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• Calvin Moorley 1 ,
• Xabi Cathala 2
• 1 Nursing Research and Diversity in Care, School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• 2 Institute of Vocational Learning , School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Calvin Moorley, Nursing Research and Diversity in Care, School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, UK; Moorleyc{at}lsbu.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2018-103044

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Introduction

In order to make a decision about implementing evidence into practice, nurses need to be able to critically appraise research. Nurses also have a professional responsibility to maintain up-to-date practice. 1 This paper provides a guide on how to critically appraise a qualitative research paper.

What is qualitative research?

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Useful terms

Some of the qualitative approaches used in nursing research include grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, case study (can lend itself to mixed methods) and narrative analysis. The data collection methods used in qualitative research include in depth interviews, focus groups, observations and stories in the form of diaries or other documents. 3

Authenticity

Title, keywords, authors and abstract.

In a previous paper, we discussed how the title, keywords, authors’ positions and affiliations and abstract can influence the authenticity and readability of quantitative research papers, 4 the same applies to qualitative research. However, other areas such as the purpose of the study and the research question, theoretical and conceptual frameworks, sampling and methodology also need consideration when appraising a qualitative paper.

Purpose and question

The topic under investigation in the study should be guided by a clear research question or a statement of the problem or purpose. An example of a statement can be seen in table 2 . Unlike most quantitative studies, qualitative research does not seek to test a hypothesis. The research statement should be specific to the problem and should be reflected in the design. This will inform the reader of what will be studied and justify the purpose of the study. 5

Example of research question and problem statement

An appropriate literature review should have been conducted and summarised in the paper. It should be linked to the subject, using peer-reviewed primary research which is up to date. We suggest papers with a age limit of 5–8 years excluding original work. The literature review should give the reader a balanced view on what has been written on the subject. It is worth noting that for some qualitative approaches some literature reviews are conducted after the data collection to minimise bias, for example, in grounded theory studies. In phenomenological studies, the review sometimes occurs after the data analysis. If this is the case, the author(s) should make this clear.

Theoretical and conceptual frameworks

Most authors use the terms theoretical and conceptual frameworks interchangeably. Usually, a theoretical framework is used when research is underpinned by one theory that aims to help predict, explain and understand the topic investigated. A theoretical framework is the blueprint that can hold or scaffold a study’s theory. Conceptual frameworks are based on concepts from various theories and findings which help to guide the research. 6 It is the researcher’s understanding of how different variables are connected in the study, for example, the literature review and research question. Theoretical and conceptual frameworks connect the researcher to existing knowledge and these are used in a study to help to explain and understand what is being investigated. A framework is the design or map for a study. When you are appraising a qualitative paper, you should be able to see how the framework helped with (1) providing a rationale and (2) the development of research questions or statements. 7 You should be able to identify how the framework, research question, purpose and literature review all complement each other.

There remains an ongoing debate in relation to what an appropriate sample size should be for a qualitative study. We hold the view that qualitative research does not seek to power and a sample size can be as small as one (eg, a single case study) or any number above one (a grounded theory study) providing that it is appropriate and answers the research problem. Shorten and Moorley 8 explain that three main types of sampling exist in qualitative research: (1) convenience (2) judgement or (3) theoretical. In the paper , the sample size should be stated and a rationale for how it was decided should be clear.

Methodology

Qualitative research encompasses a variety of methods and designs. Based on the chosen method or design, the findings may be reported in a variety of different formats. Table 3 provides the main qualitative approaches used in nursing with a short description.

Different qualitative approaches

The authors should make it clear why they are using a qualitative methodology and the chosen theoretical approach or framework. The paper should provide details of participant inclusion and exclusion criteria as well as recruitment sites where the sample was drawn from, for example, urban, rural, hospital inpatient or community. Methods of data collection should be identified and be appropriate for the research statement/question.

Data collection

Overall there should be a clear trail of data collection. The paper should explain when and how the study was advertised, participants were recruited and consented. it should also state when and where the data collection took place. Data collection methods include interviews, this can be structured or unstructured and in depth one to one or group. 9 Group interviews are often referred to as focus group interviews these are often voice recorded and transcribed verbatim. It should be clear if these were conducted face to face, telephone or any other type of media used. Table 3 includes some data collection methods. Other collection methods not included in table 3 examples are observation, diaries, video recording, photographs, documents or objects (artefacts). The schedule of questions for interview or the protocol for non-interview data collection should be provided, available or discussed in the paper. Some authors may use the term ‘recruitment ended once data saturation was reached’. This simply mean that the researchers were not gaining any new information at subsequent interviews, so they stopped data collection.

The data collection section should include details of the ethical approval gained to carry out the study. For example, the strategies used to gain participants’ consent to take part in the study. The authors should make clear if any ethical issues arose and how these were resolved or managed.

The approach to data analysis (see ref  10 ) needs to be clearly articulated, for example, was there more than one person responsible for analysing the data? How were any discrepancies in findings resolved? An audit trail of how the data were analysed including its management should be documented. If member checking was used this should also be reported. This level of transparency contributes to the trustworthiness and credibility of qualitative research. Some researchers provide a diagram of how they approached data analysis to demonstrate the rigour applied ( figure 1 ).

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Example of data analysis diagram.

Validity and rigour

The study’s validity is reliant on the statement of the question/problem, theoretical/conceptual framework, design, method, sample and data analysis. When critiquing qualitative research, these elements will help you to determine the study’s reliability. Noble and Smith 11 explain that validity is the integrity of data methods applied and that findings should accurately reflect the data. Rigour should acknowledge the researcher’s role and involvement as well as any biases. Essentially it should focus on truth value, consistency and neutrality and applicability. 11 The authors should discuss if they used triangulation (see table 2 ) to develop the best possible understanding of the phenomena.

Themes and interpretations and implications for practice

In qualitative research no hypothesis is tested, therefore, there is no specific result. Instead, qualitative findings are often reported in themes based on the data analysed. The findings should be clearly linked to, and reflect, the data. This contributes to the soundness of the research. 11 The researchers should make it clear how they arrived at the interpretations of the findings. The theoretical or conceptual framework used should be discussed aiding the rigour of the study. The implications of the findings need to be made clear and where appropriate their applicability or transferability should be identified. 12

Discussions, recommendations and conclusions

The discussion should relate to the research findings as the authors seek to make connections with the literature reviewed earlier in the paper to contextualise their work. A strong discussion will connect the research aims and objectives to the findings and will be supported with literature if possible. A paper that seeks to influence nursing practice will have a recommendations section for clinical practice and research. A good conclusion will focus on the findings and discussion of the phenomena investigated.

Qualitative research has much to offer nursing and healthcare, in terms of understanding patients’ experience of illness, treatment and recovery, it can also help to understand better areas of healthcare practice. However, it must be done with rigour and this paper provides some guidance for appraising such research. To help you critique a qualitative research paper some guidance is provided in table 4 .

Some guidance for critiquing qualitative research

• ↵ Nursing and Midwifery Council . The code: Standard of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses and midwives . 2015 https://www.nmc.org.uk/globalassets/sitedocuments/nmc-publications/nmc-code.pdf ( accessed 21 Aug 18 ).
• Barrett D ,
• Cathala X ,
• Shorten A ,

Patient consent for publication Not required.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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Getting started with qualitative research: developing a research proposal, cristina g vivar lecturer, department of community nursing and maternal & child health care, school of nursing, university of navarra, spain, and a doctoral student, nursing studies, school of health in social science, university of edinburgh, uk, anne mcqueen senior lecturer, nursing studies, school of health in social science, university of edinburgh, uk, dorothy a whyte honorary fellow, nursing studies, school of health in social science, university of edinburgh, uk, navidad canga armayor lecturer, head of department of community nursing and maternal & child health care, school of nursing, university of navarra, spain.

The aim of this article is to illustrate in detail important issues that research beginners may have to deal with during the design of a qualitative research proposal in nursing and health care. Cristina Vivar has developed a 17-step process to describe the development of a qualitative research project. This process can serve as an easy way to start research and to ensure a comprehensive and thorough proposal.

