what is motivation in research paper

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Essay 1.1 What Is Motivation, Where Does It Come from, and How Does It Work?

• Published: January 2023
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Motivation is the process that drives, selects, and directs goals and behaviors. Motivation typically arises out of the person’s needs, and it then comes to life through the person’s specific goals. In this essay, the authors examine the concept of “needs” as the crucible from which motivated behavior arises because all individuals are born with needs that jump-start the goal-oriented, motivated behaviors that are critical to survival and thriving. These are both physical needs (such as hunger and thirst) and psychological needs (such as the need for social relationships, optimal predictability, and competence). The aim of motivation is therefore to bring about a desired (need, goal) state. Motivation underlies and organizes all aspects of a person’s psychology. As it does so, motivation “glues” a person together as a functioning individual in their culture and context.

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Motivation Science

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Journal scope statement

Motivation Science is a multi-disciplinary journal that publishes significant contributions to the study of motivation, broadly conceived.

The journal publishes papers on diverse aspects of, and approaches to, the science of motivation, including work carried out in all subfields of psychology, cognitive science, economics, sociology, management science, organizational science, neuroscience and political science.

Primarily, Motivation Science features empirical papers on motivational topics, although theoretical papers and reviews of the literature will also be considered.

Equity, diversity, and inclusion

Motivation Science supports equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) in its practices. More information on these initiatives is available under EDI Efforts .

Call for papers

• Call for papers: General

Editor’s Choice

One article from each issue of Motivation Science will be highlighted as an “ Editor’s Choice ” article. Selection is based on the recommendations of the associate editors, the paper’s potential impact to the field, the distinction of expanding the contributors to, or the focus of, the science, or its discussion of an important future direction for science. Editor’s Choice articles are featured alongside articles from other APA published journals in a bi-weekly newsletter and are temporarily made freely available to newsletter subscribers.

Author and editor spotlights

Explore journal highlights : free article summaries, editor interviews and editorials, journal awards, mentorship opportunities, and more.

Prior to submission, please carefully read and follow the submission guidelines detailed below. Manuscripts that do not conform to the submission guidelines may be returned without review.

To submit to the Editorial Office of Guido H. E. Gendolla and Rex A. Wright, please submit manuscripts electronically through the Manuscript Submission Portal in Word Document format (.doc).

Guido H. E. Gendolla University of Geneva

Rex A. Wright University of Texas Dell School of Medicine & University of North Texas, United States

Prepare manuscripts according to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association using the 7 th edition. Manuscripts may be copyedited for bias-free language (see Chapter 5 of the Publication Manual ). APA Style and Grammar Guidelines for the 7 th edition are available.

Submit Manuscript

Motivation Science welcomes significant high-quality manuscripts reporting research on diverse aspects of, and approaches to, the science of motivation.

Manuscripts should fall into one of the following categories:

Original Research Articles

These are full-length manuscripts reporting empirical research that advances the comprehension of variables and processes that influence motivation and behavior. Research articles can report more than one empirical study but are not required to do so. Preference will be given to reports that present theory-driven research involving tests of clearly derived hypotheses and findings with straightforward and substantive implications. Replication studies are welcome if they provide conclusive results. There is no space limit for research articles, but manuscripts should typically range between 2,500 and 7,000 words, exclusive of references, figures, and tables.

Original Research Brief Reports

These are abbreviated manuscripts succinctly reporting empirical research that advances the comprehension of variables and processes that influence motivation and behavior. Original research brief reports should report one empirical study or a short series of studies with similar designs and methods. Preference will be given to reports that present theory-driven research involving tests of clearly derived hypotheses and findings with straightforward and substantive implications. Replication studies are welcome if they provide conclusive results. The space limit for brief reports is 2,500 words, exclusive of references, figures, and tables.

Conceptual Articles

These are full-length theoretical papers and literature reviews that can — but are not required to — apply meta-analytic techniques. Preference will be given to analyses and reviews that have straightforward and substantive implications. There is no space limit for conceptual articles, but manuscripts should typically rage between 2,500 and 7,000 words, exclusive of references, figures, and tables.

Conceptual Brief Reports

These are abbreviated theoretical papers and literature reviews that can — but are not required to — apply meta-analytic techniques. Preference will be given to analyses and reviews that have straightforward and substantive implications. Conceptual brief reports also can involve reactive commentary (e.g., to a research or conceptual article). The space limit for conceptual brief reports is 2,500 words, exclusive of references, figures, and tables.

Research Methods in Motivation Science Articles

These manuscripts are intended to draw attention to methodological developments relevant to the scientific study of motivation. They should aim to enhance the use of techniques and insights that advance motivation science and its application. Examples might include articles (1) that describe techniques for validating new research instruments, (2) that introduce new quantitative methods, or (3) that debate important methodological issues. Articles should be accessible to non-expert readers with doctoral level training and avoid use of unnecessary technical content. They also should make clear how their content advances theory and/or practice. Preference will be given to well-constructed and documented reports that have substantive implications. There is no space limit for Methods articles, but manuscripts should typically range between 2,500 and 7,000 words, exclusive of references, figures, and tables.

Out-of-the-Box Articles

These are brief contributions that might attract broad interest but do not fit neatly into preceding submission categories. Submissions will include no more than 2,500 words and can involve a variety of formats. Examples include short thought pieces, humor pieces, pieces concerned with history, and pieces concerned with contemporary issues. Contributions might involve personal profiles (e.g., of important figures), interviews, and even substantive fictional depictions.

Masked Review Policy

Masked review, which means that the identities of both authors and reviewers are masked, is optional for Motivation Science . Authors should note in their cover letters whether they have opted for masked or unmasked review.

Masked Review

Authors who desire masked review should make every effort to see that the manuscript itself contains no clues to their identities:

• Authors should never use first person ( I, my, we, our ) when referring to a study conducted by the author(s) or when doing so reveals the authors' identities (e.g., "in our previous work, Johnson et al. (1998) reported that..."). Instead, references to the authors' work should be in third person (e.g., "Johnson et al. (1998) reported that...").
• The authors' institutional affiliations should also be masked in the manuscript.
• Include the title of the manuscript along with all authors' names and institutional affiliations in the cover letter.
• The first page of the manuscript should omit the authors' names and affiliations but should include the title of the manuscript and the date it is submitted.
• Responsibility for masking the manuscript rests with the authors; manuscripts will be returned to the author if not appropriately masked. If the manuscript is accepted, authors will be asked to make changes in wording so that the paper is no longer masked.
• After masked review, please ensure that the final version for production includes a byline and full author note for typesetting.

Research Transparency and Openness

Motivation Science encourages both methodological and data transparency to ensure the reproducibility of research results. Thus, we ask authors to ensure their manuscripts meet certain standards aligned with APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS). These items include:

• Sample Size and Stopping Rules : Authors must describe the sample size, power, and precision, including:

▪ Intended sample size

▪ Achieved sample size, if different from the intended sample size

▪ Determination of sample size, including:

◦ Power analysis, or methods used to determine precision of parameter estimates

◦ Explanation of any interim analyses and stopping rules employed

• Reporting the full methods  for empirical studies, including all manipulations, measures, and eventual data exclusions.
• Reporting in the author note when data stem from related research.  APA Style stipulates that authors must include any disclosures of data stemming from related research in the author note. The original findings, if published, should be referenced in an in-text citation.

▪ If data stem from related research, authors should report:

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The APA  Publication Manual  (7th ed.)  stipulates that “authorship encompasses…not only persons who do the writing but also those who have made substantial scientific contributions to a study.” In the spirit of transparency and openness,  Motivation Science  has adopted the  Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT)  to describe each author's individual contributions to the work. CRediT offers authors the opportunity to share an accurate and detailed description of their diverse contributions to a manuscript.

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General Psychology Motivation

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• First Online: 17 December 2022
• Cite this reference work entry

• Maria Tulis 5 &
• J. Lukas Thürmer 5  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

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The willful pursuit of goals is one of the key capabilities that allow humans to thrive. Motivation Science is the interdisciplinary research field that investigates this fundamental capability. In the current chapter, we discuss the roots of this young field of psychology, outline an evidence-based curriculum of how to teach Motivation Science, and discuss some emerging research topics. We present a potential curriculum of an introductory course on Motivation Science, structured along the lines of the Rubicon model of action phases. We base our didactic approach on the principle of integrative teaching and learning, and spiral progression to structure our curriculum according to Motivation Science.

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Tulis, M., Thürmer, J.L. (2023). General Psychology Motivation. In: Zumbach, J., Bernstein, D.A., Narciss, S., Marsico, G. (eds) International Handbook of Psychology Learning and Teaching. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28745-0_9

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Chapter 13. Motivation

What is Motivation?

Jessica Motherwell McFarlane

Approximate reading time : 7 minutes

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Why do we act the way we do? What drives our choices and behaviours? Motivation is the key to understanding these questions. It’s the force that directs our behaviour towards goals, shaped by our wants and needs. Motivation isn’t just about our biological needs; it also involves intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Intrinsic motivation comes from within us, driven by personal satisfaction and fulfillment. Extrinsic motivation , on the other hand, is influenced by external rewards or pressures.

Intrinsic motivation is deeply personal. For instance, if you’re in college because you love learning and want to grow as a person, that’s intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is more about external outcomes, like pursuing a degree for a high-paying job or to meet family expectations.

Our motivations often blend intrinsic and extrinsic elements, and this mix can shift over time. The saying, “Choose a job you love, and you’ll never work a day in your life,” captures this idea. However, research shows that this isn’t always straightforward. When we receive extrinsic rewards, like payment, for something we love, it can start to feel more like work and less enjoyable. This phenomenon, known as the overjustification effect , suggests that extrinsic rewards can diminish intrinsic motivation [Deci et al., 1999].

For example, consider Lei, who loves baking (Figure MO.2). Initially, he bakes for fun, but when he starts baking professionally, his motivation changes because now he is baking for external rewards. This shift illustrates how extrinsic rewards can transform an enjoyable activity into a job, altering our intrinsic motivation.

Yet, not all extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation. Verbal praise, for example, can actually enhance it [Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994]. If Lei receives compliments for his baking, his passion for baking might stay strong. The impact of rewards on motivation depends on their nature and our expectations. Tangible, physical rewards like money can have a more negative effect on intrinsic motivation than intangible, non-physical rewards like praise. Also, if we expect a reward, it can reduce our intrinsic motivation. But if the reward is a surprise, our intrinsic motivation might remain unaffected [Deci et al., 1999].

In educational settings, intrinsic motivation flourishes when students feel respected and part of the classroom community. This sense of belonging can be enhanced by reducing the focus on evaluations and giving students some control over their learning. Challenging yet achievable tasks, coupled with clear reasons for engaging in them, can also boost intrinsic motivation [Niemiec & Ryan, 2009].

Supplement MO.1: Case Study – 15-year-old Robyn wants to quit school [New Tab]

Why Talk About Needs in a Chapter on Motivation?

Needs are the basic things that every person must have to live a healthy and satisfying life. These include food, water, shelter, and safety. Imagine you’re playing a video game, and your character needs certain items to survive and move to the next level. In real life, we also have needs that keep us alive and well.

