example of significant of study in research

How To Write Significance of the Study (With Examples) 

Whether you’re writing a research paper or thesis, a portion called Significance of the Study ensures your readers understand the impact of your work. Learn how to effectively write this vital part of your research paper or thesis through our detailed steps, guidelines, and examples.

Related: How to Write a Concept Paper for Academic Research

Table of Contents

What is the significance of the study.

The Significance of the Study presents the importance of your research. It allows you to prove the study’s impact on your field of research, the new knowledge it contributes, and the people who will benefit from it.

Related: How To Write Scope and Delimitation of a Research Paper (With Examples)

Where Should I Put the Significance of the Study?

The Significance of the Study is part of the first chapter or the Introduction. It comes after the research’s rationale, problem statement, and hypothesis.

Related: How to Make Conceptual Framework (with Examples and Templates)

Why Should I Include the Significance of the Study?

The purpose of the Significance of the Study is to give you space to explain to your readers how exactly your research will be contributing to the literature of the field you are studying 1 . It’s where you explain why your research is worth conducting and its significance to the community, the people, and various institutions.

How To Write Significance of the Study: 5 Steps

Below are the steps and guidelines for writing your research’s Significance of the Study.

1. Use Your Research Problem as a Starting Point

Your problem statement can provide clues to your research study’s outcome and who will benefit from it 2 .

Ask yourself, “How will the answers to my research problem be beneficial?”. In this manner, you will know how valuable it is to conduct your study. 

Let’s say your research problem is “What is the level of effectiveness of the lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) in lowering the blood glucose level of Swiss mice (Mus musculus)?”

Discovering a positive correlation between the use of lemongrass and lower blood glucose level may lead to the following results:

• Increased public understanding of the plant’s medical properties;
• Higher appreciation of the importance of lemongrass  by the community;
• Adoption of lemongrass tea as a cheap, readily available, and natural remedy to lower their blood glucose level.

Once you’ve zeroed in on the general benefits of your study, it’s time to break it down into specific beneficiaries.

2. State How Your Research Will Contribute to the Existing Literature in the Field

Think of the things that were not explored by previous studies. Then, write how your research tackles those unexplored areas. Through this, you can convince your readers that you are studying something new and adding value to the field.

3. Explain How Your Research Will Benefit Society

In this part, tell how your research will impact society. Think of how the results of your study will change something in your community. 

For example, in the study about using lemongrass tea to lower blood glucose levels, you may indicate that through your research, the community will realize the significance of lemongrass and other herbal plants. As a result, the community will be encouraged to promote the cultivation and use of medicinal plants.

4. Mention the Specific Persons or Institutions Who Will Benefit From Your Study

Using the same example above, you may indicate that this research’s results will benefit those seeking an alternative supplement to prevent high blood glucose levels.

5. Indicate How Your Study May Help Future Studies in the Field

You must also specifically indicate how your research will be part of the literature of your field and how it will benefit future researchers. In our example above, you may indicate that through the data and analysis your research will provide, future researchers may explore other capabilities of herbal plants in preventing different diseases.

Tips and Warnings

• Think ahead . By visualizing your study in its complete form, it will be easier for you to connect the dots and identify the beneficiaries of your research.
• Write concisely. Make it straightforward, clear, and easy to understand so that the readers will appreciate the benefits of your research. Avoid making it too long and wordy.
• Go from general to specific . Like an inverted pyramid, you start from above by discussing the general contribution of your study and become more specific as you go along. For instance, if your research is about the effect of remote learning setup on the mental health of college students of a specific university , you may start by discussing the benefits of the research to society, to the educational institution, to the learning facilitators, and finally, to the students.
• Seek help . For example, you may ask your research adviser for insights on how your research may contribute to the existing literature. If you ask the right questions, your research adviser can point you in the right direction.
• Revise, revise, revise. Be ready to apply necessary changes to your research on the fly. Unexpected things require adaptability, whether it’s the respondents or variables involved in your study. There’s always room for improvement, so never assume your work is done until you have reached the finish line.

Significance of the Study Examples

This section presents examples of the Significance of the Study using the steps and guidelines presented above.

Example 1: STEM-Related Research

Research Topic: Level of Effectiveness of the Lemongrass ( Cymbopogon citratus ) Tea in Lowering the Blood Glucose Level of Swiss Mice ( Mus musculus ).

Significance of the Study .

This research will provide new insights into the medicinal benefit of lemongrass ( Cymbopogon citratus ), specifically on its hypoglycemic ability.

Through this research, the community will further realize promoting medicinal plants, especially lemongrass, as a preventive measure against various diseases. People and medical institutions may also consider lemongrass tea as an alternative supplement against hyperglycemia. 

Moreover, the analysis presented in this study will convey valuable information for future research exploring the medicinal benefits of lemongrass and other medicinal plants.  

Example 2: Business and Management-Related Research

Research Topic: A Comparative Analysis of Traditional and Social Media Marketing of Small Clothing Enterprises.

Significance of the Study:

By comparing the two marketing strategies presented by this research, there will be an expansion on the current understanding of the firms on these marketing strategies in terms of cost, acceptability, and sustainability. This study presents these marketing strategies for small clothing enterprises, giving them insights into which method is more appropriate and valuable for them. 

Specifically, this research will benefit start-up clothing enterprises in deciding which marketing strategy they should employ. Long-time clothing enterprises may also consider the result of this research to review their current marketing strategy.

Furthermore, a detailed presentation on the comparison of the marketing strategies involved in this research may serve as a tool for further studies to innovate the current method employed in the clothing Industry.

Example 3: Social Science -Related Research.

Research Topic:  Divide Et Impera : An Overview of How the Divide-and-Conquer Strategy Prevailed on Philippine Political History.

Significance of the Study :

Through the comprehensive exploration of this study on Philippine political history, the influence of the Divide et Impera, or political decentralization, on the political discernment across the history of the Philippines will be unraveled, emphasized, and scrutinized. Moreover, this research will elucidate how this principle prevailed until the current political theatre of the Philippines.

In this regard, this study will give awareness to society on how this principle might affect the current political context. Moreover, through the analysis made by this study, political entities and institutions will have a new approach to how to deal with this principle by learning about its influence in the past.

In addition, the overview presented in this research will push for new paradigms, which will be helpful for future discussion of the Divide et Impera principle and may lead to a more in-depth analysis.

Example 4: Humanities-Related Research

Research Topic: Effectiveness of Meditation on Reducing the Anxiety Levels of College Students.

Significance of the Study: 

This research will provide new perspectives in approaching anxiety issues of college students through meditation. 

Specifically, this research will benefit the following:

 Community – this study spreads awareness on recognizing anxiety as a mental health concern and how meditation can be a valuable approach to alleviating it.

Academic Institutions and Administrators – through this research, educational institutions and administrators may promote programs and advocacies regarding meditation to help students deal with their anxiety issues.

Mental health advocates – the result of this research will provide valuable information for the advocates to further their campaign on spreading awareness on dealing with various mental health issues, including anxiety, and how to stop stigmatizing those with mental health disorders.

Parents – this research may convince parents to consider programs involving meditation that may help the students deal with their anxiety issues.

Students will benefit directly from this research as its findings may encourage them to consider meditation to lower anxiety levels.

Future researchers – this study covers information involving meditation as an approach to reducing anxiety levels. Thus, the result of this study can be used for future discussions on the capabilities of meditation in alleviating other mental health concerns.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what is the difference between the significance of the study and the rationale of the study.

Both aim to justify the conduct of the research. However, the Significance of the Study focuses on the specific benefits of your research in the field, society, and various people and institutions. On the other hand, the Rationale of the Study gives context on why the researcher initiated the conduct of the study.

Let’s take the research about the Effectiveness of Meditation in Reducing Anxiety Levels of College Students as an example. Suppose you are writing about the Significance of the Study. In that case, you must explain how your research will help society, the academic institution, and students deal with anxiety issues through meditation. Meanwhile, for the Rationale of the Study, you may state that due to the prevalence of anxiety attacks among college students, you’ve decided to make it the focal point of your research work.

2. What is the difference between Justification and the Significance of the Study?

In Justification, you express the logical reasoning behind the conduct of the study. On the other hand, the Significance of the Study aims to present to your readers the specific benefits your research will contribute to the field you are studying, community, people, and institutions.

Suppose again that your research is about the Effectiveness of Meditation in Reducing the Anxiety Levels of College Students. Suppose you are writing the Significance of the Study. In that case, you may state that your research will provide new insights and evidence regarding meditation’s ability to reduce college students’ anxiety levels. Meanwhile, you may note in the Justification that studies are saying how people used meditation in dealing with their mental health concerns. You may also indicate how meditation is a feasible approach to managing anxiety using the analysis presented by previous literature.

3. How should I start my research’s Significance of the Study section?

– This research will contribute… – The findings of this research… – This study aims to… – This study will provide… – Through the analysis presented in this study… – This study will benefit…

Moreover, you may start the Significance of the Study by elaborating on the contribution of your research in the field you are studying.

4. What is the difference between the Purpose of the Study and the Significance of the Study?

The Purpose of the Study focuses on why your research was conducted, while the Significance of the Study tells how the results of your research will benefit anyone.

Suppose your research is about the Effectiveness of Lemongrass Tea in Lowering the Blood Glucose Level of Swiss Mice . You may include in your Significance of the Study that the research results will provide new information and analysis on the medical ability of lemongrass to solve hyperglycemia. Meanwhile, you may include in your Purpose of the Study that your research wants to provide a cheaper and natural way to lower blood glucose levels since commercial supplements are expensive.

5. What is the Significance of the Study in Tagalog?

In Filipino research, the Significance of the Study is referred to as Kahalagahan ng Pag-aaral.

• Draft your Significance of the Study. Retrieved 18 April 2021, from http://dissertationedd.usc.edu/draft-your-significance-of-the-study.html
• Regoniel, P. (2015). Two Tips on How to Write the Significance of the Study. Retrieved 18 April 2021, from https://simplyeducate.me/2015/02/09/significance-of-the-study/

Written by Jewel Kyle Fabula

in Career and Education , Juander How

Jewel Kyle Fabula

Jewel Kyle Fabula is a Bachelor of Science in Economics student at the University of the Philippines Diliman. His passion for learning mathematics developed as he competed in some mathematics competitions during his Junior High School years. He loves cats, playing video games, and listening to music.

Browse all articles written by Jewel Kyle Fabula

Copyright Notice

All materials contained on this site are protected by the Republic of the Philippines copyright law and may not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, displayed, published, or broadcast without the prior written permission of filipiknow.net or in the case of third party materials, the owner of that content. You may not alter or remove any trademark, copyright, or other notice from copies of the content. Be warned that we have already reported and helped terminate several websites and YouTube channels for blatantly stealing our content. If you wish to use filipiknow.net content for commercial purposes, such as for content syndication, etc., please contact us at legal(at)filipiknow(dot)net

The Savvy Scientist

Experiences of a London PhD student and beyond

What is the Significance of a Study? Examples and Guide

If you’re reading this post you’re probably wondering: what is the significance of a study?

No matter where you’re at with a piece of research, it is a good idea to think about the potential significance of your work. And sometimes you’ll have to explicitly write a statement of significance in your papers, it addition to it forming part of your thesis.

In this post I’ll cover what the significance of a study is, how to measure it, how to describe it with examples and add in some of my own experiences having now worked in research for over nine years.

If you’re reading this because you’re writing up your first paper, welcome! You may also like my how-to guide for all aspects of writing your first research paper .

Looking for guidance on writing the statement of significance for a paper or thesis? Click here to skip straight to that section.

What is the Significance of a Study?

For research papers, theses or dissertations it’s common to explicitly write a section describing the significance of the study. We’ll come onto what to include in that section in just a moment.

However the significance of a study can actually refer to several different things.

Working our way from the most technical to the broadest, depending on the context, the significance of a study may refer to:

• Within your study: Statistical significance. Can we trust the findings?
• Wider research field: Research significance. How does your study progress the field?
• Commercial / economic significance: Could there be business opportunities for your findings?
• Societal significance: What impact could your study have on the wider society.
• And probably other domain-specific significance!

