiscent of the American Revolutionary War. Americans also had economic interests in Cuba and wanted to help protect them. In an effort to aid the Cuban revolutionaries, some Americans smuggled weapons to the island.

Spain’s methods were harsh and destructive in dealing with the Cubans, which endangered American investments in railroads and sugar plantations. Cuban markets were also vital to America, as businesses looked to expand into markets in Latin America, South America, and the Pacific. In order to aid that expansion, the United States envisioned a canal in Central America that would help ports along the East Coast to access markets in East Asia.

The Monroe Doctrine and the Spanish American War

The Monroe Doctrine was established by President James Monroe in 1823. Monroe warned European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. The purpose of the Doctrine was to prevent European colonization and the establishment of puppet regimes in the Americas. 

Although the Doctrine was not well-enforced early on, it became a basic tenet of American foreign policy. Over time, the principles of the Doctrine were invoked in various disputes with European powers and interventions in Latin America in the 19th century, especially in Cuba.

By 1898, several incidents took place that caused the U.S. and Spain to be on the brink of war.

Causes of the Spanish American War

The causes of the Spanish American War included:

• The Virginius Affair (1873)
• The De Lôme Letter (1898)
• Destruction of the USS Maine (1898)
• Yellow Journalism (1895–1901)

The Virginius Affair

In 1873 the United States was nearly pulled into the Cuban Revolution due to the Virginius Affair. 

The Virginius was a former Confederate blockade runner, owned by Cubans, that was used to smuggle guns, ammunition, and men to the Cuban insurrectionists. These rebels had been in conflict with the Spanish government since 1868. 

On October 31, 1873, the Virginius, which was illegally flying the American flag was spotted near the coast of Cuba by the Spanish warship Tornado . Ironically, the Tornado was also a former Confederate blockade runner. A pursuit ensued, and the Virginius was chased within six miles of Jamaica before being captured and towed to Santiago, Cuba by the Tornado .

General Juan Burriel, the Governor of Santiago, convened a court-martial that promptly convicted the crew of the Virginius of piracy. The court responded by sentencing the crew and passengers to death. On November 4, four of the crewmen were executed, which was celebrated by Spaniards living on the island. 

When Spanish government officials in Madrid were informed of the situation. President Emilio Castelar ordered an immediate halt to the executions, pending a government review. Unfortunately, a disruption in the telegraph lines prevented his instructions from reaching Santiago. As a result, a total of 53 men, including 8 American citizens were executed. 

The executions ended when the British warship Niobe arrived. Although there were questions regarding the right of the Virginius to fly the American flag, Americans were outraged by the executions.

Secretary of State Hamilton Fish instructed the American minister to Spain to demand the return of the ship, the release of the remaining crew and passengers, financial compensation, and punishment for General Burriel. Fish made it clear that if the demands were not met, the American minister was to sever diplomatic relations with Spain and return to the United States, which could lead to war between the two nations.

The Spanish government responded by asking for negotiations, which took place in Washington, D.C. The Spanish ambassador, Admiral Don José Polo met with Fish and the two negotiated an agreement that was acceptable to both nations. Spain agreed to adhere to international law, return the Virgnius , return the surviving crew and passengers, and pay $80,000. Burriel remained in power but died soon after.

De Lôme Letter

In December 1897, Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish minister to the United States, composed a letter to an acquaintance in Cuba, which was critical of U.S. President William McKinley.

De Lôme accused the President of being “weak and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd,” portraying him as a political opportunist who tried to please both sides while aligning with the more aggressive factions within his party. The letter was stolen from the Havana post office and published in the New York Journal by William Randolph Hearst on February 9, 1898, with a headline that read, “WORST INSULT TO THE UNITED STATES IN ITS HISTORY.”

The relationship between the United States and Spain was already strained due to Spain’s handling of affairs in Cuba and the ongoing military support from Americans to Cuban revolutionaries.

Americans were outraged by the letter, but McKinley decided to ignore the letter, refusing to dignify it with a response. De Lôme, realizing his mistake, offered his resignation on February 10.

Despite de Lôme’s resignation, Congress was not easily appeased, and there was talk of officially recognizing the Cuban rebels and even declaring war against Spain. The American press also called for McKinley and Congress to take action against Spain 

In order to appease the U.S., Spain issued a formal apology on November 14.

Remember the Maine

Just before the uproar over the de Lôme Letter, the U.S. battleship Maine arrived in Cuba at 11:00 a.m. on January 25, 1898. 

American battleships had avoided visiting Maine since 1895 due to Spain’s ongoing conflict with the Cuban rebels. However, as American sympathy for the Cuban rebels grew, so did anti-American sentiments among Spanish loyalists in Havana. 

A riot took place in Havana on January 12, 1898, prompting the American consul, Fitzhugh Lee, to send a telegraph that warned “ships may be necessary later but not now.” McKinley ordered the Maine to Havana on January 24, under the command of Captain Charles D. Sigsbee.

Upon arrival, Sigsbee was treated cordially by Spanish officials, but he refused to allow his crewmen to go ashore, fearing their presence could lead to violence. Security on the ship was tight. The ship’s watch was expanded, and sentries were armed. Both boilers were kept operational, which deviated from the usual practice of running only one, in case the ship needed to be swiftly mobilized. Shells were also positioned in proximity to all of the Maine’s guns.

At 9:40 on the evening of February 15, a massive explosion rocked the Maine , causing it to sink to the depths of Havana harbor. The explosion obliterated the entire forward section of the ship, resulting in the loss of 260 lives from a crew of 355.

A commission was formed to investigate the incident. On March 20, it was determined an underwater mine was responsible for the explosion, but the commission was unable to determine who placed the mine. American newspapers blamed the explosion on Spain and called for war. 

In an attempt to resolve the issue, Spain offered to submit the matter to arbitration, aiming to settle the cost of the damage. They even agreed to an armistice for the ongoing conflict with the Cuban rebels, to be determined by the judgment of the commanding general in Cuba. 

Although President McKinley, a veteran of the Civil War, hoped for a peaceful resolution to the incident, public sentiment leaned toward war. The media also published stories of atrocities committed by Spain in Cuba — both real and sensationalized — which increased public support for the Cuban rebels.

On April 11, 1898, President McKinley asked Congress to declare war on Spain, for the purpose of ending the fighting in Cuba, establishing a stable government, and maintaining order for citizens of the U.S. and Cuba.

Congress deliberated for a week before reaching an agreement on April 19 through a joint resolution. President McKinley signed it on April 25, officially starting the Spanish American War.

Yellow Journalism

Yellow Journalism was a style of reporting that emphasized sensationalism over facts. Newspaper publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer used the tactic to influence the public into favoring war in Cuba and the Philippines, along with the acquisition of overseas territories.

