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A Level History Essay Structure – A Guide

• Post author By admin
• Post date December 1, 2022
• No Comments on A Level History Essay Structure – A Guide

Getting an A Level History essay structure right is by no means an easy task. In this post we will look at how we can build a structure from which our essay can develop.

Here you can see the most simplified essay structure for tackling A level History essays. All students should be familiar with this structure. We have broken the essay down into an introduction and conclusion as well as 3 separate parts of content. Running through the entire essay at the side is our line of argument. Whilst this may seem fairly simple, many students still fail to adequately follow this structure, when writing essay answers under exam conditions.

The reasons this structure works well is that it enables you to cover 3 different factors of content. These can be aligned 2-1 or 1-2 on either side of the argument. Your essay is now balanced (covering both sides of the argument), whilst at the same time being decisive in terms of your line of argument and judgement. It is also consistent with the amount you can write in the exam time given for (20-25) mark essay questions.

Expanded A level History Essay Structure

Let’s look at an expanded essay structure. Again, we have our introduction and conclusion as well as 3 separate parts of content. Now we can see that we have added whether or not each of our parts of content agrees or disagrees with the question premise. In order to have a balanced essay we can see on this example that; Content 1 agrees, Content 2 disagrees, and Content 3 can go either way. This overall A Level History essay structure ensures a balanced essay that also reaches judgement.

Furthermore, we have now broken down each individual part of Content/Factor. This can be seen as a mini essay in its own right. The Content/Factor is introduced and linked to the question as well as being concluded and linked to the question. Then we write 2 to 3 separate points within the body of the Content/Factor. We have 2 points that agree with the overall argument of this section of content. This strongly backs up our argument.

Then we can also potentially (this doesn’t have to be done always, but when done right creates a more nuanced analysis) add a third point that balances that particular section of content. However, it doesn’t detract from the overall argument of this factor/content. E.g. In the short term ‘point 3’ occurred but of much greater significance was ‘point 1’ and ‘point 2.’

How To Improve Further at A Level History

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How to structure AQA A-level History Essays

• Dr Janet Rose
• December 14, 2019

For AQA History , at both AS and A level, you need to know how to write two types of essay – a block essay and a point-by-point essay.  To be able to structure AQA history essays you’ll need to know these essay styles and where to use them.

Introductions

You don’t really need an introduction for the source questions.  In the exam you will be pressed for time so it is sensible to just start with your analysis of extract A.  However, for the essay questions you will need a short, clear introduction that references the question and states your line of argument.

The most helpful tip I can give you is this; write the introduction last .  Why do I advise this?  Because if you state your line of argument and what you intend to include, you then have to make sure your whole essay and conclusion matches your introduction.  Obviously you should have a plan to follow but it is far, far easier to write the body of your essay and your conclusion,  then make the introduction fit the essay you have just written.  It makes writing the introduction a breeze because you will know exactly what you have argued, which evidence you have used, the order you have presented your material and what you have concluded.

No Surprises

Remember there should be no surprises for your marker or examiner in history.  You are not writing a best seller where you build up the tension and then do a dramatic ‘ta da’ reveal.  That will only confuse your examiner and lose you marks – potentially a lot of marks.  What we want is a nice, clear format where we can see exactly what you are arguing, exactly what evidence you are using, and exactly what you have concluded.  Importantly, we want to know this at the start of the essay.  If you make your marker or examiner keep stopping, re-reading chunks, and going back and forth to try and understand your argument, you’ll just end up with an unhappy and frustrated reader.  And this is the person who is going to award your marks!  Be clear.  Be concise.  Get to the point quickly.  Give evidence to back up your points.  Reach a judgement.

History Essay: How to write an A-Grade Essay

Block Essays

For AQA you use these for the extract questions; the two sources for AS and the three sources for A level.  You write the essay in blocks of text which are focused on one area.

For the source questions you don’t need to get too clever with hopping back and forth between sources and points. Decide and plan what you need to say and then write it clearly, with a clear assessment of each source, in big chunks of work. Do not worry about an introduction– just get straight into the analysis. First address Source A in a block, then Source B in another block and (for A level) Source C in a final block.

Remember that you need to assess the sources.  Keep doing that all the way through.  Assess each source as you write the block and do a mini summary at the end of each section.   You can then bring the sources together in a very short conclusion at the end (no more than a couple of lines) where you can summarise your convincing/valuable assessment of the sources.  It is very important that you make a clear judgement for each source, as that is what the question asks you to do.

By the way, when we talk about blocks it does not mean you have to cram everything into one enormous paragraph. If you have plenty to say (and hopefully you will) you should use a sensible paragraph structure. The reason it is called a block essay is that you deal with one section completely, in this case each source, before moving on to the next section.

Point-by-point essays

Point-by-Point essays are much trickier to master but are well worth the effort as, done properly, they tend to achieve higher marks. For AQA you can use this style for everything that is not a source question. The key to an excellent point-by-point essay is all in the planning; it will only come out well in the writing if you know exactly what you are going to argue and the order in which you are going to introduce evidence and points. So it is crucial that you make yourself a good plan!

Essentially, all the AQA essay questions at both AS and A level ask you to argue ‘for or against’ a hypothesis. They will look something like this:

‘Victorian governments in the years 1867 to 1886 had little interest in social reform.’ Explain why you agree or disagree with this view.

‘Henry VII had successfully established monarchical authority by 1509.’ Assess the validity of this view.

Your job, therefore, is to find evidence from your course for both sides of the argument i.e. both ‘for’ and ‘against’ the hypothesis. You absolutely must have evidence for both sides – not just one side. The evidence goes down on your plan, divided into ‘for’ and ‘against’ the hypothesis. Whichever side you end with more evidence for, or more convincing evidence for, that is the side you will conclude is most persuasive.

History Exams – How to avoid being narrative

Imagine it like a tennis match

Imagine it like a tennis match, where the ball starts on one side of the tennis court, is played and then sails over to the opposing side.  A point-by-point argument is like this – it is oppositional, with two opposing sides. You should aim to bounce back and forth between the points and the two sides of the argument. Begin with one of the points from your plan, either for or against the hypothesis. Deal with the point in detail, using clear examples as evidence and linking it firmly to the question.  That’s your opening shot.

Next, pop straight over to the opposing view and deal with that point, again using clear examples and linking to the question. Repeat this ‘back and forth’ technique until you have covered all the points and evidence in your plan.

To do this really well it is usually better to put up the side of your argument that you will oppose first. You outline the ‘other’ side of the argument and show that you understand the opposing view. Then you switch over to the other side of the hypothesis, i.e. ‘your’ argument, and use powerful evidence to back it up. Remember this is all about argument and analysis.

Back to our tennis match analogy; the ball is your argument, which bounces back and forth between the players, but you need ‘your’ side to end each point with the big shot – the one that wins the game.

How to use Provenance in History Exams

The Conclusion

You must conclude in line with the most persuasive and convincing evidence you have included in your plan.   This sounds really obvious, but I have lost count of how many A-level history essays I have marked that argue effectively for one point of view, but then conclude in favour of the other side.  The most common reason for this happening is that the student has moved off their plan when writing up the essay.  Follow your plan!