We’ll shortly cover each of them in turn, including how they’re measured and some examples for each type of study significance.

But first, let’s touch on why you should consider the significance of your research at an early stage.

Why Care About the Significance of a Study?

No matter what is motivating you to carry out your research, it is sensible to think about the potential significance of your work. In the broadest sense this asks, how does the study contribute to the world?

After all, for many people research is only worth doing if it will result in some expected significance. For the vast majority of us our studies won’t be significant enough to reach the evening news, but most studies will help to enhance knowledge in a particular field and when research has at least some significance it makes for a far more fulfilling longterm pursuit.

Furthermore, a lot of us are carrying out research funded by the public. It therefore makes sense to keep an eye on what benefits the work could bring to the wider community.

Often in research you’ll come to a crossroads where you must decide which path of research to pursue. Thinking about the potential benefits of a strand of research can be useful for deciding how to spend your time, money and resources.

It’s worth noting though, that not all research activities have to work towards obvious significance. This is especially true while you’re a PhD student, where you’re figuring out what you enjoy and may simply be looking for an opportunity to learn a new skill.

However, if you’re trying to decide between two potential projects, it can be useful to weigh up the potential significance of each.

Let’s now dive into the different types of significance, starting with research significance.

Research Significance

What is the research significance of a study.

Unless someone specifies which type of significance they’re referring to, it is fair to assume that they want to know about the research significance of your study.

Research significance describes how your work has contributed to the field, how it could inform future studies and progress research.

Where should I write about my study’s significance in my thesis?

Typically you should write about your study’s significance in the Introduction and Conclusions sections of your thesis.

It’s important to mention it in the Introduction so that the relevance of your work and the potential impact and benefits it could have on the field are immediately apparent. Explaining why your work matters will help to engage readers (and examiners!) early on.

It’s also a good idea to detail the study’s significance in your Conclusions section. This adds weight to your findings and helps explain what your study contributes to the field.

On occasion you may also choose to include a brief description in your Abstract.

What is expected when submitting an article to a journal

It is common for journals to request a statement of significance, although this can sometimes be called other things such as:

• Impact statement
• Significance statement
• Advances in knowledge section

Here is one such example of what is expected:

Impact Statement:  An Impact Statement is required for all submissions.  Your impact statement will be evaluated by the Editor-in-Chief, Global Editors, and appropriate Associate Editor. For your manuscript to receive full review, the editors must be convinced that it is an important advance in for the field. The Impact Statement is not a restating of the abstract. It should address the following: Why is the work submitted important to the field? How does the work submitted advance the field? What new information does this work impart to the field? How does this new information impact the field? Experimental Biology and Medicine journal, author guidelines

Typically the impact statement will be shorter than the Abstract, around 150 words.

Defining the study’s significance is helpful not just for the impact statement (if the journal asks for one) but also for building a more compelling argument throughout your submission. For instance, usually you’ll start the Discussion section of a paper by highlighting the research significance of your work. You’ll also include a short description in your Abstract too.

How to describe the research significance of a study, with examples

Whether you’re writing a thesis or a journal article, the approach to writing about the significance of a study are broadly the same.

I’d therefore suggest using the questions above as a starting point to base your statements on.

• Why is the work submitted important to the field?
• How does the work submitted advance the field?
• What new information does this work impart to the field?
• How does this new information impact the field?

Answer those questions and you’ll have a much clearer idea of the research significance of your work.

When describing it, try to clearly state what is novel about your study’s contribution to the literature. Then go on to discuss what impact it could have on progressing the field along with recommendations for future work.

Potential sentence starters

If you’re not sure where to start, why not set a 10 minute timer and have a go at trying to finish a few of the following sentences. Not sure on what to put? Have a chat to your supervisor or lab mates and they may be able to suggest some ideas.

• This study is important to the field because…
• These findings advance the field by…
• Our results highlight the importance of…
• Our discoveries impact the field by…

Now you’ve had a go let’s have a look at some real life examples.

Statement of significance examples

A statement of significance / impact:

Impact Statement This review highlights the historical development of the concept of “ideal protein” that began in the 1950s and 1980s for poultry and swine diets, respectively, and the major conceptual deficiencies of the long-standing concept of “ideal protein” in animal nutrition based on recent advances in amino acid (AA) metabolism and functions. Nutritionists should move beyond the “ideal protein” concept to consider optimum ratios and amounts of all proteinogenic AAs in animal foods and, in the case of carnivores, also taurine. This will help formulate effective low-protein diets for livestock, poultry, and fish, while sustaining global animal production. Because they are not only species of agricultural importance, but also useful models to study the biology and diseases of humans as well as companion (e.g. dogs and cats), zoo, and extinct animals in the world, our work applies to a more general readership than the nutritionists and producers of farm animals. Wu G, Li P. The “ideal protein” concept is not ideal in animal nutrition.  Experimental Biology and Medicine . 2022;247(13):1191-1201. doi: 10.1177/15353702221082658

And the same type of section but this time called “Advances in knowledge”:

Advances in knowledge: According to the MY-RADs criteria, size measurements of focal lesions in MRI are now of relevance for response assessment in patients with monoclonal plasma cell disorders. Size changes of 1 or 2 mm are frequently observed due to uncertainty of the measurement only, while the actual focal lesion has not undergone any biological change. Size changes of at least 6 mm or more in  T 1  weighted or  T 2  weighted short tau inversion recovery sequences occur in only 5% or less of cases when the focal lesion has not undergone any biological change. Wennmann M, Grözinger M, Weru V, et al. Test-retest, inter- and intra-rater reproducibility of size measurements of focal bone marrow lesions in MRI in patients with multiple myeloma [published online ahead of print, 2023 Apr 12].  Br J Radiol . 2023;20220745. doi: 10.1259/bjr.20220745

Other examples of research significance

Moving beyond the formal statement of significance, here is how you can describe research significance more broadly within your paper.

Describing research impact in an Abstract of a paper:

Three-dimensional visualisation and quantification of the chondrocyte population within articular cartilage can be achieved across a field of view of several millimetres using laboratory-based micro-CT. The ability to map chondrocytes in 3D opens possibilities for research in fields from skeletal development through to medical device design and treatment of cartilage degeneration. Conclusions section of the abstract in my first paper .

In the Discussion section of a paper:

We report for the utility of a standard laboratory micro-CT scanner to visualise and quantify features of the chondrocyte population within intact articular cartilage in 3D. This study represents a complimentary addition to the growing body of evidence supporting the non-destructive imaging of the constituents of articular cartilage. This offers researchers the opportunity to image chondrocyte distributions in 3D without specialised synchrotron equipment, enabling investigations such as chondrocyte morphology across grades of cartilage damage, 3D strain mapping techniques such as digital volume correlation to evaluate mechanical properties  in situ , and models for 3D finite element analysis  in silico  simulations. This enables an objective quantification of chondrocyte distribution and morphology in three dimensions allowing greater insight for investigations into studies of cartilage development, degeneration and repair. One such application of our method, is as a means to provide a 3D pattern in the cartilage which, when combined with digital volume correlation, could determine 3D strain gradient measurements enabling potential treatment and repair of cartilage degeneration. Moreover, the method proposed here will allow evaluation of cartilage implanted with tissue engineered scaffolds designed to promote chondral repair, providing valuable insight into the induced regenerative process. The Discussion section of the paper is laced with references to research significance.

How is longer term research significance measured?

Looking beyond writing impact statements within papers, sometimes you’ll want to quantify the long term research significance of your work. For instance when applying for jobs.

The most obvious measure of a study’s long term research significance is the number of citations it receives from future publications. The thinking is that a study which receives more citations will have had more research impact, and therefore significance , than a study which received less citations. Citations can give a broad indication of how useful the work is to other researchers but citations aren’t really a good measure of significance.

Bear in mind that us researchers can be lazy folks and sometimes are simply looking to cite the first paper which backs up one of our claims. You can find studies which receive a lot of citations simply for packaging up the obvious in a form which can be easily found and referenced, for instance by having a catchy or optimised title.

Likewise, research activity varies wildly between fields. Therefore a certain study may have had a big impact on a particular field but receive a modest number of citations, simply because not many other researchers are working in the field.

Nevertheless, citations are a standard measure of significance and for better or worse it remains impressive for someone to be the first author of a publication receiving lots of citations.

Other measures for the research significance of a study include:

• Accolades: best paper awards at conferences, thesis awards, “most downloaded” titles for articles, press coverage.
• How much follow-on research the study creates. For instance, part of my PhD involved a novel material initially developed by another PhD student in the lab. That PhD student’s research had unlocked lots of potential new studies and now lots of people in the group were using the same material and developing it for different applications. The initial study may not receive a high number of citations yet long term it generated a lot of research activity.

That covers research significance, but you’ll often want to consider other types of significance for your study and we’ll cover those next.

Statistical Significance

What is the statistical significance of a study.

Often as part of a study you’ll carry out statistical tests and then state the statistical significance of your findings: think p-values eg <0.05. It is useful to describe the outcome of these tests within your report or paper, to give a measure of statistical significance.

Effectively you are trying to show whether the performance of your innovation is actually better than a control or baseline and not just chance. Statistical significance deserves a whole other post so I won’t go into a huge amount of depth here.

Things that make publication in  The BMJ  impossible or unlikely Internal validity/robustness of the study • It had insufficient statistical power, making interpretation difficult; • Lack of statistical power; The British Medical Journal’s guide for authors

Calculating statistical significance isn’t always necessary (or valid) for a study, such as if you have a very small number of samples, but it is a very common requirement for scientific articles.

Writing a journal article? Check the journal’s guide for authors to see what they expect. Generally if you have approximately five or more samples or replicates it makes sense to start thinking about statistical tests. Speak to your supervisor and lab mates for advice, and look at other published articles in your field.

How is statistical significance measured?

Statistical significance is quantified using p-values . Depending on your study design you’ll choose different statistical tests to compute the p-value.

A p-value of 0.05 is a common threshold value. The 0.05 means that there is a 1/20 chance that the difference in performance you’re reporting is just down to random chance.

• p-values above 0.05 mean that the result isn’t statistically significant enough to be trusted: it is too likely that the effect you’re showing is just luck.
• p-values less than or equal to 0.05 mean that the result is statistically significant. In other words: unlikely to just be chance, which is usually considered a good outcome.

Low p-values (eg p = 0.001) mean that it is highly unlikely to be random chance (1/1000 in the case of p = 0.001), therefore more statistically significant.

It is important to clarify that, although low p-values mean that your findings are statistically significant, it doesn’t automatically mean that the result is scientifically important. More on that in the next section on research significance.

How to describe the statistical significance of your study, with examples

In the first paper from my PhD I ran some statistical tests to see if different staining techniques (basically dyes) increased how well you could see cells in cow tissue using micro-CT scanning (a 3D imaging technique).

In your methods section you should mention the statistical tests you conducted and then in the results you will have statements such as:

Between mediums for the two scan protocols C/N [contrast to noise ratio] was greater for EtOH than the PBS in both scanning methods (both  p  < 0.0001) with mean differences of 1.243 (95% CI [confidence interval] 0.709 to 1.778) for absorption contrast and 6.231 (95% CI 5.772 to 6.690) for propagation contrast. … Two repeat propagation scans were taken of samples from the PTA-stained groups. No difference in mean C/N was found with either medium: PBS had a mean difference of 0.058 ( p  = 0.852, 95% CI -0.560 to 0.676), EtOH had a mean difference of 1.183 ( p  = 0.112, 95% CI 0.281 to 2.648). From the Results section of my first paper, available here . Square brackets added for this post to aid clarity.

From this text the reader can infer from the first paragraph that there was a statistically significant difference in using EtOH compared to PBS (really small p-value of <0.0001). However, from the second paragraph, the difference between two repeat scans was statistically insignificant for both PBS (p = 0.852) and EtOH (p = 0.112).

