criminology meaning essay

1.2 What Is Criminology?

“Trying to understand the behavior of some people is like trying to smell the color 9.”

Janis Ian, activist and singer/songwriter

Criminology can be described as trying to understand people’s behavior as it relates to crime. Janis Ian’s quote humorously shows how challenging that can be. Still, it is this effort that sets criminology apart from criminal justice in terms of focus, approach, and perspective.

First, what is criminology exactly? Criminology  is the study of crime and why it happens. It considers individual factors and societal factors to better understand what drives someone to commit a crime. Once we, as a society, understand the why , we can address that cause and stop it in its tracks. With this goal in mind, criminologists look at crime from many perspectives—psychological, sociological, economic, political, biological, and more.

We can see criminology in action when criminologists attempt to break down why there has been an increase in violent crime since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically gun violence in Portland, Oregon, as described in the Chapter Overview. Criminologists are looking at what happened during the pandemic to figure out what caused the increase in crime, what the impacts of the crimes were, and what needs to change based on what they learn. Again, they do this with the belief that if they know why crime is happening, they can figure out how to prevent it.

1.2.1 Criminology and Criminal Justice Perspectives

Edwin Sutherland, one originator of this approach to understanding crime, explained criminology as the scientific study of breaking the law, making the law, and society’s reaction to those who break the law (1934). With a focus on crime and law, how is criminology different from criminal justice?

In the simplest terms, criminal justice is the what  and criminology is the why . Criminal justice  is the system that deals with crime and its consequences. It is made up of the three Cs—cops, courts, and corrections. Although the criminal justice system is essential for addressing crime, it is not set up for analyzing and addressing why the crime occurred in the first place. Rather, the criminal justice system is tasked with addressing the crime itself through law enforcement, the courts, and corrections.

Criminology, on the other hand, focuses on understanding crime. It is important for criminal justice and criminology to work hand in hand to have a positive impact on public safety, which is the goal of both areas and everyone involved in these fields. From the criminal justice perspective, when we talk about why , we are often talking about motive. However, from the criminology perspective, when we talk about why , we are talking about causes.

Let’s go back to the example in the Chapter Overview to see how the same phenomenon of an increase in gun violence in Portland is looked at differently through a criminal justice lens versus a criminology lens. In figure 1.2, the column on the left, Criminal Justice Perspective, lists several potential reasons those in law enforcement, the courts, and others focused on addressing crime may consider. The column on the right, Criminology Perspective, lists several potential reasons someone analyzing why this crime is happening in the first place may consider. As you can see, there is no simple answer on either side.

Figure 1.2. Criminal Justice and Criminology Perspectives on the Increase in Gun Violence in Portland, Oregon during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Consider how these different perspectives could lead to different attempts at solutions. What action might someone in a leadership position decide to take if they believe the cause of the increased gun violence in Portland is due to budget cuts in the police department? Compare this to the action they might take if they believe the cause is a lack of a safe place for teenagers to hang out in neighborhoods where gun violence is the highest.

Criminologists base their understanding of causes for crime on existing theories in psychology, sociology, economics, politics, and biology. Then they create new theories with the goal of painting an even clearer picture. We will discuss what it takes to create a theory and what that process looks like in the next section.

1.2.2 Licenses and Attributions for What is Criminology?

“What is Criminology?” by Taryn VanderPyl is licensed under CC BY 4.0 .

Figure 1.2. Criminal Justice and Criminology Perspectives Table by Taryn VanderPyl is licensed under CC BY 4.0 .

 Introduction to Criminology Copyright © by Taryn VanderPyl. All Rights Reserved.

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criminology , scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime and delinquency , including its causes, correction, and prevention, from the viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as anthropology , biology, psychology and psychiatry , economics , sociology , and statistics.

Viewed from a legal perspective, the term crime refers to individual criminal actions (e.g., a burglary ) and the societal response to those actions (e.g., a sentence of three years in prison ). By comparison, the field of criminology incorporates and examines broader knowledge about crime and criminals. For example, criminologists have attempted to understand why some people are more or less likely to engage in criminal or delinquent behaviour. Criminologists have also examined and attempted to explain differences in crime rates and the criminal code between societies and changes in rates and laws over time.

Many criminologists consider themselves to be neutral public policy experts, gathering facts for various governmental officials responsible for drawing policy conclusions. However, some criminologists—like their counterparts in such fields as the atomic and nuclear sciences—maintain that scientists must shoulder responsibility for the moral and political consequences of their research. Thus, some criminologists have actively campaigned against capital punishment and have advocated in favour of various legal reforms. Criminologists who oppose this activist role contend that the findings of criminological research must be weighed along with political, social, religious, and moral arguments, a task best left to political bodies. Not denying the right of criminologists to express their opinions as ordinary citizens and voters, this view nonetheless maintains that a government by popular will is less dangerous than a government by experts.

In the last decades of the 20th century, criminology grew to encompass a number of specialized study areas. One of these was criminalistics, or scientific crime detection, which involves such measures as photography, toxicology , fingerprint study, and DNA evidence ( see also DNA fingerprinting ). It had previously been excluded from criminology because of its focus on particular criminal actions rather than on the broader knowledge about crime and criminals. Criminology further expanded its reach by devoting significant attention to victimology , or the study of the victims of crime, the relationships between victims and criminals, and the role of victims in the criminal events themselves. Criminal justice has also emerged as a separate but closely related academic field, focusing on the structure and functioning of criminal justice agencies—including the police , courts , corrections, and juvenile agencies—rather than on explanations of crime. ( See juvenile justice .)

The relationship of criminology to various other disciplines has resulted in considerable diversity in its academic placement within universities. Universities in Europe have tended to treat criminology as part of legal education , even in circumstances where its principal teachers were not lawyers. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Institute of Criminology is part of the law faculty of the University of Cambridge; in other schools criminological research and teaching have usually been divided between departments of sociology or social administration, law faculties, and institutes of psychiatry. In South America the anthropological and medical elements predominate, and in the United States , though there has been a trend toward housing criminology and criminal justice in separate multidisciplinary departments, criminology has most often been situated in departments of sociology.

Criminology developed in the late 18th century, when various movements, imbued with humanitarianism , questioned the cruelty, arbitrariness, and inefficiency of the criminal justice and prison systems. During this period reformers such as Cesare Beccaria in Italy and Sir Samuel Romilly , John Howard , and Jeremy Bentham in England, all representing the so-called classical school of criminology, sought penological and legal reform rather than criminological knowledge. Their principal aims were to mitigate legal penalties, to compel judges to observe the principle of nulla poena sine lege (Latin: “ due process of law”), to reduce the application of capital punishment, and to humanize penal institutions. They were moderately successful, but, in their desire to make criminal justice more “just,” they tried to construct rather abstract and artificial equations between crimes and penalties, ignoring the personal characteristics and needs of the individual criminal defendant. Moreover, the object of punishment was primarily retribution and secondarily deterrence , with reformation lagging far behind.

In the early 19th century the first annual national crime statistics were published in France. Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874), a Belgian mathematician, statistician, and sociologist who was among the first to analyze these statistics, found considerable regularity in them (e.g., in the number of people accused of crimes each year, the number convicted, the ratio of men to women, and the distribution of offenders by age). From these patterns he concluded that “there must be an order to those things which…are reproduced with astonishing constancy, and always in the same way.” Later, Quetelet argued that criminal behaviour was the result of society’s structure, maintaining that society “prepares the crime, and the guilty are only the instruments by which it is executed.”