Nurse Researcher . 14, 3, 60-73. doi: 10.7748/nr2007.04.14.3.60.c6033

qualitative research - research proposal - research process - proposal design

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Designing a Research Proposal in Qualitative Research

• First Online: 27 October 2022

Cite this chapter

• Md. Ismail Hossain 4 ,
• Nafiul Mehedi 4 &
• Iftakhar Ahmad 4  

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The chapter discusses designing a research proposal in qualitative research. The main objective is to outline the major components of a qualitative research proposal with example(s) so that the students and novice scholars easily get an understanding of a qualitative proposal. The chapter highlights the major components of a qualitative research proposal and discusses the steps involved in designing a proposal. In each step, an example is given with some essential tips. Following these steps and tips, a novice researcher can easily prepare a qualitative research proposal. Readers, especially undergraduate and master’s students, might use this as a guideline while preparing a thesis proposal. After reading this chapter, they can easily prepare a qualitative proposal.

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Hossain, M.I., Mehedi, N., Ahmad, I. (2022). Designing a Research Proposal in Qualitative Research. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_18

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Qualitative Methods in Health Care Research

Vishnu renjith.

School of Nursing and Midwifery, Royal College of Surgeons Ireland - Bahrain (RCSI Bahrain), Al Sayh Muharraq Governorate, Bahrain

Renjulal Yesodharan

1 Department of Mental Health Nursing, Manipal College of Nursing Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India

Judith A. Noronha

2 Department of OBG Nursing, Manipal College of Nursing Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India

Elissa Ladd

3 School of Nursing, MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, USA

Anice George

4 Department of Child Health Nursing, Manipal College of Nursing Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India

Healthcare research is a systematic inquiry intended to generate robust evidence about important issues in the fields of medicine and healthcare. Qualitative research has ample possibilities within the arena of healthcare research. This article aims to inform healthcare professionals regarding qualitative research, its significance, and applicability in the field of healthcare. A wide variety of phenomena that cannot be explained using the quantitative approach can be explored and conveyed using a qualitative method. The major types of qualitative research designs are narrative research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, historical research, and case study research. The greatest strength of the qualitative research approach lies in the richness and depth of the healthcare exploration and description it makes. In health research, these methods are considered as the most humanistic and person-centered way of discovering and uncovering thoughts and actions of human beings.

Introduction

Healthcare research is a systematic inquiry intended to generate trustworthy evidence about issues in the field of medicine and healthcare. The three principal approaches to health research are the quantitative, the qualitative, and the mixed methods approach. The quantitative research method uses data, which are measures of values and counts and are often described using statistical methods which in turn aids the researcher to draw inferences. Qualitative research incorporates the recording, interpreting, and analyzing of non-numeric data with an attempt to uncover the deeper meanings of human experiences and behaviors. Mixed methods research, the third methodological approach, involves collection and analysis of both qualitative and quantitative information with an objective to solve different but related questions, or at times the same questions.[ 1 , 2 ]

In healthcare, qualitative research is widely used to understand patterns of health behaviors, describe lived experiences, develop behavioral theories, explore healthcare needs, and design interventions.[ 1 , 2 , 3 ] Because of its ample applications in healthcare, there has been a tremendous increase in the number of health research studies undertaken using qualitative methodology.[ 4 , 5 ] This article discusses qualitative research methods, their significance, and applicability in the arena of healthcare.

Qualitative Research

Diverse academic and non-academic disciplines utilize qualitative research as a method of inquiry to understand human behavior and experiences.[ 6 , 7 ] According to Munhall, “Qualitative research involves broadly stated questions about human experiences and realities, studied through sustained contact with the individual in their natural environments and producing rich, descriptive data that will help us to understand those individual's experiences.”[ 8 ]

Significance of Qualitative Research

The qualitative method of inquiry examines the 'how' and 'why' of decision making, rather than the 'when,' 'what,' and 'where.'[ 7 ] Unlike quantitative methods, the objective of qualitative inquiry is to explore, narrate, and explain the phenomena and make sense of the complex reality. Health interventions, explanatory health models, and medical-social theories could be developed as an outcome of qualitative research.[ 9 ] Understanding the richness and complexity of human behavior is the crux of qualitative research.

Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

The quantitative and qualitative forms of inquiry vary based on their underlying objectives. They are in no way opposed to each other; instead, these two methods are like two sides of a coin. The critical differences between quantitative and qualitative research are summarized in Table 1 .[ 1 , 10 , 11 ]

Differences between quantitative and qualitative research

Qualitative Research Questions and Purpose Statements

Qualitative questions are exploratory and are open-ended. A well-formulated study question forms the basis for developing a protocol, guides the selection of design, and data collection methods. Qualitative research questions generally involve two parts, a central question and related subquestions. The central question is directed towards the primary phenomenon under study, whereas the subquestions explore the subareas of focus. It is advised not to have more than five to seven subquestions. A commonly used framework for designing a qualitative research question is the 'PCO framework' wherein, P stands for the population under study, C stands for the context of exploration, and O stands for the outcome/s of interest.[ 12 ] The PCO framework guides researchers in crafting a focused study question.

Example: In the question, “What are the experiences of mothers on parenting children with Thalassemia?”, the population is “mothers of children with Thalassemia,” the context is “parenting children with Thalassemia,” and the outcome of interest is “experiences.”

The purpose statement specifies the broad focus of the study, identifies the approach, and provides direction for the overall goal of the study. The major components of a purpose statement include the central phenomenon under investigation, the study design and the population of interest. Qualitative research does not require a-priori hypothesis.[ 13 , 14 , 15 ]

Example: Borimnejad et al . undertook a qualitative research on the lived experiences of women suffering from vitiligo. The purpose of this study was, “to explore lived experiences of women suffering from vitiligo using a hermeneutic phenomenological approach.” [ 16 ]

Review of the Literature

In quantitative research, the researchers do an extensive review of scientific literature prior to the commencement of the study. However, in qualitative research, only a minimal literature search is conducted at the beginning of the study. This is to ensure that the researcher is not influenced by the existing understanding of the phenomenon under the study. The minimal literature review will help the researchers to avoid the conceptual pollution of the phenomenon being studied. Nonetheless, an extensive review of the literature is conducted after data collection and analysis.[ 15 ]

Reflexivity

Reflexivity refers to critical self-appraisal about one's own biases, values, preferences, and preconceptions about the phenomenon under investigation. Maintaining a reflexive diary/journal is a widely recognized way to foster reflexivity. According to Creswell, “Reflexivity increases the credibility of the study by enhancing more neutral interpretations.”[ 7 ]

Types of Qualitative Research Designs

The qualitative research approach encompasses a wide array of research designs. The words such as types, traditions, designs, strategies of inquiry, varieties, and methods are used interchangeably. The major types of qualitative research designs are narrative research, phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, historical research, and case study research.[ 1 , 7 , 10 ]

Narrative research

Narrative research focuses on exploring the life of an individual and is ideally suited to tell the stories of individual experiences.[ 17 ] The purpose of narrative research is to utilize 'story telling' as a method in communicating an individual's experience to a larger audience.[ 18 ] The roots of narrative inquiry extend to humanities including anthropology, literature, psychology, education, history, and sociology. Narrative research encompasses the study of individual experiences and learning the significance of those experiences. The data collection procedures include mainly interviews, field notes, letters, photographs, diaries, and documents collected from one or more individuals. Data analysis involves the analysis of the stories or experiences through “re-storying of stories” and developing themes usually in chronological order of events. Rolls and Payne argued that narrative research is a valuable approach in health care research, to gain deeper insight into patient's experiences.[ 19 ]

Example: Karlsson et al . undertook a narrative inquiry to “explore how people with Alzheimer's disease present their life story.” Data were collected from nine participants. They were asked to describe about their life experiences from childhood to adulthood, then to current life and their views about the future life. [ 20 ]