By conducting these statistical tests you have then earned your right to make bold statements, such as these from the discussion section:

Propagation phase-contrast increases the contrast of individual chondrocytes [cartilage cells] compared to using absorption contrast. From the Discussion section from the same paper.

Without statistical tests you have no evidence that your results are not just down to random chance.

Beyond describing the statistical significance of a study in the main body text of your work, you can also show it in your figures.

In figures such as bar charts you’ll often see asterisks to represent statistical significance, and “n.s.” to show differences between groups which are not statistically significant. Here is one such figure, with some subplots, from the same paper:

In this example an asterisk (*) between two bars represents p < 0.05. Two asterisks (**) represents p < 0.001 and three asterisks (***) represents p < 0.0001. This should always be stated in the caption of your figure since the values that each asterisk refers to can vary.

Now that we know if a study is showing statistically and research significance, let’s zoom out a little and consider the potential for commercial significance.

Commercial and Industrial Significance

What are commercial and industrial significance.

Moving beyond significance in relation to academia, your research may also have commercial or economic significance.

Simply put:

• Commercial significance: could the research be commercialised as a product or service? Perhaps the underlying technology described in your study could be licensed to a company or you could even start your own business using it.
• Industrial significance: more widely than just providing a product which could be sold, does your research provide insights which may affect a whole industry? Such as: revealing insights or issues with current practices, performance gains you don’t want to commercialise (e.g. solar power efficiency), providing suggested frameworks or improvements which could be employed industry-wide.

I’ve grouped these two together because there can certainly be overlap. For instance, perhaps your new technology could be commercialised whilst providing wider improvements for the whole industry.

Commercial and industrial significance are not relevant to most studies, so only write about it if you and your supervisor can think of reasonable routes to your work having an impact in these ways.

How are commercial and industrial significance measured?

Unlike statistical and research significances, the measures of commercial and industrial significance can be much more broad.

Here are some potential measures of significance:

Commercial significance:

• How much value does your technology bring to potential customers or users?
• How big is the potential market and how much revenue could the product potentially generate?
• Is the intellectual property protectable? i.e. patentable, or if not could the novelty be protected with trade secrets: if so publish your method with caution!
• If commercialised, could the product bring employment to a geographical area?

Industrial significance:

What impact could it have on the industry? For instance if you’re revealing an issue with something, such as unintended negative consequences of a drug , what does that mean for the industry and the public? This could be:

• Reduced overhead costs
• Better safety
• Faster production methods
• Improved scaleability

How to describe the commercial and industrial significance of a study, with examples

Commercial significance.

If your technology could be commercially viable, and you’ve got an interest in commercialising it yourself, it is likely that you and your university may not want to immediately publish the study in a journal.

You’ll probably want to consider routes to exploiting the technology and your university may have a “technology transfer” team to help researchers navigate the various options.

However, if instead of publishing a paper you’re submitting a thesis or dissertation then it can be useful to highlight the commercial significance of your work. In this instance you could include statements of commercial significance such as:

The measurement technology described in this study provides state of the art performance and could enable the development of low cost devices for aerospace applications. An example of commercial significance I invented for this post

Industrial significance

First, think about the industrial sectors who could benefit from the developments described in your study.

For example if you’re working to improve battery efficiency it is easy to think of how it could lead to performance gains for certain industries, like personal electronics or electric vehicles. In these instances you can describe the industrial significance relatively easily, based off your findings.

For example:

By utilising abundant materials in the described battery fabrication process we provide a framework for battery manufacturers to reduce dependence on rare earth components. Again, an invented example

For other technologies there may well be industrial applications but they are less immediately obvious and applicable. In these scenarios the best you can do is to simply reframe your research significance statement in terms of potential commercial applications in a broad way.

As a reminder: not all studies should address industrial significance, so don’t try to invent applications just for the sake of it!

Societal Significance

What is the societal significance of a study.

The most broad category of significance is the societal impact which could stem from it.

If you’re working in an applied field it may be quite easy to see a route for your research to impact society. For others, the route to societal significance may be less immediate or clear.

Studies can help with big issues facing society such as:

• Medical applications : vaccines, surgical implants, drugs, improving patient safety. For instance this medical device and drug combination I worked on which has a very direct route to societal significance.
• Political significance : Your research may provide insights which could contribute towards potential changes in policy or better understanding of issues facing society.
• Public health : for instance COVID-19 transmission and related decisions.
• Climate change : mitigation such as more efficient solar panels and lower cost battery solutions, and studying required adaptation efforts and technologies. Also, better understanding around related societal issues, for instance this study on the effects of temperature on hate speech.

How is societal significance measured?

Societal significance at a high level can be quantified by the size of its potential societal effect. Just like a lab risk assessment, you can think of it in terms of probability (or how many people it could help) and impact magnitude.

Societal impact = How many people it could help x the magnitude of the impact

Think about how widely applicable the findings are: for instance does it affect only certain people? Then think about the potential size of the impact: what kind of difference could it make to those people?

Between these two metrics you can get a pretty good overview of the potential societal significance of your research study.

How to describe the societal significance of a study, with examples

Quite often the broad societal significance of your study is what you’re setting the scene for in your Introduction. In addition to describing the existing literature, it is common to for the study’s motivation to touch on its wider impact for society.

For those of us working in healthcare research it is usually pretty easy to see a path towards societal significance.

Our CLOUT model has state-of-the-art performance in mortality prediction, surpassing other competitive NN models and a logistic regression model … Our results show that the risk factors identified by the CLOUT model agree with physicians’ assessment, suggesting that CLOUT could be used in real-world clinicalsettings. Our results strongly support that CLOUT may be a useful tool to generate clinical prediction models, especially among hospitalized and critically ill patient populations. Learning Latent Space Representations to Predict Patient Outcomes: Model Development and Validation

In other domains the societal significance may either take longer or be more indirect, meaning that it can be more difficult to describe the societal impact.

Even so, here are some examples I’ve found from studies in non-healthcare domains:

We examined food waste as an initial investigation and test of this methodology, and there is clear potential for the examination of not only other policy texts related to food waste (e.g., liability protection, tax incentives, etc.; Broad Leib et al., 2020) but related to sustainable fishing (Worm et al., 2006) and energy use (Hawken, 2017). These other areas are of obvious relevance to climate change… AI-Based Text Analysis for Evaluating Food Waste Policies

The continued development of state-of-the art NLP tools tailored to climate policy will allow climate researchers and policy makers to extract meaningful information from this growing body of text, to monitor trends over time and administrative units, and to identify potential policy improvements. BERT Classification of Paris Agreement Climate Action Plans

Top Tips For Identifying & Writing About the Significance of Your Study

• Writing a thesis? Describe the significance of your study in the Introduction and the Conclusion .
• Submitting a paper? Read the journal’s guidelines. If you’re writing a statement of significance for a journal, make sure you read any guidance they give for what they’re expecting.
• Take a step back from your research and consider your study’s main contributions.
• Read previously published studies in your field . Use this for inspiration and ideas on how to describe the significance of your own study
• Discuss the study with your supervisor and potential co-authors or collaborators and brainstorm potential types of significance for it.

Now you’ve finished reading up on the significance of a study you may also like my how-to guide for all aspects of writing your first research paper .

Writing an academic journal paper

I hope that you’ve learned something useful from this article about the significance of a study. If you have any more research-related questions let me know, I’m here to help.

To gain access to my content library you can subscribe below for free:

Share this:

• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)

Related Posts

Minor Corrections: How To Make Them and Succeed With Your PhD Thesis

2nd June 2024 2nd June 2024

How to Master Data Management in Research

25th April 2024 27th April 2024

Thesis Title: Examples and Suggestions from a PhD Grad

23rd February 2024 23rd February 2024

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Notify me of follow-up comments by email.

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

Privacy Overview

• Link to facebook
• Link to linkedin
• Link to twitter
• Link to youtube
• Writing Tips

How to Discuss the Significance of Your Research

• 6-minute read
• 10th April 2023

Introduction

Research papers can be a real headache for college students . As a student, your research needs to be credible enough to support your thesis statement. You must also ensure you’ve discussed the literature review, findings, and results.

However, it’s also important to discuss the significance of your research . Your potential audience will care deeply about this. It will also help you conduct your research. By knowing the impact of your research, you’ll understand what important questions to answer.

If you’d like to know more about the impact of your research, read on! We’ll talk about why it’s important and how to discuss it in your paper.

What Is the Significance of Research?

This is the potential impact of your research on the field of study. It includes contributions from new knowledge from the research and those who would benefit from it. You should present this before conducting research, so you need to be aware of current issues associated with the thesis before discussing the significance of the research.

Why Does the Significance of Research Matter?

Potential readers need to know why your research is worth pursuing. Discussing the significance of research answers the following questions:

●  Why should people read your research paper ?

●  How will your research contribute to the current knowledge related to your topic?

●  What potential impact will it have on the community and professionals in the field?

Not including the significance of research in your paper would be like a knight trying to fight a dragon without weapons.

Where Do I Discuss the Significance of Research in My Paper?

As previously mentioned, the significance of research comes before you conduct it. Therefore, you should discuss the significance of your research in the Introduction section. Your reader should know the problem statement and hypothesis beforehand.

Steps to Discussing the Significance of Your Research

Discussing the significance of research might seem like a loaded question, so we’ve outlined some steps to help you tackle it.

Step 1: The Research Problem

The problem statement can reveal clues about the outcome of your research. Your research should provide answers to the problem, which is beneficial to all those concerned. For example, imagine the problem statement is, “To what extent do elementary and high school teachers believe cyberbullying affects student performance?”

Learning teachers’ opinions on the effects of cyberbullying on student performance could result in the following:

●  Increased public awareness of cyberbullying in elementary and high schools

●  Teachers’ perceptions of cyberbullying negatively affecting student performance

Find this useful?

Subscribe to our newsletter and get writing tips from our editors straight to your inbox.

●  Whether cyberbullying is more prevalent in elementary or high schools

The research problem will steer your research in the right direction, so it’s best to start with the problem statement.

Step 2: Existing Literature in the Field

Think about current information on your topic, and then find out what information is missing. Are there any areas that haven’t been explored? Your research should add new information to the literature, so be sure to state this in your discussion. You’ll need to know the current literature on your topic anyway, as this is part of your literature review section .

Step 3: Your Research’s Impact on Society

Inform your readers about the impact on society your research could have on it. For example, in the study about teachers’ opinions on cyberbullying, you could mention that your research will educate the community about teachers’ perceptions of cyberbullying as it affects student performance. As a result, the community will know how many teachers believe cyberbullying affects student performance.

You can also mention specific individuals and institutions that would benefit from your study. In the example of cyberbullying, you might indicate that school principals and superintendents would benefit from your research.

Step 4: Future Studies in the Field

Next, discuss how the significance of your research will benefit future studies, which is especially helpful for future researchers in your field. In the example of cyberbullying affecting student performance, your research could provide further opportunities to assess teacher perceptions of cyberbullying and its effects on students from larger populations. This prepares future researchers for data collection and analysis.

Discussing the significance of your research may sound daunting when you haven’t conducted it yet. However, an audience might not read your paper if they don’t know the significance of the research. By focusing on the problem statement and the research benefits to society and future studies, you can convince your audience of the value of your research.

Remember that everything you write doesn’t have to be set in stone. You can go back and tweak the significance of your research after conducting it. At first, you might only include general contributions of your study, but as you research, your contributions will become more specific.

You should have a solid understanding of your topic in general, its associated problems, and the literature review before tackling the significance of your research. However, you’re not trying to prove your thesis statement at this point. The significance of research just convinces the audience that your study is worth reading.

Finally, we always recommend seeking help from your research advisor whenever you’re struggling with ideas. For a more visual idea of how to discuss the significance of your research, we suggest checking out this video .

1. Do I need to do my research before discussing its significance?

No, you’re discussing the significance of your research before you conduct it. However, you should be knowledgeable about your topic and the related literature.