Whereas Quetelet focused on the characteristics of societies and attempted to explain their resulting crime rates, the Italian medical doctor Cesare Lombroso (1836–1909) studied individual criminals in order to determine why they committed crimes. Some of his investigations led him to conclude that people with certain cranial, skeletal, and neurological malformations were “born criminal” because they were biological throwbacks to an earlier evolutionary stage. Highly controversial at the time he presented it, his theory was ultimately rejected by social scientists. Lombroso also contended that there were multiple causes of crime and that most offenders were not born criminal but instead were shaped by their environment . The research of both Quetelet and Lombroso emphasized the search for the causes of crime—a focus that criminology has retained.

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Home / Online Bachelor’s Degree Programs / Accredited Online Criminal Justice & Criminology Degree / Bachelor of Arts in Criminal Justice Resources / What Is Criminology? The Study of Crime and Criminal Minds

What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind What is criminology? The study of crime and the criminal mind

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Tables of Contents

• Criminology Definition and History
• Criminology Theories
• Criminology vs. Criminal Justice

Careers in Criminology: Salary and Job Outlook

• Crime Statistics and Key Insights

In a time when the U.S. criminal justice system is under a microscope, criminologists are playing a key role in establishing a more equitable, science-based understanding of crime, policy, and social justice. Applying their theoretical knowledge and practical experience, professionals in this field support and strengthen the work of law enforcement agencies and legal professionals.

But what is criminology, really? This article will explore the many components of this rapidly evolving discipline and offer insights on how to pursue a variety of criminology careers.

Criminology definition and history

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, informed by principles of sociology and other non-legal fields, including psychology, economics, statistics, and anthropology.

Criminologists examine a variety of related areas , including:

• Characteristics of people who commit crimes
• Reasons why people commit crimes
• Effects of crime on individuals and communities
• Methods for preventing crime

Origins of criminology

The  roots of criminology  trace back to a movement to reform criminal justice and penal systems more than 200 years ago. The first collection and use of crime statistics in the 19th century then laid the groundwork for generations of increasingly sophisticated tools and methods, leading to our modern use of descriptive statistics, case studies, typologies, and predictive analytics.

18th-century origins of criminal theory

Cesare Beccaria’s “On Crime and Punishments,” published in 1764, called for  fitting the punishment to the severity of the crimes , as explained by the National Criminal Justice Reference Service.

• Punishments for crimes should be “public, prompt, necessary, the minimum possible under the given circumstances, and established by law.”
• Punishments are intended to deter the offender from further criminal activity.
• Severity is based on the level of harm caused by the offense rather than the intent of the offender.

The legal reference website JRank highlights the work of Beccaria and Jeremy Benthem: The motivation for people’s choices is to seek pleasure or avoid pain.  Punishment for a crime  should deter potential choices to break the law by ensuring that the pain of potential punishment is greater than the pleasure derived from committing the crime. This idea spurred the first efforts in the U.S. and Europe to codify and standardize the law.

Mid-20th century development of modern criminology

The mid-20th century development of  “modern” criminology  involved seeking to understand crime’s causes by studying sociological, psychological, and economic conditions. The American Law Institute’s work on the  Model Penal Code  was a 10-year effort completed in 1962. The code established new standards of criminal liability that considered the mental elements of crime.

The code served as a model for penal code revisions in several states. It was also instrumental in charting the federal penal code for the first time. The code inspired other efforts to reform criminal law through criminology research application.

“New Criminology” and the impact of social upheaval on crime

In the 20th century, new approaches to criminology focused on the causes of crime, such as  conflicts between social and economic classes leading to social upheaval , as JRank explains. Social-process criminology emphasizes criminal behavior as something people learn through interaction with others, usually in small groups.

In contrast, control theory focuses on training people to behave appropriately by encouraging law-abiding behavior. Control theory’s basis is the belief that personal bonds give rise to our internal controls, such as conscience and guilt, and our external controls, such as shame, that deter us from breaking the law.

A multidisciplinary approach to criminology

In their research, criminologists consider many perspectives on crime’s causes and effects. This  multidisciplinary approach of criminologists  accepts there is no single answer to why people commit crimes. JRank notes attempts to control bad behavior date back to the earliest civilizations. Today, factors may be biological, psychological, economic, or social. Criminals are motivated by greed, anger, jealousy, pride, and other emotions. They seek material gain; they want control, revenge, or power.

Potential causes of or motivations for criminal activity include:

• Parental relations
• Hereditary and brain activity
• Peer influence
• Drugs and alcohol
• Easy opportunity

Criminology and the legal perspective

Criminologists study crime as an illegal action society punishes through the government’s legal system. Researchers focus on the causes, prevention, and correction of crime generally. By contrast, the legal industry’s perspective of crime emphasizes specific crimes and punishments governed by statutes and regulations, as well as established legal processes.

The legal definition of a crime is  an offense against public law , as UpCounsel explains. To qualify as a crime, the offense must be punishable, whether by fine, loss of freedom, or other method.  Criminologists have broadened the definition of crime  to include conduct that doesn’t violate existing law, as JRank reports. This includes economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and unsafe or unhealthy work environments.

Criminology resources

• The Internet Journal of Criminology  — Links to government organizations, national and international organizations, academic institutions, and other criminology resources
• Critical Criminology  — A compilation of resources that examine law, crime, and justice from the perspective of people of color, women, restorative efforts, and community justice
• S. Department of Justice, National Criminal Intelligence Resource Center  — Links to criminal justice professional associations and groups that assist law enforcement in establishing policies, standards, training, and education

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Criminology Theories: Classical, Positivist, and Chicago School

Research into criminology theories is primarily sociological or psychological.  Sociological theories of criminology  perceive crime as a normal human response to social conditions that are “abnormal and criminogenic,” according to JRank.

Psychological theories of criminology  date back to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Crime results from a failure to form healthy and loving attachments to parents. Behavioral psychology introduced the concept of rewards and punishments: A rewarded crime is repeated; a punished crime is not.

Three principal approaches to criminology

Today, three criminology theories predominate: the Classical, Positivist, and Chicago schools.

• The Classical School argues that people freely choose to engage in crime.  Bentham’s utilitarianism theory  states they are driven either by a desire for pleasure or by aversion to pain, as the Oxford University Press states.
• The Positivist School applies scientific theory to criminology. It focuses on factors that compel people to commit crimes.
• The Chicago School states that crime results from “ social disorganization ,” which is defined in the Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice as “the inability of a community to realize common values and maintain effective social controls.”

Criminology’s impact on reducing and preventing crimes

Two statistical programs run by the DOJ demonstrate the  impact that criminological studies have had on responding to, reducing, and preventing crimes .

• The Uniform Crime Reporting program (UCR) collects information from law enforcement agencies across the country on dozens of crimes. It is intended to assist researchers in studying crime among neighboring jurisdictions and those with similar populations or other characteristics.
• The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) analyzes crime incidents, victims, and trends. It collects data on reported and unreported crimes and provides researchers with demographic data on perpetrators and victims.

Research conducted by the Minnesota House Research Department  studied the effectiveness of the theory of criminal deterrence , which dates back to the 18th century. It reached three conclusions:

• Deterrence is most effective for preplanned crimes.
• Making already-long prison sentences even longer does little to deter crime.
• Increasing the likelihood of getting caught is a more effective crime deterrent than increasing punishment.

Criminology and society’s treatment of criminals and victims

Little attention was paid to the needs of crime victims until the 1970s, when the DOJ’s National Institute of Justice (NIJ) determined that a  primary reason for unsuccessful prosecutions  was the poor treatment of witnesses and victims by the criminal justice system. Since that time, legislation and law enforcement programs, including the Violence Against Women Act of 1990, have worked to protect and assist victims and witnesses.

Similarly, criminology research has affected how criminals are treated in custody. The American Bar Association (ABA) has developed  Standards on Treatment of Prisoners  that describe correctional policies and professional standards that comply with constitutional and statutory law.