Phenomenological research

Phenomenology is a philosophical tradition developed by German philosopher Edmond Husserl. His student Martin Heidegger did further developments in this methodology. It defines the 'essence' of individual's experiences regarding a certain phenomenon.[ 1 ] The methodology has its origin from philosophy, psychology, and education. The purpose of qualitative research is to understand the people's everyday life experiences and reduce it into the central meaning or the 'essence of the experience'.[ 21 , 22 ] The unit of analysis of phenomenology is the individuals who have had similar experiences of the phenomenon. Interviews with individuals are mainly considered for the data collection, though, documents and observations are also useful. Data analysis includes identification of significant meaning elements, textural description (what was experienced), structural description (how was it experienced), and description of 'essence' of experience.[ 1 , 7 , 21 ] The phenomenological approach is further divided into descriptive and interpretive phenomenology. Descriptive phenomenology focuses on the understanding of the essence of experiences and is best suited in situations that need to describe the lived phenomenon. Hermeneutic phenomenology or Interpretive phenomenology moves beyond the description to uncover the meanings that are not explicitly evident. The researcher tries to interpret the phenomenon, based on their judgment rather than just describing it.[ 7 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]

Example: A phenomenological study conducted by Cornelio et al . aimed at describing the lived experiences of mothers in parenting children with leukemia. Data from ten mothers were collected using in-depth semi-structured interviews and were analyzed using Husserl's method of phenomenology. Themes such as “pivotal moment in life”, “the experience of being with a seriously ill child”, “having to keep distance with the relatives”, “overcoming the financial and social commitments”, “responding to challenges”, “experience of faith as being key to survival”, “health concerns of the present and future”, and “optimism” were derived. The researchers reported the essence of the study as “chronic illness such as leukemia in children results in a negative impact on the child and on the mother.” [ 25 ]

Grounded Theory Research

Grounded theory has its base in sociology and propagated by two sociologists, Barney Glaser, and Anselm Strauss.[ 26 ] The primary purpose of grounded theory is to discover or generate theory in the context of the social process being studied. The major difference between grounded theory and other approaches lies in its emphasis on theory generation and development. The name grounded theory comes from its ability to induce a theory grounded in the reality of study participants.[ 7 , 27 ] Data collection in grounded theory research involves recording interviews from many individuals until data saturation. Constant comparative analysis, theoretical sampling, theoretical coding, and theoretical saturation are unique features of grounded theory research.[ 26 , 27 , 28 ] Data analysis includes analyzing data through 'open coding,' 'axial coding,' and 'selective coding.'[ 1 , 7 ] Open coding is the first level of abstraction, and it refers to the creation of a broad initial range of categories, axial coding is the procedure of understanding connections between the open codes, whereas selective coding relates to the process of connecting the axial codes to formulate a theory.[ 1 , 7 ] Results of the grounded theory analysis are supplemented with a visual representation of major constructs usually in the form of flow charts or framework diagrams. Quotations from the participants are used in a supportive capacity to substantiate the findings. Strauss and Corbin highlights that “the value of the grounded theory lies not only in its ability to generate a theory but also to ground that theory in the data.”[ 27 ]

Example: Williams et al . conducted a grounded theory research to explore the nature of relationship between the sense of self and the eating disorders. Data were collected form 11 women with a lifetime history of Anorexia Nervosa and were analyzed using the grounded theory methodology. Analysis led to the development of a theoretical framework on the nature of the relationship between the self and Anorexia Nervosa. [ 29 ]

Ethnographic research

Ethnography has its base in anthropology, where the anthropologists used it for understanding the culture-specific knowledge and behaviors. In health sciences research, ethnography focuses on narrating and interpreting the health behaviors of a culture-sharing group. 'Culture-sharing group' in an ethnography represents any 'group of people who share common meanings, customs or experiences.' In health research, it could be a group of physicians working in rural care, a group of medical students, or it could be a group of patients who receive home-based rehabilitation. To understand the cultural patterns, researchers primarily observe the individuals or group of individuals for a prolonged period of time.[ 1 , 7 , 30 ] The scope of ethnography can be broad or narrow depending on the aim. The study of more general cultural groups is termed as macro-ethnography, whereas micro-ethnography focuses on more narrowly defined cultures. Ethnography is usually conducted in a single setting. Ethnographers collect data using a variety of methods such as observation, interviews, audio-video records, and document reviews. A written report includes a detailed description of the culture sharing group with emic and etic perspectives. When the researcher reports the views of the participants it is called emic perspectives and when the researcher reports his or her views about the culture, the term is called etic.[ 7 ]

Example: The aim of the ethnographic study by LeBaron et al . was to explore the barriers to opioid availability and cancer pain management in India. The researchers collected data from fifty-nine participants using in-depth semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and document review. The researchers identified significant barriers by open coding and thematic analysis of the formal interview. [ 31 ]

Historical research

Historical research is the “systematic collection, critical evaluation, and interpretation of historical evidence”.[ 1 ] The purpose of historical research is to gain insights from the past and involves interpreting past events in the light of the present. The data for historical research are usually collected from primary and secondary sources. The primary source mainly includes diaries, first hand information, and writings. The secondary sources are textbooks, newspapers, second or third-hand accounts of historical events and medical/legal documents. The data gathered from these various sources are synthesized and reported as biographical narratives or developmental perspectives in chronological order. The ideas are interpreted in terms of the historical context and significance. The written report describes 'what happened', 'how it happened', 'why it happened', and its significance and implications to current clinical practice.[ 1 , 10 ]

Example: Lubold (2019) analyzed the breastfeeding trends in three countries (Sweden, Ireland, and the United States) using a historical qualitative method. Through analysis of historical data, the researcher found that strong family policies, adherence to international recommendations and adoption of baby-friendly hospital initiative could greatly enhance the breastfeeding rates. [ 32 ]

Case study research

Case study research focuses on the description and in-depth analysis of the case(s) or issues illustrated by the case(s). The design has its origin from psychology, law, and medicine. Case studies are best suited for the understanding of case(s), thus reducing the unit of analysis into studying an event, a program, an activity or an illness. Observations, one to one interviews, artifacts, and documents are used for collecting the data, and the analysis is done through the description of the case. From this, themes and cross-case themes are derived. A written case study report includes a detailed description of one or more cases.[ 7 , 10 ]

Example: Perceptions of poststroke sexuality in a woman of childbearing age was explored using a qualitative case study approach by Beal and Millenbrunch. Semi structured interview was conducted with a 36- year mother of two children with a history of Acute ischemic stroke. The data were analyzed using an inductive approach. The authors concluded that “stroke during childbearing years may affect a woman's perception of herself as a sexual being and her ability to carry out gender roles”. [ 33 ]

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers widely use non-probability sampling techniques such as purposive sampling, convenience sampling, quota sampling, snowball sampling, homogeneous sampling, maximum variation sampling, extreme (deviant) case sampling, typical case sampling, and intensity sampling. The selection of a sampling technique depends on the nature and needs of the study.[ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ] The four widely used sampling techniques are convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and intensity sampling.

Convenience sampling

It is otherwise called accidental sampling, where the researchers collect data from the subjects who are selected based on accessibility, geographical proximity, ease, speed, and or low cost.[ 34 ] Convenience sampling offers a significant benefit of convenience but often accompanies the issues of sample representation.