2. Is the significance of research the same as its implications?

No, the research implications are potential questions from your study that justify further exploration, which comes after conducting the research.

 3. Discussing the significance of research seems overwhelming. Where should I start?

We recommend the problem statement as a starting point, which reveals clues to the potential outcome of your research.

4. How can I get feedback on my discussion of the significance of my research?

Our proofreading experts can help. They’ll check your writing for grammar, punctuation errors, spelling, and concision. Submit a 500-word document for free today!

Share this article:

Post A New Comment

Got content that needs a quick turnaround? Let us polish your work. Explore our editorial business services.

9-minute read

How to Use Infographics to Boost Your Presentation

Is your content getting noticed? Capturing and maintaining an audience’s attention is a challenge when...

8-minute read

Why Interactive PDFs Are Better for Engagement

Are you looking to enhance engagement and captivate your audience through your professional documents? Interactive...

7-minute read

Seven Key Strategies for Voice Search Optimization

Voice search optimization is rapidly shaping the digital landscape, requiring content professionals to adapt their...

4-minute read

Five Creative Ways to Showcase Your Digital Portfolio

Are you a creative freelancer looking to make a lasting impression on potential clients or...

How to Ace Slack Messaging for Contractors and Freelancers

Effective professional communication is an important skill for contractors and freelancers navigating remote work environments....

3-minute read

How to Insert a Text Box in a Google Doc

Google Docs is a powerful collaborative tool, and mastering its features can significantly enhance your...

Make sure your writing is the best it can be with our expert English proofreading and editing.

• Translation

Writing the Significance of a Study

By charlesworth author services.

• Charlesworth Author Services
• 20 July, 2022

The significance of a study is its importance . It refers to the contribution(s) to and impact of the study on a research field. The significance also signals who benefits from the research findings and how.

Purpose of writing the significance of a study

A study’s significance should spark the interest of the reader. Researchers will be able to appreciate your work better when they understand the relevance and its (potential) impact. Peer reviewers also assess the significance of the work, which will influence the decision made (acceptance/rejection) on the manuscript. 

Sections in which the significance of the study is written

Introduction.

In the Introduction of your paper, the significance appears where you talk about the potential importance and impact of the study. It should flow naturally from the problem , aims and objectives, and rationale .

The significance is described in more detail in the concluding paragraph(s) of the Discussion or the dedicated Conclusions section. Here, you put the findings into perspective and outline the contributions of the findings in terms of implications and applications.

The significance may or may not appear in the abstract . When it does, it is written in the concluding lines of the abstract.

Significance vs. other introductory elements of your paper

In the Introduction…

• The problem statement outlines the concern that needs to be addressed.
• The research aim describes the purpose of the study.
• The objectives indicate how that aim will be achieved.
• The rationale explains why you are performing the study.
• The significance tells the reader how the findings affect the topic/broad field. In other words, the significance is about how much the findings matter.

How to write the significance of the study

A good significance statement may be written in different ways. The approach to writing it also depends on the study area. In the arts and humanities , the significance statement might be longer and more descriptive. In applied sciences , it might be more direct.

a. Suggested sequence for writing the significance statement

• Think of the gaps your study is setting out to address.
• Look at your research from general and specific angles in terms of its (potential) contribution .
• Once you have these points ready, start writing them, connecting them to your study as a whole.

b. Some ways to begin your statement(s) of significance

Here are some opening lines to build on:

• The particular significance of this study lies in the… 
• We argue that this study moves the field forward because…
• This study makes some important contributions to…
• Our findings deepen the current understanding about…

c. Don’ts of writing a significance statement

• Don’t make it too long .
• Don’t repeat any information that has been presented in other sections.
• Don’t overstate or exaggerat e the importance; it should match your actual findings.

Example of significance of a study

Note the significance statements highlighted in the following fictional study.

Significance in the Introduction

The effects of Miyawaki forests on local biodiversity in urban housing complexes remain poorly understood. No formal studies on negative impacts on insect activity, populations or diversity have been undertaken thus far. In this study, we compared the effects that Miyawaki forests in urban dwellings have on local pollinator activity. The findings of this study will help improve the design of this afforestation technique in a way that balances local fauna, particularly pollinators, which are highly sensitive to microclimatic changes.

Significance in the Conclusion

[…] The findings provide valuable insights for guiding and informing Miyawaki afforestation in urban dwellings. We demonstrate that urban planning and landscaping policies need to consider potential declines.

A study’s significance usually appears at the end of the Introduction and in the Conclusion to describe the importance of the research findings. A strong and clear significance statement will pique the interest of readers, as well as that of relevant stakeholders.

Maximise your publication success with Charlesworth Author Services.

Charlesworth Author Services, a trusted brand supporting the world’s leading academic publishers, institutions and authors since 1928.

To know more about our services, visit: Our Services

Share with your colleagues

Scientific Editing Services

Sign up – stay updated.

We use cookies to offer you a personalized experience. By continuing to use this website, you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with our Cookie Policy.

• Privacy Policy

Home » Background of The Study – Examples and Writing Guide

Background of The Study – Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Background of The Study

Definition:

Background of the study refers to the context, circumstances, and history that led to the research problem or topic being studied. It provides the reader with a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and the significance of the study.

The background of the study usually includes a discussion of the relevant literature, the gap in knowledge or understanding, and the research questions or hypotheses to be addressed. It also highlights the importance of the research topic and its potential contributions to the field. A well-written background of the study sets the stage for the research and helps the reader to appreciate the need for the study and its potential significance.

How to Write Background of The Study

Here are some steps to help you write the background of the study:

Identify the Research Problem

Start by identifying the research problem you are trying to address. This problem should be significant and relevant to your field of study.

Provide Context

Once you have identified the research problem, provide some context. This could include the historical, social, or political context of the problem.

Review Literature

Conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the topic. This will help you understand what has been studied and what gaps exist in the current research.

Identify Research Gap

Based on your literature review, identify the gap in knowledge or understanding that your research aims to address. This gap will be the focus of your research question or hypothesis.

State Objectives

Clearly state the objectives of your research . These should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

Discuss Significance

Explain the significance of your research. This could include its potential impact on theory , practice, policy, or society.

Finally, summarize the key points of the background of the study. This will help the reader understand the research problem, its context, and its significance.

How to Write Background of The Study in Proposal

The background of the study is an essential part of any proposal as it sets the stage for the research project and provides the context and justification for why the research is needed. Here are the steps to write a compelling background of the study in your proposal:

• Identify the problem: Clearly state the research problem or gap in the current knowledge that you intend to address through your research.
• Provide context: Provide a brief overview of the research area and highlight its significance in the field.
• Review literature: Summarize the relevant literature related to the research problem and provide a critical evaluation of the current state of knowledge.
• Identify gaps : Identify the gaps or limitations in the existing literature and explain how your research will contribute to filling these gaps.
• Justify the study : Explain why your research is important and what practical or theoretical contributions it can make to the field.
• Highlight objectives: Clearly state the objectives of the study and how they relate to the research problem.
• Discuss methodology: Provide an overview of the methodology you will use to collect and analyze data, and explain why it is appropriate for the research problem.
• Conclude : Summarize the key points of the background of the study and explain how they support your research proposal.

How to Write Background of The Study In Thesis

The background of the study is a critical component of a thesis as it provides context for the research problem, rationale for conducting the study, and the significance of the research. Here are some steps to help you write a strong background of the study:

• Identify the research problem : Start by identifying the research problem that your thesis is addressing. What is the issue that you are trying to solve or explore? Be specific and concise in your problem statement.
• Review the literature: Conduct a thorough review of the relevant literature on the topic. This should include scholarly articles, books, and other sources that are directly related to your research question.
• I dentify gaps in the literature: After reviewing the literature, identify any gaps in the existing research. What questions remain unanswered? What areas have not been explored? This will help you to establish the need for your research.
• Establish the significance of the research: Clearly state the significance of your research. Why is it important to address this research problem? What are the potential implications of your research? How will it contribute to the field?
• Provide an overview of the research design: Provide an overview of the research design and methodology that you will be using in your study. This should include a brief explanation of the research approach, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• State the research objectives and research questions: Clearly state the research objectives and research questions that your study aims to answer. These should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound.
• Summarize the chapter: Summarize the chapter by highlighting the key points and linking them back to the research problem, significance of the study, and research questions.

How to Write Background of The Study in Research Paper

Here are the steps to write the background of the study in a research paper:

• Identify the research problem: Start by identifying the research problem that your study aims to address. This can be a particular issue, a gap in the literature, or a need for further investigation.
• Conduct a literature review: Conduct a thorough literature review to gather information on the topic, identify existing studies, and understand the current state of research. This will help you identify the gap in the literature that your study aims to fill.
• Explain the significance of the study: Explain why your study is important and why it is necessary. This can include the potential impact on the field, the importance to society, or the need to address a particular issue.
• Provide context: Provide context for the research problem by discussing the broader social, economic, or political context that the study is situated in. This can help the reader understand the relevance of the study and its potential implications.
• State the research questions and objectives: State the research questions and objectives that your study aims to address. This will help the reader understand the scope of the study and its purpose.
• Summarize the methodology : Briefly summarize the methodology you used to conduct the study, including the data collection and analysis methods. This can help the reader understand how the study was conducted and its reliability.

Examples of Background of The Study

Here are some examples of the background of the study:

Problem : The prevalence of obesity among children in the United States has reached alarming levels, with nearly one in five children classified as obese.

Significance : Obesity in childhood is associated with numerous negative health outcomes, including increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers.

Gap in knowledge : Despite efforts to address the obesity epidemic, rates continue to rise. There is a need for effective interventions that target the unique needs of children and their families.

Problem : The use of antibiotics in agriculture has contributed to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which poses a significant threat to human health.

Significance : Antibiotic-resistant infections are responsible for thousands of deaths each year and are a major public health concern.

Gap in knowledge: While there is a growing body of research on the use of antibiotics in agriculture, there is still much to be learned about the mechanisms of resistance and the most effective strategies for reducing antibiotic use.

Edxample 3:

Problem : Many low-income communities lack access to healthy food options, leading to high rates of food insecurity and diet-related diseases.

Significance : Poor nutrition is a major contributor to chronic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Gap in knowledge : While there have been efforts to address food insecurity, there is a need for more research on the barriers to accessing healthy food in low-income communities and effective strategies for increasing access.

Examples of Background of The Study In Research

Here are some real-life examples of how the background of the study can be written in different fields of study:

Example 1 : “There has been a significant increase in the incidence of diabetes in recent years. This has led to an increased demand for effective diabetes management strategies. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a new diabetes management program in improving patient outcomes.”

Example 2 : “The use of social media has become increasingly prevalent in modern society. Despite its popularity, little is known about the effects of social media use on mental health. This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and mental health in young adults.”

Example 3: “Despite significant advancements in cancer treatment, the survival rate for patients with pancreatic cancer remains low. The purpose of this study is to identify potential biomarkers that can be used to improve early detection and treatment of pancreatic cancer.”

Examples of Background of The Study in Proposal

Here are some real-time examples of the background of the study in a proposal:

Example 1 : The prevalence of mental health issues among university students has been increasing over the past decade. This study aims to investigate the causes and impacts of mental health issues on academic performance and wellbeing.

Example 2 : Climate change is a global issue that has significant implications for agriculture in developing countries. This study aims to examine the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to climate change and identify effective strategies to enhance their resilience.

Example 3 : The use of social media in political campaigns has become increasingly common in recent years. This study aims to analyze the effectiveness of social media campaigns in mobilizing young voters and influencing their voting behavior.

Example 4 : Employee turnover is a major challenge for organizations, especially in the service sector. This study aims to identify the key factors that influence employee turnover in the hospitality industry and explore effective strategies for reducing turnover rates.

Examples of Background of The Study in Thesis

Here are some real-time examples of the background of the study in the thesis:

Example 1 : “Women’s participation in the workforce has increased significantly over the past few decades. However, women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions, particularly in male-dominated industries such as technology. This study aims to examine the factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles in the technology industry, with a focus on organizational culture and gender bias.”