Criminology has also highlighted the real cost of crimes on individuals, families, and communities. The 2017 report  “Costs of Crime”  from the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that new study methods will improve the accuracy of crime cost estimates, particularly in the area of compensating victims for their pain and suffering.

Criminology theory resources

• “Predicting Pathways into Criminal Behavior: The Intersection of Race, Gender, Poverty, Psychological Factors”  investigates the factors involved in women’s involvement in criminal activity, including economic disadvantage related to education and employment.
• The National Institute of Justice discusses mapping in law enforcement in this paper:  “From Crime Mapping to Crime Forecasting: The Evolution of Place-Based Policing” .

Criminology vs. criminal justice: what’s the difference?

The  primary distinction when it comes to criminology vs criminal justice  is the former’s emphasis on the study of crime and the latter’s focus on society’s response to crime, as the Balance Careers explains. Criminal justice applies principles and concepts developed by criminologists to enforcing laws and investigating crimes, as well as to the trial, punishment, and rehabilitation of criminals.

Criminal justice definition

The Legal Dictionary  defines criminal justice  as a set of procedures:

• Investigating criminal conduct
• Gathering evidence of the crime
• Making arrests
• Bringing charges in court
• Raising defenses
• Conducting trials
• Rendering sentences
• Carrying out punishments

By contrast, its definition of criminology emphasizes the scientific and academic aspects of the field’s study of crime, criminal behavior, and law enforcement. Criminal justice includes the work of:

• Criminal courts
• Prisons and other correctional institutions
• Juvenile justice systems

Criminal justice and effective law enforcement

In the 20th century, the  field of criminal justice arose  as an effort to improve the effectiveness of law enforcement in light of expanding due process and other rights for criminal defendants, as Encyclopedia Britannica explains. The study of criminal justice expanded in the 1980s and 1990s in the form of qualitative descriptive analyses of the operations of specific criminal justice agencies.

More recent research in criminal justice emphasizes quantitative studies about the effectiveness of particular crime-fighting strategies and approaches. Researchers have studied whether an abusive spouse’s arrest prevents future incidents of abuse, and whether prison rehabilitation programs are effective in reducing recidivism.

One area of criminal justice research proven to be ineffective is the effort to predict which offenders are most likely to commit other crimes. Not only were models unable to identify habitual offenders, but researchers were questioned about whether such efforts violated people’s constitutional rights. The fear is that offenders may be punished not for what they had done but for what they might do in the future.

Such issues are at the forefront of modern discussions about the relationships between civil rights and law enforcement. With numerous  studies indicating a need to address systemic racism  in many corners of the justice system, future criminologists will play an important part in creating a more equitable framework for crime prevention.

Criminology and criminal justice work together to fight crime

Criminal justice and criminology are distinct fields, but they’re closely linked, theoretically and practically. From the viewpoint of potential criminologists and law enforcement professionals, the big difference is criminology’s focus on science and research, and criminal justice’s emphasis on application and administration.

For example, criminologists respond to a rise in homicides by studying underlying economic, sociological, and psychological conditions. By contrast, criminal justice officials respond by working to prevent future homicides and capture the perpetrators.

The two fields merge in  applied criminology , which studies “real-world” problems relating to crime and criminal justice. It applies criminology concepts to actual criminal justice policy and practice. The goal is to make criminology relevant in addressing crime, victimization, and the relationship between “governmental agendas and knowledge production.”

Criminologists promote crime-fighting efforts via tools such as the  New York Police Department’s CompStat system , which is now used by police departments across the country to  combine crime analysis and geographic information system technologies . Their work suggests innovative ways to improve law enforcement and instill trust in the criminal justice system.

Criminology vs. Criminal Justice: Additional Resources

• Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics
• International Journal Of Criminal Justice Sciences, List of World Agencies/Organizations in Criminal Justice/Criminology
• The Balance Careers, “The Difference Between Careers in Criminology and Criminal Justice”

Typical  employers of criminologists  include law enforcement and other government agencies, university research labs, and other research institutions, as PayScale.com explains. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)  defines criminologists  or penologists as sociologists who specialize in the study of crime. They investigate the social influences of crime on individuals, groups, and organizations.

Career options for criminologists

The Balance Careers  distinguishes criminology positions  as being more academic than those in criminal justice, although there is a great degree of overlap between the two fields. For example, people typically earn a bachelor’s degree in criminology followed by a master’s degree in criminal justice, or vice versa.

Among the daily tasks of criminologists are collecting and examining evidence, visiting crime scenes, attending autopsies, and exploring the psychological aspects of a crime from investigation through conviction and rehabilitation. These tasks require the ability to organize data and evidence, conduct statistical analysis, and write reports.

The range of  positions available to criminologists  include jobs with federal, state, and local law enforcement, as well as public and private research organizations, think tanks, legislative bodies, and public policy bodies, as the Balance Careers reports. Criminologists strive to improve police operations via innovative programs, such as community-oriented policing and predictive policing.

Criminology Positions: Salaries and Employment Outlook

The BLS forecasts that the number of jobs for all sociologists, the category that includes criminologists, will increase by 9% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations. PayScale.com reports that the median annual criminology salary is around $44,000.

These are among the career options available to criminologists.

Forensic Science Technician

Forensic science technicians  assist in criminal investigations . They collect and analyze evidence, including fingerprints, weapons, and body fluids. They photograph and sketch crime scenes, and they catalog and preserve evidence before it is transferred to crime labs. They also work in labs, investigate possible suspects, and consult with experts in forensic medicine.

The BLS reports that the median annual salary of forensic science technicians as of May 2019 was $59,150. The number of jobs is forecast to increase by 14% between 2018 and 2028, which is much faster than the average projected for all occupations.

Probation and Community Control Officer

According to BLS figures, the  median annual salary for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists  was $54,290 as of May 2019. The number of jobs for the position is forecast to increase by 3% between 2018 and 2028, which is lower than the average projected for all occupations.

Probation and community control officers help former offenders transition to productive lives after incarceration. The Balance Careers lists the  duties of probation and community control officers .

• Supervise probationers and parolees, including visiting their homes and meeting with their families
• Collaborate with church groups and community organizations
• Monitor probationers and parolees electronically
• Perform pretrial investigations, submit sentencing recommendations, and testify in court
• Prepare status reports on probationers and parolees, and assist them in job training and job searches

Police Officer

The median annual salary for police officers and detectives as of May 2019 was $65,170, according to the BLS. Jobs for police officers and detectives are expected to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average projected for all occupations.

Police officers are tasked with protecting the lives and property of community residents. The BLS explains the  duties of police officers :

• Respond to emergency and nonemergency situations
• Patrol specific areas
• Issue citations and conduct traffic stops
• Use computers in the field to search for warrants and vehicle registrations
• Conduct investigations at crime scenes
• Collect and secure evidence
• Prepare cases and testify in court

Corrections Officer

The median annual salary of corrections officers as of May 2019 was $47,830, according to BLS figures. The number of positions for corrections officers is forecast to decline by 7% between 2018 and 2028 as a result of expected reductions in prison populations.

Corrections officers oversee people who have been arrested and are awaiting a hearing or trial, as well as people who have been convicted and sentenced to serve time in jail or prison. The BLS notes the  duties of corrections officers :

• Maintain order in jails and prisons by enforcing rules
• Inspect facilities to ensure they meet safety and security standards
• Supervise inmate activities and search them for contraband
• Escort and transport inmates, and report on inmate conduct

Loss Prevention Manager

PayScale.com reports the median annual salary for loss prevention managers is around $52,000. The most common tasks of loss prevention managers are security risk management, safety compliance, inventory control, theft prevention, and security policies and procedures.