Purposive sampling

Purposive or purposeful sampling is a widely used sampling technique.[ 35 ] It involves identifying a population based on already established sampling criteria and then selecting subjects who fulfill that criteria to increase the credibility. However, choosing information-rich cases is the key to determine the power and logic of purposive sampling in a qualitative study.[ 1 ]

Snowball sampling

The method is also known as 'chain referral sampling' or 'network sampling.' The sampling starts by having a few initial participants, and the researcher relies on these early participants to identify additional study participants. It is best adopted when the researcher wishes to study the stigmatized group, or in cases, where findings of participants are likely to be difficult by ordinary means. Respondent ridden sampling is an improvised version of snowball sampling used to find out the participant from a hard-to-find or hard-to-study population.[ 37 , 38 ]

Intensity sampling

The process of identifying information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon of interest is referred to as intensity sampling. It requires prior information, and considerable judgment about the phenomenon of interest and the researcher should do some preliminary investigations to determine the nature of the variation. Intensity sampling will be done once the researcher identifies the variation across the cases (extreme, average and intense) and picks the intense cases from them.[ 40 ]

Deciding the Sample Size

A-priori sample size calculation is not undertaken in the case of qualitative research. Researchers collect the data from as many participants as possible until they reach the point of data saturation. Data saturation or the point of redundancy is the stage where the researcher no longer sees or hears any new information. Data saturation gives the idea that the researcher has captured all possible information about the phenomenon of interest. Since no further information is being uncovered as redundancy is achieved, at this point the data collection can be stopped. The objective here is to get an overall picture of the chronicle of the phenomenon under the study rather than generalization.[ 1 , 7 , 41 ]

Data Collection in Qualitative Research

The various strategies used for data collection in qualitative research includes in-depth interviews (individual or group), focus group discussions (FGDs), participant observation, narrative life history, document analysis, audio materials, videos or video footage, text analysis, and simple observation. Among all these, the three popular methods are the FGDs, one to one in-depth interviews and the participant observation.

FGDs are useful in eliciting data from a group of individuals. They are normally built around a specific topic and are considered as the best approach to gather data on an entire range of responses to a topic.[ 42 Group size in an FGD ranges from 6 to 12. Depending upon the nature of participants, FGDs could be homogeneous or heterogeneous.[ 1 , 14 ] One to one in-depth interviews are best suited to obtain individuals' life histories, lived experiences, perceptions, and views, particularly while exporting topics of sensitive nature. In-depth interviews can be structured, unstructured, or semi-structured. However, semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative research. Participant observations are suitable for gathering data regarding naturally occurring behaviors.[ 1 ]

Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

Various strategies are employed by researchers to analyze data in qualitative research. Data analytic strategies differ according to the type of inquiry. A general content analysis approach is described herewith. Data analysis begins by transcription of the interview data. The researcher carefully reads data and gets a sense of the whole. Once the researcher is familiarized with the data, the researcher strives to identify small meaning units called the 'codes.' The codes are then grouped based on their shared concepts to form the primary categories. Based on the relationship between the primary categories, they are then clustered into secondary categories. The next step involves the identification of themes and interpretation to make meaning out of data. In the results section of the manuscript, the researcher describes the key findings/themes that emerged. The themes can be supported by participants' quotes. The analytical framework used should be explained in sufficient detail, and the analytic framework must be well referenced. The study findings are usually represented in a schematic form for better conceptualization.[ 1 , 7 ] Even though the overall analytical process remains the same across different qualitative designs, each design such as phenomenology, ethnography, and grounded theory has design specific analytical procedures, the details of which are out of the scope of this article.

Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)

Until recently, qualitative analysis was done either manually or with the help of a spreadsheet application. Currently, there are various software programs available which aid researchers to manage qualitative data. CAQDAS is basically data management tools and cannot analyze the qualitative data as it lacks the ability to think, reflect, and conceptualize. Nonetheless, CAQDAS helps researchers to manage, shape, and make sense of unstructured information. Open Code, MAXQDA, NVivo, Atlas.ti, and Hyper Research are some of the widely used qualitative data analysis software.[ 14 , 43 ]

Reporting Guidelines

Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) is the widely used reporting guideline for qualitative research. This 32-item checklist assists researchers in reporting all the major aspects related to the study. The three major domains of COREQ are the 'research team and reflexivity', 'study design', and 'analysis and findings'.[ 44 , 45 ]

Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Research

Various scales are available to critical appraisal of qualitative research. The widely used one is the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) Qualitative Checklist developed by CASP network, UK. This 10-item checklist evaluates the quality of the study under areas such as aims, methodology, research design, ethical considerations, data collection, data analysis, and findings.[ 46 ]

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research

A qualitative study must be undertaken by grounding it in the principles of bioethics such as beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy, and justice. Protecting the participants is of utmost importance, and the greatest care has to be taken while collecting data from a vulnerable research population. The researcher must respect individuals, families, and communities and must make sure that the participants are not identifiable by their quotations that the researchers include when publishing the data. Consent for audio/video recordings must be obtained. Approval to be in FGDs must be obtained from the participants. Researchers must ensure the confidentiality and anonymity of the transcripts/audio-video records/photographs/other data collected as a part of the study. The researchers must confirm their role as advocates and proceed in the best interest of all participants.[ 42 , 47 , 48 ]

Rigor in Qualitative Research

The demonstration of rigor or quality in the conduct of the study is essential for every research method. However, the criteria used to evaluate the rigor of quantitative studies are not be appropriate for qualitative methods. Lincoln and Guba (1985) first outlined the criteria for evaluating the qualitative research often referred to as “standards of trustworthiness of qualitative research”.[ 49 ] The four components of the criteria are credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

Credibility refers to confidence in the 'truth value' of the data and its interpretation. It is used to establish that the findings are true, credible and believable. Credibility is similar to the internal validity in quantitative research.[ 1 , 50 , 51 ] The second criterion to establish the trustworthiness of the qualitative research is transferability, Transferability refers to the degree to which the qualitative results are applicability to other settings, population or contexts. This is analogous to the external validity in quantitative research.[ 1 , 50 , 51 ] Lincoln and Guba recommend authors provide enough details so that the users will be able to evaluate the applicability of data in other contexts.[ 49 ] The criterion of dependability refers to the assumption of repeatability or replicability of the study findings and is similar to that of reliability in quantitative research. The dependability question is 'Whether the study findings be repeated of the study is replicated with the same (similar) cohort of participants, data coders, and context?'[ 1 , 50 , 51 ] Confirmability, the fourth criteria is analogous to the objectivity of the study and refers the degree to which the study findings could be confirmed or corroborated by others. To ensure confirmability the data should directly reflect the participants' experiences and not the bias, motivations, or imaginations of the inquirer.[ 1 , 50 , 51 ] Qualitative researchers should ensure that the study is conducted with enough rigor and should report the measures undertaken to enhance the trustworthiness of the study.

Conclusions

Qualitative research studies are being widely acknowledged and recognized in health care practice. This overview illustrates various qualitative methods and shows how these methods can be used to generate evidence that informs clinical practice. Qualitative research helps to understand the patterns of health behaviors, describe illness experiences, design health interventions, and develop healthcare theories. The ultimate strength of the qualitative research approach lies in the richness of the data and the descriptions and depth of exploration it makes. Hence, qualitative methods are considered as the most humanistic and person-centered way of discovering and uncovering thoughts and actions of human beings.

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Getting started with qualitative research: developing a research proposal

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Community Nursing and Maternal & Child Health Care, School of Nursing, University of Navarra, Spain.
• PMID: 17494469
• DOI: 10.7748/nr2007.04.14.3.60.c6033

The aim of this article is to illustrate in detail important issues that research beginners may have to deal with during the design of a qualitative research proposal in nursing and health care. Cristina Vivar has developed a 17-step process to describe the development of a qualitative research project. This process can serve as an easy way to start research and to ensure a comprehensive and thorough proposal.

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Nursing Research Proposal Free Example [Tips and Sample PDF]

Carla logan msn, aprn-cnp, rn.

• February 21, 2024
• blog , Nursing Topics and Ideas

Here’s a nursing research proposal free example to help you prepare for your nursing project proposal.

Nursing Research Proposal Free Example

Exploring school nurses’ experiences in caring for children with prader-willi syndrome (pws).

Introduction

Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS) is a complex genetic disorder affecting approximately one in every ten thousand to thirty thousand births in the USA (Bohonowych et al., 2019). While various studies have explored interventions and management strategies for PWS, there is a notable gap in understanding the experiences of school nurses in caring for children diagnosed with this syndrome. This research aims to bridge that gap by investigating the perceptions and challenges faced by school nurses in academic settings.

Research Objective

To evaluate school nurses’ experiences in caring for children diagnosed with Prader-Willi Syndrome.