At the end of the essay your conclusion should sum up all the main points of argument and then should reach a judgement.  Don’t sit on the fence, no matter how tempting it is.  You need to make a judgement.  The conclusion should mirror your introduction and the main points of argument in the body of the essay, so the work ends up as a coherent, clear argument from introduction to conclusion.

The point-by-point essay takes practice, so it will help if you can get some feedback from your teacher or tutor, or even a parent who will be able to tell you if your argument is clear and makes sense to the reader. Do persevere, however, because when you get the technique right it will gain you more marks in the end.

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A Level History: Essay Writing and Revision Tips

A Level History poses a unique challenge, requiring not only a profound understanding of historical events but also the ability to articulate complex ideas in well-structured essays. Excelling in A Level History necessitates effective essay writing skills and strategic revision strategies. In this extensive guide, we will delve into essential tips for A Level History essay writing and effective revision approaches to help you succeed in this demanding subject.

 I. A Level History Essay Writing Tips

 a. understand the question.

1. Thorough Reading: Take the time to comprehend the essay question thoroughly. Identify key terms and requirements.

2. Thesis Formation: Clearly articulate a thesis statement that directly addresses the question.

 b. Plan Your Essay

1. Structured Outline: Create a well-organized essay structure with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

2. Logical Flow: Ensure a coherent flow of ideas, with each paragraph contributing to the overall argument.

 c. Effective Introduction

1. Context Establishment: Provide historical context to orient the reader.

2. Thesis Statement: Clearly state your argument or position in the introduction.

 d. Develop a Strong Argument

1. Evidence-Based: Support your argument with evidence from historical sources.

2. Analysis: Analyze the significance of the evidence and its relevance to the overall argument.

 e. Use of Historical Terminology

1. Precision in Terminology: Demonstrate a command of historical terminology relevant to the topic.

2. Contextual Usage: Use terms in their historical context to showcase understanding.

 f. Counterarguments and Evaluation

1. Consideration of Counterarguments: Address potential counterarguments to strengthen your position.

2. Critical Evaluation: Assess the strengths and weaknesses of different historical perspectives.

 g. Conclusion

1. Summarization of Key Points: Recapitulate the main points of your argument.

2. Restate Thesis: Reinforce your thesis in the conclusion.

 h. Language and Style

1. Clarity: Write clearly and concisely, avoiding unnecessary complexity.

2. Varied Sentence Structure: Use a mix of sentence structures for readability.

 II. A Level History Revision Strategies

 a. organized revision schedule.

1. Prioritization of Topics: Identify weaker areas and prioritize them in your revision schedule.

2. Consistent Review: Regularly review topics instead of cramming.

 b. Active Engagement with Sources

1. Primary and Secondary Source Engagement: Actively engage with both primary and secondary sources.

2. Critical Analysis: Develop skills to critically analyze historical documents.

 c. Mind Maps and Diagrams

1. Visual Representation: Create mind maps or diagrams to visually represent historical events and connections.

2. Conceptual Understanding: Utilize visuals to enhance your conceptual understanding.

 d. Practice Essay Writing

1. Timed Practice: Simulate exam conditions with timed essay writing.

2. Feedback Seek: Seek feedback from teachers or peers to enhance your writing skills.

 e. Flashcards for Key Dates and Facts

1. Key Dates Memorization: Create flashcards for essential historical dates and facts.

2. Regular Review: Consistently review flashcards for better retention.

 f. Group Study Sessions

1. Discussion Participation: Engage in group study sessions for diverse perspectives.

2. Concept Explanation: Teach concepts to peers to reinforce your understanding.

 g. Past Papers and Marking Schemes

1. Exam Simulation: Practice with past papers to familiarize yourself with the exam format.

2. Marking Schemes Analysis: Analyze marking schemes to understand expectations.

 h. Utilize Online Resources

1. Online Lectures: Watch online lectures to supplement your understanding.

2. Interactive Quizzes: Utilize online quizzes for self-assessment.

 III. Conclusion

A Level History demands a multifaceted approach, combining effective essay writing skills with strategic revision strategies. Understanding essay question nuances, meticulous planning, and developing a robust argument with historical evidence are crucial elements of successful A Level History essays. In terms of revision, an organized schedule, active engagement with sources, and varied study techniques contribute to a comprehensive understanding of historical events. By adopting these tips, you can navigate the complexities of A Level History with confidence, mastering both the art of essay writing and the nuances of historical analysis. Remember, excellence in A Level History is not just about memorization but about the ability to critically analyze and interpret the past.

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How to write an introduction for a history essay

Every essay needs to begin with an introductory paragraph. It needs to be the first paragraph the marker reads.

While your introduction paragraph might be the first of the paragraphs you write, this is not the only way to do it.

You can choose to write your introduction after you have written the rest of your essay.

This way, you will know what you have argued, and this might make writing the introduction easier.

Either approach is fine. If you do write your introduction first, ensure that you go back and refine it once you have completed your essay. 

What is an ‘introduction paragraph’?

An introductory paragraph is a single paragraph at the start of your essay that prepares your reader for the argument you are going to make in your body paragraphs .

It should provide all of the necessary historical information about your topic and clearly state your argument so that by the end of the paragraph, the marker knows how you are going to structure the rest of your essay.

In general, you should never use quotes from sources in your introduction.

Introduction paragraph structure

While your introduction paragraph does not have to be as long as your body paragraphs , it does have a specific purpose, which you must fulfil.

A well-written introduction paragraph has the following four-part structure (summarised by the acronym BHES).

B – Background sentences

H – Hypothesis

E – Elaboration sentences

S - Signpost sentence

Each of these elements are explained in further detail, with examples, below:

1. Background sentences

The first two or three sentences of your introduction should provide a general introduction to the historical topic which your essay is about. This is done so that when you state your hypothesis , your reader understands the specific point you are arguing about.

Background sentences explain the important historical period, dates, people, places, events and concepts that will be mentioned later in your essay. This information should be drawn from your background research . 

Example background sentences:

Middle Ages (Year 8 Level)

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15 th and 16 th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges.

WWI (Year 9 Level)

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe.

Civil Rights (Year 10 Level)

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success.

Ancient Rome (Year 11/12 Level)  

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times.

2. Hypothesis

Once you have provided historical context for your essay in your background sentences, you need to state your hypothesis .

A hypothesis is a single sentence that clearly states the argument that your essay will be proving in your body paragraphs .

A good hypothesis contains both the argument and the reasons in support of your argument. 

Example hypotheses:

Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery.

Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare.

The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.

Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1 st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state.

3. Elaboration sentences

Once you have stated your argument in your hypothesis , you need to provide particular information about how you’re going to prove your argument.

Your elaboration sentences should be one or two sentences that provide specific details about how you’re going to cover the argument in your three body paragraphs.

You might also briefly summarise two or three of your main points.

Finally, explain any important key words, phrases or concepts that you’ve used in your hypothesis, you’ll need to do this in your elaboration sentences.

Example elaboration sentences:

By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period.

Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined.

The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results.

While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period.

4. Signpost sentence

The final sentence of your introduction should prepare the reader for the topic of your first body paragraph. The main purpose of this sentence is to provide cohesion between your introductory paragraph and you first body paragraph .

Therefore, a signpost sentence indicates where you will begin proving the argument that you set out in your hypothesis and usually states the importance of the first point that you’re about to make. 

Example signpost sentences:

The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20 th century.

The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

Putting it all together

Once you have written all four parts of the BHES structure, you should have a completed introduction paragraph. In the examples above, we have shown each part separately. Below you will see the completed paragraphs so that you can appreciate what an introduction should look like.

Example introduction paragraphs: 

Castles were an important component of Medieval Britain from the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 until they were phased out in the 15th and 16th centuries. Initially introduced as wooden motte and bailey structures on geographical strongpoints, they were rapidly replaced by stone fortresses which incorporated sophisticated defensive designs to improve the defenders’ chances of surviving prolonged sieges. Medieval castles were designed with features that nullified the superior numbers of besieging armies, but were ultimately made obsolete by the development of gunpowder artillery. By the height of the Middle Ages, feudal lords were investing significant sums of money by incorporating concentric walls and guard towers to maximise their defensive potential. These developments were so successful that many medieval armies avoided sieges in the late period. The early development of castles is best understood when examining their military purpose.

The First World War began in 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The subsequent declarations of war from most of Europe drew other countries into the conflict, including Australia. The Australian Imperial Force joined the war as part of Britain’s armed forces and were dispatched to locations in the Middle East and Western Europe. Australian soldiers’ opinion of the First World War changed from naïve enthusiasm to pessimistic realism as a result of the harsh realities of modern industrial warfare. Following Britain's official declaration of war on Germany, young Australian men voluntarily enlisted into the army, which was further encouraged by government propaganda about the moral justifications for the conflict. However, following the initial engagements on the Gallipoli peninsula, enthusiasm declined. The naïve attitudes of those who volunteered in 1914 can be clearly seen in the personal letters and diaries that they themselves wrote.

The 1967 Referendum sought to amend the Australian Constitution in order to change the legal standing of the indigenous people in Australia. The fact that 90% of Australians voted in favour of the proposed amendments has been attributed to a series of significant events and people who were dedicated to the referendum’s success. The success of the 1967 Referendum was a direct result of the efforts of First Nations leaders such as Charles Perkins, Faith Bandler and the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders. The political activity of key indigenous figures and the formation of activism organisations focused on indigenous resulted in a wider spread of messages to the general Australian public. The generation of powerful images and speeches has been frequently cited by modern historians as crucial to the referendum results. The significance of these people is evident when examining the lack of political representation the indigenous people experience in the early half of the 20th century.

In the late second century BC, the Roman novus homo Gaius Marius became one of the most influential men in the Roman Republic. Marius gained this authority through his victory in the Jugurthine War, with his defeat of Jugurtha in 106 BC, and his triumph over the invading Germanic tribes in 101 BC, when he crushed the Teutones at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (102 BC) and the Cimbri at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). Marius also gained great fame through his election to the consulship seven times. Gaius Marius was the most one of the most significant personalities in the 1st century BC due to his effect on the political, military and social structures of the Roman state. While Marius is best known for his military reforms, it is the subsequent impacts of this reform on the way other Romans approached the attainment of magistracies and how public expectations of military leaders changed that had the longest impacts on the late republican period. The origin of Marius’ later achievements was his military reform in 107 BC, which occurred when he was first elected as consul.

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How to Write An A-Level History Essay Structure

A major part of your A-level history coursework includes writing essays. While an essay essentially informs a reader about a certain topic, it is more than just writing all the information. So, examiners, especially during the A-levels, tend to focus on tricky things or skills like how well you have responded to the question, analysed the evidence, and built the arguments.

Unless you are exceptionally blessed, you need time to hone these skills, and poor grades are, thus, common in the beginning. Luckily, these abilities can be learned. Usually, when students struggle with such write-ups, they consider searching online: ‘Can I pay someone to write my essay ?’ to ease their academic burden. However, this guide has discussed some main steps to writing an A-level history essay. These will help you create a high-scoring essay.

Steps to Follow When Writing an A-level History Essay

Here are some crucial steps to writing a history essay:

1. Read the Question Carefully

Some students recite a prepared response without assessing what they are actually writing, resulting in a poorly-graded essay. Therefore, it is crucial to read the question several times to comprehend it. In addition, doing so will help you understand the importance of careful reading and annotation settings, such as identifying potential arguments to support your essay writing.

2. Create an Outline

Make an outline after you’ve finished analysing the essay question. This approach reduces the possibility of error when you hit a major roadblock. Furthermore, it acts as a roadmap when you can’t assemble your ideas in the essay.

The outline helps you brainstorm and comprehend what is essential to mention in your essay. Therefore, it’s a good idea to compile a list of key arguments supporting and refuting your position. You can also take help from A-level history essay examples online to understand how to go about the task. You are now prepared to move towards the introduction.

3. What Should Be in A History Essay Introduction?

You can state your main argument in the essay introduction. This is an exciting approach because it demonstrates you have a strong viewpoint and are willing to argue, focusing on keywords from the beginning. It also reveals to an examiner you have planned your essay, know what you will say, and can back it up with good evidence. However, usually, students don’t know how to start or what should be in a history essay introduction?

Therefore, any write-up introduction is often personalised. You can start with an interesting quote, disagree with the question, define a significant event, or do something else to set the scene, making it compelling. It will also show you have comprehensive knowledge of the subject matter, understand the problems at stake, and how to deal with them. This type of introduction will captivate readers, impress them, and pique their interest.

4. Write Main Body Paragraphs

Now you know what should be in a history essay introduction; it’s time to work on the main body paragraphs. You will support your case in the main body. However, remember you are making arguments, not telling a story.

You’ve already distinguished the keywords in the question. So, now it’s time to put them to use. Each paragraph must reference the keywords in a meaningful way. Be ruthless – you should carefully select only what is required to back up your argument.

5. Conclude Your History Essay

In conclusion, you summarise what you have written in the main body. This is the last thing an examiner reads. A good conclusion can save a bad essay and seal the deal on a good note.

It is the point where you tie the threads of your argument together and hammer home your points, leaving the audience in no doubt about your answer.

You should refer specifically to the question’s keywords and reinforce the points you made in the main body. But, above all, it should not contain anything new and restate your argument.

How to Answer A Source Question In A-Level History?

You might need to write the answer source question in your history essay, but you don’t know how to answer a source question in a-level history, so here are some tips you can keep in mind while writing an answer:

• Indicate how dependable you might expect the source of a particular type of question to be • Avoid using the word ‘biased’ • Indicate the source’s specific purpose • Include information about the author, the audience, or the time • Mention what is exaggerated or omitted, and then return to your question

Thus, following these tips, you will better understand how to answer a source question in a-level history.

A-Level History Essay Examples

Now you know how to work on a history essay.