A loss prevention manager’s primary responsibility is to  prevent business losses due to internal or external theft, fraud, accidents, mishandling, or other causes , as PayScale.com explains. Other  duties of loss prevention managers  appear on O*Net Online:

• Investigate employee theft and other violations of the company’s loss-prevention policies
• Develop and implement programs to manage inventory, promote safety, and minimize losses
• Ensure that prevention exception reports and cash discrepancies follow corporate guidelines
• Train staff and managers on loss prevention strategies and techniques
• Interview people suspected of shoplifting and other forms of theft

Detective/Criminal Investigator

Also referred to as detectives, criminal investigators are  police officers who gather facts and collect evidence in criminal cases . The BLS notes that criminal investigators often specialize in a single category of crime, such as fraud or homicide. These are the primary duties of criminal investigators:

• Conduct interviews with crime victims, witnesses, suspects, and relevant experts
• Examine police and other records
• Monitor the activities of suspects and participate in raids and arrests
• Write reports, prepare cases for trial, and testify during court proceedings

The median annual salary for detectives and criminal investigators as of May 2019 was $83,170, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for police officers and detectives is forecast to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average for all occupations.

Fish and Game Warden

The BLS reports that the median annual salary for fish and game wardens as of May 2019 was $57,500. The number of jobs for fish and game wardens is expected to increase by 2% between 2018 and 2028, which is below the average projected for all occupations.

Fish and game wardens are  responsible for enforcing laws related to hunting, fishing, and boating , as the BLS describes. These are among their primary duties:

• Conduct interviews with complainants, witnesses, and suspects
• Patrol fishing and hunting areas
• Participate in search and rescue efforts
• Monitor people suspected of violating regulations relating to fishing and hunting
• Educate the public about laws governing outdoor activities

Private Investigator

The median annual salary for private detectives and investigators as of May 2019 was $50,510, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for private investigators is forecast to grow by 8% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations.

The work done by private investigators for businesses and individuals mirrors that done by criminal investigators for public law enforcement agencies. These professionals examine records and conduct other research relating to legal, financial, and personal matters. The BLS lists the  duties of private detectives and investigators :

• Conduct criminal and other background checks and verify statements made by individuals
• Interview suspects, witnesses, and experts and perform other research into missing persons
• Search for evidence in online, public, and court records
• Perform surveillance and collect other evidence for clients

Insurance Fraud Investigator

The BLS reports that the median annual salary for claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators was $66,790 as of May 2019. The agency expects the number of jobs for the category to decline by 4% between 2018 and 2028 due to automation of claims processing.

The position of insurance fraud investigator is included in the broad category of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators who evaluate insurance claims. These are among the  principle duties of insurance fraud investigators , as listed by the BLS:

• Examine and research insurance claims to confirm that they are legitimate
• Conduct interviews with claimants’ doctors, employers, and others to review suspicious claims
• Work with attorneys and other legal professionals to verify information related to claims
• Perform surveillance to identify fraudulent claims resulting from staged accidents, arson, unnecessary medical treatments, and other criminal activity

Crime statistics and key insights

An important role played by criminologists is compiling and reporting on crime statistics.  The New Yorker  highlights both the importance of crime statistics in formulating crime-prevention strategies and enforcement policies and the  difficulty criminologists encounter in accurately measuring crime .

The article describes the challenge in determining whether cannabis use increases or reduces crime levels. Various analyses of crime rate trends in states where cannabis has been legalized have come to conflicting conclusions, pointing to the complexity of arriving at a definitive answer about what contributes to criminal activity. Criminologists use a variety of sources and techniques to try to provide statistics that can accurately portray crime trends and inform criminal policies.

How criminologists support law enforcement

Two of the DOJ’s most effective statistical analysis tools for assisting local crime-fighting efforts are the FBI’s UCR system and Bureau of Justice Statistics’ NCVS, both of which are described above. The systems share a shortcoming: Local jurisdictions disagree on what constitutes a crime. Some jurisdictions only report offenses that involve incarceration, while others include fined infractions.

Criminologists have developed a range of statistics-based tools that support federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies.

• The City-Level Survey of Crime Victimization and Citizen Attitudes analyzes surveys conducted by the DOJ’s Office of Community Oriented Policing Services to  determine people’s perceptions of community policing and issues in their neighborhoods .
• Emergency Room Statistics on Intentional Violence surveys a sample of hospital emergency rooms throughout the U.S. to  identify instances of domestic violence, rape, child abuse, and other intentional injuries .
• The Police-Public Contact Survey interviews a representative sample of people across the country who either reported a crime or were detained in a traffic stop to  gauge their perceptions of the police’s conduct and response during the encounter .

Other organizations involved in the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about police activities include the Center for Policing Equity’s  COMSTAT for Justice , which is intended to identify bias in policing, and the  U.S. Commission on Civil Rights , whose 2019 report titled  “Police Use of Force: An Examination of Modern Policing Practices”  recommended that  more data on the use of force by police  be made available to law enforcement agencies, and that police be trained in de-escalation techniques, cultural differences, and anti-bias mechanisms.

Criminology’s impact by the numbers

Many of the statistics used and shared by the DOJ and the U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention are compiled by the  U.S. Census Bureau .

• The Annual Survey of Jails reports on the  number of inmates in regional, county, city, and private jails , as well as demographic and criminal justice statistics of the jail population, among other areas related to incarceration.
• The Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities gathers information on the  operation of the prisons and jails, and the conditions of confinement , such as capacity and crowding, court orders, staff workloads, and safety and security.
• The Survey of Sexual Victimization (formerly the Survey of Sexual Violence) collects data on  sexual assaults in correctional facilities , including state prisons, state juvenile correction facilities, federal prisons, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) detention facilities, and the U.S. military.  

Other sources of information on the impact of criminology research in law enforcement include the  Historical Violence Database  maintained by Ohio State University Criminal Justice Research Center, the University of Michigan’s  National Archive of Criminal Justice Data , the  National Criminal Justice Reference Service , and the University at Albany’s  Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics .

Criminologists: Serving Communities and Society

The work of criminologists touches nearly all aspects of social life. Crime investigation calls for specialized skills and training, sophisticated number-crunching ability, and a great deal of fieldwork interacting with colleagues within and outside criminal justice, and with the public.

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The Balance Careers, “What Does a Criminologist Do?”

PayScale, “Average Criminologist Salary”

PayScale, “Average FBI Agent Salary”

PayScale, “Average Forensic Scientist Salary”

PayScale, “Average Police Detective Salary”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Employment Statistics, “Detectives and Criminal Investigators”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Forensic Science Technicians”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Police and Detectives”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Sociologists”

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Criminology Essay Examples

12+ Criminology Essay Examples to Inspire Your Writing

Published on: May 6, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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Many students struggle to understand the complex world of criminology and may have difficulty finding essay examples to guide their writing. Without proper guidance, students may show subpar academic performance.

But fret not! Our blog post offers 12+ diverse and unique criminology essay examples to help students expand their understanding.

So let’s dive into these examples.

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Descriptive Essays about Criminology 

Read the following examples to learn more! 

Title: The Impact of the Death Penalty on Crime Rates - Criminology Essay 

The psychological effects of Incarceration on Inmates

The history of forensic science and its impact on modern criminal investigations

Expository Essays about Criminology 

Here is a top example of an expository essay about criminology. 

Title: The Role of Social Media in the Spread of Criminal Activity

The factors that contribute to juvenile delinquency

The Impact of community policing on crime prevention

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Persuasive Essays about Criminology 

Title: The Need for Criminal Justice Reform in the United States

The ethical implications of using facial recognition technology in Law enforcement

The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism

Compare and Contrast Essays about Criminology 

Looking for a compare-and-contrast essay example on criminology? Read the following. 