Overview of the Spanish American War

The most significant fighting of the Spanish-American War took place in the Philippines and Cuba. The most famous battle of the war is the Battle of San Juan Heights, which is also known as the Battle of San Juan Hill and the Battle of Kettle Hill. It was during that battle that Theodore Roosevelt, the former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and future President, helped lead American forces in a bold uphill charge to attack Spanish defenses.

Spanish American War in the Philippines — the Battle of Manila Bay

Shortly after war was declared, Commodore George Dewey led the American Asiatic Squadron to the Philippines. Dewey’s mission was to prevent a deteriorating Spanish fleet from making a lengthy journey to reinforce Spanish naval forces in Cuba.

On the morning of May 1, just off Cavite in Manila Bay, the American fleet engaged the Spanish fleet. The Americans won the battle and forced the surrender of Spanish ground forces and artillery batteries on the shore.

While Dewey awaited the arrival of troops, the Filipinos revolted against the Spanish government, seeking their independence. They coordinated with the American army when it arrived to lay siege to Manila. Spanish officials surrendered Manila to American forces on August 14, 1898, pushing the Filipino rebels to the side.

When the Filipino rebels realized the U.S. intended to retain control of the Philippines and annex it as a territory they revolted against the Americans, starting the Philippine-American War.

Spanish American War in Cuba

At first, Havana was the main target for American forces. However, on May 19, 1898, Spanish Rea Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete evaded American warships and went to Santiago Harbor. 

American officials decided to shift their focus to capturing Santiago and destroying the Spanish warships there. 

Rear Admiral William T. Sampson set up a naval blockade but hesitated to enter the harbor due to Spanish mines and coastal defenses. 

Instead, he awaited U.S. ground forces, hoping they could capture Santiago and engage the Spanish ships from the land, either destroying Cervera’s squadron or forcing it to leave.

Ultimately, the U.S. strategy for Cuba included the naval blockade of the island to disrupt Spanish supply lines while the army launched a ground assault on the port of Santiago de Cuba.

Engagements at Cienfuegos — April 29 and May 11

U.S. ships under the command of Commodore Bowman H. McCalla were deployed to enforce the blockade at Cienfuegos, Cuba. He was also tasked with cutting the communication cables at Cienfuegos that linked Cuba to Spain.

On the morning of April 29, 1898, McCalla, commanding the Marblehead , arrived off Cienfuegos along with the gunboats Nashville and Eagle to enforce the blockade and a short battle ensued: 

• The Nashville intercepted and captured the Argonauto , which was carrying mail, military supplies, and some Spanish troops.
• The Galicia , accompanied by two small gunboats and protected by batteries on the shore, engaged in a firefight with the Eagle . 
• When the Marblehead arrived, the Galicia retreated further into the harbor, ending the brief naval battle.

On May 11, 1898, McCalla returned for the cable-cutting operation, this time with additional support from the ships Windom and Saturn .

The Nashville and the Marblehead moved close to the shore to provide protective fire. A group of around 50 men, led by Lieutenant Cameron M. Winslow, loaded onto boats and sailed to shore.

The ships bombarded the shore while Winslow and his men located two large cables and one small cable. They managed to cut the two large cables. However, they were under heavy fire from Spanish forces and were unable to completely sever the third cable. The third cable was the communication line between Cuba and Jamaica and remained in operation throughout the course of the short war.

Battle of Guantánamo Bay — June 9–17

Guantánamo is on the southeast coast, 45 miles east of Santiago. At the start of the war, there was a garrison of nearly 6,000 Spanish troops at Guantánamo, under the command of General Félix Pareja Mesa. The Spaniards expected the Americans to attempt a landing at Guantánamo, so Mesa had his men build extensive defensive works around the town.

On May 28, Secretary of the Navy John Davis Long decided to send an expedition to take control of Guantánamo. He wanted to control Guantánamo for several reasons:

• A Spanish fleet under the command of Rear Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete was at Santiago.
• He wanted to have a safe harbor that would protect U.S. ships from hurricanes.
• He wanted a port that had access to coal for U.S. ships.

Long instructed Commodore Winfield Scott Schley to take control of Guantánamo, and American forces were deployed and moved into position, taking action on June 7:

• The 1st Marine Battalion departed from Key West, Florida, bound for Guantánamo. 
• The Marblehead and Yankee , led by Commander McCalla, entered Guantánamo Bay on June 7. They forced the Spanish to evacuate fortifications at the bay’s entrance, pushing the Sandoval further into the bay, and disembarked a small group of marines. The Marines successfully destroyed the cable station before returning to their ships.

On June 9, McCalla returned to Guantánamo in preparation for the arrival of the 1st Marine Battalion. The following day, his ships bombarded Spanish positions guarding the harbor. 

Soon after, Lieutenant Colonel Robert W. Huntington and the 1st Marine Battalion landed on the east side of the outer harbor, accompanied by the battleship Oregon . The Marines established Camp McCalla.

The battle started on June 11 when the Spanish fired upon the camp. On June 12, the Americans were joined by roughly 60 Cuban insurgents. 

A smaller battle took place at Cuzco Hill on June 14. American forces, assisted by U.S. naval gunfire, forced the Spanish to retreat from the eastern coast of the lower bay on June 15. 

Following Cuzco Hill, Lieutenant Colonel Robert W. Huntington sent an expedition that included Americans and Cuban insurgents to attack a well that supplied Spanish troops with water. With support from the Dolphin , Huntington’s men successfully destroyed the well and captured around 20 Spanish soldiers.

On June 15, Rear Admiral William T. Sampson ordered the Texas , Marblehead, and Suwanee to bombard Spanish positions along the shore and eliminate a small fort. The fort was destroyed in about 30 minutes. The ships also cleared a minefield that had been laid by the Sandoval .

The main hostilities ended on June 17. General Mesa, concerned about a potential U.S. land offensive from Guantánamo Bay, proceeded to reinforce the interior defenses of the island.

Guantánamo Bay became a crucial base for fuelling and resupply activities and played an important role as a launching point for the invasion of Puerto Rico. 

Major General Nelson A. Miles departed from Guantánamo Bay for Puerto Rico on July 21. On July 25, Guantánamo officially surrendered. The Marines occupied Guantánamo until August 5.

• The Battle of Guantánamo Bay was documented by journalist Stephen Crane for McClure’s Magazine .
• The Battle of Guantánamo Bay was the first significant land battle of the war. 

Landing at Daiquiri — June 22

The first U.S. ground troops landed in Cuba at Daiquirí, a village on the southeast coast, 16 miles east of Santiago, on June 22.

Major General William R. Shafter, commander of the 5th Corps, intended to land his expedition at Daiquiri, march seven miles to Siboney, and then head northwest toward El Caney and Santiago. 

At 9:40 a.m. on June 22, five American battleships, under the command of Captain Caspar F. Goodrich, started to bombard Spanish defenses. However, the Spanish had evacuated and there was no return fire.