Here’s a list of A-level history essay example topics you can work on: • The soldiers from India who fought in World War I • The involvement of America in the Korean War • Examples of music created due to political causes • What were the events that led to the Roman Empire’s demise? • The hippie movement of the 1960s • The incidents that led to Saudi Arabia’s emergence • The British music industry’s foray into the US market

These are some topics you can write on. Moreover, if you still feel it’s not easy for you to write A-level history essays, you can always consider taking essay writing services from us to meet your academic requirements.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. how many paragraphs should an a level history essay be.

An A-level history essay should have at least three paragraphs, but four paragraphs are also recommended.

2. How do you write a 20-mark history essay a level?

For writing a 20-marks history A-level essay, you should begin with a brief introduction. So, you should be presenting your thesis statement at this stage. Then, the main body of the argument should follow the pattern of Point, Evidence, and Describe.

Make a point at this stage, back it up with some evidence, and explain what it indicates. You must also evaluate these points to get excellent marks while demonstrating your claim is stronger. Finally, summarise your arguments to conclude, but don’t add new information.

3. How do you write a high school history essay?

Writing a high school history essay requires students to follow essential steps, including:

• Consider the background information that the reader should be aware of in the introductory paragraph • Define any keywords • Assess which ideas will require the cited assistance • Determine how each idea contributes to the main argument • Make a list of key points to go over in the conclusion

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History is not just about writing lots of essays! It is also about discussion, debate and evidence. However, there will be, as with many other subjects at A-Level, some essays to write - but it is not as tough as it looks. Essay writing is a skill that you will get better at over time, but you might find the guide below useful to help you along.

How to Write a History Essay

• Are you new to the 6th form?
• Are you already in the 6th form but worried about your essay writing skills?
• Are you moving on to study history at university?

Then this could be just what you need! This guide will not help you to get outstanding grades - that is up to you, but it will prepare you with the skills that you need to produce that masterpiece!

Key Features: The Must Haves

A-Level/Undergraduate essays should contain the following features; although it depends on the type of essay you are writing as to how far you go; for example, a personal study or dissertation will require a great deal of historiography and referencing, whereas class essays may require less. If you are unsure as to how much your teacher will expect, it is best to ask! 

A well considered argument - This is VERY important to get right. It means that you will need to make sure that you clearly state your line of argument and do it convincingly. At the same time, you will also need to give full coverage to other factors/opinions/arguments that are at play - even if it is to rubbish them!

Reference to the question

An introduction

A middle -  the substantive part of the essay, where you present the evidence and arguments

A conclusion

Footnotes and bibliography

Before You Start...

The key to success in any history essay is preparation. This not only includes focussed and wide reading around the topic, but also your preparation of your thoughts and arguments. Richard Harris, experienced history teacher and now lecturer in education at Southampton University provides a very good starting point for essay writing. His plan is designed to get you thinking and planning your structure before you write. You can find a copy of this planning sheet at the end of the guide. 

1) Considered Argument

The key to providing a considered argument is to read widely! What is the historiography (views of different historians) surrounding the topic? What evidence is there to support different lines of argument? Your job is firstly to present these lines of argument.

Secondly, you should critically evaluate these views and evidence as you explain them. Is there evidence to counteract? By providing a considered argument - what we don't mean is that you sit on the fence! Every essay MUST have an argument, but by considered, we simply mean that you should be prepared to consider other arguments/factors, other than your own view, even if it is to critically evaluate them and dismiss their importance! But you must be convincing and be prepared to examine them fully.

At A level, the mark-schemes tend to be stepped into 5 different levels; you cannot progress beyond level 2/3 if you do not provide a well considered argument! The examiner wants to see what your opinion is, but they also want to know that you have not just "plucked" this opinion from nowhere - they want to see that you have considered the topic fully, taken account of all of the views and arguments before making your judgement. Therefore, you should stick to your line of argument throughout, but you should clearly evaluate other points of view, showing your reader how and why they are less valuable arguments than your own. 

2) Reference to the question

Where possible you should show how the evidence you are presenting links back to the question. You should refer back to the question wherever a link or piece of evidence provides some clues to help formulate an answer. This should help you to avoid going off track. Always think as you are writing "does this paragraph help to present the evidence to support my line of argument or help me to answer the question?" 

3) The Introduction

The introduction should set the scene. It should be short and snappy, no more than a few lines, but they are very important as you need to hook your reader in. There should be some very brief background detail to the question. You should also include some brief historiography - what is the main debate among historians about this issue? Who is saying what? You should also at this point wish to state what YOUR argument is going to be.

You should then refer back to the question by stating how you are going to measure/argue your case; a good way to do this is by referring back to the question itself. It should help you to get the question straight in your own mind too and give you some direction. For example, if you have a question asking you how significant an event was, you need to explain what is meant by significance and how you will measure this.

E.g. 'How significant was the Reichstag Fire in the Nazi revolution?'

When this question is analysed, bit by bit it helps us to explain to our reader what the essay intends to cover. 

4) The Middle

This is the substantive part of the essay. This is the bit where you have to present the evidence and arguments. It should predominantly contain your analysis/argument but you must also look at the counter-arguments and the views of historians.

• Present evidence in a balanced way: You should present your argument/response to the question clearly and effectively, using the views of historians and other evidence to back up the points you make. On the other side, you should also consider the arguments against your own and critically evaluate them in order to show why they are less important/plausible than your own.
• Present your evidence in a logical order : Try to avoid jumping around. Make a plan before you write that organizes your evidence logically. This could either be in themes or in chronological order.
• Include analysis: You must make sure that you don't just fall into the trap of presenting evidence without analysis. This reads more like a list! When presenting a piece of evidence or the view of a historian, don't forget to critically analyse. Is the evidence reliable? Is the view of the historian reliable or are they writing from a specific viewpoint? Are there different interpretations? What do you think? Is it a valid point?
• Refer often to the title: Don't forget to link your points back to the question where possible. It will help your essay and your reader stay focused on the answer to the question!

How to Structure Paragraphs:

It is important to structure your points within the scaffolding of the paragraph well. A good way to do this is to PEE all over your paragraphs!!!

Of course, don't take this literally and ruin your essay - what we mean is to use the PEE formula:

E - Example

E - Explanation.

This is a good habit to get into and a good way to provide structure. Simply make your point, give an example or piece of evidence to back it up, then explain it. What is the context? How or why is it significant/insignificant? How does it fit into the topic? How does it help to answer the question? 

Test yourself:

See if you can spot the PEE on this paragraph which forms part of an answer to the question "Was Edward IV a new monarch?"

"Edward's power did not increase at the expense of the nobility; a key criteria for new monarch status. Edward continued the tradition of letting powerful magnates rule the peripheral regions of the country, such as the North and Wales. This resulted in the creation of a number of large power bases including the Herberts in Wales, Gloucester in the North, the Percys in the eastern marshes and the Woodvilles in London. This was largely due to the small number of noble creations in his reign - he only made nine promotions to high nobility. On the one hand this shows that he was in form control as he had sufficient power and stability without having to make lots of noble creations to gain support, yet on the other hand he was creating a volatile situation as rivalries built up between powerful factions and Edward was cresting a potentially explosive situation which only he could control." 