Title: A Comparison of the Criminal Justice Systems in the United States and Europe

A comparison of the theories of crime causation of Cesare Beccaria and Emile Durkheim

A comparison of the effectiveness of prison sentences versus probation in reducing recidivism rates

Tips for Writing a Criminology Essay

Writing a criminology essay requires careful attention to detail and a clear understanding of the subject matter. Here are some tips to help you write a successful criminology essay:

• Conduct thorough research: Before writing your essay, make sure you have a solid understanding of the topic. This requires conducting thorough research using a variety of sources, including academic journals, books, and government reports.
• Develop a clear and concise thesis statement : Your thesis statement should clearly state the purpose of your essay and your position on the topic. Make sure your thesis statement is concise and easy to understand.
• Use relevant and credible sources: When researching your topic, make sure you use credible sources that are relevant to the subject matter. Avoid using sources that are biased or unreliable.
• Follow a logical structure: Your essay should have a clear structure that follows a logical sequence. Use headings and subheadings to organize your essay and make it easy for readers to follow your arguments.
• Edit and proofread carefully: After completing your essay, make sure you edit and proofread it carefully. Check for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Make sure your essay is well-organized and flows smoothly.

In conclusion, criminology is a fascinating subject that requires in-depth research and analysis. Writing a criminology essay can be a challenging task, but it is an essential requirement for students studying in this field. 

By reviewing the examples of criminology essays provided in this blog, students can gain insights into the different approaches to writing a criminology essay and develop their skills in the subject.

However, if you are still struggling with your criminology essay or need help getting started, consider using our essay writing company . 

Our AI essay generator can help you craft a high-quality criminology essay that meets your requirements. 

Don't let the stress of writing a criminology essay overwhelm you - reach out to our criminology essay writing service today and take the first step toward academic success.

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Jeffrey R. Wilson

The word criminology : a philology and a definition.

This essay looks into the past of criminology as a way to think about its future. I take a philological approach to the word  criminology , looking at the etymology and history of that word, to argue for a new definition of the field: Criminology is  the systematic study of crime, criminals, criminal law, criminal justice, and criminalization. I expand and explain this  definition with respect to some common and (I argue) misguided dictates of criminology as it is traditionally understood.  Specifically, I argue that criminology is usually  but not necessarily  academic and scientific, which means that  criminology can be public and/or humanistic. I arrive at these thoughts by presenting some early English instances of the  word  criminology  which predate the attempt to theorize a field of criminology in Italy and France in the 1880s, and I  offer some new readings of those Italian and French texts. These philological analyses then come into conversation with  some twentieth-century attempts to define the field and some twenty-first-century innovations in an effort to generate a  definition of criminology that is responsive to the diversity of criminology in both its original formation and its ongoing  transformations. Thus, the virtue of this new understanding of criminology is its inclusiveness: It normalizes unorthodox  criminological research, which opens up new possibilities for jobs and funding in the name of criminology, which holds  the promise of new perspectives on crime, new theories of criminology, and new policies for prevention and treatment.

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The study of crime. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field that combines aspects of legal theory and the substantive legal disciplines with approaches based on psychology, sociology, and moral philosophy. Its subjects include the nature and definition of crime, its forms and incidence, its causes, and crime prevention. Historically, two main approaches have dominated, the classical school and the positivist school. The classical school of criminology emphasizes the role of free will and rational choice in criminal behaviour and the use of punishment to deter it. By contrast, the positivist school of criminology seeks the causes of crime in biological, psychological, and sociological factors largely outside the control of the individual offender. Most modern approaches to criminology can be seen to have their roots in one or other of these schools, although recent decades have seen the development of so-called “integrative” and “realist” theories that seek to combine elements of both. See also penology.

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Criminology: Its Meaning and Contents — An Essay

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• Katja Vodopivec  

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Numerous definitions have been given for criminology, however, we shall confine ourselves in the present paper to enumerating the fields criminology has engaged in. Willem H. Nagel emphasizes that the number of these fields has expanded since World War II and includes not merely the etiology of crime, but victimology and the sociology of criminal law as well. (‘L’avocat du diable en ce qui concerne “le terrorisme,”’ p. 15). Still other subjects could be added to these. Perhaps we could say that originally criminology was concerned with criminality and has long been trying to deal with it without adequate knowledge regarding the fate and feelings of socially stigmatized offenders. Until now we acted on the basis of our perception of people outside ourselves, a reflection of others in us.

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Crime and Society: An Introduction to Criminology

What is crime.

Beyond Criminology?

Ancel, M., ‘Le jurist devant le criminologue,’ Annales Internationales de Criminologie , No. 1–2 (1973), pp. 7–11.

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Vodopivec, K. (1976). Criminology: Its Meaning and Contents — An Essay. In: Criminology Between the Rule of Law and the Outlaws. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-4988-6_6

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2 (page 5) p. 5 What is crime?

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‘What is crime?’ considers the definitions of crime. Should the focus be simply on violations of legal codes or should we extend it to violations of moral and social codes? The relativity of crime is also discussed: not everything that was once criminal remains so, and vice versa, and not everything considered criminal in one place is treated as criminal everywhere else. Is criminal justice effective? Through the process of criminal justice, criminals are constructed, but asking questions about what and who becomes labelled as a ‘crime’ or a ‘criminal’ necessarily invites one to contemplate the importance of power. Who makes the rules? Who do the rules affect, or protect?

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Criminology — Defining What Is the Importance of Criminology in Our Society

Defining What is The Importance of Criminology in Our Society

• Categories: Criminology Criminology Theories Marxism

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Published: Aug 31, 2023

Words: 1189 | Pages: 3 | 6 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, evolving definitions of criminology in society, feminism and criminology: unveiling gender inequalities, hegemonic constructs of criminology, works cited.

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The Understanding of Criminology Today Essay

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Introduction

Crime has various meanings, which depend on the point of view. From a sociological perspective, crime is wrong that violates social relationships. This paper gives a detail of the different sociological theories, which broadens the understanding of crime. Crime typologies help in understanding violent crimes, an explanation of various crime typologies has been given. Doctor-assisted suicide is an issue that has caused intense discussion. This paper gives various reasons why assisted suicide should not be legalized.

What is the nature of sociological theorizing?

Sociological theories are used to study societal structures and social organizations. These theories also examine how social organizations influence people’s conduct. Unlike psychological theories, sociological theories focus on the nature of conduct depicted by a gathering of people. The criminological theory focuses on a sociological perspective because of various reasons (Frank, 2004). One of the reasons is that there has been a concerned interest in social issues like poverty and unemployment.

Based on a sociological description, crime occurs because of various reasons. A person’s locality within the community may influence crime. This is due to the social and financial aspects of life like poverty, isolation, unstable families, cultural issues, which contradict conventional principles. Crime is also a result of social practices such as improper socialization and social education. This stresses the role of social relations and self-discipline in crime.

In addition, crime is caused by class struggle. This approach focuses on the prevailing power relationship between communities and the financial structure of the society (Frank, 2004).

There are three classifications of sociological theories. The different classifications share a certain aspect. The first one is social disorganization theory, which has a link with social ecology. Social ecology was the idea of Park and Ernest Burgess at the University of Chicago. Social ecology deals with how the societal arrangement adjusts to the environment and the presence of other humankind. Social ecology adds valuable information to criminology.

It suggests that society exerts a key impact on individual conduct. Ecological views on the origin of crime have reappeared in the form of environmental criminology. Environmental criminology highlights the role of the geographical locality as a link to crime occurrences.