Motivations , on the other hand, are the reasons behind why we do what we do. It’s like having a personal mentor in your mind that encourages you to achieve your goals. These goals can be anything from finding safe affordable housing or making friends, to learning a new skill. Motivation is what pushes you out of bed in the morning to tackle the day ahead.

Why do we talk about needs in a chapter about motivation? Well, it’s because our needs are closely linked to our motivations. Think of it this way: if you’re really hungry (a need), you’re motivated to find something to eat; if you feel unsafe (a need), you’re motivated to find a safe place. Our needs often set the stage for our motivations. They are like the roots of a tree, while motivations are the branches that grow because of those roots.

In psychology, understanding needs is crucial because it helps us figure out what motivates people. By knowing what a person needs, we can better understand why they act in certain ways. For example, if someone is working hard in school, it might be because they have a need for achievement or they’re motivated by the desire to make their family proud.

Instinct as Motivation

Motivation is a complex interaction of internal desires and external influences. Understanding this dynamic is crucial for fostering environments that support healthy, effective motivation in various contexts, from education to the workplace. Let’s now survey some of the many things that can be significant motivators for us humans.

William James (1842–1910) was an important contributor to early research into motivation. James theorised that behaviour was driven by a number of instincts that aid survival (Figure EM.4). From a biological perspective, an instinct is a species-specific pattern of behaviour that is not learned. There was, however, considerable controversy among James and his contemporaries over the exact definition of instinct. James proposed several dozen special human instincts, but many of his contemporaries had their own lists that differed. A parent’s protection of their baby, the urge to lick sugar, and hunting prey were among the human behaviours proposed as true instincts during James’s era. This view that human behaviour is driven by instincts received a fair amount of criticism because learning  — not just instinct — shapes all sorts of human behaviour.

Image Attributions

Figure MO.1. Figure 11.7 as found in  Psychology – 1st Canadian Edition is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License .

Figure MO.2. Figure 10.3 by Agustín Ruiz as found in Psychology 2e by OpenStax is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License .

To calculate this time, we used a reading speed of 150 words per minute and then added extra time to account for images and videos. This is just to give you a rough idea of the length of the chapter section. How long it will take you to engage with this chapter will vary greatly depending on all sorts of things (the complexity of the content, your ability to focus, etc).

What is Motivation? Copyright © 2024 by Jessica Motherwell McFarlane is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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OPINION article

Teaching and researching motivation.

• 1 School of Languages and Culture, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin, China
• 2 Department of Maritime, Hebei Jiaotong Vocational & Technical College, Shijiazhuang, China

The third edition of Teaching and Researching Motivation offers newly-updated and extended coverage of motivation research and pedagogical practice. As in the 2001 and 2011 editions, the text provides comprehensive insights into motivation research and teaching. However, the current edition, as in the authors' words, is “not so much a revised version as a newly written book that has the same authors, the same title and the same structure as the previous one” ( Dörnyei and Ushioda, 2021 , p. x). It reflects the dramatic changes in the field of motivation research and examines how theoretical insights can be used in everyday teaching practice.

The monograph comprises four parts. Part I, “What is Motivation?”, consists of four chapters. The first chapter pertains to the complex meaning of the term “motivation” and summarizes the key challenges of theorizing motivation. Appealing to us in this chapter is that the authors put a stronger emphasis on understanding motivation in relation to learning LOTEs (languages other than English) and in relation to individual multilingualism. It is altogether fitting and proper for them to hold this belief since the world is becoming more diversified in terms of multilingualism. Chapter 2 offers a historical overview of the most influential cognitive motivation theories. In the new edition, social cultural factors impacting students' motivation are elaborated in more detail. Chapter 3 presents a historical overview of theories of L2 motivation. Drawing on insights from L2 research and psychology, Dörnyei and Ushioda articulate nine interrelated conditions for the motivating capacity of future L2 self-image. With a focus on the L2 Motivation Self System theory, Chapter 4 also critically examines other new theoretical approaches emerged in the field of L2 motivation over the past decade. Finally, it highlights two new perspectives: a focus on L2 learner engagement and “small lens” approaches.

Part II, “Motivation and Language Teaching,” includes three chapters on issues related to the relation between motivation and language teaching. Chapter 5 explores the extent to which theoretical and research insights can lead to practical recommendations for motivating the students in and outside of the language classroom. Based on this principle, it presents instructive approaches to motivating language learners. It also eloquently holds that motivational self-regulation and learner autonomy are two potent energizers which will have a lasing impact beyond the classroom. Chapter 6, “Motivation in Context,” deals with the “dark side” of motivation, “demotivation.” It argues that focused interventions can have significant positive outcomes and help counteract demotivation and facilitate remotivation within second language acquisition (SLA). The last chapter in this part is of special interest as it explores the relationship between language teacher and learner motivation, highlighting possible self theory (exploring conceptual change in language teachers). As a Chinese idiom goes, teaching benefits teachers and students alike. The same is true of language teacher motivation. It argues that teachers' passion and enthusiasm facilitate their teaching and enhance students' learning; and vice versa.

Important and of significance is how to do research so that it can facilitate teaching. Part III, “Researching Motivation,” includes two chapters on issues related to primary, data-based motivation research. Chapter 8 covers the unique characteristics, challenges and research strategies that are specific to the empirical study of language learning motivation. An outstanding contribution of this chapter is that four insightful principles of designing L2 motivation studies are proposed. Followed up on an overview of the most useful methods in this field in the past, Chapter 9 examines two new research initiatives: adopting a complex dynamic system approach and researching unconscious motivation, which will hold particular promise for the future.

Part IV, “Resources and Further Information” is informative and inspiring. In Chapter 10, the authors judiciously remark that particular aspects and context of L2 learning as well as multilingual communication should be focused in the future after further elaborating the interdisciplinary nature and challenge of L2 motivation research. The last chapter contains lists of key sources and resources on motivation such as relevant journals and latest valuable collections, database, discussion groups, and networks. What is of particular value is key scholars of L2 language motivation research, as well as useful tools and measures for researching motivation.

This monograph is a thought-provoking book. Firstly, this new edition reflects the latest research advancement, providing the language teachers and researchers with insights into cultivating motivation. In terms of theoretical paradigm, the L2 Motivation Self System (L2MSS) introduces a holistic approach exploring the combined and interactive operation of a number of different factors in relation to L2 motivation rather than the traditional cause-effect relation between isolated variables. Two recent motivational paradigms originate in L2MSS: directed motivational currents and long-term motivation , focusing on not only what generates language learning motivation but also on what can sustain motivation long enough. In terms of research method, integration of quantitative and qualitative method (e.g., questionnaire + interview ) has almost become a new trend in the L2 motivation field.

Secondly, Dörnyei and Ushioda provide ideas for theoretical and empirical research by reviewing studies made by them and other researchers. Although a great deal of knowledge has been accumulated, Dörnyei and Ushioda particularly point out two under-explored topics: unconscious motivation and language learner engagement. They also recommend two cutting-edge approaches: “small lens” approaches (actual cognitive process in the mastery of an L2) and complex dynamic systems approach.

Lastly, it is a valuable guide for L2 teachers and researchers. Chapter 5 presents strategies and approaches to motivating language learners such as promoting student engagement and applying technology. Particularly, the up-to-date and rich selection of empirical studies in Chapter 9 are vivid illustration of the research methods, showing language teachers templates of doing research by teaching. The research interests of important scholars listed in Chapter 11 allow language teachers and researchers to follow the current significant research areas on L2 motivation.

Nevertheless, there are still some aspects for this book to be improved in the next edition. First, readers may hope to find a detailed discussion of the social cultural factors impacting teachers' motivation. Second, the key researchers listed in Chapter 11 are mainly in the English world. Had the authors included more key researchers in the non-English world, it would have been more insightful.

All in all, with this new edition, Dörnyei and Ushioda make a very important contribution to our radically new understanding of teaching and researching motivation. As a clear and comprehensive theory-driven account of motivation, this volume can be applied in many different ways. It can be used as a reference book for teachers and/or researchers to review and reflect on motivation teaching and research practice. In addition, it is also of significance in pre-service and in-service teacher education programme. Graduates in applied linguistics, education and psychology can gain plenty of insights from the research findings and additional information offered in this volume. Therefore, this volume is an invaluable resource for teachers and researchers alike.

Author Contributions

YY: drafts and revision. HZ: revision and supervision. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This opinion was supported by the Project of Teaching Reform at Tianjin University of Technology (Grant No: KG20-08).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Dörnyei, Z., and Ushioda, E. (2021). Teaching and Researching Motivation . London: Taylor and Francis.

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Keywords: language teaching, students motivation, language learning (L2) motivation, motivation research, teacher motivation to work

Citation: Yuan Y and Zhen H (2021) Teaching and Researching Motivation. Front. Psychol. 12:804304. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.804304

Received: 29 October 2021; Accepted: 22 November 2021; Published: 16 December 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Yuan and Zhen. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Hongjie Zhen, zhenhongjie@hejtxy.edu.cn

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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How to explain things in the motivation section of a mathematical paper without proper definitions?

I want to start a chapter in my dissertation by motivating a mathematical operator by showing why it is interesting to look at it and what I can contribute to understand it better. However, I actually need to introduce some mathematical objects in order to correctly state everything.

I think it is a rather bad Idea to start first with a section of introducing the mathematical concepts (like measure theory) and then start the actual motivation. But if I do it opposite, then I am at a loss for words.

For example, in my motivation I would need to use a additive-finite measure space, a operator, the space of mu-integrable functions and a stochastic process.

How would you suggest to cope with such a situation?

• mathematics

• 3 As long as the terms are standard, you can probably safely use them without defining them in detail (especially in the introduction). –  Tobias Kildetoft Commented May 4, 2015 at 13:18
• 2 I know mathematicians don't like to hear that, but still: if you can't explain why it's interesting in natural language, you (probably) don't have a motivation (that appeals to non-experts) beyond curiosity . That's fair, but why pretend? –  Raphael Commented May 5, 2015 at 0:22

6 Answers 6

When I was a Ph.D. student working on my own dissertation, I went to the university writing center for help and had a revelatory experience. The person working with me sat down with the first page of my introduction and effectively dissected it to identify the problems without understanding any of my technical jargon. They did this by reading aloud as we discussed, substituting blank/nonsense words for every piece of jargon, e.g.:

Here we apply method X to determine whether adjective thingies can be made to wibble.

This type of substitution forces you to step back from the technical world that you have dedicated so much time and love to, and understand your narrative---or lack thereof.

In your motivation, you need to take a couple of steps back and ask: why does anybody care about additive-finite measure space ("frobs") and how it relates to the space of mu-integrable functions ("greebit-space") or a stochastic process ("wibbling").

You didn't pick these elements at random. There must be some reason why you picked them and how they relate to the bigger community. Are they intended to solve a puzzle that a lot of people care about? Or a small piece of such a puzzle? Do they unite two sets of concepts that people thought were different? Will they help understand string theory or give better tools for interpreting MRI imaging?

You want to be able to write something like this:

People have wondered about how to better understand frobs ever since Richard Feynman first used them to pick the locks in Los Alamos. Although X, Y, and Z attempts have been made, none of them got very far because they were all green-colored. In this dissertation, I examine an alternate path, reducing the problem of frobs to the simpler system of greebit-space by means of an innovative application of wibbling. These results bring us one step closer to solving the problem of frobs, and how they can be better used to quickly and cheaply pick locks.