Example 2 : “Mental health is a critical component of overall health and well-being. Despite increased awareness of the importance of mental health, there are still significant gaps in access to mental health services, particularly in low-income and rural communities. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of a community-based mental health intervention in improving mental health outcomes in underserved populations.”

Example 3: “The use of technology in education has become increasingly widespread, with many schools adopting online learning platforms and digital resources. However, there is limited research on the impact of technology on student learning outcomes and engagement. This study aims to explore the relationship between technology use and academic achievement among middle school students, as well as the factors that mediate this relationship.”

Examples of Background of The Study in Research Paper

Here are some examples of how the background of the study can be written in various fields:

Example 1: The prevalence of obesity has been on the rise globally, with the World Health Organization reporting that approximately 650 million adults were obese in 2016. Obesity is a major risk factor for several chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. In recent years, several interventions have been proposed to address this issue, including lifestyle changes, pharmacotherapy, and bariatric surgery. However, there is a lack of consensus on the most effective intervention for obesity management. This study aims to investigate the efficacy of different interventions for obesity management and identify the most effective one.

Example 2: Antibiotic resistance has become a major public health threat worldwide. Infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria are associated with longer hospital stays, higher healthcare costs, and increased mortality. The inappropriate use of antibiotics is one of the main factors contributing to the development of antibiotic resistance. Despite numerous efforts to promote the rational use of antibiotics, studies have shown that many healthcare providers continue to prescribe antibiotics inappropriately. This study aims to explore the factors influencing healthcare providers’ prescribing behavior and identify strategies to improve antibiotic prescribing practices.

Example 3: Social media has become an integral part of modern communication, with millions of people worldwide using platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Social media has several advantages, including facilitating communication, connecting people, and disseminating information. However, social media use has also been associated with several negative outcomes, including cyberbullying, addiction, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on mental health and identify the factors that mediate this relationship.

Purpose of Background of The Study

The primary purpose of the background of the study is to help the reader understand the rationale for the research by presenting the historical, theoretical, and empirical background of the problem.

More specifically, the background of the study aims to:

• Provide a clear understanding of the research problem and its context.
• Identify the gap in knowledge that the study intends to fill.
• Establish the significance of the research problem and its potential contribution to the field.
• Highlight the key concepts, theories, and research findings related to the problem.
• Provide a rationale for the research questions or hypotheses and the research design.
• Identify the limitations and scope of the study.

When to Write Background of The Study

The background of the study should be written early on in the research process, ideally before the research design is finalized and data collection begins. This allows the researcher to clearly articulate the rationale for the study and establish a strong foundation for the research.

The background of the study typically comes after the introduction but before the literature review section. It should provide an overview of the research problem and its context, and also introduce the key concepts, theories, and research findings related to the problem.

Writing the background of the study early on in the research process also helps to identify potential gaps in knowledge and areas for further investigation, which can guide the development of the research questions or hypotheses and the research design. By establishing the significance of the research problem and its potential contribution to the field, the background of the study can also help to justify the research and secure funding or support from stakeholders.

Advantage of Background of The Study

The background of the study has several advantages, including:

• Provides context: The background of the study provides context for the research problem by highlighting the historical, theoretical, and empirical background of the problem. This allows the reader to understand the research problem in its broader context and appreciate its significance.
• Identifies gaps in knowledge: By reviewing the existing literature related to the research problem, the background of the study can identify gaps in knowledge that the study intends to fill. This helps to establish the novelty and originality of the research and its potential contribution to the field.
• Justifies the research : The background of the study helps to justify the research by demonstrating its significance and potential impact. This can be useful in securing funding or support for the research.
• Guides the research design: The background of the study can guide the development of the research questions or hypotheses and the research design by identifying key concepts, theories, and research findings related to the problem. This ensures that the research is grounded in existing knowledge and is designed to address the research problem effectively.
• Establishes credibility: By demonstrating the researcher’s knowledge of the field and the research problem, the background of the study can establish the researcher’s credibility and expertise, which can enhance the trustworthiness and validity of the research.

Disadvantages of Background of The Study

Some Disadvantages of Background of The Study are as follows:

• Time-consuming : Writing a comprehensive background of the study can be time-consuming, especially if the research problem is complex and multifaceted. This can delay the research process and impact the timeline for completing the study.
• Repetitive: The background of the study can sometimes be repetitive, as it often involves summarizing existing research and theories related to the research problem. This can be tedious for the reader and may make the section less engaging.
• Limitations of existing research: The background of the study can reveal the limitations of existing research related to the problem. This can create challenges for the researcher in developing research questions or hypotheses that address the gaps in knowledge identified in the background of the study.
• Bias : The researcher’s biases and perspectives can influence the content and tone of the background of the study. This can impact the reader’s perception of the research problem and may influence the validity of the research.
• Accessibility: Accessing and reviewing the literature related to the research problem can be challenging, especially if the researcher does not have access to a comprehensive database or if the literature is not available in the researcher’s language. This can limit the depth and scope of the background of the study.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Research Objectives – Types, Examples and...

Institutional Review Board – Application Sample...

Ethical Considerations – Types, Examples and...

Research Contribution – Thesis Guide

Informed Consent in Research – Types, Templates...

Dissertation – Format, Example and Template

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

An Easy Introduction to Statistical Significance (With Examples)

Published on January 7, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

If a result is statistically significant , that means it’s unlikely to be explained solely by chance or random factors. In other words, a statistically significant result has a very low chance of occurring if there were no true effect in a research study.

The p value , or probability value, tells you the statistical significance of a finding. In most studies, a p value of 0.05 or less is considered statistically significant, but this threshold can also be set higher or lower.

Table of contents

How do you test for statistical significance, what is a significance level, problems with relying on statistical significance, other types of significance in research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about statistical significance.

In quantitative research , data are analyzed through null hypothesis significance testing, or hypothesis testing. This is a formal procedure for assessing whether a relationship between variables or a difference between groups is statistically significant.

Null and alternative hypotheses

To begin, research predictions are rephrased into two main hypotheses: the null and alternative hypothesis .

• A null hypothesis ( H 0 ) always predicts no true effect, no relationship between variables , or no difference between groups.
• An alternative hypothesis ( H a or H 1 ) states your main prediction of a true effect, a relationship between variables, or a difference between groups.

Hypothesis testin g always starts with the assumption that the null hypothesis is true. Using this procedure, you can assess the likelihood (probability) of obtaining your results under this assumption. Based on the outcome of the test, you can reject or retain the null hypothesis.

• H 0 : There is no difference in happiness between actively smiling and not smiling.
• H a : Actively smiling leads to more happiness than not smiling.

Test statistics and p values

Every statistical test produces:

• A test statistic that indicates how closely your data match the null hypothesis.
• A corresponding p value that tells you the probability of obtaining this result if the null hypothesis is true.

The p value determines statistical significance. An extremely low p value indicates high statistical significance, while a high p value means low or no statistical significance.

Next, you perform a t test to see whether actively smiling leads to more happiness. Using the difference in average happiness between the two groups, you calculate:

• a t value (the test statistic) that tells you how much the sample data differs from the null hypothesis,
• a p value showing the likelihood of finding this result if the null hypothesis is true.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

The significance level , or alpha (α), is a value that the researcher sets in advance as the threshold for statistical significance. It is the maximum risk of making a false positive conclusion ( Type I error ) that you are willing to accept .

In a hypothesis test, the  p value is compared to the significance level to decide whether to reject the null hypothesis.

• If the p value is  higher than the significance level, the null hypothesis is not refuted, and the results are not statistically significant .
• If the p value is lower than the significance level, the results are interpreted as refuting the null hypothesis and reported as statistically significant .

Usually, the significance level is set to 0.05 or 5%. That means your results must have a 5% or lower chance of occurring under the null hypothesis to be considered statistically significant.

The significance level can be lowered for a more conservative test. That means an effect has to be larger to be considered statistically significant.

The significance level may also be set higher for significance testing in non-academic marketing or business contexts. This makes the study less rigorous and increases the probability of finding a statistically significant result.

As best practice, you should set a significance level before you begin your study. Otherwise, you can easily manipulate your results to match your research predictions.

It’s important to note that hypothesis testing can only show you whether or not to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis. It can never “prove” the null hypothesis, because the lack of a statistically significant effect doesn’t mean that absolutely no effect exists.

When reporting statistical significance, include relevant descriptive statistics about your data (e.g., means and standard deviations ) as well as the test statistic and p value.

There are various critiques of the concept of statistical significance and how it is used in research.

Researchers classify results as statistically significant or non-significant using a conventional threshold that lacks any theoretical or practical basis. This means that even a tiny 0.001 decrease in a p value can convert a research finding from statistically non-significant to significant with almost no real change in the effect.

On its own, statistical significance may also be misleading because it’s affected by sample size. In extremely large samples , you’re more likely to obtain statistically significant results, even if the effect is actually small or negligible in the real world. This means that small effects are often exaggerated if they meet the significance threshold, while interesting results are ignored when they fall short of meeting the threshold.

The strong emphasis on statistical significance has led to a serious publication bias and replication crisis in the social sciences and medicine over the last few decades. Results are usually only published in academic journals if they show statistically significant results—but statistically significant results often can’t be reproduced in high quality replication studies.

As a result, many scientists call for retiring statistical significance as a decision-making tool in favor of more nuanced approaches to interpreting results.

That’s why APA guidelines advise reporting not only p values but also  effect sizes and confidence intervals wherever possible to show the real world implications of a research outcome.

Aside from statistical significance, clinical significance and practical significance are also important research outcomes.

Practical significance shows you whether the research outcome is important enough to be meaningful in the real world. It’s indicated by the effect size of the study.

Clinical significance is relevant for intervention and treatment studies. A treatment is considered clinically significant when it tangibly or substantially improves the lives of patients.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Descriptive statistics
• Measures of central tendency
• Correlation coefficient

Methodology

• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Types of interviews
• Cohort study
• Thematic analysis

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Survivorship bias
• Availability heuristic
• Nonresponse bias
• Regression to the mean

Statistical significance is a term used by researchers to state that it is unlikely their observations could have occurred under the null hypothesis of a statistical test . Significance is usually denoted by a p -value , or probability value.

Statistical significance is arbitrary – it depends on the threshold, or alpha value, chosen by the researcher. The most common threshold is p < 0.05, which means that the data is likely to occur less than 5% of the time under the null hypothesis .

When the p -value falls below the chosen alpha value, then we say the result of the test is statistically significant.

A p -value , or probability value, is a number describing how likely it is that your data would have occurred under the null hypothesis of your statistical test .

P -values are usually automatically calculated by the program you use to perform your statistical test. They can also be estimated using p -value tables for the relevant test statistic .

P -values are calculated from the null distribution of the test statistic. They tell you how often a test statistic is expected to occur under the null hypothesis of the statistical test, based on where it falls in the null distribution.

If the test statistic is far from the mean of the null distribution, then the p -value will be small, showing that the test statistic is not likely to have occurred under the null hypothesis.

No. The p -value only tells you how likely the data you have observed is to have occurred under the null hypothesis .

If the p -value is below your threshold of significance (typically p < 0.05), then you can reject the null hypothesis, but this does not necessarily mean that your alternative hypothesis is true.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). An Easy Introduction to Statistical Significance (With Examples). Scribbr. Retrieved June 24, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/statistical-significance/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, understanding p values | definition and examples, what is effect size and why does it matter (examples), hypothesis testing | a step-by-step guide with easy examples, what is your plagiarism score.

Home » Feature » Thesis » Significance of the Study Samples | Writing Tips

Significance of the Study Samples | Writing Tips

When you write a thesis , there is a section there that is allocated for the significance of the study. This article will provide different  significance of the study examples and will discuss tips on how to write this part.

Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

Here are the tips that may be helpful when writing the significance of the study. These tips will tell you the basic components expected to be seen in the significance of the study content.