5) Conclusion

This is the end of the essay. This is the bit where you are expected to answer the question! Here you should sum up in a couple of sentences what your argument is, and why it is the most plausible explanation, being careful to remind the reader of supportive evidence. Finally, you should put the essay in context. Explain the wider context to the question. It might be that there are longer-term or under the surface issues that need further exploration, or it may be that there is a bigger picture in play. By putting your answer in context, we don't mean just adding some extra facts about the period at the end - your setting in context should display your broader understanding of the period. A good example of this is when a student was writing about the Golden Age of Spain:

"In conclusion, the extent to whether this period can be deemed as a "Golden Age" ultimately rests on the context of the time. Although it is true to say that Spain was making advances in several areas, in terms of power, unity, wealth, economy, culture, empire and discovery. The extent of religious and racial persecution however, could be deemed as less golden in terms of morality, even if both policies were successful in terms of strengthening Spain's power base. In the wider context of the time, Spain's achievements seem less golden than they may at first appear. We have to remember that this period saw the Renaissance. The Renaissance affected practically every area of life at the time, and was a new dawn of discovery and thinking -  Leonardo Da Vinci, William Harvey, Martin Luther, Copernicus and Galileo were but a few of the characters that shaped the time;  therefore, if Spain had a golden age, so too did many other countries." 

• Re-state your argument using the key words from the title
• Be confident in your argument
• Hint at a broader context
• What other issues would you explore, given more time? 

6) Footnotes and Bibliography

At A-Level and undergraduate level, you will be expected to footnote your essays. Because you are not expected to do this at GCSE, this may be a new skill for you, but it is very easy! 

What are footnotes?

When you quote evidence or the views of a historian from a book or periodical, you are expected to let your reader know where you got this evidence from, so that if they wished (very few would) they could go and check your evidence. You can do this by including citations or footnotes.       

How to Footnote

The process of footnoting is slightly different on different computer programs and may differ again if you are using a MAC, but the process is the same, even if you are handwriting.

Footnotes should be numbered and should either appear at the bottom of the page on which they are cited or in a list at the end of the essay. They should include the following information:

1.) Author's name (surname first)

2.) Date and place of publication (found on the first page of the book usually)

3.) Title of book (in italics)

4.) Page reference. 

How to footnote on the computer

If you have Microsoft Office, the simplest way to insert a footnote is by going to the references section on the tool-bar and then following the instructions above. If you are using an earlier version of Office, you should click on insert and then select footnote from the list.

Below is an example to illustrate what a footnote should look like:

"Leo, the holy pope in Rome, passed away; and in this year there was a great pestilence among cattle than man could remember for many years..." [1]   

Footnote extras

• If the book is a collection of articles or a reproduction of primary source material, it will not have an author, but an editor instead. If the main name on the book is an editor, you need to write the letters (ed.) next to the name.
• If your next footnote in the sequence is from the same book, but a different page, you do not need to write out all of the information again, you can simply write the word "Ibid" which means same source and then cite the page number. However, you should only do this once in any given sequence. If you have 3 quotes in a row from the same book, the third time, you should write out the information again. 

What is a bibliography?

A bibliography is the list of books that you have used to help you write your essay. This may include books that you have quoted from or used as part of your reading.

You should always include a bibliography at the end of your essay which lists the books that you have used. You can use the same format as you would for footnotes. Below is a sample to show you how it should look.

1.) Campbell, J (ed) Cambridge 1982 - The Anglo-Saxons

2.) Swanton, M (ed) J.M Dent 1997 - The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle                                                  

The Harvard Footnote System

Another option to make sure you have referenced correctly is to use the simpler Harvard system. This may be a preferred method for the writing of normal class essays, although for a personal study, the use of traditional footnoting is still recommended. Harvard referencing uses the author and the date of the work in the main body of the text, and then has a reference list at the end of the essay which contains the references cited in alphabetical order by author. The reference list contains the full details of the book or journal cited. Because you only refer to a shortened form of works in the main essay (author, date) your essay doesn't get filled with too much reference material. The use of the author/date shorthand does make it easy to locate works in the reference list.

An example from the main body of a text:

Within the last ten years, teachers who have attended INSET courses have reported that the courses have helped to increase their competence and confidence in using IT (see, for example, Higham and Morris, 1993; ESRC 1990), yet despite the fact that the passing years have presented opportunities for more teachers to increase their skills in IT, weaknesses identified by McCoy (1992) seem to be still evident (Gillmon, 1998; Goldstein 1997). This suggests that we need to look for explanations other than attendance at INSET courses for the reasons for the apparently poor state of teachers' competence and confidence in IT.

In this text the author is citing entire works by other researchers to support her argument. Notice the use of brackets and the author/s and dates of all works.

Another example from the main body of a text:

One resource provided in the secondary speech genre is the "posited author" (Bakhtin, 1981, p. 312).

Here the quotation is a direct one so a page number has been added. Quotations of no more than two sentences can be incorporated into the main text and marked off with quotation marks, but if you quote a longer passage it must be placed in a separate paragraph and indented from the left and right margins of the main text.

_______________ 

[1] Swanton, Michael (ed), J.M Dent 1997, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pg. 185

Attached files:

• Essay Planning Sheet 54.5 KB Word document
• How to write a synoptic essay
• A-level 'how to' guides

AQA A Level History Past Papers

A complete collection of aqa a level history past papers. perfect for preparation for upcoming exams. can be used at home for individual learning or within a classroom environment..

It’s time to start preparing for your exams and it’s never been easier with School History. We’ve got hundreds of past papers that are easy to use, come with mark schemes, and are specifically tailored to each specific examination board, so you can get the most from your revision time and enter your examination feeling confident and fully prepared.

Why use past exam papers?

The answer is simple: preparedness. As a A Level student, exams become an important part of your assessment criteria and preparation for A-levels. The use and importance of past papers, therefore, cannot be over-emphasised.

Fill in the blanks

Using past papers are an effective way to establish your strengths and weaknesses so you know where to focus your revision time. Don’t spend hours on a topic you’re familiar with while neglecting an area that needs more time and effort to familiarise yourself with.

Learn effective time management

Proper time management can quite literally mean the difference between passing and failing an exam, even if you know everything that’s required to pass. Your revision time and using past papers is an excellent way to start practicing how to properly manage the time in the exam setting. You’ll be given different styles of questions with different mark allocations, so it’s important to know what’s expected of you and how much time to dedicate to each question, whether its a multiple-choice question, short answer or an essay.

Walk into your exam with confidence

With proper preparation, it’s possible to walk into and out of your exam feeling confident. Confidence is key to performing well as doubt and anxiety can cloud your judgment and affect your ability to think clearly and make the proper decisions. Past papers are the most effective way to familiarise yourself with important terminology, vocabulary, and styles of questions so that you have a solid understanding of what is expected of you to excel in each and every style of question.