Now, what I've written is pure gibberish, and your motivation will almost certainly be much longer. The point, however, is this: your goal in a motivation section is to motivate by explaining that there is a problem that people care about and that you have an approach that gives at least a piece of the solution. Explain it in a way that your jargon can just be placeholders in the reader's mind, and it will be fine to leave the complex definitions for later.

• 1 This is a concise and brilliant explanation of what an introductory chapter -- any introductory chapter -- should do. –  henning no longer feeds AI Commented May 5, 2015 at 10:27

When I encounter this problem, I write the introduction as if the readers knew the concepts that I mention, but I include a parenthetical comment or a footnote, after such a concept, along the lines of "This and other concepts used in the introduction will be defined in Section 2."

If you go deeply enough into measure theory and stochastic processes to actually write your dissertation about it, it is safe to assume that readers will be familiar with common concepts. So just assume that people understand what you write about. Do some handwaving if necessary ("we examine an interesting class of operators that are distinguished in that...").

Worry less about correctness than about telling a good story. After all, this is a motivational section. Don't include any definitions, or no more than one if it is utterly necessary. (And then, if you find that a definition is necessary in an introduction section, I'd argue that you probably need to revisit what you want to write in that section, until the definition is not necessary any more.)

Worry about correctness in the main body of your chapter.

In addition to other good points made in the other answers, I think too often people overlook the question of the actual, likely audience/readership for a piece of technical writing. For example, it is unlikely that anyone without at least a rudimentary knowledge of your general subject would look at your thesis at all, so you can safely use the standard, basic terminology to give an introduction and overview of a given chapter. That is, it is not useful to imagine that you are explaining "from scratch" to someone who's completely unacquainted with the topic under discussion, since the reality would be that they'd not instantly assimilate "definitions" in any case.

In other words, contrary to what we sometimes may imagine, there is a context in which we write, and that context is most often richer than we acknowledge. Thus, the work is not to re-establish the basic context, but to make larger points. That is, as in the other answers, I don't want to hear delicate (and possibly pointless) semantic distinctions about word-use, but, rather, about why you are doing what you're doing, etc.

Mathematicians have a tendency to train to hide away they tracks they used to take to get to their goal (apologies to Simon Singh). This means that motivation is the thing they have been trained not to give. As compensation, they give examples, ranging from trivial to realistic to absurd following the definitions.

This is the situation on the ground. The reason is that mathematical objects are often obtained by so many steps of abstraction of originally natural-world concepts that their real-world origin is often obscured or very difficult to intuit (think the - very compact - definition of topology).

Therefore, it is useful to the reader to "recreate" the bridge to reality (which is often possible) and explain which of reality's features are required and which ones are discarded. Measure theory is not so bad in that respect. Basically, you are talking about a kind of "volume". In "nice" spaces, such a vector spaces, you could consider n-forms as volumes (almost literally), but if the space gets nastier, without a concept of tangent spaces and the associated structure, you have to look at which permits you to extend this concept to suitably selected subsets of your space. My favourite to asking the question what you miss if you have no measure is to respond with the Banach-Tarski paradox.

Now the game can also be played on a higher level if you talk to mathematicians who know already a lot of things. You now need to explain how your concepts will fit into what they already know. So, a group theorist may be motivated to look at semigroups by explaining which axioms you drop (and why). Or which phenomenon motivated your definition of semigroup (for instance attempting to model non-invertible operations).

In short: the point is to explain and to motivate what concepts and phenomena in "the universe of the reader" corresponds to properties discarded or generalised (abstractions) or newly studied phenomena in your universe.

It's a delicate balance. You say:

...in order to correctly state everything.

But why are you correctly stating everything if its just a motiational discussion? So you see you have a balancing act whereby you need to give up a little bit of space on the side of correctly stating everything in order to gain some space on the side of being able to flexibly discuss the concepts, ideas, history etc.

This is actually really hard and usually takes much more experience than it did to solve the research problem in the first place. So I think its common for e.g. a graduating PhD student to have the technical knowledge to solve the problem but to find it difficult to articulate where the problem lies within a much bigger field of inquiry.

As you gain more experience you will know when and how to lie . And you will also know much better what counts as standard. When you've just spent years learning the basics of a research field you often feel like things need definitions that don't really. Other experienced mathematicians are probably more comfortable than you think with not fully understanding every detail/remembering every definition but kind of vaguely knowing what such and such an object X is and vaguely what it does and just more or less getting the idea until the later point at which you define everytihng.

To try to give one piece of practical advice: Look for ways to not tell too big a lie. Find places you can say that 'an object X is essentially an object Y together with a parameterization of its involutions' (or whatever) where object Y is something you a sure is more standard.

One example that comes to mind from my education is distributions. I heard both of the following vagueries:

• Distributions are generalized functions.("OK right so I should think of them like functions")
• Distributions are like the abstract dual to functions. You pair a distribution with a function to get a number.

This confused me when I was younger. But after some experience I guess you know the ways in which these are both true and you get that different contexts call for different lies .

The readers who don't know the stuff well will essentially have no choice but to just swallow the lies. Then you get worried about the readers who do know the stuff well. Because then when you tell a lie, they might get offended, like "gah this writer has oversimplified and left out the crucial essence of object X; how will anyone get the important content from watered down motivational discussion!?" So like I said, it's a balancing act.

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Top-Cited Study: Students’ Attitudes Toward Creativity in School

Drs. zorana ivcevic pringle & jessica hoffmann recognized for their top cited paper in 2022-2023 for the journal of creative behavior.

A paper authored by Dr. Zorana Ivcevic Pringle, Senior Research Scientist, and Dr. Jessica Hoffmann, Assistant Professor at the Child Study Center, has been recognized as one of the top 10 most-cited articles in the Journal of Creative Behavior for 2022 and 2023.

The article, "The Creativity Dare: Attitudes Toward Creativity and Prediction of Creative Behavior in School," examines how high school students' attitudes toward creativity impact what students are able to do in their classrooms [SW1] [HJ2] . Drs. Ivcevic and Hoffmann conducted two studies in which they measured thoughts and feelings students have as they decide whether to share their creative ideas and whether to pursue creative challenges. They identified three key attitudes: valuing creativity, anxious risk aversion, and anticipating negative social consequences. The research showed that students who valued creativity – considered it important to their identity – were more likely to view creative challenges as beneficial to their goals and more likely to be creative in their schoolwork. By contrast, those who were anxious about taking risks were less likely to share their creative ideas in class and those who anticipated negative social consequences ended up less interested in creative challenges and put less effort in working on these challenges.

This study is significant both practically and theoretically. Dr. Ivcevic states,

“The World Economic Forum lists several creativity-related skills in their top 10 list of skills for the changing economy. This research provides insight into concerns on students’ minds as they approach creative work. Will sharing ideas be met with disapproval? Could it be safer not to share ideas? How valuable and personally important is creativity for students? When educators acknowledge these concerns and take them into account in their classrooms, their students will be better able and more willing to engage creatively at school. We are deeply honored that this line of research has received so much recognition.”

Drs. Ivcevic and Hoffmann plan to extend this work to examine how a supportive school climate can help students develop positive attitudes toward creativity. They are also working to validate a way to measure these attitudes in Spanish-speaking students.

OR "how students feel about creativity in specific school settings affects their motivation to take on creative challenges and their actual creative actions at school. " [SW1]

I like how you have it written [HJ2]

Featured in this article

• Jessica D Hoffmann, PhD Assistant Professor in the Child Study Center
• Zorana Ivcevic Pringle Senior Research Scientist

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• The Creativity Dare: Attitudes Toward Creativity and Prediction of Creative Behavior in School

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• Published: 27 August 2024

Investigating viewer engagement in esports through motivation and attitudes toward metaverse and NFTs

• Hyeon Jo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7442-4736 1 &
• Seung-A. Shin 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  19934 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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As the esports industry continues its rapid growth, new opportunities such as the metaverse and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are emerging, driven by the inherently digital nature of esports. To better understand viewer engagement in this evolving landscape, this study investigates viewer behavior in the context of watching esports. A survey was conducted on a sample of 312 esports viewers in South Korea, and the data was subsequently analyzed using structural equation modeling. The study's findings indicate that hedonic motivation is significantly correlated with attitudes toward esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse. Furthermore, perceived enjoyment was found to significantly positively influence attitudes toward esports, the metaverse expansion of esports, and the use of esports via NFTs. Notably, attitudes toward esports showed a significant relationship with continuance intention. Both subjective norms and perceived behavioral control were also found to significantly influence continuance intention.

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Introduction.

Over the past few years, esports, known as competitive video gaming, has experienced enormous growth, attracting a global audience of more than 500 million people and generating a projected revenue of $1.5 billion by 2023 1 . Esports has also become a lucrative industry, with professional teams, players, and tournaments attracting significant sponsorships and investments 2 . As esports has grown, significant interest has been sparked in the potential for its expansion into cyberspace, with various stakeholders seeking to monetize this burgeoning industry 3 . The expansion of esports bears significant implications for the industry, leading to increased revenue streams, growth opportunities, and an expanded esports ecosystem 4 , 5 .

Two emerging technologies that are reshaping the esports landscape are the metaverse and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) 6 . The metaverse, a fully immersive and interactive virtual space, has already been utilized for live esports events, offering a novel experience to fans 7 , 8 . For instance, Riot Games hosted the League of Legends World Championship in a virtual venue within the metaverse, allowing fans to interact and engage with the event in a dynamic, digital environment 9 . Similarly, the Fortnite World Cup used the metaverse to create a virtual stadium experience, where fans could watch the tournament live, interact with one another, and even participate in parallel in-game events 10 . While virtual reality (VR) creates isolated, immersive experiences through headsets, the metaverse encompasses a broader, interconnected virtual universe where users can engage in social interactions, economic activities, and content creation 11 . Virtual stadiums in esports exemplify this metaverse concept by allowing users to interact with each other, participate in events, and engage in communal activities, thus going beyond the solitary experience of VR to offer a socially immersive environment. This connectivity and shared experience highlight how virtual stadiums qualify as part of the metaverse.

In the case of NFTs, the esports industry is witnessing a revolutionary change in how digital assets are perceived and monetized 12 . NFTs, stored on blockchain technology, offer unique ownership of digital items. Specifically, the incorporation of NFTs in esports extends to in-game assets 13 , 14 , 15 . A notable example includes Dapper Labs’ NBA Top Shot, where fans can buy, sell, and trade officially licensed NBA collectible highlights as NFTs 16 . Another instance is the collaboration between F1 Delta Time and Animoca Brands, where players purchase, collect, and use NFTs of cars, drivers, and components in the game 17 . Additionally, in the popular game Axie Infinity, players can buy, breed, and trade digital creatures called Axies as NFTs. Each Axie is unique, and some rare breeds have been sold for significant amounts, highlighting the potential for NFTs to create economic value within esports games 18 , 19 . By creating scarcity and exclusivity through NFTs, esports organizations and players may be able to generate new revenue streams and enhance fan engagement. This development presents a range of specific opportunities and challenges across legal, regulatory, and ethical domains. Legally, NFTs provide a clear framework for digital ownership of in-game assets, potentially enhancing intellectual property rights and creating new licensing opportunities 20 . However, they also pose questions regarding the management of these digital rights 21 . From a regulatory standpoint, classifying NFTs as securities or commodities offers a chance for clearer governance and taxation guidelines, yet also introduces ambiguity that necessitates careful consideration 22 . Ethically, while the high energy consumption of blockchain technology, the basis for NFTs, is a notable concern 23 , it also paves the way for the development of more sustainable blockchain solutions. Additionally, integrating NFTs into online games raises ethical considerations around game addiction and microtransactions 21 . The market volatility and potential for speculative bubbles in NFT markets underline the importance of effective risk management strategies 24 . Despite these challenges, the foray of esports into domains such as the metaverse and NFTs calls for an empirical exploration of viewers' attitudes and intentions, providing valuable insights for managers and marketers in the industry.