1. Refer to the Problem Statement

In writing the significance of the study, always refer to the statement of the problem. This way, you can clearly define the contribution of your study. To simplify, your research should answer this question, “What are the benefits or advantages of the study based on the statement of the problem?”

Start by explaining the problem that your study aimed to solve. For example, if you conducted a research study on obesity rates among elementary school students, you would start by explaining that obesity is a major health concern in the Philippines and discuss why it is important to find ways to address this issue.

2. Write it from General to Particular

Determine the specific contribution of your thesis study to society as well as to the individual. Write it deductively, starting from general to specific. Start your significance of the study broadly then narrow it out to a specific group or person. This is done by looking into the general contribution of your study, such as its importance to society as a whole, then moving towards its contribution to individuals like yourself as a researcher.

Discuss how your study fills a gap in the literature. If you conducted an experiment on the effects of a certain type of food on children, for example, you might start by explaining that no research has been done on this topic before. This section would also include a discussion about why your study is important.

Your problem statement might help you determine the unique contribution of your research. This can be accomplished by ensuring that the aim of the problem and the study’s objectives are identical. For instance, if your research question is “Is there a significant relationship between the use of Facebook Messenger and the performance of students in English spelling? “, you could write as one of the contributions of your study: “The study will identify common errors in spelling and grammar by Messenger users and recommend its appropriate use in a way that can improve performance in spelling.”

You may also read: How to Make a Conceptual Framework

Significance of the Study Samples

Here are some examples to help you draft your own introduction:

Title: Number of Clinical Internship Hours: A Determinant of Student’s Effectiveness and Skill  Acquisition in the Hospital Area for Velez College Students

Significance of the study.

The results of the study will be of great benefit to the following:

College of Nursing Dean . Data given will provide the dean with information on how the number of duty hours in a week affects the student’s academic and RLE performance. The results will enable the dean to improve the scheduling of RLE and different academic subjects. Data gathered will help the dean initiate collaboration among faculty and chairpersons to help plan the advancement of nursing education in relation to the new curriculum.

Clinical Instructors . The results of the study will help the clinical instructors evaluate the quality of care rendered by the nursing students, academic performance, attitude and skills acquired in relation to the number of hours given in a week. Results would also develop the clinical instructor’s teaching-learning and evaluating strategies in enhancing knowledge, skills and attitude to the students in the time frame given.

Students . This study will provide information regarding which time arrangement is effective: 8-hr of clinical internship from the 5-hr clinical internship with additional academic classes. This study will evaluate the academic performance, the student nurse’s attitude and approach, the skills learned in the clinical area, and the quality of care rendered in the given time frame. Data gathered will also help the students improve both academic and clinical performance.

Velez College . This study will improve the school in the development of nursing education. This study will foster new ways of enhancing knowledge, skills, and attitude, thus preparing globally-competitive nurses in the future. This study will also help in the advancement of school management, clinical leadership, and the teaching-evaluation approach.

Title: The Effectiveness of Isuzu’s Blue Power Technology in Fuel Efficiency of Diesel Engines

The generalization of this study would be a great contribution to the vast knowledge in relation to the brand awareness of Isuzu’s Blue Power Euro 4 Technology. Furthermore, the results of this investigation could be highly significant and beneficial for the following:

Current Customers

They refer to consumers that have already bought products from Isuzu. They are considered to be the main beneficiaries of the business. The findings of this study would provide them with adequate information about the product, most especially for those clients that have already bought units with the Blue Power Euro 4 Technology but have no idea of its benefits and advantages.

Potential Customer

They are the consumers that have not yet purchased this brand. This study aims to give them insights and overviews of the product and would help them choose the right variant to purchase.

They are the main beneficiaries of this study, which may help them to improve their marketing strategies. It would provide substantial data to the business that they could make use of in boosting their sales. Moreover, developing brand awareness will cater to more demands and loyalty in the future.

For they also play a vital role in the business and as consumers. This research would give them the idea that such private vehicles exist, which helps them to conserve energy rather than exploit it. Hence, giving back to the community and making it a better place to live.

Proponents of the Study

This refers to the students conducting the study. They will find self-fulfillment and gain knowledge and skills in this study. This study will help and inspire more researchers to be more innovative and creative in their future endeavors.

Future Researchers

This study will serve as a reference for researchers on the subject of research in the field of marketing. This will serve as a guide to further developing the research with the connection to the variables used.

The significance of a study is a key component of a strong scientific paper. By following these tips, you can create a clear and concise explanation of the importance of your work. I hope that these tips and samples will help you create a perfect Significance of the Study for your thesis. Apply these tips to prevent your mind from wandering aimlessly as you draft the significance of the study. It will allow you to focus on the next section of your thesis, helping you finish it on time. Good luck!

good and interesting

thanks for information

Very useful. Thanks

Thank you for a very informative article

• Civil Service Exam Reviewer
• L TO Portal Registration Guide
• How to Renew a Driver's License
• National ID Tracker
• Civil Service Exam Application
• Privacy Policy
• Terms of Service

All content provided on this website is for informational purposes only. The owner of this website makes no representations as to the accuracy or completeness of any information on this site or found by following any link on this site. The owner will not be liable for any errors or omissions in this information or for the availability of this information. The owner will not be liable for any losses, injuries, or damages from the display or use of this information.

You may not use the content of this blog for commercial purposes without prior formal written consent from us. These terms and conditions of use are subject to change at any time and without notice.

TOPNOTCHER PH is a participant in the Shopee Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for us to earn advertising fees by linking to SHOPEE.PH. As a Shopee Affiliate, we earn from your qualifying purchases through our links without extra cost to you.

© 2024 TOPNOTCHER.PH

How to Write Significance of the Study in a Project Research Paper

When you write your thesis or research paper, there is a section of your introduction that is allotted to the significance of the study. The purpose of this section is to state why your study was needed and the contribution of your research to your field.

In this guide, you will learn the meaning of the significance of the study in your research paper and how to write one.

What is the Significance of the Study?

The significance of the study is basically a written statement that explains why your research was important. It justifies why your research was needed, the impact of your research in your field, its contribution, and how others (audience) would benefit from it.

Also referred to as the rationale of the study, the significance of the study is important to communicate why your research is important to your reader. It is important to make clear the significance of your study for easy comprehension by the readers.

Tips for writing the significance of the study

Reflect on the Problem Statement When writing this section of your paper, first reflect on what contribution your research is making to your field, the gaps in knowledge in your research field, and why your work should be published.

Your problem statement should be reflected in the introduction of the significance of the study. Your research problem statement can guide you to identify specific contributions your research is making to your field of study.

Write from a general contribution to a specific contribution Write your significance of the study in an inverted pyramid format. Start with your research contribution to society as a whole, and then proceed to narrow it down to a specific individual or group of people.

When writing your statement of study, the length should not be more than 500 words for a thesis and around 200 words for a research paper.

However, note that writing the significance of study depends on your subject area and your content as there is no single way of writing a perfect significance of study.

An Example of Significance of Study

This study's findings will further reveal how management-employee bilateral relationships can be strengthened while improving workplace productivity. The findings would be of major importance in assessing how collective bargaining can be a major tool in improving workplace performance in a developing economy like Nigeria. Collective bargaining would help both management and employees bargain on terms and conditions of service and resolve their grievances without leading to strikes, lock-outs, and other forms of industrial actions. The best approach in negotiating on the bargaining table is to provide employees with the importance of collective bargaining as the best method of settling the industrial conflict, which will improve their productivity and lead to higher organizational performance.

The significance of the study is used in academic writing by students and researchers to communicate the importance of a research problem. This section describes specific contributions made to your field of study and who benefits from it. Also, the extent to which the study matters and its potential benefits to people, researchers, departments and other fields are discussed here. This statement is written at the end of your introduction and should be well attended to.

Work Abroad

Study abroad.

• Citizenship

How to Determine the Scope of Research | Examples & Tips

Introduction

What is the scope of a study, what is a research scope example, what is the purpose of the research scope, what considerations are relevant to the research scope, how do i write the scope in a report.

The scope of a research project is one of the more important yet sometimes understated aspects of a study. The scope of the study explains what the researchers are examining and what environment they are studying.

This article explains the general purpose of the research scope, how it informs the broader study at hand, and how it can be incorporated in a research paper to establish the necessary transparency and rigor for your research audience.

Scientific knowledge very rarely, if ever, produces universal axioms. The boiling point of water changes depending on the amount of pressure in the air and, by extension, the altitude you are at relative to sea level when you boil water. What looks like polite behavior in a given culture may look rude in another. The definition of beauty is bound to change as people get older.

Similarly, research findings that aren't contextualized are less persuasive. If you are reading a study that looks at interactional patterns between parents and their children, it's important to have a clear sense of the theoretical lens , data collection , and analysis in order to determine the extent to which the findings are applicable across contexts.

In a nutshell, the scope tells you what the researchers are looking at and are not looking at. It provides the context necessary to understand the research, how it was conducted, and what findings it generated.

Conversely, establishing the bounds of the scope also clarify what research inquiries are not addressed in the study, ensuring that the study's argumentation is clearly grounded in the theory, data, and analysis.

Let's imagine an example of a research study examining best practices for mental health. The research design centers on a survey study with a target population of college students with part-time jobs in addition to their coursework.

The researchers can focus on any number of things affecting mental health, including lifestyle factors such as sleep, socioeconomic factors such as income, and even influences further afield like the political alignment of friends and family.

Certainly, any of these things can have a profound impact on one's mental health. But when there are so many things to examine, it's necessary to narrow down what the research project at hand should examine.

The scope of the study can come down to any number of things, including the researchers' interest, the current state of theoretical development on the subject of mental health, and the design of the study, particularly how the data is collected. It might even boil down to influences like geographical location, which can determine the kind of research participants involved in the study.

All of these factors can inform an explicit description of the scope, which might look like this if found in the methodology section of a paper:

"In this study, the researchers focused on surveying college students over four months, roughly the same time frame as a semester at a university in the United States. Surveys were distributed to all college students, but this paper will narrow the data analysis to those students who reported having part-time jobs. This refined lens aligns with our interest in examining work-related factors contributing to negative mental health outcomes, as established in previous studies."

The above example of a study's scope highlights what the researchers focused on during the study and while analyzing the data. The researchers chose to study a narrow subset of their data to generate insights most applicable to their research interests. The researchers might also analyze the proportion of students that reported having part-time jobs to give a broader description of the study body, but they clearly focus on understanding the mental health of students with part-time jobs.

Moreover, the narrow scope allows the researchers to focus on a small number of elements in the relationship between mental health and work, which allows the researchers to make deeper contributions to this specific part of the conversation around students' mental health.

Defining the scope of the study benefits both the researcher and their audience. Ultimately, establishing transparency in a research project focuses the data collection and analysis processes and makes the findings more compelling and persuasive.

Describing the scope can clarify what specific concepts should be used and examined during the course of the study. A good scope can keep the researcher focused on what data to collect and what ancillary developments, however interesting or useful, should be discarded or left to another study. Setting a clear scope can greatly help researchers maintain a coherent fit between their research question, collected data, and ultimate findings. Journal editors and reviewers often reject papers for publication because of a lack of fit between these important elements, which highlights the value of a clear research scope for conducting rigorous research.

In logistical terms, a well-defined scope also ensures the feasibility of a study by limiting the researcher's lens to a small but manageable set of factors to observe and analyze during the course of the study. Conversely, an unfocused study makes the collection of data a significant challenge when the researcher is left to document as much as possible, potentially gathering all kinds of data that may not be relevant to a given research question , while not gathering enough of the appropriate data that can address a research inquiry.

The research audience also requires an understanding of the scope of the study to determine the relevance of the findings to their own research inquiry. Readers of research bring their own assumptions and preconceived notions about what to look at in a given context. A well-written scope, on the other hand, gives readers clear guidance on what to look for in the study's analysis and findings.

From start to finish, make ATLAS.ti your research solution

Make the most of your qualitative data with ATLAS.ti. Get started by downloading a free trial.