Here’s a comprehesive guide on how to write a nursing research proposal , plus nursing research proposal topics and ideas .

PWS presents a range of symptoms impacting physical health, cognitive development , and behavioral patterns. Existing studies have primarily focused on medical interventions, but little is known about the experiences of school nurses who play a vital role in the daily lives of affected children. This research seeks to fill this void and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of PWS management.

Statement of the Problem

Despite the known challenges associated with PWS, there is a lack of research on the experiences and perspectives of school nurses caring for children with this syndrome. Understanding the daily life, resources, and needs of children with PWS in academic settings is crucial for developing evidence-based practices and improving outcomes.

School nurses’ experiences caring for children with PWS provide valuable insights into the existential aspects of PWS management, including understanding daily life, resources, and specific needs of both children with PWS and the school nurses.

Literature Review

Existing literature has primarily focused on medical interventions for PWS. However, this research will explore the distinctive needs and challenges faced by school nurses in educational settings, shedding light on the daily experiences and unique perspectives they bring to the care of children with PWS.

Experimental Design:

This study will employ a descriptive qualitative research design using semi-structured interviews with registered nurses working in academic facilities. The qualitative approach allows for a deeper understanding of social processes, individual perceptions, and the contextual nuances of caring for children with PWS.

Population and Sample Size:

The study will involve ten registered nurses with experience in caring for children diagnosed with PWS in academic settings. Purposive sampling will be employed to select participants based on their knowledge and expertise in the research topic.

Data Collection:

Semi-structured interviews will be conducted face-to-face to gather comprehensive information on school nurses’ experiences in caring for children with PWS. The interviews will be guided by open-ended questions , allowing participants to express themselves freely. Verbal and written consent will be obtained, and interviews will be recorded with participants’ consent.

Methods of Data Analysis:

Thematic analysis, following Braun & Clarke’s approach, will be used to analyze interview recordings and forms. Themes will be identified based on patterns in the data, and comparisons will be made with existing literature to reveal new findings and recommendations.

Pilot Study:

A pilot study with one participant will be conducted to assess the feasibility, identify required resources, and address potential limitations before the main study.

Ethical Considerations:

The study will uphold ethical principles , seeking approval from the university’s research ethics review committee, ensuring voluntary participation, maintaining confidentiality, and obtaining informed consent from participants.

Proposed Outcomes:

The study aims to report on school nurses’ experiences in caring for children with PWS, highlighting challenges, existing guidelines, institutional interventions, and potential biases. The findings will contribute to the existing literature on PWS management and provide recommendations for effective care strategies.

Conclusion:

This research will contribute valuable insights into the experiences of school nurses caring for children with Prader-Willi Syndrome, filling a crucial gap in the current literature and informing evidence-based practices for the care of these children in academic settings.

Tips for Crafting a compelling nursing research proposal

When creating your nursing research proposal, there are several tips and strategies you can employ to ensure its success.

By following these guidelines, you can create a compelling nursing research proposal that stands out.

Literature Review –

• Incorporate a thorough and comprehensive literature review into your research proposal.
• This will demonstrate your understanding of the existing body of knowledge and help you identify any gaps that your research aims to address.
• Make sure to cite relevant and reputable sources to support your arguments and establish the significance of your study.

Research Design –

• Choose an appropriate research design that aligns with your research objectives and methodology.
• Whether it’s quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods, ensure that your research design is well-suited to answer your research question.
• Clearly outline your research methods and procedures, including data collection and analysis techniques, to provide a clear roadmap for your study.

Data Analysis – how to analyze data for the research proposal

• Develop a robust data analysis plan that matches your research design and objectives.
• Choose appropriate statistical methods or qualitative analysis techniques to analyze your data effectively.
• Present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, charts, or graphs if necessary, to support your arguments and enhance the understanding of your research outcomes.

Presentation Techniques – how to present your nursing research proposal

• Pay attention to the overall presentation of your nursing research proposal.
• Use clear and concise language, avoid jargon, and organize your proposal in a structured manner with appropriate headings and subheadings.
• Ensure that your proposal is visually appealing, with consistent formatting, and includes relevant visuals such as diagrams or illustrations to enhance the comprehension of your research design and outcomes.

What is a nursing research proposal?

A nursing research proposal is a document that outlines the planned research project in the field of nursing. It provides details about the research question, study design, methodology, sample size determination, and ethical considerations.

Why is a nursing research proposal important?

A nursing research proposal is important because it serves as a blueprint for conducting the research project. It helps researchers communicate their ideas and intentions, gain approval from relevant stakeholders, and ensure the study is conducted ethically and rigorously.

What are the components of a nursing research proposal?

The components of a nursing research proposal include the research question, study design, methodology, sample size determination, ethical considerations, and data analysis plan. Each component plays a critical role in shaping the overall research project.

What tips can help me craft a successful nursing research proposal?

To craft a successful nursing research proposal, you should consider conducting a thorough literature review, carefully designing your research study, utilizing appropriate data analysis techniques, and effectively presenting your findings. More tips and strategies can be found in the “Tips for Crafting a Successful Nursing Research Proposal” section of this article.

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 09 November 2005

A qualitative study of nursing student experiences of clinical practice

• Farkhondeh Sharif 1 &
• Sara Masoumi 2  

BMC Nursing volume  4 , Article number:  6 ( 2005 ) Cite this article

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Nursing student's experiences of their clinical practice provide greater insight to develop an effective clinical teaching strategy in nursing education. The main objective of this study was to investigate student nurses' experience about their clinical practice.

Focus groups were used to obtain students' opinion and experiences about their clinical practice. 90 baccalaureate nursing students at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery) were selected randomly from two hundred students and were arranged in 9 groups of ten students. To analyze the data the method used to code and categories focus group data were adapted from approaches to qualitative data analysis.

Four themes emerged from the focus group data. From the students' point of view," initial clinical anxiety", "theory-practice gap"," clinical supervision", professional role", were considered as important factors in clinical experience.

The result of this study showed that nursing students were not satisfied with the clinical component of their education. They experienced anxiety as a result of feeling incompetent and lack of professional nursing skills and knowledge to take care of various patients in the clinical setting.

Peer Review reports

Clinical experience has been always an integral part of nursing education. It prepares student nurses to be able of "doing" as well as "knowing" the clinical principles in practice. The clinical practice stimulates students to use their critical thinking skills for problem solving [ 1 ]

Awareness of the existence of stress in nursing students by nurse educators and responding to it will help to diminish student nurses experience of stress. [ 2 ]

Clinical experience is one of the most anxiety producing components of the nursing program which has been identified by nursing students. In a descriptive correlational study by Beck and Srivastava 94 second, third and fourth year nursing students reported that clinical experience was the most stressful part of the nursing program[ 3 ]. Lack of clinical experience, unfamiliar areas, difficult patients, fear of making mistakes and being evaluated by faculty members were expressed by the students as anxiety-producing situations in their initial clinical experience. In study done by Hart and Rotem stressful events for nursing students during clinical practice have been studied. They found that the initial clinical experience was the most anxiety producing part of their clinical experience [ 4 ]. The sources of stress during clinical practice have been studied by many researchers [ 5 – 10 ] and [ 11 ].

The researcher came to realize that nursing students have a great deal of anxiety when they begin their clinical practice in the second year. It is hoped that an investigation of the student's view on their clinical experience can help to develop an effective clinical teaching strategy in nursing education.

A focus group design was used to investigate the nursing student's view about the clinical practice. Focus group involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain information about their views and experiences of a topic and is particularly suited for obtaining several perspectives about the same topic. Focus groups are widely used as a data collection technique. The purpose of using focus group is to obtain information of a qualitative nature from a predetermined and limited number of people [ 12 , 13 ].

Using focus group in qualitative research concentrates on words and observations to express reality and attempts to describe people in natural situations [ 14 ].

The group interview is essentially a qualitative data gathering technique [ 13 ]. It can be used at any point in a research program and one of the common uses of it is to obtain general background information about a topic of interest [ 14 ].