We employ the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in our study to predict and explain the continuance intention of esports viewers, particularly as it relates to emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs. TPB is ideal for this context as it encompasses three critical factors: attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. These components are particularly relevant for understanding esports viewership, where decisions to continue watching are significantly influenced not only by individual attitudes towards esports, particularly in new formats like the metaverse and NFTs, but also by social influences and the perceived ease or difficulty of accessing these platforms. The adoption of TPB allows us to comprehensively assess how these factors collectively shape viewers' intentions in the rapidly evolving landscape of esports entertainment.

Esports, fundamentally seen as entertainment mediums, are driven by the enjoyment and pleasure viewers derive from watching competitive gaming. Thus, it is conceptually logical to consider hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment as antecedents of attitude toward esports, as well as toward its expansion into the metaverse and utilization via NFTs. Hedonic motivation, defined as the pursuit of pleasure, fun, and enjoyment, inherently influences an individual’s attitude toward esports, shaping their perception of the game’s entertainment value and overall attractiveness 25 . Similarly, perceived enjoyment, which gauges the degree of pleasure or delight experienced while watching esports, significantly shapes their attitude towards its extension into the metaverse or via NFTs. The greater the pleasure derived from esports, the more likely viewers are to possess a positive attitude towards its utilization in new digital domains.

Understanding viewer behavior, particularly their motivations, attitudes, and intentions, is crucial for sports managers to design strategies that drive engagement and foster brand loyalty 26 . The primary variables investigated in this study—including hedonic motivation, perceived enjoyment, attitudes toward esports, the metaverse, and NFTs, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and continuance intention—offer a comprehensive view of viewer behavior. They encompass both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that guide viewers' decisions and actions, shaping their overall engagement with esports and its associated virtual spaces. Insights into these variables can enable marketers to develop targeted campaigns that appeal to viewers' pursuit of pleasure, fostering positive attitudes toward esports and its sustained use. A nuanced understanding of attitudes toward esports, the metaverse, and NFTs can aid in leveraging these innovative platforms for enhancing viewer engagement and participation. Additionally, insights into viewers' continuance intention provide valuable information about their likelihood of participating in extended activities related to esports in a virtual environment.

This study aims to bridge a gap by examining esports fans' attitudes and intentions towards emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs. It delves into esports viewers' perceptions and intentions regarding the expansion of esports into virtual spaces, providing insights crucial for the industry's growth in these domains. While previous research has often focused on the intention to engage with esports 25 , 27 or the potential of virtual spaces 28 , 29 , this study takes a unique approach by empirically analyzing viewers' intentions to use technologies such as the metaverse and NFTs. Additionally, unlike existing studies that predominantly utilize technology acceptance and usage models 25 , 30 , this research applies a general behavioral theory model to explain esports viewers' behavior. This shift in theoretical approach allows for a broader understanding of the motivational factors in esports viewing. A key aspect of this study is the emphasis on the role of pleasure in viewing motivation. It explores the relationship between hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment, concepts linked to the pleasure and satisfaction derived from engaging in activities like esports viewing 30 , 31 , 32 , thus providing deeper insights into why viewers engage in esports and how they interact with these new technologies.

The research questions/objectives of this study are as follows: First, how do hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment influence attitudes towards esports, its expansion into the metaverse, and utilization via NFTs? Second, how do these attitudes impact the continuance intention to view esports? Third, to what extent do subjective norms and perceived behavioral control contribute to the continuance intention of esports viewers? These objectives aim to unravel the complex interplay between viewer motivations, attitudes, and behavioral intentions in the context of emerging digital trends in the esports industry. This study seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of how these factors interact, ultimately offering insights that can inform strategies for enhancing viewer engagement and sustaining the growth of esports in the evolving digital landscape.

Literature review

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the study of esports, and various researchers have attempted to investigate the factors influencing esports consumption behavior. Jang and Byon 30 studied the relationship between media consumption of esports events and esports gameplay, revealing that intention to play esports is influenced by effort expectancy, hedonic motivation, and price value. Additionally, Jang et al. 33 conducted research on the relationship between recreational gameplay and event broadcast, exploring the mediating impact of esports content live streaming. Their study found that the intention of esports content live streaming consumption played a full mediation role in this relationship. In another study, Jang and Byon 32 investigated the moderating effects of genre on the relationship between elements in the UTAUT model and gameplay intention. They identified imagination, physical enactment, and sports simulation as three types of genres and found that the imagination group was statistically different when compared to the physical enactment and sport simulation groups. Additionally, Jang et al. 25 conducted a study on the determinants of intention to play esports by applying the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) model. They found that the interaction between gender and genre moderates the relationship between drivers and esports gameplay intention.

Some studies have suggested motivations for esports spectators or compared them with traditional sports. Zhou et al. 34 conducted a study on the motivation of online spectators in esports and proposed various scales to measure it. They identified skill improvement and vicarious sensation as unique motives in the context of esports, while also noting that entertainment, competition excitement, friends bonding, competitive nature, and dramatic nature align with the motives of traditional sports fans. Using the theory of reasoned action, Xiao 35 investigated the antecedents of esports viewership and found that aesthetics, drama, and escapism influence attitudes, while subjective norms affect behavioral intentions via attitudes. Comparing consumption motives between esports and traditional sports, Lee and Schoenstedt 36 discovered that competition, peer pressure, and skill are significantly related to gameplay. Pizzo et al. 37 compared the spectator motives between esports and traditional sports, suggesting excitement, entertainment, and enjoyment of aggression as motives.

To summarize the above studies, although there have been many studies on the behavior of visitors to esports, few studies have explained the expansion of esports into a virtual space. In addition, several studies have commonly verified hedonic motivation and pleasure as determinants involved in esports. Therefore, this study explains the intention of using esports in a virtual space based on representative preceding factors of esports users.

Esports on metaverse and NFTs

The metaverse refers to a virtual space that is a fully immersive and interactive environment 38 . One potential application of the metaverse in the esports industry is as a platform for live events 39 . Esports tournaments are currently held in physical venues such as stadiums and convention centers, but the metaverse could provide a virtual space for fans to attend events from anywhere in the world. A virtual arena could be created in the metaverse, where fans could watch matches and interact with each other. Another potential application of the metaverse in esports is as a platform for advertising and sponsorships 40 . In-game advertising is already a common feature in many esports titles, but the metaverse could provide an even more immersive advertising experience. Brands could create virtual storefronts or sponsor virtual events, creating a more personalized experience for fans. The metaverse could also provide opportunities for esports teams and organizations to monetize their content 41 . As platforms like Twitch and YouTube have expanded, esports teams and organizations have been able to generate revenue from advertising and sponsorships. The metaverse could provide additional opportunities for teams and organizations to monetize their content, such as selling virtual merchandise or creating virtual events.

The concept of NFTs has recently garnered significant attention in the esports industry, offering revolutionary prospects for content monetization 42 . As distinctive digital assets stored on a blockchain, NFTs have the potential to represent a diverse array of items, from artistic creations to virtual game elements 43 . Their use in esports paves the way for the creation and exchange of unique, rare, and valuable items, free from concerns of duplication, forgery, or fraud 44 . A key application of NFTs in esports is the monetization of in-game assets 45 . Esports games often feature items such as skins, weapons, or characters that players can earn or purchase 46 . NFTs offer a means for players to genuinely own these items and facilitate the creation of rare and unique items that could command high prices. Moreover, esports matches produce extensive data, including highlights, player statistics, and outcomes 47 . NFTs can capture and commodify unique moments in these matches, such as a pivotal play or a championship triumph, selling them as collectibles whose value may appreciate over time. Additionally, NFTs in esports create fan engagement and community-building opportunities. Fans can engage in creating and trading NFTs, fostering a sense of ownership and community around their favorite teams or titles. NFTs can also serve as incentives for fan participation in activities like social media campaigns or event attendance 13 .

The TPB is a widely-used psychological model that aims to explain and predict human behavior 48 . It was first introduced by Ajzen in 1985 as an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). The constructs of TPB include three determinants of behavior: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Attitudes refer to an individual's evaluation of a particular behavior, whether positive or negative. Subjective norms are the social norms and expectations that an individual perceives from their social environment regarding their behavior. Perceived behavioral control relates to an individual's confidence in their capability to execute a behavior effectively. These three determinants, along with behavioral intention, are assumed to predict the actual behavior of an individual.

TPB has been applied to esports in explaining participation behaviors 49 , 50 , 51 . Given that TPB is a robust theory that explains human behavior and has been verified by numerous researchers in the context of esports, this study presents a research model centered on TPB.

Research model

Hedonic motivation.

Hedonic motivation is defined as the enjoyment experienced while participating in esports 30 . It has proven to be the prevailing predictor of esports intention 25 , 30 . Hedonic motivation leads to a positive attitude in online shopping 52 and social media 53 contexts. Consumers of esports are typically fans who choose to play esports games depending on their preferences. People who watch esports for pleasure will want to enjoy the game through more diverse media. They may also expect to encounter esports in metaverse and NFTs, which have something in common with virtual spaces. Accordingly, when viewers experience a higher level of hedonic motivation, they would form a more favorable attitude toward esports, expansion on metaverse, and utilization via NFT. These discussions led to the following hypothesis:

H1a: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward esports.

H1b: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward the expansion on the metaverse.

H1c: Hedonic motivation has a positive impact on attitude toward the utilization via the NFTs.

Perceived enjoyment

Perceived enjoyment can be justified as the degree to which watching esports is deemed to be entertaining, outside of any performance implications 54 . It is the proximal antecedent of attitude 55 , 56 , 57 . This paper distinguishes perceived pleasure from hedonic motivation, drawing upon existing theoretical frameworks. Hedonic motivation refers to the anticipatory pleasure derived from the expectation of engaging in esports viewing 30 , a concept rooted in the desire for enjoyment and entertainment 58 . In contrast, enjoyment pertains to the actual experiential pleasure obtained during or after the viewing 59 , reflecting the real-time emotional response to the activity 60 . These distinctions are critical as they can influence attitude formation towards esports differently. While hedonic motivation influences the initial decision to engage with esports 61 , perceived enjoyment impacts the continued engagement and satisfaction post-experience 62 . Thus, the paper treats these constructs separately, recognizing their unique contributions to the esports viewing experience. Users who have gained greater enjoyment through esports may want more diverse media. They would develop a more positive attitude toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs. Therefore, perceived enjoyment is hypothesized to have an impact on attitudes toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs.

H2a: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward esports.