Besides the research area being studied, the scope of a study has a clear description of most of the following aspects. Understanding what makes rigorous research and what readers of research look for in a well-crafted study will be useful for describing the scope of a research project.

Target population

The kind of research participants you are including in a study informs what theories are relevant and how the study should be designed. Are you researching children, young adults, or older professionals? Do they belong to a specific culture or community? Are they connected or related to each other in some way or do they just happen to belong to the same demographic?

Because qualitative, social science research seldom yields universal theories, it's important to narrow the scope of a study down to a specific set of the population. The more specific the scope, the more that the findings and resulting theoretical developments can be appropriately contextualized and thus inform how other researchers can build on those insights.

Geographical location

The geographical location covered by the study provides a necessary context for any study in the social sciences. Even if you narrow the targeted population to a specific demographic, what is true for that population in one country or region may not be true for another.

As a result, a scope that describes the location of the study explains where the findings are most relevant and where they might be relevant for further study.

Data collection

If you are conducting observational or ethnographic research , it may seem like you are facing a firehose when it comes to collecting data. Even interviews , focus groups , and surveys can provide a torrent of data, much of which may not be relevant to your inquiry if the study design isn't refined.

Without a sufficiently defined scope that identifies what aspects of the world you are looking at, the data you collect may become unmanageable at best. When crafting your study, develop the scope to determine the specific topics and aspects worth exploring.

In academic publishing , reviewers and editors need a clear understanding of the scope of the study in a manuscript when evaluating the research. Despite its importance, however, the scope doesn't necessarily have its own explicit section in a research paper.

That said, you can describe the study's scope in key areas of your research writing. Here are some of the important sections in a typical research paper for academic writing where a description of the scope is key.

Literature review

Any study disseminated for academic publishing requires a thorough understanding of the current research and existing theories that are relevant to your study. In turn, the literature review also defines the aspects of the phenomenon or concepts that you can study for the purpose of theoretical development.

Rely on the key theories in the literature review to define a useful scope that identifies key aspects of the theoretical framework that will inform the data collection and analysis .

Problem statement

A well-crafted problem statement generally sets the stage for what knowledge is missing and what novel and interesting insights can be uncovered in new research. As a result, a clear understanding of the research scope helps define the problem that a new research project seeks to address.

When incorporating a problem statement in your research paper, be sure to explicitly detail the rationale for problematizing the phenomenon you are researching.

Research question

Research questions define the relationships between the relevant concepts or phenomena being explored, and thus provide evidence of a scope that has been thoughtfully planned. Use the wording of your research question to highlight what is the central focus and, thus, the scope of the study.

At minimum, the scope of the study should narrow the focus of data collection and data analysis to the study of certain concepts relevant to addressing the given research question. Qualitative research methods can often result in open-ended data collection that can yield many insights, only a few of which may directly address the research inquiry.

Narrowing the collection of data to a set of relevant criteria can help the researcher avoid any unnecessary rabbit holes that might complicate the later analysis with irrelevant information.

Limitations

Research scope and limitations go hand in hand because, together, they define what is studied within a research project and what is not. Moreover, a good description of the study's scope can also provide direction, by way of the description of limitations, about what inquiries other researchers could pursue next.

Bring clarity to your research with ATLAS.ti

Turn data into insights with our powerful data analysis platform. Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti today.

How to Write a Problem Statement for a Research Paper?

What is a problem statement in research, and why is it crucial? A research problem statement is a clear and precise declaration that identifies the issue or challenge your study aims to tackle. It needs to be understandable to both experts and non-experts alike. You can ensure your statement is effective by basing it on established knowledge and avoiding unsupported claims. This way, you can create a solid foundation for your research.

Okay, we answered what is a problem statement, but why is grounding your statement in a literature review important? A thorough review of existing studies not only provides context but also connects your research to the broader scientific community. This approach helps ensure that your problem statement is both relevant and meaningful, guiding your empirical investigation with a strong, evidence-based foundation.

To effectively write a research problem statement, follow these steps:

• Begin by pinpointing the broad field or subject area that captures your interest.
• Narrow down this general area to a particular issue or challenge that needs attention.
• Provide context by explaining why the problem is important and what gap in current knowledge it addresses.
• Articulate the problem in a clear, succinct manner, ensuring that the language is accessible to your target audience.
• Write in an unbiased and neutral tone, steering clear of subjective language and personal opinions.

Homework Made Simple!

Stop wrestling with your assignments and let our experts simplify it for you!

How to Write a Problem Statement in Specific Situations

Now, let our online essay writer service address how to write a problem statement for a research paper tailored to different research contexts.

Academic Research

In academic research, a problem statement is written after conducting a preliminary literature review. This initial review helps you identify gaps in current knowledge and frame your problem within the context of existing studies. The problem statement should then clearly articulate the specific issue you intend to investigate, its significance, and how your research will contribute to the field.

• Preliminary Literature Review : Identify gaps or inconsistencies in existing research.
• Define the Problem : State the issue clearly, based on the literature review.
• Significance : Explain why the problem matters and what new insights your research will provide.

Business and Management

In business and management contexts, problem statements often address practical issues that impact organizational performance or strategy. These statements are usually formulated after identifying a specific challenge or inefficiency within the company.

• Identify a Challenge : Pinpoint a specific problem affecting the organization.
• Gather Data : Collect relevant data to understand the problem's scope and impact.
• State the Problem : Clearly describe the issue, focusing on its business implications.
• Propose Objectives : Outline the goals of your research or proposed solutions.

Social and Policy Research

For social and policy research, problem statements focus on societal issues or policy gaps. These statements should highlight the broader implications of the problem and the potential impact of the research findings on policy or society.

• Identify a Social Issue : Choose a relevant social or policy issue that needs investigation.
• Contextualize : Provide background information to frame the issue within a larger societal context.
• Define the Problem : Clearly state the issue and its implications for society or policy.
• Significance : Explain how addressing the problem can lead to social or policy improvements.

What is Included in a Problem Statement

A comprehensive problem statement does more than just identify a gap in understanding or a lack of essential data. It also explains the importance of addressing this gap. Here are key components to include:

Step 1. Contextualize the Problem

To effectively understand how to write a problem statement for a research paper, you should first contextualize the problem and start by offering background information that sets the stage for your research. This involves presenting the broader area of study and then narrowing it down to the specific issue you will address. By doing so, you help your audience understand the environment in which the problem exists.

Example: If your research focuses on the impact of financial literacy programs on small business owners' ability to secure loans, begin with an overview of the importance of financial literacy in business. Discuss how small businesses contribute to the economy and summarize previous studies on financial literacy's general effects on business success. This context helps to frame your specific research question within the larger discourse.

Detailed Steps:

• Introduce the General Area : Begin with a broad discussion of the field.
• Highlight Key Issues : Identify major themes or problems in the field.
• Narrow Down : Focus on the specific issue your research will address.

Step 2. Establish the Study's Significance

After setting the context, it's crucial to explain why your research is significant. This involves articulating the importance of the problem statement and how your research will contribute to the field. Here, you answer questions like: Why does this problem matter? Who will benefit from the findings?

Example: Continuing with the financial literacy example, explain why understanding its impact on small business owners' ability to secure loans is crucial. Highlight the potential consequences of poor financial literacy, such as higher loan rejection rates, increased financial instability, and business failures. Emphasize how your research could inform policymakers, financial institutions, and educational program designers, leading to more effective financial literacy programs and better support for small businesses.

• Highlight the Gap : Clearly state what is missing in current research.
• Discuss Implications : Explain the broader impact of addressing this gap.
• Identify Beneficiaries : Point out who will benefit from your research findings.

Step 3. Set Your Objectives

Your statement should conclude with clear research aims and objectives. This section outlines what you intend to achieve and the steps you will take to address the problem. Be specific about your research goals and the methods you will use to accomplish them.

Example: For the financial literacy and loan acquisition study, your aims might include evaluating the current financial literacy levels among small business owners, examining the correlation between financial literacy and loan approval rates, and assessing the effectiveness of existing financial literacy programs. Your objectives could be to conduct surveys of small business owners, analyze loan application data, and develop recommendations for improving financial literacy programs based on your findings.

• State Your Aims : Clearly articulate the primary goals of your research.
• Outline Your Objectives : Break down the aims into specific, actionable objectives.
• Describe Your Methods : Briefly mention the research methods you will use to achieve these objectives.

Problem Statement Example

Here, we prepared two research problem statement examples that can serve as unique templates for developing your own statement.

Characteristics of a Research Problem Statement

According to Kerlinger, a good problem statement asks what relationship exists between two or more variables. When learning how to write a problem statement, make sure it has the following characteristics:

Writing a clear problem statement helps you pinpoint the exact issue, explain why it matters, and set specific goals. Whether you're looking into social issues or business problems, a well-defined statement directs your study toward valuable insights and solutions. If you ever need expert research proposal help , remember that together, we can transform your ideas into impactful studies that drive positive change!

Scratching Your Head Over Problem Statements?

Don't overcomplicate it - let our experts show you how it's done right!

What is a Problem Statement in Research?

How to write a problem statement, how do you structure a good problem statement.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

• Rupam. (n.d.). Research Problem and its Characteristics . https://www.tpscollegepatna.org/admin-panel/image/content/Research%20Problem%20and%20its%20Characteristics.pdf
• Characteristics of a Quality Problem Statement . (n.d.). https://static1.squarespace.com/static/57e9e21f2e69cf4b7cee5ba0/t/5935d3e003596eebfc6b0463/1496699873373/Characteristics+of+a+Quality+Problem+Statement+%281%29.pdf

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 28 June 2024

Causal role of immune cells on cervical cancer onset revealed by two-sample Mendelian randomization study

• Zicheng Zhao 1   na1 ,
• Pengxian Yan 1   na1 ,
• Xiaoyu Zhang 1 , 2 ,
• Xiaomin Yu 1 ,
• Fengchun Lv 1 ,
• Mingyu Gong 1 &
• Xiu-An Yang 1 , 3  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  14890 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Cervical cancer
• Computational biology and bioinformatics
• Tumour immunology

Cervical cancer (CC) is a prevalent gynecological cancer worldwide that significantly impacts the quality of life and the physical and mental well-being of women. However, there have been limited studies utilizing Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to investigate the connection between immune cells and CC. This study is to investigate the causal effects of immune traits on CC and non-neoplastic conditions of the cervix. The GWAS data for 731 immunophenotypes and six GWAS data for CC from the FinnGen database were downloaded. Subsequently, a two-sample MR analysis was conducted using the MR Egger, Weighted median, Inverse variance weighted (IVW), Simple mode, and Weighted mode methods. Our study has identified the potential causal effects of immune traits on inflammatory diseases of the cervix, other noninflammatory disorders of the cervix uteri, carcinoma in situ of cervix uteri, adenocarcinomas of cervix, squamous cell neoplasms and carcinoma of cervix, as well as malignant neoplasm of the cervix uteri, with the respective numbers being 8, 6, 11, 8, 23, and 12, respectively. A strong correlation between classic monocytes and various cervical diseases was revealed. Furthermore, we discovered that B cells expressing BAFF-R have the ability to impede the advancement of malignant CC, specifically squamous cell neoplasms and carcinoma of cervix. Our study has demonstrated a significant association between immune traits and both CC and non-neoplastic conditions of the cervix through two-sample Mendelian randomization, providing valuable insights for future clinical research.

Introduction

Cervical cancer (CC) is widely recognized as a significant public health issue and holds the position of being the fourth deadliest form of cancer among women across the globe 1 , 2 . According to WHO data, approximately 604,000 new cases were diagnosed globally in 2020 3 . CC, especially in developing countries, is identified as the primary cause of death for women worldwide, as stated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer 2 . While most women with early-stage tumors can receive treatment, many experience long-term complications. Chemoradiation (CAT) is the recommended treatment for locally advanced CC 4 , 5 . The timing of CAT plays a crucial role in determining survival outcomes, and its efficacy in underdeveloped nations remains uncertain due to the absence of suitable screening techniques 6 , 7 .