The second classification is the strain theory. Strain theory shows that criminal behavior is a response to bad social surroundings. Strain theory formed by Robert Merton stated that goals such as riches, education, and class are desirable for everybody. However, he noted that not all people in a social group could achieve these goals.

As a result, delinquency becomes an option for success when people feel the pressure to succeed. Robert Agnew reformed the strain theory to express a coping system that helps minors cope with social challenges caused by negative societal ties (Frank, 2004). Agnew found that different strain theories shared common elements, which were bad relations with other people and that minors engaged in crime due to bad relations with people.

Culture conflict theory claims that the major origin of crime is the conflict of beliefs between members of various groups over what is good conduct. Thorsten Sellin suggests in his book that two types of culture conflict exist, primary and secondary conflict. Primary conflict occurs when a major conflict of cultures takes place and secondary conflict takes place when lesser cultures within the primary contradict. Subculture, which deals with smaller social groups, is part of the bigger culture. Some subcultures do not adhere to the values of the national culture.

The subcultural theory is a sociological view that stresses the role of social groups in delinquency. Walter in his writing states that sub-cultural crime does not originate from lack of wealth, rather it originates from certain values attributed to such subcultures.

What are the assumptions upon which sociological perspectives on crime causation rest?

There are different assumptions upon which sociological views on the origin of crime have been established (Frank, 2004). Foremost, societal gatherings, communal organizations, social structures, and societal functions all give the best avenue for criminological examination. Secondly, communal activities and associations, small group liaisons create the fundamental link from which crime is born. Thirdly, the societal arrangement and its level of management are key elements leading to the occurrence of criminal activities.

Finally, though it is hard to foretell the particular conduct of a person, statistical approximations of group traits are achievable. Therefore, the likelihood that a person belonging to a grouping will participate in a crime can be approximated.

Why are crime typologies useful for understanding violent crimes?

Crime topologies are created to modify social realism. Topologies recognize a trend in crime that is unique compared to others. For a typology to be helpful, how a typology is structured should fulfill a certain function. Subculture of violence can be used to understand crime because it has been the major viewpoint employed to describe the connection between victims and criminals. Homicide findings show that victims and criminals have the same features such as age, sex, and nationalism. Different regions have different patterns of crime based on sub-cultural perspectives (Frank, 2004). For instance, the South has maintained a record of high homicide occurrences.

The victim-offender relationship and the context of crime are useful in establishing crime patterns. Findings depict that about twenty-five percent of homicides are family-related. Females are both likely to be criminals and victims as compared to males. The instrumental-expressive continuum formed by Carolyn Block and Richard Block helps to understand how sibling offenses such as theft may result in a killing. For example, in the case of theft, the goal is to get money or other goods. When there is no agreement between the criminal and the victim an argument may arise leading to homicide.

In understanding crime, victim precipitation deals with the traits of the victims, which may have caused them to be targeted. This helps examine trends of homicide as homicide originates from a conflict between individuals who have a relationship. Weapons play a significant role in understanding crime. The weapon in a crime scene tells whether the crime is lethal or nonlethal. Moreover, the presence of weapons in a place may increase criminal activities (Frank, 2004).

Alcohol and drug use can be linked to committing offenses though it depends on particular types of personalities. Studies reveal alcohol to be a key element in foretelling primary homicide. Gang unions are also factors in crime. Studies reveal that gang members participated in several crimes through the use of weapons and their victims were unrelated to them. Serial murders have one unique feature when compared with others. They are discrete and thus hard to recognize (Frank, 2004).

They frequently alter their technique of committing a crime. The motive behind mass murders is based on personal issues. The major motives are vengeance, love, personal gain, and fear.

Do you believe that doctor-assisted suicide should be legalized?

Legalizing assisted suicide would be a serious fault because of the following reasons. Globally, disability rights activists and groups play a significant role in opposing assisted suicide (Frank, 2004). The basis of their opposition lies in the threats to people with disabilities and the decrease in value of life that are caused by assisted suicide.

Patrons of assisted suicide claim that it helps lessen pain and distress before death. However, many people in Oregon who have practiced assisted suicide law wanted to end life not because of suffering, but other factors linked to disability, low self-esteem, and failure of somebody’s organs to function properly. The fear of being an invalid contributed greatly to assisted suicide. However, many people living with disabilities who depend on others to do basic things know that death is not an option (Frank, 2004). If assisted suicide became a law, then it would be based on bias and favoritism against the disabled.

A major crisis with making it lawful to assist suicide is the impact in health care organizations. Health care systems have always ruled out doctors’ opinions because of financial factors. Financial factors may also influence the decision of nonprofit health programs which receive little funding. The motivation to reduce costs by refusing to give medication creates a major risk. This danger is enhanced when assisted suicide becomes a law. The full impact of legalizing assisted suicide would greatly affect financially unstable people who cannot meet their medical expenses.

Medicine as a profession is also affected by legalizing assisted suicide. Medical practitioners claim that assisted suicide ruins the trust between the sick and the physician and alleviates the physician’s role in preserving life (Frank, 2004).

Investigating the performance of assisted suicide in Oregon portrays the major challenges associated with assisted suicide. These challenges include freedom to make decisions, the risk to persons with disabilities, and the doubtful incidence of Oregon’s deaths. Assisted suicide advocates plead to freedom of choice and free will.

However, legalized assisted suicide destroys a person’s power to choose and become independent. When the lethal injection is being administered, no person is needed to witness. An individual could use another method to kill such as suffocation without the knowledge of others. When the patient accepts suicide, he or she makes a declaration that if he passes away, his death will be unquestionable.

The patient will be defenseless if he or she plans to stop the suicide immediately after the lethal dose has been prepared. In addition, there is a threat that many individuals would select assisted suicide due to external factors (Frank, 2004). For example, old people who refuse to depend on their families for financial assistance may opt for assisted suicide.

Criminology is a broad subject that covers diverse topics such as types of crimes, theories explaining crimes, crime typologies, and whether some issues are legal or illegal such as assisted suicide. A good understanding of criminology is essential in understanding crime, solving crime mysteries, and preventing crime.

Reference List

Frank, S. (2004). Criminology Today, An Integrative Introduction. USA: Pearson Custom Publishing.

• White-Collar Crime: Importance of Awareness
• Criminal Behavior and Related Cognitive Processes
• Positivist, Sociological, Contemporary Criminology
• Comparative Criminology and Criminology Theories
• General Strain Theory in Criminology
• CSI Episode “Crime Wave”: Description and Analysis
• Factors Related to Crime and Their Influence
• Forensic Toxicology and Why It Is Interesting
• Mentally Impaired People in Jails Without Conviction
• Criminology: Human Trafficking
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Essay on Being A Criminology Student

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100 Words Essay on Being A Criminology Student

What is criminology.

Criminology is the study of crime. It looks at what causes crime, how society responds to it, and ways to prevent it. As a criminology student, you learn about the law, psychology, and sociology. This helps you understand why people commit crimes.

Studying Criminology

Being a criminology student is exciting. You study different subjects like law, psychology, and sociology. You also learn about different types of crimes and why they happen. The study involves reading books, attending lectures, and doing research.

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Criminology students gain many skills. They learn to think critically and solve problems. They also learn to research and analyze data. These skills can be used in many different jobs.

Future Prospects

Criminology opens up many career paths. You could work in law enforcement, social work, or counseling. You could also work in policy-making or research. Being a criminology student is the first step towards these careers.

Final Thoughts

250 words essay on being a criminology student, choosing criminology.

Criminology is the study of crime. As a criminology student, you learn about why people commit crimes and how society responds. This field combines psychology, sociology, and law. If you are curious about human behavior and interested in helping society, criminology might be for you.