Get to know your questions

Remember, some questions will be assessing your knowledge and understanding of key features and characteristics of a period studied, others will require you to explain and analyse historic events, others will require you to compare and contrast source material and contextualise it in the historic environment, while thematic studies will require you to demonstrate knowledge clearly over centuries while following a particular theme. All of these questions require you to substantiate your answers using facts.

All these questions will be awarded marks in levels, i.e. basic, simple, developed and complex, and short answers and essay questions will also have marks awarded for spelling and grammar. By practicing with past papers you’ll have access to mark schemes, which examiners use to evaluate your responses and you’ll quickly learn how to achieve the most marks while striking the right balance with time management.

Where do I find past papers? Right here, of course! School History has hundreds of examination-style questions to help you practice for your history exams. By signing up, you’ll not only have access to past papers but thousands of resources related to what you’re studying, including notes, activities, quiz questions and more. Let’s dive in! Take a look below at the major examination boards we cover. Give yourself every advantage to excel in your exams and sign up today!

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AS and A-level History

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Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Englightenment, 1682-1796 - Sample set 1 New

Published 14 Mar 2024 | PDF | 1.4 MB

Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 2D Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529-1570 - Sample set 1

Published 9 Feb 2024 | PDF | 823 KB

Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 1L The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871-1991 - Sample set 1

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Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 1G Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851-1964 - Sample set 1

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Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 2H France in Revolution, 1774-1815 - Sample set 1

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Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 2J America: A Nation Divided, c1845-1877 - Sample set 1

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Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 2A Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154-1216 - Sample set 1

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Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 1F Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783-1885 - Sample set 1

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Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 1A The Age of the Crusades, c1071-1204 - Sample set 1

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Answers and commentary (A-level): Component 2R The Cold War, c1945-1991 - Sample set 1

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Modelled History Essays AQA 'A' level

Subject: History

Age range: 16+

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31 October 2020

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AS and A Level: History

"Explain why it was Stalin rather than Trotsky who succeeded Lenin as ruler of the USSR"

The Succession of Lenin - Stalin or Trotsky 24th January 2004 "Explain why it was Stalin rather than Trotsky who succeeded Lenin as ruler of the USSR" After Lenin's death in 1924, there was a struggle between the leading Bolsheviks to succeed Lenin as leader of the USSR. In the end, it emerged as a contest between Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin. There were several reasons why it was Stalin rather than Trotsky who succeeded Lenin, and it is these I shall be exploring in this essay. Trotsky seemed like the obvious successor, and consequently he became inactive. He was over-confident, arrogant, and failed to take any threat seriously, least of all the quiet Stalin and so did nothing to try to discredit Stalin or reverse the damage Stalin did to him. In late 1923, when Trotsky needed to be at his most active, he became ill with a malaria-like disease. He also failed to use his popularity in the Red Army to his advantage or to stop his removal from the Politburo or office of Commissar for War. Trotsky's inactiveness resulted in people thinking Stalin was better than him. Trotsky was unpopular in the party because of his inactiveness in increasing his popularity within the party. He couldn't rely on the vote from other party members as he regularly offended leading Bolsheviks like Zinoviev and Kamenev. A series of arguments with them heightened by Trotsky's 'The Lessons of

• Word count: 795
• Level: AS and A Level
• Subject: History

"Foreign success; domestic failure." How fair is this summary of Bismarck's governance of Germany

"Foreign success; domestic failure." How fair is this summary of Bismarck's governance of Germany It is not fair to state that Bismarck failed domestically, however it is true to some extent that his foreign policies, in terms of success and to some extent importance, did overshadow his practically and theoretically limited domestic policies. It could be argued that these limitations were not because of Bismarck's political mismanagement but because of the social and political situation Germany held at the time. Bismarck was confronted by several impediments. The fact that Bismarck was faced with a religiously and socially disjointed federal state, holding several different political parties within the Reichstag, offered only hardship for domestic control. His position was further weakened due to his absence from Berlin, as a result of his poor health, reducing his control of the every day decision making. After 1871, Bismarck was persistently thwarted in his efforts to shape the domestic developments of the Reich. Bismarck's main domestic aim was to achieve unity within Germany. There was urgency for the need of legislation to establish an economic and legal framework for the Empire. Bismarck's influence over William gave him an immensely strong position, which he exploited. Bismarck ensured that other ministers were little more than senior clerks, carrying out his orders.

• Word count: 3830

"Great-power politics rather than principles dominated the Vienna Settlement of 1915." Discuss

"Great-power politics rather than principles dominated the Vienna Settlement of 1915." Discuss It is hardly surprising that the Settlement was dominated by the Great Powers for it was they who, at great cost, had defeated Napoleon and only they who had the strength to bring the turmoil that he had created to an end. So the most delicate negotiations and the key decisions took place, outside the formal sessions of the Conference, between the statesmen representing the victorious powers. The scheming of Talleyrand won France a place in the inner discussions but the representatives of the lesser nations were kept away from the decision-making. The Settlement is often studied through a survey of Great Power representatives, motives, tactics and rewards. At the end of this essay it will be argued that this situation does not necessarily mean that principles had no part to play in shaping the settlement of Europe. A lot may depend on how one defines a principle. The territorial arrangements arrived at offer a clear indication of the significant part played by Great Power politics. The Tsar Alexander pursued the traditional Russian policy of expansion westwards in order to provide deeper defences for the heart of his kingdom, securing both Finland and Poland for his pains. Hardenberg of Prussia had great ambitions to obtain all of Saxony... What the Great powers wanted in the

• Word count: 917

"Guilty men" - how responsible were Chamberlain et.al for World War Two?

Guilty men Neville Chamberlain was 68 years old when he succeeded Baldwin as PM on 28th May 1937. It was a post for which he would never fight a general election. As he was being groomed as future PM, he became more critical of policy decisions, sure that he could do better on foreign matters, and his diary recorded a constant lament. He felt that Hitler was the 'bully of Europe', and decided to hope for the best, and plan for the worst. Chamberlain embarked on a policy of deterrence and appeasement, searching for 'decency even in dictators'. Chamberlain saw war as the ultimate absurdity, and he desired peace at all costs. However, he believed in the principle of the 'vital cause', one which if you went to war for, and won you could say 'that cause is safe'. Chamberlain's view that Britain was 'a very rich and a very vulnerable empire' was supported by the idea that Europe was divided between two ideologies. He believed that it was up to Britain to defend itself, holding France and the league of nations in low regard, with similar views towards the US. He was always quick to refute support for certain ideologies, claiming total indifference to Nazism, Fascism and Bolshevism. Chamberlain believed that a nation should not make threats unless it can back them up with action, and that foreign policy is dictated by circumstances. The criticism of Chamberlain came strongly,

• Word count: 854

"HITLER'S ECONOMIC POLICIES (1933-45) WERE ONLY CONCERNED WITH PREPARATION FOR WAR, AND THEN SUPPLYING THE NEEDS OF WAR."HOW FAR DO YOU AGREE WITH THIS STATEMENT?