Focus groups interviews are essential in the evaluation process as part of a need assessment, during a program, at the end of the program or months after the completion of a program to gather perceptions on the outcome of that program [ 15 , 16 ]. Kruegger (1988) stated focus group data can be used before, during and after programs in order to provide valuable data for decision making [ 12 ].

The participants from which the sample was drawn consisted of 90 baccalaureate nursing students from two hundred nursing students (30 students from the second year and 30 from the third and 30 from the fourth year) at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences (Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery). The second year nursing students already started their clinical experience. They were arranged in nine groups of ten students. Initially, the topics developed included 9 open-ended questions that were related to their nursing clinical experience. The topics were used to stimulate discussion.

The following topics were used to stimulate discussion regarding clinical experience in the focus groups.

How do you feel about being a student in nursing education?

How do you feel about nursing in general?

Is there any thing about the clinical field that might cause you to feel anxious about it?

Would you like to talk about those clinical experiences which you found most anxiety producing?

Which clinical experiences did you find enjoyable?

What are the best and worst things do you think can happen during the clinical experience?

What do nursing students worry about regarding clinical experiences?

How do you think clinical experiences can be improved?

What is your expectation of clinical experiences?

The first two questions were general questions which were used as ice breakers to stimulate discussion and put participants at ease encouraging them to interact in a normal manner with the facilitator.

Data analysis

The following steps were undertaken in the focus group data analysis.

Immediate debriefing after each focus group with the observer and debriefing notes were made. Debriefing notes included comments about the focus group process and the significance of data

Listening to the tape and transcribing the content of the tape

Checking the content of the tape with the observer noting and considering any non-verbal behavior. The benefit of transcription and checking the contents with the observer was in picking up the following:

Parts of words

Non-verbal communication, gestures and behavior...

The researcher facilitated the groups. The observer was a public health graduate who attended all focus groups and helped the researcher by taking notes and observing students' on non-verbal behavior during the focus group sessions. Observer was not known to students and researcher

The methods used to code and categorise focus group data were adapted from approaches to qualitative content analysis discussed by Graneheim and Lundman [ 17 ] and focus group data analysis by Stewart and Shamdasani [ 14 ] For coding the transcript it was necessary to go through the transcripts line by line and paragraph by paragraph, looking for significant statements and codes according to the topics addressed. The researcher compared the various codes based on differences and similarities and sorted into categories and finally the categories was formulated into a 4 themes.

The researcher was guided to use and three levels of coding [ 17 , 18 ]. Three levels of coding selected as appropriate for coding the data.

Level 1 coding examined the data line by line and making codes which were taken from the language of the subjects who attended the focus groups.

Level 2 coding which is a comparing of coded data with other data and the creation of categories. Categories are simply coded data that seem to cluster together and may result from condensing of level 1 code [ 17 , 19 ].

Level 3 coding which describes the Basic Social Psychological Process which is the title given to the central themes that emerge from the categories.

Table 1 shows the three level codes for one of the theme

The documents were submitted to two assessors for validation. This action provides an opportunity to determine the reliability of the coding [ 14 , 15 ]. Following a review of the codes and categories there was agreement on the classification.

Ethical considerations

The study was conducted after approval has been obtained from Shiraz university vice-chancellor for research and in addition permission to conduct the study was obtained from Dean of the Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery. All participants were informed of the objective and design of the study and a written consent received from the participants for interviews and they were free to leave focus group if they wish.

Most of the students were females (%94) and single (% 86) with age between 18–25.

The qualitative analysis led to the emergence of the four themes from the focus group data. From the students' point of view," initial clinical anxiety", "theory-practice gap", clinical supervision"," professional role", was considered as important factors in clinical experience.

Initial clinical anxiety

This theme emerged from all focus group discussion where students described the difficulties experienced at the beginning of placement. Almost all of the students had identified feeling anxious in their initial clinical placement. Worrying about giving the wrong information to the patient was one of the issues brought up by students.

One of the students said:

On the first day I was so anxious about giving the wrong information to the patient. I remember one of the patients asked me what my diagnosis is. ' I said 'I do not know', she said 'you do not know? How can you look after me if you do not know what my diagnosis is?'

From all the focus group sessions, the students stated that the first month of their training in clinical placement was anxiety producing for them.

One of the students expressed:

The most stressful situation is when we make the next step. I mean ... clinical placement and we don't have enough clinical experience to accomplish the task, and do our nursing duties .

Almost all of the fourth year students in the focus group sessions felt that their stress reduced as their training and experience progressed.

Another cause of student's anxiety in initial clinical experience was the students' concern about the possibility of harming a patient through their lack of knowledge in the second year.

One of the students reported:

In the first day of clinical placement two patients were assigned to me. One of them had IV fluid. When I introduced myself to her, I noticed her IV was running out. I was really scared and I did not know what to do and I called my instructor .

Fear of failure and making mistakes concerning nursing procedures was expressed by another student. She said:

I was so anxious when I had to change the colostomy dressing of my 24 years old patient. It took me 45 minutes to change the dressing. I went ten times to the clinic to bring the stuff. My heart rate was increasing and my hand was shaking. I was very embarrassed in front of my patient and instructor. I will never forget that day .

Sellek researched anxiety-creating incidents for nursing students. He suggested that the ward is the best place to learn but very few of the learner's needs are met in this setting. Incidents such as evaluation by others on initial clinical experience and total patient care, as well as interpersonal relations with staff, quality of care and procedures are anxiety producing [ 11 ].

Theory-practice gap

The category theory-practice gap emerged from all focus discussion where almost every student in the focus group sessions described in some way the lack of integration of theory into clinical practice.

I have learnt so many things in the class, but there is not much more chance to do them in actual settings .

Another student mentioned:

When I just learned theory for example about a disease such as diabetic mellitus and then I go on the ward and see the real patient with diabetic mellitus, I relate it back to what I learned in class and that way it will remain in my mind. It is not happen sometimes .

The literature suggests that there is a gap between theory and practice. It has been identified by Allmark and Tolly [ 20 , 21 ]. The development of practice theory, theory which is developed from practice, for practice, is one way of reducing the theory-practice gap [ 21 ]. Rolfe suggests that by reconsidering the relationship between theory and practise the gap can be closed. He suggests facilitating reflection on the realities of clinical life by nursing theorists will reduce the theory-practice gap. The theory- practice gap is felt most acutely by student nurses. They find themselves torn between the demands of their tutor and practising nurses in real clinical situations. They were faced with different real clinical situations and are unable to generalise from what they learnt in theory [ 22 ].

Clinical supervision

Clinical supervision is recognised as a developmental opportunity to develop clinical leadership. Working with the practitioners through the milieu of clinical supervision is a powerful way of enabling them to realize desirable practice [ 23 ]. Clinical nursing supervision is an ongoing systematic process that encourages and supports improved professional practice. According to Berggren and Severinsson the clinical nurse supervisors' ethical value system is involved in her/his process of decision making. [ 24 , 25 ]

Clinical Supervision by Head Nurse (Nursing Unit Manager) and Staff Nurses was another issue discussed by the students in the focus group sessions. One of the students said:

Sometimes we are taught mostly by the Head Nurse or other Nursing staff. The ward staff are not concerned about what students learn, they are busy with their duties and they are unable to have both an educational and a service role

Another student added:

Some of the nursing staff have good interaction with nursing students and they are interested in helping students in the clinical placement but they are not aware of the skills and strategies which are necessary in clinical education and are not prepared for their role to act as an instructor in the clinical placement

The students mostly mentioned their instructor's role as an evaluative person. The majority of students had the perception that their instructors have a more evaluative role than a teaching role.

The literature suggests that the clinical nurse supervisors should expressed their existence as a role model for the supervisees [ 24 ]

Professional role

One view that was frequently expressed by student nurses in the focus group sessions was that students often thought that their work was 'not really professional nursing' they were confused by what they had learned in the faculty and what in reality was expected of them in practice.

We just do basic nursing care, very basic . ... You know ... giving bed baths, keeping patients clean and making their beds. Anyone can do it. We spend four years studying nursing but we do not feel we are doing a professional job .