H2b: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward the expansion on the metaverse.

H2c: Perceived enjoyment has a positive impact on attitude toward utilization of esports through the NFT.

Attitude refers to the positive or negative evaluation or feelings an individual holds toward performing a particular activity 48 . This study seeks to capture viewers' responses accurately by assessing attitudes toward esports, the expansion of esports in the metaverse, and the utilization of esports through NFTs. The objective is to obtain a comprehensive understanding of viewers' perceptions and evaluations in these three domains. Continuance is described as an individual's sustained motivation to put forth effort in line with a deliberate plan 63 . This paper defines continuance intention as the extent to which viewers plan to continue using esports in the future or recommend it to others. In various fields, attitude has been extensively proven to be a critical precursor to behavioral intention 64 , 65 , 66 . Viewers who hold a positive attitude toward esports are more inclined to continue their usage and participate in its expanded presence on the metaverse. Similarly, viewers who exhibit a favorable attitude toward the utilization of esports through NFTs are likely to persist in using esports. Based on these observations, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H3: Attitude to esports has a positive impact on continuance intention.

H4: Attitude to the expansion on the metaverse has a positive impact on continuance intention.

H5: Attitude to the utilization of esports through the NFT has a positive impact on continuance intention.

Subjective norms

According to Ajzen 67 , subjective norms refer to an individual's perception of social pressure to either engage or not engage in a behavior. The relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention has been extensively examined in research 64 , 68 , 69 . When viewers' neighbors support and agree to watch the sport more, they may want to continue it more. Thus, this study proposes that subjective norms drive continuance intention.

H6: Subjective norms have a positive impact on continuance intention.

Perceived behavioral control

Perceived behavioral control is the degree to which an individual believes that they have the ability to perform a particular behavior with ease or difficulty 48 . Its influence on the intention to continue performing a behavior has been widely studied and found to be positively significant 70 . When viewers have more time and resources to use the sport, they try to watch it more consistently. Hence, this study suggests the following hypothesis.

H7: Perceived behavioral control has a positive impact on continuance intention.

Figure  1 illustrates the research model employed in this paper. The study proposes that hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment have a significant impact on attitudes toward esports, attitudes toward expansion on the metaverse, and attitudes toward utilization through NFTs. These three types of attitudes, in turn, influence continuance intention. Moreover, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are posited to exert an influence on continuance intention. To maintain brevity, this study uses the abbreviations "attitude to esports" for "attitude toward esports," "attitude to metaverse" for "attitude toward the expansion of esports in the metaverse", and "attitude to NFT" for "attitude toward the utilization of esports through NFTs".

Research framework.

Empirical methodology

This research was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Instrument development

To ensure the research model's factors' validity, this paper sourced survey questions from existing literature, specifically media and human behavior, and modified them to fit the esports case. The author created the questionnaire, which was then translated from English to Korean by a Korean expert fluent in English. The response results were translated back into English, and the two English versions were adjusted for minor differences by the author. Academic and industry professionals in the social sciences refined the questionnaire for content validity. A pilot survey was conducted to check the measures' validity and reliability and ensure a logical arrangement of questions. Feedback from the preliminary review and pilot study was essential in clarifying the final questionnaire. All items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." Table 1 presents all the constructs' measurement items.

Data collection

The study used an online survey to collect empirical data and test the theoretical framework. The survey was conducted through a market research institute in Korea with professional expertise in data collection. Before disseminating the main survey in June 2022, the institute implemented a set of screening questions to ensure the participants had relevant experience or awareness related to the study's focus. These screening questions included: "Have you ever experienced e-sports?", "What sports have you watched or attended?", "Do you have knowledge about metaverse", and "Do you have knowledge about NFTs?" Only those respondents who provided affirmative and relevant answers to these screening questions were directed to the main survey. This process ensured that the participants were adequately qualified and representative of the target population interested in esports, the metaverse, and NFTs, thereby enhancing the validity and reliability of the study outcomes. Participants were informed about the study's purpose and academic publication before agreeing to participate. After removing incomplete responses, the study analyzed a total of 312 responses. Among the final sample, 275 (88.1%) were male and 37 (11.9%) were female. The age group with the highest frequency was those in their 40 s with 115 (36.9%), followed by those in their 30 s with 110 (35.3%). Most of the respondents had a bachelor's degree (242, 77.6%). Most of the respondents earned between 2.5 million won and 5.0 million won per year. Table 2 describes the sample's demographic characteristics.

Ethical approval

The research subject is unspecified, and the information collected through the research does not contain sensitive information in accordance with Article 23 of the Personal Information Protection Act of Korea and is exempted from IRB of HJ Institute of Technology and Management.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent to participate

Consent to participate was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Research results

In this study, the theoretical framework was analyzed using the SmartPLS method, which is widely used in the social science field due to its robustness and less restriction on data distribution and sample size 75 , 76 . The analysis and interpretation were divided into two stages, assessing the reliability and validity of the measurement model and the structural model.

Common method bias (CMB)

CMB is a potential issue in data collection where the same method used can lead to an artificial inflation in the association among variables. To evaluate if this study was affected by common method bias, we adhered to the guidelines provided by Podsakoff et al. 77 . These guidelines suggest that we can control for the impact of an unmeasured latent method factor by introducing an unmeasured latent variable in our model that impacts all the items alongside their substantive construct. The quality of fit indices of the model was then compared both with and without this method factor. In our revised model, the substantive constructs were permitted to correlate with the method factor. If the model with the method factor showed a better fit and if a considerable amount of variance in the items could be explained by the method factor, it would signify the presence of common method bias. However, our analysis results suggested that our data was not impacted by CMB, thereby indicating the reliability and validity of the study's measures.

Measurement model

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Composite reliability and Cronbach's alpha were used to assess scale reliability, with results indicating good internal consistency 78 . Convergent validity was found to be acceptable, with factor loadings ranging from 0.669 to 0.934, and all statistically significant at the p = 0.05 level, supporting the presence of convergent validity 79 . Also, the average variance extracted (AVE) was well over 0.5, presenting a satisfactory level of convergent validity 80 . Table 3 describes the test results of reliability and validity.

Table 4 shows the test results of Fornell and Larcker 80 criterion. Overall, diagonal matrix values are greater than those of the same row and column, thus satisfying the adequate level of discriminant validity.

Testing of hypotheses

The study used partial least squares structural equation modeling to evaluate the proposed relationships among the constructs, and the bootstrap resampling method was employed with 5000 resamples to determine the significance of the path coefficients in the theoretical framework. The findings of the analysis are illustrated in Fig.  2 .

The path coefficients of the research model.

Table 5 presents the results of the hypothesis testing for this study. Overall, the theoretical model accounted for approximately 71.2 percent of the variation in continuance intention.

The finding that hedonic motivation significantly correlates with attitudes toward esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse, but not with the utilization of esports via NFTs, offers several notable implications. Hedonic motivation, or the pursuit of pleasure, is known to drive individuals' engagement in leisure activities 81 . This finding suggests that the enjoyment derived from esports significantly influences how viewers perceive esports and its manifestation in the metaverse. For esports managers and marketers, this emphasizes the importance of heightening the entertainment value of esports content and its metaverse extensions to boost positive attitudes and engagement. However, the non-significant relationship with attitudes toward NFTs may indicate that viewers perceive NFTs as more of a financial endeavor than a source of pleasure 82 . Hence, when marketing NFT-related esports initiatives, the focus might need to shift toward presenting NFTs as valuable investments or exclusive perks rather than purely entertainment-based offerings. Future research might delve deeper into the nuanced perceptions of NFTs in esports to yield further insights.

The findings reveal that perceived enjoyment significantly positively influences attitudes toward esports, the metaverse expansion of esports, and the use of esports via NFTs. This is consistent with previous research that highlights enjoyment as a critical factor in fostering positive attitudes in online gaming contexts 55 , 56 , 57 . This could be due to viewers deriving greater pleasure from esports, which in turn cultivates a positive attitude towards esports and its commercialization in virtual space. Intriguingly, perceived enjoyment plays a different role from that of hedonic motivation. This study sought to discern and validate the distinction between motivation and experience. The results empirically highlight that the experience obtained plays a more crucial role than the motivation of viewers in shaping attitudes. For marketers, these results emphasize the need to create enjoyable esports experiences, whether in traditional formats, metaverse expansions, or NFT-based platforms. Strategies could include immersive storytelling, interactive features, or community-building initiatives.

The results reveal that attitudes toward esports significantly influence continuance intention, which aligns with previous research 64 , 65 , 83 , suggesting that positive attitudes towards a behavior enhance the intention to perform that behavior. This implies that viewers with a positive attitude towards esports are more likely to continue viewing. Therefore, marketers should aim to reinforce these positive attitudes through various strategies, such as improving the quality of broadcasts, creating engaging content, and building vibrant esports communities.

On the other hand, attitudes toward the expansion of esports into the metaverse and the utilization of esports through NFTs do not significantly impact continuance intention. The finding that attitude towards the metaverse has a negligible and non-significant impact on continuance intention in esports challenges some prevailing assumptions about the influence of new technologies on viewer behavior. This divergence from previous research, such as Hsu and Lin 84 ’s study, which found a positive relationship between attitudes towards innovative technologies and continuance intention, is notable. It suggests that viewers who primarily seek pure enjoyment from esports may harbor reservations about its commercialization in the metaverse. Although statistically insignificant, this slight negative correlation could indicate subtle discomfort or skepticism among these viewers towards the commercial integration of the metaverse in esports. It implies that for some fans, the essence of esports lies in its entertainment value, and the commercial aspects, especially on novel platforms like the metaverse, might not align with their reasons for continued engagement.

Similarly, the finding that attitude towards NFTs does not significantly affect continuance intention in esports viewing offers another interesting perspective. Contrasting with the anticipated impacts suggested in the literature 27 , where new technological phenomena were expected to significantly influence user engagement behaviors, the influence of NFTs on continuance intention can be interpreted similarly to that of the metaverse. This suggests that some viewers might have reservations about the commercialization aspect represented by NFTs, potentially neutralizing their intention to continue using or engaging with esports platforms. This ambivalence among a segment of the audience could be a contributing factor to the statistically insignificant result observed. Additionally, it may suggest that NFTs, being relatively less known than the metaverse, elicit a lesser degree of resistance or skepticism among viewers. Therefore, it appears that while both NFTs and the metaverse are emerging technologies in the esports context, their relative familiarity to viewers might influence their attitudes and, subsequently, their intentions to continue engaging with esports.

The study confirmed that subjective norms impact continuance intention, aligning with previous research 64 , 68 , 69 . The significant effect of subjective norms on continuance intention, observed in this study, suggests that these social influences play a crucial role in the viewer's decision to persist in engaging with esports content. The more supportive the individuals perceive these significant others to be towards their esports viewing behavior, the more likely they are to continue doing so. This finding could be due to the communal nature of esports, where social interactions, discussions, and shared experiences significantly enhance the overall enjoyment of the activity. These factors contribute to an environment that fosters continued engagement. Furthermore, this finding aligns with the TPB, which postulates that subjective norms, along with attitudes and perceived behavioral control, are key determinants of an individual's behavioral intentions. In the context of this study, it underlines the importance of considering social influences when designing strategies to retain esports viewers and promote sustained engagement.