"HITLER'S ECONOMIC POLICIES (1933-45) WERE ONLY CONCERNED WITH PREPARATION FOR WAR, AND THEN SUPPLYING THE NEEDS OF WAR."HOW FAR DO YOU AGREE WITH THIS STATEMENT? At the start of the period, Hitler had to deal with a number of problems-when the /Nazis came to power the German economy was not in a very good state and Hitler had this as his foremost concern. However, with the recovery of the economy came a clearer focus on preparation for war, and after the introduction of the 4-year plan in 1936, we can consider that there was a significant leaning towards this aim. In 1933, the German economy showed significant weaknesses in all its major areas. Although it was in fact at the end of the cycle of depression this was not yet clear and the recovery of the economy was of prime importance for Germany. Hitler himself also had little involvement at this stage- his interest was mainly ideological and he had limited economic understanding. Nazi economic policy in these early years revolved around traditional socialist principles; for example the nationalisation of industry, and focused on reducing unemployment and building up infrastructure. Schacht, who was in charge of running Germany's economy at the time, used deficit financing to encourage farming and small businesses with the aim of stimulating economic growth and promoting loyalty to the Nazis in a political twist to his

• Word count: 1093

"How far do the sources suggest consistent aims in Mussolini's foreign policy 1922-39?"

Will Taylor 12G1 HISTORY COURSEWORK ASSIGNMENT PART A "How far do the sources suggest consistent aims in Mussolini's foreign policy 1922-39?" Source 1 suggests that Mussolini has no consistent aim in his foreign policy, and that it was "optimistic and egotistic". Graham states that the foreign policy was "not based upon principles" but instead is a mercenary policy, doing anything that would benefit Mussolini's reputation within Italy. It suggests that Mussolini is taking an altruistic approach to foreign policy, and at the same time his foreign policy is purely "based on opportunism". There is a failure by Graham to perceive any coherence in Italian foreign policy, which may have been perfectly true in 1923. This source comes from the British ambassador of the time, and there would be little incentive to lie about current proceedings, and his information would need to be honest because it is being directed at the "His Majesty's Government". Despite the information in this source, it is clear in Source 3 that by 1939 Mussolini certainly does have a planned foreign policy. Source 3 is Mussolini stating his foreign policy aims to the Grand Council. His aims are clearly to gain control of the Mediterranean and gain passage to the oceans. It logically outlines considerations and how to achieve these aims. One of Mussolini's considerations is the resistance Italy would eb faced

• Word count: 1096

"I was within the circle: so that I neither saw nor heard as those without might see and hear

"I was within the circle: so that I neither saw nor heard as those without might see and hear." (Frederick Douglass) What was the significance of the slave narratives and their authorship? Anti-slavery writings and slave narratives were undeniably significant and helpful in the abolitionists' fight against slavery. Many called them "the abolitionist movement's voice of reality." As they were first hand accounts of slavery from the African American slaves themselves. They depicted life as a slave and life after, and disproved the opinion that life as a slave was a happy one. They showed the "reality" of what was happening to slaves, and the mistreatment they were suffering at the hands of their masters. William Lloyd Garrison, David Walker, Harriet Jacobs and Frederick Douglass were some of the most important abolitionist writers. Each of these writers had different experiences with slavery, but they all had one thing in common: they tell of the abominable institution of slavery and how greatly it affected their lives. Frederick Douglass wrote his own slave narrative - Narrative in the life of Frederick Douglass, (which went on to become the biggest and best selling slave narrative still today) to give north Americans a closer account of slavery, it told about sexual, physical and mental abuse, the horrors of family separation and the inhuman workload at the hands of his

• Word count: 2069

"In all that he did, his main aim was to secure himself in power." How far do you agree with this judgement on Napoleon's policies as First Consul?

"In all that he did, his main aim was to secure himself in power." How far do you agree with this judgement on Napoleon's policies as First Consul? After the Coup of Brumaire in 1799, Napoleon emerged as the new leader of France and devised a system of government that gave him effective control over all aspects of life in France. He controlled religion, education, law-making, policing, legal reforms and the economic situation by putting in place a series of policies, designed both to comply with some principles of the Revolution whilst also giving Napoleon control and security in power. This essay looks to investigate how far each of these policies suggest that Napoleon's main aim was always to secure himself in power. Napoleons policy of police and propaganda is the most obviously repressive of all the policies. Many aspects of his heavy policing conform with dictatorial regimes, as does his policy of censorship and (often false or manipulated) propaganda. France became effectively a Police State, with Napoleon at the core. The Minister of Police, Joseph Fouché, who controlled National Security, established a network of informers who monitored public opinion and reported on any suspicious political activity. They also monitored everyday life in France: the education system; prisons; food supplies; conscription and public works. All findings were written in a daily report,

• Word count: 2146

"In its intervention in South East Asia in the years 1950-1964, the USA was more concerned with defending its economic, than its ideological, interests"

"In its intervention in South East Asia in the years 1950-1964, the USA was more concerned with defending its economic, than its ideological, interests" The Cold War is infamous as an ideological battle ground, in relation to American beliefs, the clashes of ideology could be seen to an extent as economic in nature; communism Vs capitalism and thus the two reasons are inextricably linked. Yet as America's longest war, it follows that the conflict was a complicated one. The contributing factors of American involvement changed as the war progressed. The initial reasons the U.S.A became involved were not the reasons that kept them there over 15 years later and thus the reasons America entered Vietnam changed over time. America primarily became involved out of fear of communism and the domino effect, having 'lost' china to communism, and observing the U.S.S.R as a monolithic threat, the U.S believed they could not afford to allow another area in the region to turn communist. It seems then that the intervention was ideologically motivated. However, interest in the region was not only due to the desire to protect 'freedom', it was also an economically important region. Japan has been described as the 'corner stone' of American involvement in South East Asia and thus it was important to protect it. The Vietnam War was based on assumptions by the U.S.A. The initial and most cited

• Word count: 1031

"Italy Unified Itself". To what extent is this statement true?

Bianca Nardi History HL - Mr Nash "Italy Unified Itself". To what extent is this statement true? The end of Napoleonic Italy and the Risorgimento movements demonstrated that the dream of Italian Unity could be a reality. The unification can be seen as the inevitable end to any means which the Italian states could have undertaken politically. Victor Emmanuel's predecessor, Charles Albert, claimed in 1849 that "Italia farà da sò" (Italy will do itself)). To what extent was his prediction accurate? The Risorgimento movements in the Nineteenth Century are characterized by being a national revival which led to the creation of the Italian Kingdom. Revolutionary outbursts against the absolutist rule of restored monarchs were undertaken by different revolutionary groups who had little common aims and lacked organization. Thus, the sole means by which the Italian people could share their ideas was through the secret societies. Of these, the one which stood out was the Carbonari, who had their base in Naples. The secret societies had unclear aims and hadn't the competence to work towards and united Italy. The revolutionaries' main flaw was that they consisted almost entirely of the educated middle class and did not gain popular support which would have been crucial for their success. However, they

• Word count: 1445

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Total solar eclipse 2024

By Ashley Strickland , Elise Hammond , Maureen Chowdhury , Antoinette Radford, Eric Zerkel and Aditi Sangal , CNN

In pictures: Watching the solar eclipse across North America

From CNN Digital’s Photo Team

Click here for more spectacular photos from today's eclipse.