The role of the professional nurse and nursing auxiliaries was another issue discussed by one of the students:

The role of auxiliaries such as registered practical nurse and Nurses Aids are the same as the role of the professional nurse. We spend four years and we have learned that nursing is a professional job and it requires training and skills and knowledge, but when we see that Nurses Aids are doing the same things, it can not be considered a professional job .

The result of student's views toward clinical experience showed that they were not satisfied with the clinical component of their education. Four themes of concern for students were 'initial clinical anxiety', 'theory-practice gap', 'clinical supervision', and 'professional role'.

The nursing students clearly identified that the initial clinical experience is very stressful for them. Students in the second year experienced more anxiety compared with third and fourth year students. This was similar to the finding of Bell and Ruth who found that nursing students have a higher level of anxiety in second year [ 26 , 27 ]. Neary identified three main categories of concern for students which are the fear of doing harm to patients, the sense of not belonging to the nursing team and of not being fully competent on registration [ 28 ] which are similar to what our students mentioned in the focus group discussions. Jinks and Patmon also found that students felt they had an insufficiency in clinical skills upon completion of pre-registration program [ 29 ].

Initial clinical experience was the most anxiety producing part of student clinical experience. In this study fear of making mistake (fear of failure) and being evaluated by faculty members were expressed by the students as anxiety-producing situations in their initial clinical experience. This finding is supported by Hart and Rotem [ 4 ] and Stephens [ 30 ]. Developing confidence is an important component of clinical nursing practice [ 31 ]. Development of confidence should be facilitated by the process of nursing education; as a result students become competent and confident. Differences between actual and expected behaviour in the clinical placement creates conflicts in nursing students. Nursing students receive instructions which are different to what they have been taught in the classroom. Students feel anxious and this anxiety has effect on their performance [ 32 ]. The existence of theory-practice gap in nursing has been an issue of concern for many years as it has been shown to delay student learning. All the students in this study clearly demonstrated that there is a gap between theory and practice. This finding is supported by other studies such as Ferguson and Jinks [ 33 ] and Hewison and Wildman [ 34 ] and Bjork [ 35 ]. Discrepancy between theory and practice has long been a source of concern to teachers, practitioners and learners. It deeply rooted in the history of nurse education. Theory-practice gap has been recognised for over 50 years in nursing. This issue is said to have caused the movement of nurse education into higher education sector [ 34 ].

Clinical supervision was one of the main themes in this study. According to participant, instructor role in assisting student nurses to reach professional excellence is very important. In this study, the majority of students had the perception that their instructors have a more evaluative role than a teaching role. About half of the students mentioned that some of the head Nurse (Nursing Unit Manager) and Staff Nurses are very good in supervising us in the clinical area. The clinical instructor or mentors can play an important role in student nurses' self-confidence, promote role socialization, and encourage independence which leads to clinical competency [ 36 ]. A supportive and socialising role was identified by the students as the mentor's function. This finding is similar to the finding of Earnshaw [ 37 ]. According to Begat and Severinsson supporting nurses by clinical nurse specialist reported that they may have a positive effect on their perceptions of well-being and less anxiety and physical symptoms [ 25 ].

The students identified factors that influence their professional socialisation. Professional role and hierarchy of occupation were factors which were frequently expressed by the students. Self-evaluation of professional knowledge, values and skills contribute to the professional's self-concept [ 38 ]. The professional role encompasses skills, knowledge and behaviour learned through professional socialisation [ 39 ]. The acquisition of career attitudes, values and motives which are held by society are important stages in the socialisation process [ 40 ]. According to Corwin autonomy, independence, decision-making and innovation are achieved through professional self-concept 41 . Lengacher (1994) discussed the importance of faculty staff in the socialisation process of students and in preparing them for reality in practice. Maintenance and/or nurturance of the student's self-esteem play an important role for facilitation of socialisation process 42 .

One view that was expressed by second and third year student nurses in the focus group sessions was that students often thought that their work was 'not really professional nursing' they were confused by what they had learned in the faculty and what in reality was expected of them in practice.

The finding of this study and the literature support the need to rethink about the clinical skills training in nursing education. It is clear that all themes mentioned by the students play an important role in student learning and nursing education in general. There were some similarities between the results of this study with other reported studies and confirmed that some of the factors are universal in nursing education. Nursing students expressed their views and mentioned their worry about the initial clinical anxiety, theory-practice gap, professional role and clinical supervision. They mentioned that integration of both theory and practice with good clinical supervision enabling them to feel that they are enough competent to take care of the patients. The result of this study would help us as educators to design strategies for more effective clinical teaching. The results of this study should be considered by nursing education and nursing practice professionals. Faculties of nursing need to be concerned about solving student problems in education and clinical practice. The findings support the need for Faculty of Nursing to plan nursing curriculum in a way that nursing students be involved actively in their education.

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150 Qualitative and Quantitative Nursing Research Topics for Students

Do not be lazy to spend some time researching and brainstorming. You can either lookup for the popular nursing research topics on social media networks or news or ask a professional writer online to take care of your assignment. What you should not do for sure is refuse to complete any of your course projects. You need every single task to be done if you wish to earn the highest score by the end of a semester.

In this article, we will share 150 excellent nursing research topics with you. Choose one of them or come up with your own idea based on our tips, and you’ll succeed for sure!

Table of Contents

Selecting the Top Ideas for Your Essays in Healthcare & Medicine

Would you like to learn how to write a research paper topic for nursing students? We will share some tips before offering lists of ideas.

Start with the preliminary research. You can get inspired on various websites offering ideas for students as well as academic help. Gather with your classmates and brainstorm by putting down different themes that you can cover. You should take your interests into consideration, but still, remember that ideas must relate to your lessons recently covered in class. You have to highlight keywords and main phrases to use in your text.

Before deciding on one of the numerous nursing school research topics, you should consult your tutor. Make sure that he or she approves the idea. Start writing only after that.

50 Popular Nursing Research Topics

Are you here to find the most popular research topics? They change with each new year as the innovations and technologies move on. We have collected the top discussed themes in healthcare for you.

• Problems Encountered by the Spouses of the Patients with Dyslexia
• Ethics in Geriatrics
• Checklist for the Delivery Room Behavior
• Parkinson Disease: Causes and Development
• Exercises Used to Improve Mental Health
• Effective Tips for Antenatal Treatment
• Syndrome of the Restless Legs: How to Treat It
• Behavior Assessment in Pediatric Primary Care
• Why Can Mother’s Health Be under the Threat During the Child Birth?
• Recommendations for Creating Strong Nursing Communities
• Alzheimer’s Disease and Proper Treatment
• Pre-Term Labor Threats
• Music Therapy and Lactation
• Influence of Ageism on Mental Health
• Newborn Resuscitation Practices
• Effective Therapy for Bladder Cancer
• Approaches to Improving Emotional Health of Nurses
• Skin-to-skin Contact by mothers and Its Consequences
• Does a Nurse Have a Right to Prescribe Drugs?
• Research on Atrial Fibrillation
• Pros & Cons of Water Birth
• Prevention Measures for Those Who Have to Contact Infectious Diseases
• Stroke Disease and Ways to Cure It
• The Role of Governmental Policies on the Hiring of Healthcare Professionals
• Demands for the Critical Care
• Joint Issue Research in Elderly Population
• Why Should Nurses and Healthcare Workers Cooperate?
• The Role of Good Leadership Skills in Nursing Profession
• How to Minimize the Threat of Cardiovascular Problems
• What Should a Nurse Do When an Elderly Refuses to Eat?
• Main Reasons for the Depression to Occur
• Methods Used to Detect an Abused Elderly Patient
• Treatment and Prevention of Acne and Other Skin Problems
• Consequences of the So-Called “Cold Therapy”
• End-of-Life Care Interventions That Work
• Risk factors for Osteoporosis in Female Population
• Alcohol Addiction and How to Get Rid of It
• Emerging Ethical Problems in Pain Management
• Psychiatric Patient Ethics
• How to Teach Female Population about Menopause Management
• Reasons for Aged Patients to Use Alcohol in Nursing Homes
• Family Engagement in Primary Healthcare
• Do the Race and Gender of a Patient Play a Role in Pain Management?
• PTSD in the Veterans of the United States Army
• How to Prepare a Nurse for Primary Healthcare
• The Correlation between Teen Aggression and Video Games
• Outcomes of Abdominal Massage in Critically Sick Population
• Developing an Effective Weight Loss Program: Case Study
• Comparing and Contrasting Public Health Nursing Models in Various Regions
• Mirror Therapy for Stroke Patients Who Are Partially Paralyzed

50 Interesting Nursing Research Topics

Do you wish to impress the target audience? Are you looking for the most interesting nursing research topics? It is important to consider time and recently covered themes. People tend to consider a topic an interesting one only if it is relevant. We have prepared the list of curious ideas for your project.