Perceived behavioral control was found to significantly influence continuance intention, aligning with existing studies 70 . This finding is also in line with the TPB, which posits that perceived behavioral control is a key determinant of an individual's intention to perform a particular behavior. In the esports environment, this translates to the viewers' belief in their ability to access and navigate esports content, understand game mechanics, follow competitions, and participate in associated communities. When viewers perceive a high level of control over these factors, they are more likely to continue their engagement with esports. From a practical standpoint, these findings suggest that strategies aimed at enhancing viewers' perceived behavioral control could significantly improve continuance intention. For instance, providing comprehensive resources to help viewers understand games, facilitating easy access to esports content, and ensuring the user interface is intuitive and user-friendly, can enhance viewers' perceptions of control. Moreover, efforts to reduce potential barriers to esports engagement, such as high-cost equipment or limited internet access, may also increase perceived behavioral control. This would involve strategies such as providing options for low-bandwidth streaming or making esports content accessible across a variety of devices.

Finally, our study aligns closely with the findings of Yadav et al. 85 and Yadav et al. 86 , which both emphasize the significant role of blockchain technology in influencing spectator behavior in the esports and sports industries. Yadav et al. 85 utilized a TPB and machine learning approach to analyze netizens' behaviors towards a blockchain-based esports framework, finding a generally positive attitude among users. Similarly, their 2023 study further explored blockchain's potential in sports through social media analytics, underlining the positive sentiment of users towards blockchain adoption in sports. Our research complements these findings by examining how the underlying technology of blockchain, particularly through NFTs, affects spectator adoption behavior in esports. We observe a parallel trend where the technological advancement represented by NFTs in esports also generates significant interest and positive attitudes among spectators, resonating with the optimistic perspectives found in the previous works 85 , 86 . This demonstrates a broader pattern of blockchain technology's growing influence in digital sports consumption and fan engagement.

Theoretical contributions

This research contributes to sport management and marketing literature by integrating the TPB with the concept of hedonic motivation and perceived enjoyment in the context of esports viewership. While TPB has been widely used in various fields, its application in the esports sector is limited 87 . By focusing on esports viewership—a vital component of the esports industry—this study brings new insights to the table. The significant relationships found between hedonic motivation and attitudes towards esports and the utilization of esports in the metaverse highlight the importance of pleasure in driving esports consumption, complementing previous studies that emphasize instrumental factors in predicting esports viewership 27 . It reinforces the notion that esports, like traditional sports, provides not just competitive excitement but also hedonic enjoyment to its viewers.

The second contribution of this study lies in its exploration of new variables—attitudes toward the metaverse expansion and NFT utilization. Prior research in sport management has focused predominantly on conventional platforms and methods of engagement 88 , and our understanding of emerging phenomena like metaverses and NFTs is still in its infancy. The non-significant relationships found between attitudes towards metaverse and NFTs and continuance intention highlight the gap between viewers' interest in these new concepts and their intention to continue viewing esports. This novel finding calls for more research to understand how to bridge this gap and effectively utilize these emerging platforms in the esports industry.

Thirdly, the study demonstrates that subjective norms and perceived behavioral control are significant predictors of continuance intention in the esports context. It echoes previous findings in TPB-based research in sport management 88 , 89 , reinforcing the relevance and applicability of TPB in this emerging sector. This finding also suggests that interpersonal influences and perceived control over behavior are essential considerations for esports marketers. However, unlike previous studies that predominantly focused on participation in sports 90 , this study expands the application of these constructs to viewing behavior in the esports context.

Lastly, the current research asserts the importance of continuance intention in the esports context. Most studies on sport viewership focus on initial adoption, with little attention to continued engagement 8 . This research fills this gap by exploring factors that contribute to continuance intention, offering theoretical insights on how to maintain and increase engagement in the esports industry. Scholars are encouraged to delve deeper into this area, which is crucial for the sustainability and growth of the esports sector.

Practical implications

The first key practical implication drawn from this research centers on the significance of hedonic motivation in driving viewers' attitudes towards esports and the metaverse. It suggests that esports marketers should aim to enhance the pleasure and enjoyment viewers derive from their esports consumption experience. For example, they can create immersive and engaging content, offer interactive features, and build online communities that allow viewers to share their esports experiences 91 . In addition, the development of the metaverse as a new venue for esports presents exciting opportunities for enhancing viewers' hedonic experiences. By offering unique and immersive viewing experiences that traditional platforms cannot provide, metaverse service providers can attract and retain more viewers.

Secondly, the study's findings highlight the need for marketers and industry practitioners to better understand and address the gap between viewers' interest in emerging phenomena like the metaverse and NFTs and their intention to continue viewing esports. For instance, developers can conduct user research to identify potential barriers and enhance the user interface and user experience of these new platforms. Marketers, on the other hand, can invest in educational campaigns to demystify these concepts and help viewers understand the value they bring to their esports viewing experience 92 .

Thirdly, the significant influence of subjective norms and perceived behavioral control on continuance intention implies that marketers should consider these factors in their marketing strategies. They could leverage influencers or esports celebrities to create positive subjective norms around esports viewing, thereby influencing viewers' continuance intention. In addition, providing viewers with easy access to esports content and flexible viewing options can enhance their perceived behavioral control, thus fostering their continuance intention. For instance, marketers could craft an environment that allows users to conveniently access esports through straightforward app operations and encourage sharing recommendations with others 93 .

Lastly, the non-significant relationships between attitudes towards the metaverse and NFTs and continuance intention suggest that these new concepts alone may not be sufficient to drive continuance intention. Marketers and developers should therefore consider integrating these new platforms with other established elements that viewers value in their esports consumption experience. For example, they can leverage NFTs to offer exclusive content or rewards in existing popular esports titles, or use the metaverse to host esports events that also feature real-world celebrities or esports personalities. This way, they can drive continuance intention not just through the novelty of these new platforms, but also through the value they add to the overall esports viewing experience.

Limitations and future research directions

This study, while offering insights into the impact of attitudes towards the metaverse and NFTs on continuance intention in esports, is subject to certain limitations that present avenues for future research. The reliance on self-reported measures introduces potential biases, suggesting the need for future studies to adopt experimental designs for a more robust establishment of causality. Additionally, our research did not delve deeply into the nuanced contextual factors that could influence continuance intention, such as individual differences, situational contexts, and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, future research should consider these contextual elements to gain a more comprehensive understanding of esports viewers' behaviors. An exploration of other relevant factors like perceived enjoyment, satisfaction, and loyalty could also provide a more rounded perspective on what drives continuance intention in esports viewing. Moreover, the cross-sectional nature of our study design limits our ability to infer causal relationships over time. Future studies should consider longitudinal designs to better understand how attitudes towards emerging technologies like the metaverse and NFTs, and their perceived complexities and unfamiliarities, evolve and influence viewer behavior over time. Given the nascent state of research in this area, there is also an opportunity for future studies to investigate the significant impacts of metaverse and NFTs, comparing esports with other contexts to ascertain the uniqueness of its viewer base. Such research could help to clarify whether the results observed in our study are specific to the esports context or are indicative of broader trends in digital entertainment consumption.

This study delves into the complex world of esports viewership, shedding light on the pivotal roles of hedonic motivation, perceived enjoyment, and viewers' attitudes towards both esports and emerging technologies such as the metaverse and NFTs. This research marks a significant step in understanding how these factors collectively influence the continuance intention of viewers, a crucial aspect for sustaining interest in this dynamic field. By methodically examining these elements, the study makes a substantial contribution to our comprehension of the evolving nature of esports viewership in the context of rapid technological advancements.

The findings of this research not only enhance academic understanding in the field of esports but also offer valuable insights for practitioners within the industry. They undersline the importance of aligning esports offerings with viewer motivations and preferences, particularly in the context of new and evolving digital platforms. The study highlights the need for esports entities to innovate continually and adapt to emerging trends in technology to maintain viewer engagement and interest.

Furthermore, this study paves the way for future research, opening avenues to explore the ever-changing interplay between technology and viewer preferences in esports. It calls for a deeper investigation into how emerging technologies can be leveraged to enhance viewer experience and engagement, and how these technologies will shape the future of esports. As the industry continues to grow and evolve, the findings of this study will undoubtedly be a valuable resource for both academics and practitioners in the domain of esports.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Jo, H., Shin, SA. Investigating viewer engagement in esports through motivation and attitudes toward metaverse and NFTs. Sci Rep 14 , 19934 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70847-z

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JSmol Viewer

Analysis of gait kinematics in smart walker-assisted locomotion in immersive virtual reality scenario.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. participants, 2.2. materials, 2.3. ufes vwalker, 2.4. the 3d motion capture system, 2.5. immersive vr scenario, 2.6. experimental protocol, 2.7. variables.

• Stride length (meters): the mean of the distance between two consecutive heel strikes of the same foot in the 10 MWT.
• Stride number: the number of steps in the 10 MWT.
• Gait speed (meters per second): the mean walk velocity in the 10 MWT.
• Cadence (steps per second): the mean number of steps per second in the 10 MWT.
• Stance phase (seconds): the mean time in the stance phase in each gait cycle in the 10 MWT.
• Swing phase (seconds): the mean time in the swing phase in each gait cycle in the 10 MWT.
• Time (seconds): the time to complete the 10 MWT.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

3.1. spatiotemporal parameters, 3.2. hip joint, 3.3. knee joint, 3.4. ankle joint, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.

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Loureiro, M.; Elias, A.; Machado, F.; Bezerra, M.; Zimerer, C.; Mello, R.; Frizera, A. Analysis of Gait Kinematics in Smart Walker-Assisted Locomotion in Immersive Virtual Reality Scenario. Sensors 2024 , 24 , 5534. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175534

Loureiro M, Elias A, Machado F, Bezerra M, Zimerer C, Mello R, Frizera A. Analysis of Gait Kinematics in Smart Walker-Assisted Locomotion in Immersive Virtual Reality Scenario. Sensors . 2024; 24(17):5534. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175534

Loureiro, Matheus, Arlindo Elias, Fabiana Machado, Marcio Bezerra, Carla Zimerer, Ricardo Mello, and Anselmo Frizera. 2024. "Analysis of Gait Kinematics in Smart Walker-Assisted Locomotion in Immersive Virtual Reality Scenario" Sensors 24, no. 17: 5534. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175534

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Design and Effect of Neurosurgical Educational Software Using Gamification on Students' Learning and Motivation

Sedigheh hannani.

1 Department of Operating Room, School of Allied Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

MAHDIEH SALEHI

Fardin amiri, nemam ali azadi.

2 Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Introduction:

Gamification is an innovative learning approach that, when combined with technology, aligns well with students' preferences. Recognizing the necessity of employing effective educational methods in surgical team training, this study aims to examine the impact of gamification-based educational software on students' learning and motivation in the surgical technology field.

This study was conducted as a quasi-experimental single-group pre-and post-test design in Iran in 2023. The study sample comprised 40 undergraduate students majoring in surgical technology, selected through a census method. The educational software is designed according to the nine principles of the model of Karl Kapp and Sharon Buller, using the mechanics, dynamics and aesthetics (MDA) framework. After implementation, the software's impact on students' learning and motivation was assessed. The students' learning levels before and after using the educational software were evaluated using a multiple-choice test. To measure students' motivation, a researcher-developed questionnaire was utilized.  The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to check the normality of the distribution of the studied variables. Through SPSS version 26, descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were analyzed along with inferential statistics, including paired t-tests.