Being a criminology student is not always easy. You need to read a lot, write essays, and do research. You learn about different types of crime, from theft to murder. You also study the justice system, including police, courts, and prisons. You might even get to visit these places as part of your studies.

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In conclusion, being a criminology student is challenging but rewarding. You get to learn about fascinating topics and gain valuable skills. Plus, you have the chance to contribute to a safer, more just society.

500 Words Essay on Being A Criminology Student

Being a criminology student.

Being a criminology student is both exciting and challenging. Students have to learn about different types of crimes, why they happen, and how they impact society. They also study the justice system, learning how it works to punish criminals and protect the innocent.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Contextual Analysis of Crime

Introduction, general overviews.

• Neighborhood Context and Delinquency
• School Context and Delinquency
• Individual Risk-Factors and Neighborhood Context
• Individual Risk-Factors and School Context
• Situational Opportunity, Unstructured Socialization, and Delinquency
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Contextual Analysis of Crime by Matt Vogel , Brittany Jaecques LAST REVIEWED: 26 May 2016 LAST MODIFIED: 26 May 2016 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195396607-0200

Criminologists have a long-standing interest in the relationship between community characteristics and crime. Much of this research has focused on how the social processes at work within neighborhoods influence aggregate rates of crime and delinquency. When most people think of neighborhoods and crime, it is usually this broad “neighborhood effects” literature. A second, albeit less common approach to studying neighborhood influences in criminology has been to examine how neighborhood characteristics affect individual behaviors. This is commonly referred to as “contextual analyses” or “contextual effects” research. It is worth noting that social context can refer to any social environment external to the individual, including families, peer groups, or schools. In this sense, many criminological perspectives point to the role of contextual factors in crime causation. However, the term “contextual effect” is most often used to describe how community characteristics, such as economic disadvantage, informal social control, and collective efficacy are related to individual variation in offending. In recent years, contextual studies have expanded to (1) consider the role of other social contexts, particularly schools, in crime causation and (2) examine how contextual factors mitigate or exacerbate the associations between individual risk-factors and offending. The broader criminological research on neighborhood effects, as well as some of the recent research examining neighborhood effects on individual behavior, has been succinctly summarized in earlier articles in this Modules (for instance, see “ Situational Action Theory ” and “ Social Ecology of Crime ”). Where appropriate, this article refers the reader to these summaries for a more comprehensive treatment of the subtopics covered here. In an effort to avoid substantial overlap, this article instead focuses on what the authors see as the most pressing developments in the study of contextual influences on crime and delinquency––namely, the increasing focus on school context, the growing person-context perspective, and methodological considerations unique to this area of research.

Unlike some of the other topics covered in this series, the study of contextual effects does not have the same coherent, canonical set of references to which scholars customarily refer. There are several classic texts on communities and crime that underscore the importance of social context in crime causation. The chapter Bursik and Grasmick 1996 provides a detailed overview of these earlier works. Liska 1990 highlights the importance of both aggregate dependent variables and contextual causal variables in the field, explaining that while these variables may explain only a small percentage of the variance in offending, they contribute significantly to understanding macro-micro linkages in theory. More contemporary works, such as Wikström and Sampson 2003 , Wikström 2004 , and Zimmerman and Messner 2012 , help elucidate the mechanisms linking broader social environments with variation in individual behavior. Likewise, Leventhal and Brooks-Gunn 2000 , which focuses on neighborhood context and child well-being, further emphasizes the enduring importance of neighborhoods on a variety of psychosocial domains, above and beyond criminal behavior. Kubrin and Weitzer 2003 and Sampson, et al. 2002 review the state of neighborhood studies more generally and provide roadmaps for future work in this area. Finally, Gottfredson 2001 provides a comprehensive overview of school context and delinquency, laying the groundwork for more recent analyses examining the influence of school context on student behavior.

Bursik, Robert J., and Harold Grasmick. 1996. Use of contextual analysis in models of criminal behavior. In Delinquency and crime: Current theories . Edited by J. David Hawkings, 236–267. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

This chapter provides a detailed overview of the unique theoretical and methodological issues that arise in the contextual analysis of crime. The authors focus specifically on issues related to choosing appropriate aggregations of “context,” measuring features of these contexts, and appropriately modeling individual and contextual process simultaneously.

Gottfredson, Denise C. 2001. Schools and delinquency . New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Provides a comprehensive review of the research on schools and delinquency. Identifies a number of challenges to school-based research (including the need for person-context research) and discusses potential avenues for school-based delinquency prevention.

Kubrin, Charis, and Ronald Weitzer. 2003. New directions in social disorganization research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 40:374–402.

DOI: 10.1177/0022427803256238

This article “takes stock” of the literature on social disorganization and crime. The authors provide a comprehensive overview of neighborhood-effects research and identify several notable gaps in the literature. In particular, their discussion of neighborhood effects on individual outcomes and the issues with measuring spatial processes remain relevant today.

Leventhal, Tama, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn. 2000. The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin 126:309–337.

DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.309

Provides a review of the research on neighborhood effects on child outcomes. Topics include methodological issues, theoretical implications, and key findings regarding the relationship between neighborhoods and outcomes.

Liska, Allen E. 1990. The significance of aggregate dependent variables and contextual independent variables for linking macro and micro theories. Social Psychology Quarterly 292–301.

DOI: 10.2307/2786735

The value of aggregate-dependent variables and contextual-causal variables should not be judged solely by the amount of variance they explain, but by their theoretical implications. Aggregate dependent variables are important as they are properties of social units and capture patterns and relationships that individual level factors do not.

Sampson, Robert J., Jeffrey D. Morenoff, and Thomas Gannon-Rowley. 2002. Assessing “Neighborhood effects”: Social processes and new directions in research. Annual Review of Sociology 28:443–478.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141114

Reviews the literature of neighborhood effects from the mid-1990s to 2001, and discusses methodological issues in the area, particularly selection bias. Final comments address directions for future research and strategies that may prove useful.

Wikström, Per Olaf. 2004. Crime as alternative: Towards a cross-level situational action theory of crime causation. In Beyond empiricism: Institutions and intentions in the study of crime, advances in criminological theory . Edited by J. McCord, 1–38. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

This chapter further elucidates the mechanisms through which individual risk factors (e.g., morality, low self-control) interact with broader environmental factors leading to criminogenic behavior settings (temptations, provocations, weak deterrence) to influence offending.

Wikström, Per Olaf H., and Robert J. Sampson. 2003. Social mechanisms of community influences on crime and pathways in criminality. In The causes of conduct disorder and serious juvenile delinquency . Edited by B. Lahey, T. Moffitt, and A. Caspi, 118–148. New York: Guilford.

A comprehensive overview of community context and crime. Provides a detailed description of the pathways through which neighborhoods influence behavior. The authors demarcate and situate influences and encourage researchers to focus on (1) measurement, (2) mechanisms, and (3) the interactions between individual and contextual risk factors.

Zimmerman, Gregory M., and Steven F. Messner. 2012. Person-in-context: Insights and issues in research on neighborhoods and crime. In The future of criminology . Edited by Brandon C. Welsh and Rolf Loeber, 70–78. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199917938.003.0009

Provides a succinct summary of person-context research in criminology and catalogues findings from recent research examining the interactions between neighborhood characteristics, individual risk-factors, and crime.

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Impulsive and Hyperactive? It Doesn’t Mean You Have A.D.H.D.

Many other conditions have similar symptoms, experts say, so avoid the pull of self-diagnosis.

By Christina Caron

The 6-year-old boy sitting across from Douglas Tynan, a child and adolescent clinical psychologist based in Delaware, clearly did not have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Dr. Tynan was sure of that. But the boy’s first-grade teacher disagreed.