30 minutes later, the division of Brigadier General Henry W. Lawton started their landing. By nightfall, there were 6,000 American troops on the beach. 

However, many of the captains of the transport ships refused to pull closer than a half mile to the beach, believing the beach was still defended and the Spanish were waiting to launch an attack. The troops were forced to wade to shore, which led to the loss of equipment and supplies. 

The Americans also discovered the Spanish had destroyed the railroad to Santiago, meaning they would have to move the entire expedition over a road that ran along the coast. Shafter instructed Lawton to advance along this road and seize Siboney. 

Unfortunately, by the time Lawton’s division left the beachhead, it was too late to make the trip to Siboney. That night, the troops set up camp on the road. They expected a Spanish counterattack, but it did not happen.

The next morning, Lawton’s division advanced to Siboney, which was also deserted. General Shafter promptly designated Sibony as the primary headquarters for the assault on the city.

Battle of Las Guásimas — June 24

Las Guásimas, approximately three miles from Siboney, sat at the intersection of a narrow footpath and the El Camino Real Road leading to Santiago. Las Guásimas had been deserted by its inhabitants by June 1898, but it had an elevated ridge that provided the Spanish with a strong defensive position.

The 5th Corps started its primary march towards Santiago, departing from the Daiquirí landing site. Simultaneously, on the same day, General Lawton’s division started its advance toward Siboney with instructions to stop any potential Spanish assault along El Camino Real Road.

Lawton found Siboney abandoned and informed Shafter, who responded with an order for the Americans to proceed to Santiago. However, Shafter addressed the orders to the senior office on-site, instead of directly to Lawton.

The senior officer in Lawton’s force was Major General Joseph Wheeler, a former Confederate who had been appointed by President McKinley to lead the only cavalry division in the expedition. The orders were delivered to Wheeler, while Lawton was reporting to Shafter.

Wheeler was eager to engage the Spanish and was happy to take advantage of the fact the orders were addressed to the senior officer. He decided to take a small contingent that included U.S. troops and Cuban insurgents and move toward the Spanish forces that were on the ridge at Las Guásimas, under the command of Brigadier General Antero Rubín Homet.

Frustrated, Lawton tried to communicate with Shafter and stop Wheeler’s attack, but he was unable to and Wheeler moved out on the 24th. As Wheeler moved toward Las Guásimas, Homet received an order from General Arsenio Linares, the Spanish commander in Santiago, to withdraw to Santiago.

Wheeler might have known about the Spanish withdrawal, likely obtained through intelligence provided by Cuban revolutionaries under the command of General Demetrio Castillo. Wheeler’s force included the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, famously known as the Rough Riders.

American forces arrived at Las Guásimas and artillery batteries opened fire but were quickly silenced by heavy fire from the Spanish, forcing the attack to proceed without artillery support. 

Brigadier General Samuel B. M. Young divided his brigade into two columns, with the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry Regiments under his direct command on the right flank, and the Rough Riders, led by Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, on the left.

Wood ordered Roosevelt to execute a flanking maneuver behind the Spanish defenses. Supported by covering fire from Young’s brigade, the Rough Riders moved forward. Roosevelt led from the left, Wood assumed command in the center, and Wheeler commanded the right. In the midst of the intense battle, Wheeler is said to have shouted, “Advance — our adversaries appear to be in retreat.”

After two hours of fighting, General Rubín decided to follow his instructions and ordered his men to withdraw to Santiago, allowing the Americans to occupy the town and heights. Although it was a victory for the Americans, it did slow the advance toward Santiago.

Naval Blockade

While American and Cuban forces pushed across the island to Santiago, the navy trapped the Spanish fleet in Santiago Bay, while the army crossed through the dense jungle terrain from the coast to San Juan Heights, overlooking the city of Santiago.

American Forces Advance on Santiago

Following the victory at Las Guásimas, General Shafter intended to capture Santiago by taking control of the high ground east of the city, specifically San Juan Heights, which included San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill.

On July 1, American forces attacked Spanish forces at El Caney and San Juan Hill. The American forces included Cuban allies, regiments from the Buffalo Soldiers, and Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders. First Lieutenant John J. Pershing led the 10th Cavalry Unit.

Battle of El Caney — July 1

General Henry W. Lawton led the 5th US Division, comprised of nearly 7,000 men, in an attack on 600 Spanish troops at El Caney. 

At El Caney, the Spanish had constructed six blockhouses made of earth and wood to the north and west of the village. To the southeast, on a hill, stood the old stone Spanish fort, El Viso, which had a commanding view of the entire area. Brigadier General Joaquín Vara del Rey y Rubio led 520 troops defending El Caney.

Before dawn on July 1, Lawton’s division positioned itself for the attack, with the expectation that once El Caney was secured, they would then join the main American offensive on San Juan Heights, located six miles to the southwest.

The battle started when artillery batteries under the command of Captain Allyn Capron opened fire on the Spanish. However, the bombardment had little impact on the Spanish defenses. Meanwhile, Lawton’s three brigades formed the American Line and prepared to attack: 

• Brigadier General William Ludlow and his brigade held the left flank.
• Brigadier General Adna R. Chaffee and his brigade were in the center.
• Colonel Evan Miles commanded the brigade on the right. 

Unfortunately, there was confusion along the line, and none of them were prepared to move forward at the scheduled time, leading to a disorganized, uncoordinated advance. The American advance stalled about a half mile from the Spanish line.

Around noon, the fighting started to subside. After Lawton called up reinforcements from the brigade of Brigadier General John C. Bates, the Americans resumed the attack. 

Although General Rubio was killed in the attack, the Spanish forces continued to fight and maintain their positions. Lawton responded by ordering artillery to fire on the El Viso, which allowed the Americans to breach the walls and overwhelm the garrison.

When the Spanish ran out of ammunition, they were forced to retreat to Santiago. Around 8:00 that night, Lawton moved out and marched toward Santiago.

San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill — July 1

To protect Santiago, General Arsenio Linares, the Spanish commander, created a defensive line. The most formidable part of this line was positioned on San Juan Heights. Approximately 500 troops, backed by two artillery pieces, were positioned between Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill, which were about 400 yards apart.

At San Juan Heights, Shafter’s strategy called for:

• Brigadier General Jacob Ford Kent and his division to attack San Juan Hill
• Major General Joseph Wheeler and his cavalry division to attack Kettle Hill. When Wheeler fell ill, Brigadier General Samuel S. Sumner replaced him.

The original plan called for Lawton to quickly capture El Caney, in two hours or less, and then join the assault on San Juan Heights. Kent and Sumner took their positions at El Pozo and waited for Lawton. While waiting, they received heavy fire from Spanish forces on the heights.

The Americans attacked San Juan Hill first, starting at 8:00 a.m. with an artillery bombardment from batteries under the command of Captain George Grimes. However, the bombardment was ineffective and was forced to stop due to heavy fire from Spanish batteries.