Among the participants, 55% were female, and the sample had a mean age of 22.30±0.99 years. A significant difference was observed between the mean learning scores before and after using the educational software (10.43±4.38 vs. 21±4.11, p < 0.001). The motivation level of the students showed a significant increase.

Conclusion:

Based on the results of this study, gamification-based software has led to improved learning and increased motivation among students in surgical technology.

Introduction

Neurosurgery, specifically brain and nerve surgery, is one of the most challenging and delicate surgical procedures ( 1 ). Medical errors within the surgical team can lead to irreversible complications such as mortality, iatrogenic diseases, and long-term post-neurosurgical complications ( 2 ). Surgical teams involved in neurosurgical procedures require fundamental surgical skills and a profound understanding of neuroanatomy and clinical manifestations of diseases ( 3 ). Despite the rapid advancements in surgical technology, surgical team training has been progressing much slower ( 4 ). One of the most significant challenges in educating surgical technology students is providing effective training that ensures optimal clinical services ( 5 ). In the surgical environment, where conditions change every second, surgical technologists must be trained efficiently to tackle the upcoming challenges effectively ( 6 ). With the emergence and progress of new technologies, the learning needs of digital-era learners have also transformed, rendering traditional teaching methods less effective ( 7 ).

Integrating technology into the educational process proves instrumental in meeting the requirements of the new generation, and one of the most recent technologies involves incorporating gamification techniques into electronic learning environments ( 8 ).

The concept of gamification was first introduced by Nick Pelling in 2002 and has recently gained widespread popularity ( 9 ). Studies indicate that this instructional method has increased tenfold in the past five years ( 10 ). Gartner, the company, defines gamification as using game elements in non-game environments ( 11 ). Implementing gamification in e-learning engages learners, enhances motivation, and improves student learning outcomes ( 12 ). This active and innovative learning approach aligns well with the learning preferences of medical students ( 13 ).

Gamification offers numerous advantages for healthcare service providers, including increased knowledge and job skills, the ability to repeat learning experiences, utilization in adult education, facilitation of the teaching-learning process, feedback provision, enhanced interaction between educators and learners, creating opportunities for participation and engagement, and boosting learners' interest and motivation ( 14 ). Increasing motivation also enhances the overall learning outcomes of learners ( 15 ). Motivation refers to an individual's inclination towards success and engagement in an activity, where success depends on an individual's ability and effort ( 16 ). According to studies, traditional teaching strategies cannot solve learners' lack of motivation ( 17 ). By incorporating various game elements, gamification significantly impacts learners' motivation ( 18 ). While many elements are introduced in effective gamification design, PBL (points, badges, and leaderboards) remains the most popular ( 19 ). One of the foundational theories explaining how gamification works in creating motivation is the self-determination theory presented by Ryan and Deci in 2000 ( 20 ). This theory focuses on three major psychological factors that lead to enthusiasm and motivation for tasks: competence, which refers to an individual's ability and power to adapt to conditions and adjust their effort and skills according to the difficulty level of the challenge; relatedness, which deals with changes in an individual's behavior concerning others and within social contexts; and autonomy, which emphasizes an individual's right to choose and decide without external pressures and constraints ( 21 ).

A review of related literature demonstrates the positive outcomes of gamification in various fields of the medical sciences ( 14 ). For instance, gamification in neurosurgery education improved motivation and performance among surgical residents. Learners in gamified environments exhibited higher speed and fewer errors than the control group ( 22 ). Another study conducted on health, laboratory sciences, and medicine, students showed higher motivation and learning levels in psychology education using gamification methods ( 23 ). Examination of students' feedback and electronic learning management system data indicated that gamification is an appropriate strategy for enhancing motivation among nursing students, although further studies are needed ( 24 ). Also, one study indicates improved learning among surgical technology students using gamification-based educational applications in heart surgery courses ( 25 ). Although adult education gamification studies are increasing, many questions remain unanswered ( 26 ). For instance, there is still uncertainty regarding gamification's effectiveness in various contexts and subject areas, and its effect on motivational outcomes has not remained consistent over time ( 27 , 28 ). Therefore, due to the insufficient evidence and the lack of attention given to the motivational components and player types of surgical technology students, the current study aims to design and investigate the effect of gamification-based neurosurgery software on the learning and motivation of surgical technology students at the Iran University of Medical Sciences (Tehran, Iran).

The present study was a quasi-experimental single-group pre-post-test design. 

Participants

The study was conducted on 40 undergraduate students in the operating room department at the Iran University of Medical Sciences. A gamified educational intervention was conducted in 2023 between May and July. The sampling method used was census sampling.

Inclusion and Exclusion

The inclusion criteria for this study were undergraduate students of the 6th and 8th semesters of surgical technology in the second semester of the academic year 2022-2023 who had successfully passed the theoretical courses on neurosurgery (offered in the 5th semester), expressed willingness to participate in the study, had not previously received training in gamification, were not guest or transfer students, and had access to a personal computer or smartphone. The exclusion criterion for the study was the failure to complete the software stages and questionnaires.

Design and Development of Educational Software

In this study, we applied the nine principles of effective educational game design proposed by Karl Kapp and Sharon Boller ( 29 ) to design and develop educational software for teaching neurosurgery techniques. This web-based software is versatile, compatible with various mobile phones and computers, and can be run on any operating system and screen size.

The stages are as follows:

Stage 1: Introduction and Familiarization with Gamification Fundamentals

In this stage, a deep understanding of the principles and concepts of the gaming and gamification domain was achieved through research, literature review, studying library resources, and conducting research studies.

Stage 2: Playing and Evaluating Educational Games

In this stage, educational games within the field of medical sciences (both domestic and international) were studied and evaluated. Technical and graphic design, game implementation platforms, educational content, etc., were all considered.

Stage 3: Exploration of Educational Games

During this stage, efforts were made to evaluate software and platforms based on gamification in medical sciences, especially focusing on their components and frameworks. The aim was to use the results and experiences from previous studies in the software design.

Stage 4: Defining the Learning Foundation and Initiating the Educational Design Process

Setting Objectives

In this stage, educational objectives were defined, and questions and questionnaires tailored to these objectives were designed and sent to the expert panel for evaluation.

Analysis of Learners' Characteristics

In this stage, demographic profile forms were completed by the participants. Additionally, the Hexad player types questionnaire was used to analyze the players' personalities and the specific components that should be considered alongside general components in game design ( 30 ). The predominant personality traits among the students were Philanthropists, free-spiritedness, and achievement. The components that received more attention alongside the general components included:

• • Philanthropists: Assisting others and sharing knowledge; collecting medals; awareness of game objectives.
• • Free-spirited: exploration, unlocking, the right to choose, being amazed.
• • Achiever: challenges, certifications, learning opportunities, stages.
• • General: game guidance and teaching to learners; feedback; theme; time constraints; rewards; storytelling; replay ability; leaderboard.

Fifth Stage: Linking Learning with Game Design

During this stage, the precise content of the game design document was developed using the Mechanics, Dynamics, and Aesthetics (MDA) framework. This is framework, introduced by Hunicke and colleagues in 2004, is one of the most fundamental and widely accepted frameworks for game design. Mechanics refers to the game's rules and principles (such as challenges, chances, and feedback). Dynamics encompasses the events during gameplay, including narrative, emotions, and progression paths. Aesthetics involve the emotions and feelings a player can experience while playing the game. These elements are essential for understanding systemic thinking and the mutual effects of game elements in non-game contexts ( 31 ).

Type of Game: electronic and web-based that can be run on computers and smartphones.

Goal: The goal of the game is to become a professional surgeon's assistant in the field of neurosurgery by getting the highest score and successfully passing all the stages.

Dynamic: The main dynamic is solving the problem and answering the questions.

Game Mechanics or Rules

Game environment: In this game, by creating a user account, learners must be able to complete each stage of the game, which is set based on the syllabus topics. The game consists of 9 stages; at the beginning, only the first stage will open, to begin with, and to open each stage, players need to successfully complete the previous stages by at least capturing one light. On the left side, the game narrator guides the learners to make decisions in the game environment.

Perform the steps: To pass each stage, at least one light equal to 30% of the points of that stage must be obtained. Otherwise, learners have to play the stage again from the beginning. The game was designed so that if the players needed to leave the game in the middle of each stage, they could answer the questions after returning to the game. Learners received feedback immediately after answering each question, and the correct answer was displayed.

Type of questions: To answer each question, the question was displayed first, and after clicking on "show options", the options containing correct and incorrect answers were displayed. After selecting the desired option or options, if the learner wants to correct his answer, he will click "again". If the answer is approved by clicking on "confirm," the answer will be validated, and the score will be calculated. There was a time limit to answer the questions.

Game Elements Used

• • Point
• • Story
• • Time limitation
• • levels
• • leaderboard
• • Badge
• • Feedback
• • Replay
• • Competition
• • Avatar

Educational content: The educational content related to neurosurgery techniques for the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves was developed by the sources outlined in the undergraduate surgical technology curriculum ( 3 , 6 , 32 , 33 ). The stages of the curriculum encompass basic and advanced concepts, including anatomy, pathology, diagnostic procedures, surgical readiness, instruments and equipment, peripheral nerve surgery, brain surgery, and spinal surgery. The content of the course materials, instructional videos, and specialized terminology were also compiled at this stage. The faculty of the operating room department approved the validity of the educational content.

Sixth Stage: Considering Points and Rewards

In this software, various elements were utilized as rewards, including badges (earned by obtaining 95% of the points in each stage), a three-star system (based on the percentage of correct answers to questions), a score table (for comparing scores), cash prizes (awarded to the top 4 scorers), and certificates (for all individuals who successfully completed the game stages).

Seventh Stage: Prototype Development

In this stage, the game design document and the research team's ideas were shared with the programming team. Together, they collaborated to create the initial version of the software, aligning the game concept with the development process.

Eighth Stage: Playtesting and Iteration

Playtesting refers to the actions taken to improve the game until it reaches the desired state. After creating the initial prototype, the design team thoroughly reviewed the software. The entire process, from start to finish, was meticulously examined, and any necessary modifications were made by both the programmers and the design team. Furthermore, the software was made available to five target users to uncover and rectify any errors or issues in the design that might have gone unnoticed by the designers and programmers.

Ninth Stage: Game Development and Implementation, Iteration, and Deployment

In this stage, one of the researchers visited the research environment and conducted an orientation session on how to use the software and address potential questions from students. Subsequently, an information group was formed on a virtual network (Telegram), accessible to all students, to facilitate necessary communications. It's worth noting that an instructional video on how to use the software and supplementary information were provided within the group for students to refer to if needed. Students were then requested to message the researcher if they were interested in participating, and they would receive the link immediately. Students were given a two-month timeframe to complete the software. During the intervention, the researcher acted as a facilitator, providing necessary guidance and addressing any issues that arose while using the software. Since this software was entirely electronic and the instruction was provided virtually, students were self-directed in progressing through the stages, affording them the utmost flexibility in terms of time and location. After receiving the link and registering on the website, the students first participated in a pre-test to assess their initial knowledge. A week after completing the stages, they were given a post-test for evaluation. The samples were given the researcher's motivation questionnaire once they had finished using the software.