• Reasons for Hypertensive Diseases
• Self-Care Management and Sickle Cell Grown-Up Patients
• Schizophrenia Symptoms, Treatment, and Diagnostics
• Acute Coronary Syndrome Care
• Getting Ready with Caesarean Section
• What Are Some of the Cold and Cough Medicines?
• Why Do Patients Suffer from Anxiety Disorders?
• Use of the Forbidden Substances in Medicine
• How to Make Wise and Safe Medical Decisions
• CV Imaging Procedure
• Complementary vs. Alternative Therapy
• Can Some Types of Grains Prevent Cardiovascular Diseases?
• Restrictions of Medical Contracts
• How to Cope with High Levels of Stress
• Legal Threats with Non-English Patients
• The Basics of Palliative Care
• Clinical Cardiology Innovations
• How to Reduce Body Temperature in Household Conditions
• What Causes Type II Diabetes?
• Ways to Control Blood Pressure at Home
• Dental/Oral Health in the US
• Is There a Gender Bias in Nursing Profession?
• Gyno Education for the Young Girls
• Bipolar Disorder and Its Main Symptoms
• Methods Used to Recover after Physical Traumas
• The Principles of Sports Medicine
• The Gap between Female and Male Healthcare Professionals
• Increasing the Efficiency of Asthma Management in Educational Establishments
• Different Roles of Clinical Nurses
• Case Study: Successful Treatment of Migraine
• In-depth Analysis of the Ovarian Disorder
• Distant Intensive Treatment Until Questions
• Proper Treatment of Sleep Disorders
• How to Overcome Stressful Situations during Night Shifts
• Effective Methods to Prevent Breast Cancer
• Future of Healthcare & Medicine (Based on Modern Innovations)
• Approaches to Treating Insomnia
• Reproductive Endocrinology
• Diversity in the Field of Medicine
• Issues Associated with Menopause
• Causes and Effects of the Vaginal Atrophy
• Is Child’s Health Insurance a Right or a Privilege?
• Best Practices for Nursing Practitioners
• What Does the Phenomenon of Phantom Pains Stand for?
• Ethical Aspects of Infertility
• Protocol for Headache Treatment
• Moral Aspects of Euthanasia
• Treatment of Homeless People
• Why Should Healthcare System Be Made Free Everywhere in the World?
• Pain Restrictions Evaluation

50 Good Nursing Research Topics

Here is one more list of the nursing topics for research paper. We hope that at least one of these ideas will inspire you or give a clue.

• Advantages of Pet Therapy in Kids with the Autism Disorder
• Contemporary Approaches to Vaccinating Teenagers
• eHealth: The Effectiveness of Telecare and eCare
• Burn-Out in the Nursing Profession: Effective Ways to Handle Stress
• Healing of Bone Injuries
• Providing Spiritual Care: Does It Make Sense?
• Rheumatoid Arthritis: Opioid Usage
• Symptoms in ER That Cannot Be Explained by Medicine
• Contemporary Neonatal Practices
• Disorders with the Sexual Heath of an Average Woman
• Typical Causes of Headache
• Top Measures Used to Prevent Pregnancy
• Strategies Used by Government to Finance Healthcare System
• The Possible Consequences of Abortion for Women
• Evaluation of Childbirth Efficacy
• Quality Evaluation Techniques in Healthcare & Medicine
• Maternal Practices in Urban Areas
• Childcare Services Integration in Primary Medicine
• Rules for Pregnant Women Who Suffer from Obesity
• Mental Causes of Anorexia Nervosa
• Self-Instruction Kits
• Post-Natal Period Recommendations
• Midwifery Continuous Treatment & Care
• Case Study: Analyzing Positive Birth Experience
• Issues Related to the Gestational Weight Gain
• The Importance of Healthy Nutrition and Hydration
• What Are the Obligations of Every Nurse in Any Situation?
• Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment of ADHD
• Management of Disease and Prevention Methods
• The Importance of Kid and Teen Vaccination
• Termination of Pregnancy: Risks for Female Health
• Obligations of Every Pharmacist
• How to Prevent Child Obesity
• How to Stick to the Safe Sex Culture
• What Are the Main Symptoms of Autism?
• Ethics of the Healthcare Sales Promotion Campaigns
• Pros and Cons of Telemedicine
• Ethics in Pediatric Care
• Therapies Used to Treat Speech Disorders
• Medical Uniform Code Principles
• Psychological Sides of Infant Treatment
• Reasons for Seizures to Happen in Young Adolescents
• Healthcare Home Service and Self-Medicine
• How to Deal with Various Types of Eating Disorders
• Treatment of Patients in Prison
• Patient Security and Human Factors
• Bad Habits and Illnesses Impacted by Social Media and Pop Culture
• Apology Legislation and Regulations
• Antibiotic Resistance in Small Kids
• Nursing Marijuana Management & Control

You should also know that there are qualitative and quantitative nursing research topics. If you decide to base your study on numbers and figures, you should think about the second category. In quantitative research papers, writers must provide statistical data and interpret it to defend a thesis statement or find a solution to the existing problem.

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Investigating the effectiveness of endogenous and exogenous drivers of the sustainability (re)orientation of family smes in slovenia: qualitative content analysis approach.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. legal framework on sustainable corporate governance (with a focus on smes), 2.1.1. corporate sustainability reporting directive, 2.1.2. corporate sustainability due diligence directive, 2.1.3. scope of the csddd for smes, 2.2. drivers of the family businesses’ (re)orientation towards sustainability, 2.3. endogenous drivers, 2.3.1. the protection of sew, 2.3.2. ownership and management composition, 2.3.3. values, beliefs and attitudes of family owner-managers, 2.3.4. transgenerational continuity and long-term orientation, 2.3.5. knowledge of sustainability, 2.4. exogenous drivers, 2.4.1. stakeholders pressure, 2.4.2. the impact of institutional environment and local communities, 3. empirical research, 3.1. institutional context of slovenia, 3.2. research method, 3.3. sampling and data collection, 3.4. data analysis, 4.1. results of the final coding of the family businesses’ sustainability (re)orientation, 4.2. references to responsibility, preserving (natural) environment and sustainability/sustainable development in the analysed statements, 4.3. family businesses with a higher level of sustainability awareness and orientation, 5. discussion, 5.1. sustainability awareness and readiness of investigated family smes to comply with the new eu legal framework, 5.2. the effectiveness of endogenous and exogenous drivers of family businesses’ sustainability (re)orientation, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Duh, M.; Primec, A. Investigating the Effectiveness of Endogenous and Exogenous Drivers of the Sustainability (Re)Orientation of Family SMEs in Slovenia: Qualitative Content Analysis Approach. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7285. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177285

Duh M, Primec A. Investigating the Effectiveness of Endogenous and Exogenous Drivers of the Sustainability (Re)Orientation of Family SMEs in Slovenia: Qualitative Content Analysis Approach. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7285. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177285

Duh, Mojca, and Andreja Primec. 2024. "Investigating the Effectiveness of Endogenous and Exogenous Drivers of the Sustainability (Re)Orientation of Family SMEs in Slovenia: Qualitative Content Analysis Approach" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7285. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177285

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