At 9:00, three brigades of Kent’s troops moved forward, under the command of Brigadier General Hamilton S. Hawkins, Colonel E. P. Pearson, and Colonel Charles A. Wikoff. The remaining units moved into position.

The Spanish batteries continued to fire on the Americans, even as they advanced. Some of the Americans panicked and fled due to the intense fire, which was partially directed by an observation balloon hovering over the battlefield. The well-coordinated Spanish defenses led to a delay in orders to attack San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill.

By 1:00, the officers were tired of waiting and ordered their men to advance on both hills, under a heavy covering fire that was provided by a battery of Gatling Guns commanded by Lieutenant John D. Parker.

As the American forces advanced, they were exposed to heavy Spanish rifle fire in an area known as “Hell’s Pocket,” with little cover except for the tall jungle grass. The Americans split into two groups and rushed up both hills.

Theodore Roosevelt, riding his horse, led the way as his Rough Riders and the Buffalo Soldiers charged up Kettle Hill and assaulted the Spanish line. The Spanish fled from the hill and took refuge in blockhouses, which were also captured by the Americans. 

With the hill under their control, the Americans on Kettle Hill joined the Gatling guns in firing at the Spanish positions on San Juan Hill. By the time the Americans reached the top of the hill, the Spanish forces were retreating. The Americans dug in and established defensive positions, anticipating a Spanish counterattack.

Battle of Santiago de Cuba — July 3

Realizing U.S. forces were on the verge of capturing Santiago, the Spanish fleet tried to break out of the harbor on July 3. Led by Admiral Pascual Cervera’s flagship, the Infanta Maria Theresa , the fleet moved out of the harbor. The American fleet attacked and destroyed the Spanish fleet. The battle lasted for four hours and all six Spanish ships were either lost or scuttled.

Capitulation of Santiago — July 16–17

Cuba’s Governor, General Ramón Blanco y Erenas agreed to terms of surrender on July 16, and it went into effect on July 17. The provisions of the capitulation surrendered the garrison at Santiago to the U.S., along with Guantánamo and six more military outposts in eastern Cuba.

American Forces Withdraw

In the aftermath of the capitulation, more than 1,600 Spanish troops were taken captive and held at Camp Long. They stayed there until mid-September. According to most accounts, they were treated well by the Americans before they were returned to Spain.

Soon after, Yellow Fever spread through the American ranks, rendering an estimated 75% of the men unfit for service.

American troops started leaving Cuba on August 7. Some of the Buffalo Soldiers remained on the island to provide support for the Cuban insurgents.

Hostilities officially ended on August 12.

Fitzhugh Lee, the former Confederate General, was part of the occupation force that remained in Cuba, and he served as the military Governor of Havana and Pinar del Río until April 1899.

The Spanish American War Ends with the 1898 Treaty of Paris

Spain sued for peace, and negotiations led to an agreement that was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898. The treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate on February 6, 1899.

In the agreement, Spain ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. Prior to the war, Congress had agreed to the Teller Amendment, which prohibited the U.S. from annexing Cuba. As a result, Cuba was granted its independence, however, the U.S. continued to be involved in the formation of the government and the subsequent Platt Amendment authorized the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs.

Spanish American War Significance

The Spanish American War is important to United States history for the role it played in helping the United States free Cuba and other territories from Spain. This is despite criticism from William Jennings Bryan and Mark Twain, who opposed the war and the acquisition of overseas territories, which was viewed as American imperialism and an expansion of Manifest Destiny . The war helped Theodore Roosevelt rise to prominence, and the performance of the Buffalos Soldiers proved they were as capable as their white counterparts.

Spanish American War APUSH

Use the following links and videos to study the Spanish American War, Theodore Roosevelt, and the Monroe Doctrine for the AP US History Exam. Also, be sure to look at our Guide to the AP US History Exam .

Spanish American War Definition APUSH

The Spanish American War for APUSH is defined as a conflict fought between Spain and the United States in 1898. The war was sparked by the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor and the desire of the U.S. to expand its influence in the Caribbean and Pacific. The U.S. quickly defeated Spain and as a result, Spain lost control of Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.

Spanish American War Video for APUSH Notes

This video from Heimler’s History covers the Spanish American War, which is part of APUSH Unit 7.

• Written by Randal Rust

• How to Use FamilySearch
• What's New at FamilySearch
• Temple and Family History
• Easy Activities
• Why Family History Matters
• Genealogy Records
• Research Tips
• Websites, Apps, and Tools
• RootsTech Blog
• Preserve Photos and Documents
• Record Your Story

Spanish–American War Causes and Effects

Colonization has been on the forefront of many nations’ minds throughout history. The idea of imperialism and expansion has led many countries to overthrow other countries or territories, sometimes across vast distances. Such was the case of Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. All had been under Spain’s rule since the 1500s .

On several occasions over the next nearly 400 years, citizens of these places challenged attempts of foreign occupations in hopes of securing their independence. In February 1895, Cuba began fighting for their independence from Spain for the last time. Just when it seemed they would not be able to remove themselves from Spanish rule, the United States became involved, and the Spanish–American War ensued. Let’s take a look at what else contributed to the Spanish–American War and what resulted because of it.

What Were the Causes of the Spanish–American War?

The causes of the Spanish–American War were many, but the main reasons are these:

• Cuba's struggle for independence from Spain caused the United States to feel uneasy about the political instability of an island so close in proximity to the U.S. mainland. Therefore, the U.S. supported Cuban independence. 
• A letter from the Spanish Foreign Minister, Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, was printed in the  New York Times  in which he criticized U.S. president William McKinley. 
• An explosion caused the sinking of the  USS Maine  in Havana, which killed most of its crew. 

Many agree that the main causes of the Spanish–American War was Cuba's struggle for independence and the sinking of the USS Maine on 15 February 1898. An explosion, then thought to be caused by a mine, killed over 260 of the 354 American crew members . Though there was no formal accusation, many Americans felt the Spanish were to blame. The United States officially declared war on Spain on 21 April 1898 .

What Were the Main Battles during the Spanish–American War?

Fighting first began in the Philippine Islands on 1 May 1898. Commodore George Dewey sailed into Manila Bay and destroyed the Spanish fleet. He was unable to capture Manila due to low manpower and waited on the 15,000 troops that arrived in late July to secure the Philippine capital city. The U.S. had hoped to secure the Philippines as part of their westward expansion and because they were officially at war with Spain.

In June, the U.S. marines captured Guantanamo Bay in Cuba, and by July the U.S. planned to take Santiago de Cuba. Reports of Spanish reinforcements were coming in, and Major General William Shafter ordered 3 hilltop assaults that were part of the city’s outer defenses. This battle was later known as the Battle of San Juan Hill . Here, Theodore Roosevelt and his “Rough Riders,” along with soldiers of the 9th and 10th Cavalry, were the first to breech Kettle Hill. San Juan Hill was taken soon after, and the U.S. had control of Santiago de Cuba.