He could be inattentive in class, but at home his behavior wasn’t out of the ordinary for a child his age. A voracious reader, he told Dr. Tynan that he liked to bring his own books to school because the ones in class were too easy.

What his teacher had not considered was that the child was most likely academically gifted, as his mother had been as a child, Dr. Tynan said. (Studies have shown that Black children, like the boy in his office, are less likely to be identified for gifted programs.)

Further testing revealed that Dr. Tynan was correct. The child wasn’t inattentive in school because of A.D.H.D. It was because he was bored.

A.D.H.D. is a neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in childhood and typically involves inattention, disorganization, hyperactivity and impulsivity that cause trouble in two or more settings, like at home and at school.

But those symptoms — for children and adults alike — can overlap with a multitude of other traits and disorders. In fact, difficulty concentrating is one of the most common symptoms listed in the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic manual, and it’s associated with 17 diagnoses, according to a study published in April.

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What is Project 2025?

It’s a blueprint for what a second Trump administration could look like, dreamed up by his allies and former aides.

If Donald Trump struggled somewhat in his first administration to move the country dramatically to the right, he’ll be ready to go in a second term.

That’s the aim behind Project 2025, a comprehensive plan by former and likely future leaders of a Trump administration to remake America in a conservative mold while dramatically expanding presidential power and allowing Trump to use it to go after his critics.

The plan is gaining attention just as Trump is trying to moderate his stated positions to win the election, so he’s criticized some of what’s in it as “absolutely ridiculous and abysmal” and insisted that neither he nor his campaign had anything to do with Project 2025.

Still, what’s in this document is a pretty good indicator of what a second Trump presidency could look like. Here’s what Project 2025 is and how it could reshape America.

It’s a blueprint for a second Trump administration

The centerpiece is a 900-page plan that calls for extreme policies on nearly every aspect of Americans’ lives, from mass deportations, to politicizing the federal government in a way that would give Trump control over the Justice Department, to cutting entire federal agencies, to infusing Christian nationalism into every facet of government policy by calling for a ban on pornography and promoting policies that encourage “marriage, work, motherhood, fatherhood, and nuclear families.”

This isn’t coming directly from the Trump campaign. But it should be taken seriously because of the people who wrote it, analysts say. The main organization behind the plan, the Heritage Foundation, is a revolving door for Trump officials (and Heritage is a sponsor of the Republican National Convention, which will hand him the nomination next week).

“This is meant as an organized statement of the Trumpist, conservative movement, both on policy and personnel, and politics,” said William Galston, head of governance studies at the Brookings Institution.

2024 presidential election

Project 2025 calls for abortion limits, slashing climate change and LGBTQ health care funding, and much more

A few of the highlights:

Remake the federal workforce to be political : Instead of nonpartisan civil servants implementing policies on everything from health to education and climate, the executive branch would be filled with Trump loyalists. “It is necessary to ensure that departments and agencies have robust cadres of political staff,” the plan says. That means nearly every decision federal agencies make could advance a political agenda — as in whether to spend money on constituencies that lean Democratic. The project calls for cutting LGBTQ health programs, for example.

Cut the Education Department: Project 2025 would make extensive changes to public schooling, cutting longtime low-income and early education federal programs like Head Start, for example, and even the entire Education Department. “Federal education policy should be limited and, ultimately, the federal Department of Education should be eliminated,” the plan reads.

Give Trump power to investigate his opponents : Project 2025 would move the Justice Department, and all of its law enforcement arms like the FBI, directly under presidential control. It calls for a “top-to-bottom overhaul” of the FBI and for the administration to go over its investigations with a fine-toothed comb to nix any the president doesn’t like. This would dramatically weaken the independence of federal law enforcement agencies. “There’s going to be an all-out assault on the Department of Justice and the FBI,” said Galston, of Brookings. “It will mean tight White House control of the DOJ and FBI.”

Make reproductive care, particularly abortion pills, harder to get : It doesn’t specifically call for a national abortion ban, but abortion is one of the most-discussed topics in the plan, with proposals throughout encouraging the next president “to lead the nation in restoring a culture of life in America again.” It would do this by prosecuting anyone mailing abortion pills (“Abortion pills pose the single greatest threat to unborn children in a post-Roe world,” the plan says). It would raise the threat of criminalizing those who provide abortion care by using the government to track miscarriage, stillbirths and abortions, and make it harder to get emergency contraceptive care covered by insurance. It would also end federal government protections for members of the military and their families to get abortion care.

Crack down on even legal immigration : It would create a new “border patrol and immigration agency” to resurrect Trump’s border wall, build camps to detain children and families at the border, and send out the military to deport millions of people who are already in the country illegally ( including dreamers ) — a deportation effort so big that it could put a major dent in the U.S. economy. “Illegal immigration should be ended, not mitigated; the border sealed, not reprioritized,” the plan says.

Slash climate change protections : Project 2025 calls for getting rid of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which forecasts weather and tracks climate change, describing it as “one of the main drivers of the climate change alarm industry.” It would increase Arctic drilling and shutter the Environmental Protection Agency’s climate change departments, all while making it easier to up fossil fuel production.

Ban transgender people from the military and consider reinstating the draft : “Gender dysphoria is incompatible with the demands of military service,” it reads. The author of this part of the plan led the Defense Department at the end of Trump’s presidency, and he told The Washington Post that the government should seriously consider mandatory military service.

How all of this would be implemented

A huge part of this project is to recruit and train people on how to pull the levers of government or read the law in novel ways to carry out these dramatic changes to federal policy. There’s even a place on the plan’s website where you can submit your résumé.

But there are some major hurdles to getting the big stuff done, even if Trump and Republicans win control of Washington next year. For one, Trump doesn’t appear to agree with everything in it. His campaign platform barely mentions abortion, while Project 2025 zeroes in on it repeatedly.

Also, some of these ideas are impractical or possibly illegal. Analysts are divided about whether Trump can politicize the civil workforce to fire them at will, for example. And the plan calls for using the military to carry out mass deportations on a historic scale , which could be constitutionally iffy.

Ominously, one of the project’s leaders opened the door to political violence to will all of this into being: “We are in the process of the second American revolution,” Heritage Foundation President Kevin Roberts warned recently, “which will remain bloodless, if the left allows it to be.”

Why Project 2025 is getting so much attention right now

It’s not unusual for wannabe administration officials to plan for how they’d govern once they get back in power. But what is unusual is how dramatic and unapologetically extreme many of these proposals are.

And the Biden campaign — which is obviously struggling right now with existential questions about its nominee — sees this as an easy target to campaign on.

Democrats are circulating a survey from a liberal organization that suggests talking about Project 2025 as a “takeover” of American government by Trumpists resonates with voters.

“It’s like reading a horror novel,” said Democratic strategist Jesse Ferguson. “Each page makes you want to read the next one, but when you finish reading it, you’re scared and disgusted.”

That’s much to the frustration of the Trump campaign, which doesn’t want such specific (and politically unpopular) ideas out there pegged to his campaign, as he’s trying to moderate some of his positions to win the election.

“It makes no sense to put all the crazy things you’ll be attacked for down on paper while you’re running,” a Trump adviser told The Washington Post recently .

But it’s fair to think of Project 2025 as a pretty good indicator of what a second Trump presidency would look like, analysts say.

“It’s not like Trump is going to hand out this booklet to his Cabinet on Day One and say, ‘Here you go,’” said Michael Strain, the director of economic policy studies at the conservative-leaning American Enterprise Institute. “But it reflects real goals of important people in Trump’s community.”

A previous version of this article misspelled the name of the American Enterprise Institute's Michael Strain as Michel. The article has been corrected.

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