Why eclipses create a "beautiful coincidence" on Earth

From CNN's Ashley Strickland

Americans are a little spoiled when it comes to eclipses. After all, we just experienced one that the majority of the country got to see, and it comes on the heels of the "Great American Eclipse" that tracked from Oregon to South Carolina in 2017.

But that doesn't often happen. And it won't again until the 2040s.

On average, an eclipse occurs in the same place every 375 years, said Dr. John Mulchaey, Carnegie Institution for Science’s deputy for science and the director and Crawford H. Greenewalt Chair of the Carnegie Observatories.

And we’re living at the right time to truly enjoy the sight of a total eclipse on Earth, he said.

While eclipses occur throughout the solar system, none are exactly like the ones experienced in our world.

The moon is about 400 times smaller than the sun, but the moon is also about 400 times closer to Earth than the sun is, creating a “beautiful coincidence” that results in eclipses when the three celestial bodies align, Mulchaey said.

This alignment is called syzygy, or when three objects line up in space.

In the distant past, the moon was much closer to Earth, which means totality likely didn’t appear as it does now. And within another 60 million years or so, the moon will be so far away that it will never cover the sun, making this a rare moment in time, Mulchaey said.

The long history of myths and folklore inspired by eclipses

From CNN's Ashley Strickland and Terry Ward

Eclipses have long inspired terror and awe as ancient cultures sought ways to explain the celestial phenomenon .

“I find the mythology and folklore of eclipses fascinating,” said Mark Littman, a journalism professor at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville and coauthor of “ Totality: The Great North American Eclipse of 2024 .”

“To see how people long ago and people today reacted to a total eclipse of the Sun, a sight so unexpected, so dramatic, so surprising in appearance, and so unnatural even though it is utterly natural.”

Ancient records of eclipses date back to 772 BC, when the Chinese marked them on animal bones, and 750 BC, when Babylonians recorded eclipses in their cuneiform writing on clay tablets, Littmann said. Both cultures "realized there was a rhythm to eclipses," which meant they could be calculated and predicted in the future.

Despite the ability to predict eclipses, the cause of the eclipse remained unknown, so myths and folklore filled the knowledge gap.

"The mythology of eclipses most often involves a beast that tries to eat the sun for lunch. For the Chinese, that beast was a dragon or a dog. For Scandinavians, it was a wolf," Littmann said.

Those in northern South America thought the sun and moon fought one another, trying to shut off each other's light, he said.

Transylvanian folklore suggested that the sun looked down on Earth, saw the corruption of humans, and turned away in disgust.

And the Fon people of western Africa thought the male sun ruled the day, while the female moon ruled the night.

"They love each other, but they are so busy traversing the sky and providing light that they seldom get together," Littmann said. "Yet when they do, they modestly turn off the light."

Eclipses provide unique opportunities for NASA scientists to learn more about the future of the sun

From CNN's Elise Hammond

NASA scientists took full advantage of Monday’s eclipse to collect data and study the Earth, moon and sun in different ways, the agency’s deputy administrator said. One area of specific interest is the sun’s corona , or outer atmosphere.

“This is a very elusive region and it can be viewed during a solar eclipse in a very special way,” Pam Melroy said during a news conference at the end of March .

She said understanding the corona is “key to understanding fundamental questions about how heat and energy are transferred out into the solar wind,” which contributes to how solar wind and flares impacts Earth.

“Things are happening with the corona (that) we don’t fully understand and the eclipse gives us a unique opportunity to collect data that may give insights into the future of our star,” Melroy said.

And this is an especially good year to study the corona, she said. The sun is approaching  solar maximum — the peak of activity — later this year, and scientists are eager to capture this moment through a variety of observations that can only occur during eclipses. During solar maximum, the sun’s magnetic poles flip and then the sun will grow quiet again during a solar minimum.

“The chance that we are going to see something amazing is very high,” Melroy said.

Former NASA astronaut says she hopes eclipse sparks sense of connectedness with the universe

A former NASA astronaut said she hopes Monday’s total solar eclipse inspires a connection between everyone who witnessed it and the universe.

“We’re all part of this universe – and the universe was showing us some of its secrets at that point in time,” Mae Jemison told CNN.

While viewing totality in Bloomington, Indiana, the former astronaut said she was thinking about other times she experienced eclipses. 

When she saw a partial eclipse as a child in Chicago, Jemison said she was trying to make sense of what was happening.

But then thinking about her time as an astronaut, “it reinforced the feeling that when I look up, when I look away from the Earth when I was in space, it again connects me with this world, with this universe – and know that I have a responsibility.”

Jemison said science is about building on knowledge for the next generation, and the eclipse was an opportunity to do just that. Scientists used Monday’s eclipse to gather data to better understand the sun but Jemison said she hopes there is also learning at a personal level.

“I hope what people discover is themselves and their connectedness to the rest of the universe,” she said.

Eclipse Explained: Is there anywhere that saw totality in both 2017 and 2024? 

Yes! There is an area where both 2017 and 2024 paths of totality intersect. According to a map from NASA , that area includes parts of Missouri, southern Illinois and western Kentucky.

One of the places in that intersection, Carbondale, Illinois, experienced the longest period of totality in 2017 at 2 minutes, 42 seconds, according to NASA. 

Seeing the eclipse again more than 20 years later

From CNN's Christina Zdanowicz

Juan M. Soto Peña and his wife experienced the joy of a total solar eclipse alongside their daughter, Luciana, in Tucson, Arizona.

The couple saw a partial solar eclipse together on December 25, 2000, in the state of Sonora in Mexico, he said.

Worried about eye damage? Here are the signs you should visit an optometrist after the eclipse

Maybe your eclipse glasses were fake. Perhaps you forgot to slip them back on as the first bit of sunlight reappeared after totality. Or you noticed your child, friend or family member looking up at the sun without putting on their glasses.

Symptoms of eye damage after improperly viewing the eclipse without proper protection can take hours or days to manifest. They include loss of central vision, altered color vision or distorted vision .

And if you notice any symptoms or experience eye discomfort, make an appointment immediately using the American Optometric Association's doctor locator , said Ronald Benner, an optometrist and president of the American Optometric Association.

“For most people, it’s an alteration of color vision,” Benner said. “The next morning, colors just don’t look right, or it may be bleached out it or just kind of hazy all the time. For others, it may be that they actually have holes in their vision.”

If the damage occurs in the center of someone’s vision, it can affect the ability to read or recognize faces, Benner said.

Here's what the eclipse looked like from the International Space Station

From CNN's Taylor Nicioli

From space, crew members at the International Space Station saw a different perspective of the celestial event — the moon’s shadow cast onto Earth.

The orbiting laboratory "soared into the moon’s shadow" and NASA Flight Engineers Matthew Dominick and Jeanette Epps got a chance to capture it following their “workday filled with cargo transfers, spacesuit maintenance, and microgravity research,” according to a statement from NASA . The astronauts took pictures and videos of the shadow of the moon as seen from their position about 260 miles above southeastern Canada. 

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