On 25 July 1898, American troops arrived at Guanica Harbor in Puerto Rico. At 11 o'clock on 26 July, after 4 Spanish deaths, the island surrendered. Puerto Rico officially was turned over to United States forces by Spain on 18 October 1898.

A cease-fire was signed on August 12, and the war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 December 1898.

What Were the Results of the Spanish–American War?

The conditions of the Treaty of Paris included Spain giving Cuba their independence, the cession of Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States, and the selling of the Philippines to the U.S. for $20 million. Yet another result was the United States was now poised to annex the independent state of Hawaii. A resolution of Congress made Hawaii a U.S. territory on 12 August 1898. After the Spanish–American War, the United States had a significant hold in the Caribbean and Pacific, making it a leading power in the world.

How Did My Ancestors Feel about the Spanish–American War?

One hundred and twenty-three years have passed since the Spanish–American War. People who would have remembered what it was like in 1898 have long since passed. We can only speculate what our ancestors on either side of the conflict may have thought and felt regarding the Spanish–American War—or what level of awareness, if any, they might have had regarding the brewing tensions abroad and at home.

We would do well to attempt to put things into historical perspective. This war lasted only 3 months, and the death toll wasn't as devastating compared to other wars of that period in time. Compare that to the U.S. Civil War , which occurred less than 50 years earlier, lasting 4 years and touching nearly every American home with immense loss of life, and you can see why the impact of the Spanish–American War had far fewer casualties of war.

Americans alive at the time may have personally fought in the U.S. Civil War or probably knew relatives who had fought in the U.S. Civil War or the U.S. Revolutionary War. Consequently, they likely would have had strong feelings and misgivings about the possibility of entering into any additional conflicts except for the cause of liberty. Those with Spanish roots may have viewed the percolating international strife with the United States with reminiscent feelings of other Spanish conflicts like the War against Napoleon (1808–13), Independence of the Spanish Colonies (1810–25), and the First Carlist War (1833–39).

Ancestors on both sides of the conflict knew that war comes with the risk of loss of human life—beloved family members to someone—and they most likely struggled with great consternation over the very thought of an impending war, particularly against an ally.

Some may have felt the war was necessary to support America’s developing foreign policies or to protect its citizens against perceived threats at its southern borders. There is no doubt the Spanish–American War provided the catalyst for the United States to become a leading power in the world. With the new territorial acquisitions of Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, Hawaii, and other small islands in the Pacific, the United States had a stronghold in both the Caribbean and the Pacific.

If you want to see photographs of the war and read about what the Spanish-American War was like for those who fought in Cuba, check out this book by John Hemmet .

How Do I Find a Spanish–American War Veteran Ancestor?

Finding u.s. soldiers.

If your U.S. ancestors were born between about 1860 and 1880, they may have fought in the Spanish–American War. The U.S. troops were made up of the United States regular forces and state volunteers. Roughly 260,000 U.S. soldiers fought in the Spanish–American War. Most volunteers from the United States came from New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio.

Search for your U.S. ancestors who fought in the Spanish-American War by typing in the name of your ancestor in the search boxes below. If you know the year and location of their birth, include the information in the search bar below as well.

For more information on researching records from the Spanish–American War, consult the detailed article at the FamilySearch Wiki . You can also take a look at the many collections listed on the FamilySearch catalog for records applying to service and history of the Spanish–American War. Materials from the United Spanish War Veterans may also be helpful as you search for your Spanish–American War veteran ancestors, as many veterans were active in the organization after the war.

Finding Spanish Soldiers

If you are looking for your Spanish ancestors who fought in the Spanish-American War, it might take more time and research. The FamilySearch Wiki has a great guide on Spanish Military Records . Be sure to check out the sources listed at the bottom of the page for more information about specific military records. You can also try searching for your ancestor's name in the general search page on FamilySearch .

Finding Cuban Soldiers

It can be difficult to find Cuban soldiers involved in the war, but there are newspaper archives that may contain names or stories from the time period. Here are some links to Cuban newspapers: world-newspapers.com and w3newspapers.com . You can also search for your ancestors in the general search page on FamilySearch .

As you search for your ancestors who fought in the Spanish–American War and other wars, you might just be able to gain better insight into these past historical events as you see it from your ancestor’s point of view. Finding your veteran ancestors is a great way to better understand past conflicts and what your ancestors have done for their countries. So try searching for your veteran ancestors, and who knows, you might learn more from your ancestor’s experiences than you ever could in a history class.

• Library of Congress
• Research Guides

World of 1898: International Perspectives on the Spanish American War

Overview essay.

• Introduction
• Cuba in 1898
• Chronology of Cuba in the Spanish-American War
• Philippine Perspective
• The Changing of the Guard: Puerto Rico in 1898
• The Spanish-American War of 1898: a Spanish View
• American Perspective
• Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy
• Russell Alexander Alger
• Thomas McArthur Anderson
• Basilio Augustin y Dávila
• Ramón Auñón y Villalón
• Román Baldorioty de Castro
• José Celso Barbosa
• Clara Barton
• Segismundo Bermejo
• Ramón Emeterio Betances
• Ramón Blanco y Erenas
• Andrés Bonifacio
• John Rutter Brooke
• Jules-Martin Cambon
• Pascual Cervera y Topete
• Grover Cleveland
• Stephen Crane
• George W. Davis
• Federico Degetau y González
• George Dewey
• José de Diego
• Manuel V. Domenech
• Enrique Dupuy de Lôme
• Oswald Herbert Ernst
• Maximo Gómez Baez
• John Milton Hay
• Guy Vernon Henry
• Eugenio María de Hostos y Bonilla
• Tulio Larrinaga
• Fitzhugh Lee
• William Ludlow
• Antonio Maceo
• Manuel Macías
• William McKinley
• Nelson Appleton Miles
• Luis Muñoz Rivera
• Whitelaw Reid
• Lola Rodríguez de Tió
• Manuel Rojas
• Theodore Roosevelt
• Práxedes Mateo Sagasta
• William T. Sampson
• Juan Manuel Sánchez y Gutiérrez de Castro
• Theodore Schwan
• William Shafter
• Martín Travieso
• Joaquín Vara de Rey y Rubio
• James Franklin Wade
• Richard Wainwright
• Valeriano Weyler
• Walt Whitman
• Henry H. Whitney
• James Harrison Wilson
• Coamo and Aibonito
• Mayagüez, Hormigueros, and Arecibo
• Cienfuegos Bay
• Abolition of Slavery in Puerto Rico
• American Ships in the Spanish-American War
• Balzac v. Porto Rico
• Foraker Act (Organic Act of 1900)
• Grito de Balintawak
• Grito de Lares
• Hurricane San Ciriaco
• Anti-Imperialist League
• Military Government in Puerto Rico
• Olmsted Amendment
• Peace Agreement in Puerto Rico
• Reconcentration Policy
• Rough Riders
• Spanish Ships in the Spanish-American War
• Teller and Platt Amendments
• Treaty of Paris of 1898
• U.S.S. Gloucester
• Additional Resources
• Acknowledgements

The Spanish-American War

By david trask.