Data Collection Tools

Player Type: The hexad scale was used to assess the player type, introduced by Marczewski and colleagues in 2016 ( 30 ). This questionnaire consists of 24 items and employs a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from "strongly agree" with a score of 5 to "strongly disagree" with a score of 1). The hexad scale categorizes players in gamified environments into six personality types: philanthropists, socializers, free spirits, achievers, players, and disruptors. Each player type is assigned four specific questions, and the category with the highest score indicates the dominant player's personality. 

Assessment of Learning:  The researcher-designed test comprised 30 multiple-choice questions based on the reference sources of the undergraduate surgical technology curriculum. The questions covered topics related to the stages of surgery, including anatomy, clinical manifestations, diagnostic procedures, surgical preparedness, tools and equipment, peripheral nerve surgery, brain surgery, and spinal surgery. Each correct answer received one point, while incorrect or unanswered questions were scored zero. The maximum attainable score was 30, and the minimum was 0. Pre-test questions were completed before the educational intervention, and post-test questions were completed one week after the intervention.

Assessment of Motivation: A researcher-designed motivation questionnaire consisting of 10 items was provided to the students. The motivation questionnaire used a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 for "completely disagree" to 5 for "completely agree"). Scores between 10 and 30 indicated low motivation, 31 to 40 indicated moderate motivation, and 41 to 50 indicated high motivation. The researcher's motivation questionnaire was provided to the samples after they completed the software's steps to measure the software's impact on students' motivation.

Validity and Reliability

Player-type questionnaire: The reliability and validity of this questionnaire in Iran were confirmed by Abdollahzade and Jafari ( 34 ), who obtained a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.72. This study assessed internal consistency and reliability using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The reliability coefficients were determined to be 0.856 for this questionnaire.

Learning question:   To ensure content validity, the content coverage and relevance of the question to the primary objectives were drafted according to the initial blueprint and Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and Content Validity Index (CVI) indices approved by 10 experts in the fields of surgical technology, medical education, and e-learning. We asked an expert to rate each of the items as ‘‘essential’’, ‘‘useful but not essential’’, or ‘‘not essential’’. A weighted value was assigned to each rating. Responses from all panelists were pooled, and the number indicating ‘‘essential’’ for each item was determined. The value of the content validity ratio for 10 experts in the Lawshe table is considered to be at least 0.62. Items that did not reach this threshold were deleted from the final questionnaire. This ratio was in the range of 0.8 to 1 for the final questionnaire items for the CVR.  For the Content Validity Index (CVI), the three criteria of relevance, simplicity, and clarity were examined separately by experts in a four-part spectrum for each of the items (1: unrelated, 2: somewhat relevant, 3: relevant, and 4: completely relevant). The CVI score was calculated by summing the positive scores for each item ranked 3rd and 4th over the total number of experts. Acceptance of items based on CVI was higher than 0.79 ( 35 , 36 ). Construct validity was confirmed by verifying the formulation of questions and options for each question based on the Millman checklist. A Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.870 was obtained for this questionnaire.

Motivation Questionnaire: The content validity (CVR and CVI indices) of this questionnaire was confirmed by 10 experts in surgical technology, medical education, and e-learning. The value of the content validity ratio was in the range of 0.8 to 1 for the questionnaire items. The content validity index of all questionnaire items was above 0.79. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was determined to be 0.948 for the motivation questionnaire.

Statistical Analysis: The results of the Shapiro-Wilk test indicated that the distribution of the study variables is normal ( Table 1 ). Parametric tests were employed for data analysis. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation, as well as inferential statistics, including paired t-tests, in SPSS version 26. A significance level of less than 0.05 was considered. 

Shapiro-Wilk test to determine the normality of Variables

Based on the data collected from 40 research participants, 55% (22 individuals) were female, and 45% (18 individuals) were male. The average age of the sample was 22.30±0.99. As observed in Table 2 , the level of gaming personality traits among surgical technology students has been significantly high in the areas of altruism, freedom, and achievement.

Types of Player Personality Among Surgical Technology Students

As observed in Table 3 , there was a statistically significant difference in the mean scores obtained from the questions related to learning among surgical technology students before and after training (p < 0.001), with the mean scores approximately doubling.

Comparison of the Mean Scores Obtained from Questions Related to Learning Among Surgical Technology Students Before and After Training

As indicated in Table 4 , after the educational intervention, the level of motivation among surgical technology students was predominantly high (19 individuals, equivalent to 47%) and moderate (15 individuals, equivalent to 37.5%).

Motivation Level of Surgical Technology Students

The mean and percentage of students' responses to the motivation questionnaire are shown in Table 5 .

Mean and Percentage of Students' Responses to the Motivation Questionnaire

The results of this study demonstrate that game-based educational software has impacted the learning outcomes of surgical technology students, leading to increased learning. These findings align with the research conducted by Salehinia and colleagues (2023), where they designed, implemented, and evaluated a game-based educational application for cardiac surgery on surgical technology students. The results of this study have shown that with the advancement of technology, the use of innovative methods such as gamification in education leads to improved learning outcomes and enhances the effectiveness of education for surgical technology students ( 25 ). Furthermore, the results of this study align with the research conducted by Mosalanejad and colleagues (2018), which aimed to investigate the effectiveness of game-based education on the learning indices of nursing students. The findings of their study demonstrated that gamification, by creating an interactive and engaging environment, significantly impacts students' learning outcomes ( 37 ). Additionally, our study findings align with the research conducted by McAuliffe and colleagues (2020). Their study aimed to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of game-based education for general surgery residents, revealing that using this instructional method led to enhanced learning outcomes (increasing the average scores from 28 to 43) ( 38 ).

Furthermore, the study by Eslami and colleagues (2020), which aimed to design a game-based educational application for basic drug information targeted at pharmacy students, demonstrated that this application served as a useful tool for learning drug-related information. This instructional method can be employed across various academic disciplines ( 39 ). The traditional roles of teachers and students in teaching and learning have changed nowadays, emphasizing the active participation of learners. When students actively engage in their learning process and construct meaning proactively, a better and deeper learning experience is achieved ( 40 ). Therefore, gamification is among the most active and student-centered educational approaches. It enhances the quality of learning by creating a dynamic environment with visual appeal.

The results of this study also indicate that most surgical technology students (85%) had a high motivation for learning through gamification. Numerous studies have demonstrated that incorporating game elements enhances student motivation. The findings of Mosalanejad and colleagues ( 37 ), who conducted a study to evaluate gamification in the field of psychiatry on a group of medical and paramedical students, showed that when educational content is combined with appropriate game elements, it significantly boosts learners' motivation (mean>2.5) ( 21 ). Furthermore, Permanasari and colleagues (2021) conducted a study in Indonesia to teach anatomy to medical science students through gamification. They concluded that educational media based on gamification, incorporating elements such as rankings and scores, significantly enhances students' motivation ( 41 ). The study conducted by Felszeghy and colleagues (2019) aimed to examine the impact of the gamified online platform (Kahoot) on medical and dental students in the histology course. The study demonstrated that gamification increased motivation for learning in 77.5% of the participants ( 42 ). Based on the findings of our study and in line with our self-determination theory, we found that learners, by answering questions and facing challenges presented in the educational software and progressing through stages to acquire the necessary knowledge, felt a sense of competence and capability in the scientific (77.5%) and practical (70%) aspects. They expressed that the software effectively increased their participation in the operating room environment (65%). Regarding learner interaction, due to the elements present in gamification, such as immediate feedback (77%) and a leaderboard (77.5%), participants made efforts to improve their performance and rectify errors. Furthermore, learners expressed that they put in their utmost effort to succeed in the learning process within the software (70%). Regarding autonomy, given the flexibility of time and place in the software and its student-centered nature, learners could guide their learning process without external pressure or constraints (72.5%). Despite the positive effects of gamification in health profession education, some studies have also pointed out unintended consequences ( 10 ). For example, some studies have mentioned that certain components, like competition and scoring tables, might decrease motivation for some students ( 43 , 44 ). The results obtained in these studies could be because students with weaker performance may feel discouraged and demotivated when they see their low rank and score compared to others. Another reason for decreased motivation could be the lack of attention to motivational components tailored to learners' preferences and personality traits. The findings of the present study indicated that elements such as points (77.5%), immediate feedback (77%), leaderboards (77.5%), stages (77.5%), and challenges (57.5%) were effective in increasing student motivation. Therefore, considering that most studies demonstrate the positive impact of gamification on learners' motivation levels, it can be concluded that when educational content is combined with appropriate game elements, and learners have control over their learning process, they will exhibit high motivation.

 According to the results of the present study, the students' predominant personality traits were Philanthropists, free-spiritedness, and achievement. We tried to use game components suitable for the type of player in the gamification design. In various studies, students' game personalities have been investigated. For example, in a study by Kocadere and Çağlar (2018), player types were determined as killer, achiever, explorer, and socializer ( 45 ). In the study by Krath and von Korflesch (2021), athletes and philanthropists were the most dominant ( 46 ). Certainly, according to demographic characteristics (such as age, gender, field of study, etc.) and educational content, students have individual player types. It is important to pay attention to the personality characteristics of students in gamification design to create motivation and better learning.

Strengths and Limitations

In this study, we endeavored to design game-based educational software in an effective and student-centered manner, considering the personality traits of widespread gamers and the nine gamification principles. The web-based educational software we developed was compatible with various operating systems. We also extracted several motivational components and their impact percentages on students. It was a prerequisite for the participants to have completed a comprehensive theoretical unit on brain and nerve surgery before engaging with the software. The research sample was limited to 6th and 8th-semester surgical technology students at Iran University of Medical Sciences. Also, one of the limitations of our study was that it was carried out in a single group.  

Recommendations for Future Studies

Future studies can be conducted with a larger sample size and the inclusion of a control group. Additionally, it is possible to utilize game-based software in blended learning and face-to-face instruction.

The results of this study demonstrated that game-based software significantly influenced the enhancement of learning and increased motivation among surgical technology students. In today's world, technology has impacted all fields, and education is no exception. Technology creates new opportunities for educating digital-native students. Gamification is an innovative and active educational approach that optimizes and makes learning engaging, offering substantial potential for fostering self-directed learning in learners. Integrating technology and gamification elements in e-learning environments enhances the enjoyment of learning and improves learners' motivation, potentially positively affecting personal and professional development. Educational specialists and designers can apply the findings of this research in all medical-related fields, especially surgical technology. Further studies in this area are warranted to explore its full potential.

Ethical Considerations and Acknowledgments

This research was conducted under the ethical code IR.IUMS.RES.1402.102, approved by the Operating Room Department of the Iran University of Medical Sciences, as part of a Master's thesis. The financial support provided by the Research Deputy of this university is gratefully acknowledged. The researchers now express their sincere gratitude to the students who participated in this study.

Authors’ Contribution

Conceptualization and supervision: S.H. and M.S. Data collection: M.S.; statistical analysis: N.A.A.; investigation: M.S.; methodology: F.A. and M.S.; resources: M.S.; software: M.S. and S.H. The final manuscript has been read and approved by all authors, who agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Conflict of Interest

The authors reported no potential conflicts of interest.