Between 1895 and 1898 Cuba and the Philippine Islands revolted against Spain. The Cubans gained independence, but the Filipinos did not. In both instances the intervention of the United States was the culminating event.

In 1895 the Cuban patriot and revolutionary, José Martí, resumed the Cuban struggle for freedom that had failed during the Ten Years' War (1868-1878). Cuban juntas provided leadership and funds for the military operations conducted in Cuba. Spain possessed superior numbers of troops, forcing the Cuban generals Máximo Gómez and Antonio Maceo, to wage guerrilla warfare in the hope of exhausting the enemy. Operations began in southeastern Cuba but soon spread westward. The Spanish Conservative Party, led by Antonio Cánovas y Castillo, vowed to suppress the insurrectos, but failed to do so.

The Cuban cause gained increasing support in the United States, leading President Grover Cleveland to press for a settlement, but instead Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler to pacify Cuba. His stern methods, including reconcentration of the civilian population to deny the guerrillas support in the countryside, strengthened U.S. sympathy for the Cubans. President William McKinley then increased pressure on Spain to end the affair, dispatching a new minister to Spain for this purpose. At this juncture an anarchist assassinated Cánovas, and his successor, the leader of the Liberal Party Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, decided to make a grant of autonomy to Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Cuban leadership resisted this measure, convinced that continued armed resistance would lead to independence.

In February two events crystallized U.S. opinion in favor of Cuban independence. First, the Spanish minister in Washington, Enrique Dupuy de Lóme, wrote a letter critical of President McKinley that fell into the hands of the Cuban junta in New York. Its publication caused a sensation, but Sagasta quickly recalled Dupuy de Lóme. A few days later, however, the Battleship Maine, which had been sent to Havana to provide a naval presence there exploded and sank, causing the death of 266 sailors. McKinley, strongly opposed to military intervention, ordered an investigation of the sinking as did Spain. The Spanish inquiry decided that an internal explosion had destroyed the vessel, but the American investigation claimed an external source.

The reluctant McKinley was then forced to demand that Spain grant independence to Cuba, but Sagasta refused, fearing that such a concession would destroy the shaky Restoration Monarchy. It faced opposition from various domestic political groups that might exploit the Cuban affair by precipitating revolution at home. Underlying strong Spanish opposition to Cuban freedom was the traditional belief that God had granted Spain its empire, of which Cuba was the principal remaining area, as a reward for the conquest of the Moors. Spanish honor demanded defense of its overseas possessions, including Puerto Rico and the Philippines. Spain sought diplomatic support from the great powers of Europe, but its long-standing isolation and the strength of the U.S. deterred sympathetic governments from coming to its aid.

On 25 April Congress responded to McKinley's request for armed intervention. Spain had broken diplomatic relations on 23 April. The American declaration of war was predated to 21 April to legitimize certain military operations that had already taken place, particularly a blockade of Havana. To emphasize that its sole motive at the beginning of the struggle was Cuban independence, the U.S. Congress passed a resolution, the Teller Amendment, that foreswore any intention of annexing Cuba.

Neither nation had desired war but both had made preparations as the crisis deepened after the sinking of the Maine. McKinley, having opposed war, hoped to end it quickly at the least possible expenditure of blood and treasure. The U.S. possessed a small well-trained navy, but the army was composed only twenty-eight thousand regulars. Spain had large garrisons in Cuba and the Philippines, but its navy was poorly maintained and much weaker than that of the U.S. Prewar planning in the U.S. had settled upon a naval blockade of Cuba and an attack on the decrepit Spanish squadron at Manila to achieve command of the sea and preclude reinforcement and resupply of the Spanish overseas forces. These measures would bring immediate pressure on Spain and signal American determination. The small army would conduct raids against Cuba and help sustain the Cuban army until a volunteer army could be mobilized for extensive service in Cuba. Spain was forced to accept the U.S. decision to fight on the periphery of Spanish power where its ability to resist was weakest.

The war began with two American successes. Admiral William Sampson immediately established a blockade of Havana that was soon extended along the north coast of Cuba and eventually to the south side. Sampson then prepared to counter Spanish effort to send naval assistance. Then, on 1 May, Commodore George Dewey, commanding the Asiatic Squadron, destroyed Admiral Patricio Montoyo's small force of wooden vessels in Manila Bay. Dewey had earlier moved from Japan to Hong Kong to position himself for an attack on the Philippines. When news of this triumph reached Washington, McKinley authorized a modest army expedition to conduct land operations against Manila, a step in keeping with the desire to maintain constant pressure on Spain in the hope of forcing an early end to the war.

On 29 April a Spanish squadron commanded by Admiral Pascual Cervera left European waters for the West Indies to reinforce the Spanish forces in Cuba. Sampson prepared to meet this challenge to American command of the Caribbean Sea. Cervera eventually took his squadron into the harbor at Santiago de Cuba at the opposite end of the island from Havana where the bulk of the Spanish army was concentrated.

As soon as Cervera was blockaded at Santiago (29 May) McKinley made two important decisions. He ordered the regular army, then being concentrated at Tampa, to move as quickly as possible to Santiago de Cuba. There it would join with the navy in operations intended to eliminate Cervera's forces. Also on 3 June he secretly informed Spain of his war aims through Great Britain and Austria. Besides independence for Cuba, he indicated a desire to annex Puerto Rico (in lieu of a monetary indemnity) and an island in the Marianas chain in the Pacific Ocean. Also the United States sought a port in the Philippines, but made no mention of further acquisitions there. The American message made it clear that the U.S. would increase its demands, should Spain fail to accept these demands. Sagasta was not yet ready to admit defeat, which ended the initial American attempt to arrange an early peace.

Major General William Shafter then conducted a chaotic but successful transfer of the Fifth Army Corps from Tampa to the vicinity of Santiago de Cuba. The need to move quickly caused great confusion, but it was a reasonable price to pay for seizing the initiative at the earliest possible moment. The navy escorted his convoy of transports around the eastern end of Cuba to Santiago de Cuba, where he arrived on 20 June. After landing at Daiquirí and Siboney east of the city, he moved quickly toward the enemy along an interior route, fearful of tropical diseases and desirous of thwarting Spanish reinforcements on the way from the north.

The navy urged a different course, suggesting an attack on the narrow channel connecting the harbor of Santiago de Cuba to the sea. An advance near the coast would allow the navy's guns to provide artillery support. Sweeping of mines in the channel and seizure of the batteries in the area would enable the navy to storm the harbor entrance and enter the harbor for an engagement with Cervera's forces. Shafter rejected this proposal, perhaps because of army-navy rivalry. The Spanish commander did not oppose Shafter's landing and offered only slight resistance to his westward movement. He disposed his garrison of ten thousand men along a perimeter reaching entirely around the city to the two sides of the harbor channel, hoping to prevent Cuban guerrillas under General Máximo Gómez from getting into the city. Three defensive lines were created west of the city to deal with the American advance. The first line was centered on the San Juan Heights, but only five hundred troops were assigned to defend the place. The Spanish intended to make their principal defense closer to the city.

Shafter's plan of attack, based on inadequate reconnaissance, envisioned two associated operations. One force would attack El Caney, a strong point of the Spanish left to eliminate the possibility of a flank attack on the main American effort, aimed at the San Juan Heights. After reducing El Caney, the American troops would move into position to the right of the rest of the Fifth Corps for an assault in the San Juan Heights that would carry into the city and force the capitulation of the Spanish garrison. Shafter's orders for the attack were vague, leading some historians to believe that Shafter intended only to seize the heights.

The battle of 1 July did not develop as planned. Lawton's force was detained at El Caney where a Spanish garrison of only five hundred men held off the attackers for many hours. Meanwhile the rest of the Fifth Corps struggled into position beneath the San Juan Heights. It did not move against the Spanish positions until the early afternoon. Fortunately a section of Gatling guns was able to fire on the summit of San Juan Hill, a bombardment that forced the Spanish defenders to abandon the position to the American force attacking on the left. Another group on the right that included the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, commanded that day by Theodore Roosevelt, moved across an adjacent elevation, Kettle Hill. The Spanish retreated to their second line of defense, and the Fifth Army Corps, exhausted and disorganized, set about entrenching itself on the San Juan Heights. Having failed to seize the city, Shafter considered abandoning this position, which was exposed to enemy artillery fire, but mandatory orders from Washington led instead to the inauguration of a siege, soon supported by the arrival of U.S. reinforcements.

The partial success of 1 July produced consternation in Havana. The commander in Cuba, General Ramón Blanco, ordered Cervera to leave Santiago de Cuba, fearing that the Spanish squadron would fall into American hands, to face the concentrated fire of all the American vessels outside, a certain recipe for disaster. Blanco persisted, and on 3 July Cervera made his sortie. Admiral Sampson had just left the blockade, moving east to compose differences with General Shafter. This movement left Commodore Winfield Scott Schley as the senior officer present during the naval battle. Schley had earned Sampson's distrust because of his earlier failure to blockade Cervera promptly. This concern was justified when Schley allowed his flagship to make an eccentric turn away from the exiting Spanish ships before assuming its place in the pursuit. Cervera hoped to flee west to Cienfuegos, but four of his five vessels were sunk near the entrance to the channel. The other ship was overhauled over fifty miles westward where its commander drove it upon the shore to escape sinking.

This destruction of Cervera's squadron decided the war, although further fighting occurred elsewhere. Sagasta decided to capitulate at Santiago de Cuba and to inaugurate peace negotiations at an early date through the good offices of France. He also recalled a naval expedition under Admiral Manuel de la Cámara that had left Spain earlier, moving eastward through the Mediterranean Sea and the Suez Canal to relieve the garrison in the Philippines. The navy had organized a squadron to pursue Cámara, but his recall ended any requirement for it.

After the Spanish forces at Santiago de Cuba capitulated on 17 July, a welcome event because the Fifth Army Corps had fallen victim to malaria, dysentery, and other tropical diseases, the Commanding General of the Army, Nelson Miles, led an expedition to Puerto Rico that landed on the south coast of that island. He sent three columns northward with orders to converge on San Juan. These movements proceeded successfully, but were ended short of the objective when word of a peace settlement reached Miles. Meanwhile the fifth Army Corps was hastily shipped to Long Island to recuperate while volunteer regiments continued the occupation of Cuba commanded by General Leonard Wood.

The last military operations of the war were conducted at Manila. An expedition under Major General Wesley Merritt arrived during July and encamped north of the city. Preparations for an attack were made amidst increasing signs of opposition from Filipino insurrectos led by Emilio Aguinaldo. He had become the leader of a revolutionary outburst in 1896-1897 that had ended in a truce. He established himself in Hong Kong, and in May 1898 Commodore Dewey transported him to Manila where he set about re-energizing his movement. During the summer he succeeded in gaining control of extensive territory in Luzon, and his forces sought to seize Manila. Dewey provided some supplies, but did not recognize the government that Aguinaldo set up.

Dewey hoped to avoid further hostilities at Manila. To this end he engaged in shadowy negotiations with a new Spanish governor in Manila and the Roman Catholic Bishop of the city. An agreement was reached whereby there would be a brief engagement between the Spanish and American forces followed immediately by surrender of the city, after which the Americans were to prevent Aguinaldo's troops from entering Manila. General Merritt was suspicious of this deal, but on 13 August, after the American troops moved through a line of defenses north of Manila, the Spanish garrison surrendered to Dewey. The guerrillas were denied access, and the American troops occupied the city. Continuing American failure to recognize the Aguinaldo government fostered increasing distrust.

Meanwhile, negotiations between McKinley and the French ambassador in Washington, Jules Cambon, came to fruition. The string of Spanish defeats ensured that the U.S. could dictate a settlement. On 12 August, McKinley and Cambon signed a protocol that provided for Cuban independence and the cession of Puerto Rico and an island in the Marianas (Guam). It differed from the American offer of June only in that it deferred action on the Philippines to a peace conference in Paris. The cautious McKinley hoped to limit American involvement with the Philippines, but a strong current of public opinion in favor of the annexation of the entire archipelago forced the President's hand. He developed a rationale for expansion that stressed the duty of the nation and its destiny, arguing that he could discern no other acceptable course. The Spanish delegation at the peace conference was forced to accept McKinley's decision. The Treaty of Paris signed on 10 December 1898 ceded the Philippines to the U.S. in return for a sum of $25 million to pay for Spanish property in the islands.

When the treaty was sent to the Senate for approval, anti-imperialist elements offered some opposition, but on 6 February 1899 the Senate accepted it by a vote of 57 to 27, only two more than the necessary two-thirds majority. Fatefully, two days before the vote, armed hostilities broke out at Manila between the American garrison and Aguinaldo's troops, the beginning of a struggle that lasted until July 1902. Although Cuba received its independence, the Platt Amendment (1902) severely limited its sovereignty and stimulated a dependent relationship that affected the evolution of Cuban society. This dependency leads some historians to maintain that the events of 1895-1898 were simply a transition (la transición) from Spanish imperialism to American imperialism. Eventually the U.S. rejected the expansion of 1898, which included the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands, canceling the Platt Amendment, granting independence to the Philippine Islands, and admitting Hawaii into the Union. The war heralded the emergence of the United States as a great power, but mostly it reflected the burgeoning national development of the nineteenth century. World War I, not the American intervention in the Cuban-Spanish struggle of 1895-1898, determined the revolutionized national security policy of the years since 1914. These policies, in keeping with American values, were decidedly anti-imperialistic in both the formal and informal meanings of the term.

• << Previous: Introduction
• Next: Chronology >>
• Last Updated: Jan 12, 2024 2:02 AM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/world-of-1898

Milestones: 1866–1898

The spanish-american war, 1898.

The Spanish-American War of 1898 ended Spain’s colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere and secured the position of the United States as a Pacific power. U.S. victory in the war produced a peace treaty that compelled the Spanish to relinquish claims on Cuba, and to cede sovereignty over Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States. The United States also annexed the independent state of Hawaii during the conflict. Thus, the war enabled the United States to establish its predominance in the Caribbean region and to pursue its strategic and economic interests in Asia.

The war that erupted in 1898 between the United States and Spain was preceded by three years of fighting by Cuban revolutionaries to gain independence from Spanish colonial rule. From 1895–1898, the violent conflict in Cuba captured the attention of Americans because of the economic and political instability that it produced in a region within such close geographical proximity to the United States. The long-held U.S. interest in ridding the Western Hemisphere of European colonial powers and American public outrage over brutal Spanish tactics created much sympathy for the Cuban revolutionaries. By early 1898, tensions between the United States and Spain had been mounting for months. After the U.S. battleship Maine exploded and sank in Havana harbor under mysterious circumstances on February 15, 1898, U.S. military intervention in Cuba became likely.

On April 11, 1898, President William McKinley asked Congress for authorization to end the fighting in Cuba between the rebels and Spanish forces, and to establish a “stable government” that would “maintain order” and ensure the “peace and tranquility and the security” of Cuban and U.S. citizens on the island. On April 20, the U.S. Congress passed a joint resolution that acknowledged Cuban independence, demanded that the Spanish government give up control of the island, foreswore any intention on the part of the United States to annex Cuba, and authorized McKinley to use whatever military measures he deemed necessary to guarantee Cuba’s independence.

The Spanish government rejected the U.S. ultimatum and immediately severed diplomatic relations with the United States. McKinley responded by implementing a naval blockade of Cuba on April 22 and issued a call for 125,000 military volunteers the following day. That same day, Spain declared war on the United States, and the U.S. Congress voted to go to war against Spain on April 25.

The future Secretary of State John Hay described the ensuing conflict as a “splendid little war.” The first battle was fought on May 1, in Manila Bay, where Commodore George Dewey’s Asiatic Squadron defeated the Spanish naval force defending the Philippines. On June 10, U.S. troops landed at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba and additional forces landed near the harbor city of Santiago on June 22 and 24. After isolating and defeating the Spanish Army garrisons in Cuba, the U.S. Navy destroyed the Spanish Caribbean squadron on July 3 as it attempted to escape the U.S. naval blockade of Santiago.

On July 26, at the behest of the Spanish government, the French ambassador in Washington, Jules Cambon, approached the McKinley Administration to discuss peace terms, and a cease-fire was signed on August 12. The war officially ended four months later, when the U.S. and Spanish governments signed the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. Apart from guaranteeing the independence of Cuba, the treaty also forced Spain to cede Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States. Spain also agreed to sell the Philippines to the United States for the sum of $20 million. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty on February 6, 1899, by a margin of only one vote.

The McKinley Administration also used the war as a pretext to annex the independent state of Hawaii. In 1893, a group of Hawaii-based planters and businessmen led a coup against Queen Liliuokalani and established a new government. They promptly sought annexation by the United States, but President Grover Cleveland rejected their requests. In 1898, however, President McKinley and the American public were more favorably disposed toward acquiring the islands. Supporters of annexation argued that Hawaii was vital to the U.S. economy, that it would serve as a strategic base that could help protect U.S. interests in Asia, and that other nations were intent on taking over the islands if the United States did not. At McKinley’s request, a joint resolution of Congress made Hawaii a U.S. territory on August 12, 1898.

• New Visions Social Studies Curriculum
• Curriculum Development Team
• Content Contributors
• Getting Started: Baseline Assessments
• Getting Started: Resources to Enhance Instruction
• Getting Started: Instructional Routines
• Unit 9.1: Global 1 Introduction
• Unit 9.2: The First Civilizations
• Unit 9.3: Classical Civilizations
• Unit 9.4: Political Powers and Achievements
• Unit 9.5: Social and Cultural Growth and Conflict
• Unit 9.6: Ottoman and Ming Pre-1600
• Unit 9.7: Transformations in Europe
• Unit 9.8: Africa and the Americas Pre-1600
• Unit 9.9: Interactions and Disruptions
• 10.0: Global 2 Introduction
• 10.01: The World in 1750 C.E.
• 10.02: Enlightenment, Revolution, & Nationalism
• 10.03: Industrial Revolution
• 10.04: Imperialism & Colonization
• 10.05: World Wars
• 10.06: Cold War
• 10.07: Decolonization & Nationalism
• 10.08: Cultural Traditions & Modernization
• 10.09: Globalization & Changing Environment
• 10.10: Human Rights Violations
• Unit 11.0: US History Introduction
• Unit 11.01: Colonial Foundations
• Unit 11.02: American Revolution
• Unit 11.03A: Building a Nation
• Unit 11.03B: Sectionalism & Civil War
• Unit 11.4: Reconstruction
• Unit 11.5: Gilded Age and Progressive Era

Unit 11.6: Rise of American Power

• Unit 11.7: Prosperity and Depression
• Unit 11.8: World War II
• Unit 11.9: Cold War
• Unit 11.10: Domestic Change
• Resources: Regents Prep: Global 2 Exam
• Regents Prep: Framework USH Exam: Regents Prep: US Exam
• Find Resources

Rise of American Power

Causes of the spanish american war, using evidence: why did america invade cuba and declare war on spain.

U.S. History

US Overseas Expansion: Causes of the Spanish American War

Students will use evidence from the documents to analyze why America invaded Cuba in 1898. 

Teacher Feedback

Please comment below with questions, feedback, suggestions, or descriptions of your experience using this resource with students.

If you found an error in the resource, please let us know so we can correct it by filling out this form . 

Home — Essay Samples — War — The Spanish American War

Essays on The Spanish American War

The spanish american war and its long term effects on us, the main causes and factors of the spanish american war, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

The Role of Spanish American War in American International Trade

The english defeat of the spanish armada in the anglo-spanish war, american involvement in imperialism and wars: spanish, world war, impact of spanish american war, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

The Adam-onís Treaty: a Landmark in U.s.-spanish Relations

Relevant topics.

• Vietnam War
• Atomic Bomb
• Israeli Palestinian Conflict
• Nuclear Weapon
• Syrian Civil War
• Treaty of Versailles

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free