Numerous factors, such as smoking, a compromised immune system, and prolonged use of oral contraceptives, contribute to the development of CC 8 . The primary cause of CC is a persistent infection with high-risk types of the human papillomavirus (HPV), particularly HPV16 and/or HPV18, which are the most common culprits 9 . Therefore, further exploration of these HPV types may uncover causes that are linked either directly or indirectly to other malignancies in the human reproductive system. It is well-documented that the tumor microenvironment (TME) plays crucial roles in the occurrence and progression of tumors. In the case of CC, both innate and acquired immune responses are present in HPV-infected lesions 10 . For instance, cell migration to the squamous epidermis, particularly T lymphocytes and Langerhans cells, occurs in response to high-risk HPV infection 11 . The regression or progression of CC depends on the interaction of various cellular immune responses 12 .

Mendelian randomization (MR) is an analytical method that infers the causal effects of exposure on outcomes using genetic variations in non-experimental data. Since alleles are randomly assigned during meiosis, MR can minimize traditional confounding variables and reverse causality, thereby providing stronger evidence for causal inference 13 . MR utilizes existing GWAS data to address some limitations and issues encountered in traditional observational studies and randomized controlled trials. When using MR as a research method, three assumptions must be met: (1) genetic variation must be associated with the exposure factor; (2) genetic variation must affect the outcome through exposure, rather than through other factors; (3) genetic variation is not associated with any known or unknown confounding factors related to the outcome. In general, these three key assumptions must be satisfied to ensure the validity of the analysis. Violating any one of them will introduce bias to any causal inference 13 , 14 . In conclusion, although MR cannot entirely confirm causal relationships, it can to a large extent provide evidence for causal relationships. The development of CC is hindered by immune cells, and within the TME, there are specific subsets of immune cells that "suppress" tumor immunity, leading to a more intricate tumor microenvironment for CC 15 , 16 . Currently, there is a lack of extensive research samples that investigate the link between immune inflammation and CC. In this study, a comprehensive two-sample MR analysis was conducted to determine the causal relationship between immune cell characteristics and different types of CC and cervical non-neoplastic conditions (inflammatory diseases of the cervix and other noninflammatory disorders of the cervix uteri).

Genome-wide association study (GWAS) data sources of 731 immune traits

Publicly available GWAS data of 731 immunophenotypes were downloaded from GWAS Catalog (accession number: GCST0001391-GCST0002121) as described previously 17 , 18 . Briefly, these 731 types of immune traits are divided into four main categories, namely absolute cell (n = 118), relative cell counts (n = 192), morphological parameters (n = 32), and median fluorescence intensities (n = 389). This dataset contains the detailed information of approximately 22 million SNPs genotyped using high-density arrays in 3,757 European individuals, as recorded by Sidore et al. 19 . Detailed information of the immune traits was described previously 19 , 20 .

GWAS data sources of various types of CC and cervical non-neoplastic conditions

The GWAS statistical data of various types of CC and cervical non-neoplastic conditions used in this study were obtained from FinnGen Research ( https://risteys.finregistry.fi/ ), including data on inflammatory diseases of the cervix (N14_INFCERVIX, 2009 cases and 205,362 controls), other noninflammatory disorders of cervix uteri (N14_OTHNONINFCERVIX, 1512 cases and 111,583 controls), carcinoma in situ of cervix uteri [CD2_INSITU_CERVIX_UTERI_EXALLC, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) III, 2458 cases and 180,963 controls], adenocarcinomas of cervix (C3_CERVIX_ADENO_EXALLC, 116 cases and 182,927 controls), squamous cell neoplasms and carcinoma of cervix (SCNCC, C3_CERVIX_SQUAM_EXALLC, 168 cases and 182,927 controls), and malignant neoplasm of cervix uteri (C3_CERVIX_UTERI_EXALLC, 388 cases and 182,927 controls). Samples starting with C3 represent malignant samples, those starting with CD2 represent benign in situ carcinoma, and N14 represent non-cancerous samples. These six data contained a total of 687,486 samples. The detailed information of GWAS data for CC and cervical non-neoplastic conditions used in this study is shown in Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 . Each dataset was initially used as outcome data for the two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis and used as exposures during reverse two-sample MR analysis. After quality control and imputation, approximately 12,132 million variants were analyzed, identifying a total of 1,066 independent single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

Instrumental variables (IV) selection

The significance level of each IV related to immune traits was set to 1 × 10 –5 according to the common standards 3 , 17 , 18 . In order to ensure the reliability of the results and prevent bias caused by strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) between SNPs, a threshold of r 2  < 0.001 was implemented to account for LD effects, with LD regions limited to 10,000 kb 18 , 21 . To evaluate the strength of each IV and avoid weak instrument bias, the proportion of phenotypic variance explained (PVE) and the F-statistic were calculated. IVs with an F-statistic below 10 were excluded, while those remaining were designated as strong IVs for further analysis.

Two-sample MR analysis

To investigate the causal relationship between immunophenotypes and the onset of CC, we utilized the TwoSampleMR R software package (version 0.5.8) to conduct two-sample MR analysis in the R software ( https://www.r-project.org/ , version 4.2.3). MR Egger 22 , Weighted median 23 , Inverse variance weighted (IVW) 24 , Simple mode, and Weighted mode were used for two-sample MR analysis. A positive overall result is determined when the IVW method, along with at least one of the MR Egger, Weighted Median, Simple Mode, or Weighted Mode methods, yield positive outcomes for each analysis. In order to minimize the impact of CC on immune traits, a reverse MR analysis was performed on immunophenotypes that demonstrate a strong association with CC or cervical non-neoplastic conditions.

Statistical analysis

In the random effects model, IVW was used as the main analytical method. The MR results were derived from the SNPs that were screened below the genome-wide significance threshold (p < 5 × 10 −8 ). After obtaining the MR results, sensitivity analyses were conducted, such as heterogeneity testing and multiple-effect testing using the MR Egger method and MR-PRESSO test. The MR Egger method is utilized for the initial identification of horizontal pleiotropy 22 . If the p-value is below 0.05, it signifies the presence of horizontal pleiotropy. The MR-PRESSO outlier test assesses the existence of specific horizontal pleiotropy outlier IVs by contrasting the observed and expected distribution of the test IVs 25 . In comparison to MR Egger, the MR-PRESSO test can more precisely detect biased SNPs 25 . If the p-value is less than 0.05, indicating the presence of a biased SNP, it should be excluded from the IVs; if the p-value is above 0.05, it suggests the absence of a biased SNP. For sensitivity analysis and calculating the remaining cumulative effects of the SNPs, the leave-one-out approach was utilized. To assess if IVs influenced the outcomes through other pathways than exposure, horizontal pleiotropy tests were conducted using the intercept terms derived from the MR-Egger regression 25 . The risk of CC and cervical non-neoplastic conditions in relation to the immune traits was summarized using odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Subsequently, a criterion of p-values less than 0.05 was used to screen for immune traits associated with CC. Considering reverse MR analysis, results with a p-value of higher than 0.05 were kept.

Causal effect of immune traits on cervical non-neoplastic conditions

To investigate the potential causal effect of immunophenotypes on the onset of CC, a two-sample MR analysis was conducted using GWAS data from 731 immune cells and six datasets comprising different statuses of CC and non-neoplastic samples. We first conducted analyses on two non-neoplastic conditions, namely inflammatory diseases of the cervix and other noninflammatory disorders of the cervix uteri. Following the filtering process, two traits (CCR2 on monocytes and CD11c on monocytes) demonstrated a positive association with inflammatory diseases of the cervix (Fig.  1 ). Meanwhile, six immune traits [CD3 on CD39+ resting Treg, CD25 on CD20−CD38− (B cell), CD25hi CD45RA+ CD4 not Treg AC, CD62L on CD62L+ DC, CD62L on CD62L+ myeloid DC, and Unsw Mem %lymphocyte (B cell)] displayed potential protective effects against inflammatory diseases of the cervix. The results of MR Egger, Weighted median, IVW, Simple mode, and Weighted mode tests showed a consistent direction, indicating the reliability of the results. Supplementary Fig.  1 illustrated the scatter plots displaying the impact of immune traits on inflammatory diseases of the cervix. In order to ensure the reliability of our results, reverse MR analysis was conducted to examine potential reverse causation using immune traits that displaying a strong association with inflammatory diseases of the cervix. The results showed that there was no evidence of a causal connection between inflammatory diseases of the cervix and immune traits. To summarize, our study identified a causal relationship between specific immunophenotypes and the incidence of inflammatory diseases of the cervix. For the data on other noninflammatory disorders of the cervix uteri, it was found that CCR2 on CD14−CD16− (monocyte) was nominally associated with an increased risk of these disorders. However, BAFF-R on CD20- (B cell), CD3 on activated Treg, CD3 on CD39+ activated Treg, CD25 on B cell, and CD45 on NK showed significant protective effects against cervix disorders (Fig.  2 ). The scatter plots indicated the stability of the results in Supplementary Fig.  2 . Reverse MR analysis did not reveal any evidence of a causal connection between other noninflammatory disorders of the cervix uteri and immune traits. In conclusion, monocytes have been found to have a positive causal correlation with non-neoplastic diseases of the cervix, such as inflammatory conditions and other disorders of the cervix uteri.

Forest plots showed the causal associations between immune cell traits and inflammatory diseases of the cervix.

Forest plot to visualize the causal effects of immune cell traits and other noninflammatory disorders of cervix uteri.

Causal effect of immune traits on carcinoma in situ of cervix uteri

We then conducted an analysis of the causal effect of immune traits on carcinoma in situ of the cervix uteri. Finally, 12 types of four major categories of immune cells were found to be related to the in situ GWAS data (Fig.  3 ). Apart from CD38 on IgD- CD38dim and HLA DR on B cell were B cell lymphocyte, the remaining cells were all different types of T cells. Among these 12 types of immune cells, one type (HLA DR on B cells) exhibited a negative causal estimate towards in situ of cervix uteri, with IVW OR 0.911 (0.833 to 0.996, 0.041). On the other hand, the remaining types (CD25 on secreting Treg, CD3 on activated & secreting Treg, CD3 on CD28+ CD45RA−CD8br, CD3 on CD39+ CD4+, CD3 on CD4 Treg, CD3 on CD45RA+ CD4+, CD3 on CM CD8br, CD3 on secreting Treg, CD38 on IgD − CD38dim, CD8dim %T cell, Naive DN (CD4 − CD8 −) AC) showed a positive correlation with the onset of in situ of cervix uteri, with IVW OR(95% CI, P) of 1.059 (1.016 to 1.103, 0.006), 1.063 (1.005 to 1.124, 0.032), 1.150 (1.063 to 1.245, 0.001), 1.055 (1.004 to 1.108, 0.034), 1.09 (1.009 to 1.178, 0.028), 1.064 (1.015 to 1.115, 0.01), 1.089 (1.000 to 1.185, 0.049), 1.085 (1.025 to 1.148, 0.005), 1.050 (1.006 to 1.095, 0.027), 1.117 (1.014 to 1.231, 0.025), and 1.118 (1.011 to 1.235, 0.029). The alignment between IVW and other four MR techniques was evident in most MR analyses (Supplementary Fig.  3 ). Notably, the p value of the MR-PRESSO test for HLA DR on B cell was less than 0.001, indicating the presence of horizontal heterogeneity between exposure factors and outcome variables. Furthermore, reverse MR analysis revealed evidence of a causal relationship between in situ of the cervix uteri and HLA DR on B cells. As a result, HLA DR on B cells was eliminated from consideration. Collectively, 11 types of immune traits were demonstrated to exert a causal effect on carcinoma in situ of the cervix uteri.

Causal effects to display the immune cell traits and carcinoma in situ of cervix uteri illustrated by forest plot.

Causal effect of immune traits on malignant CC

To investigate the causal effect of immune traits on malignant CC, a two-sample MR analysis was performed using GWAS data of adenocarcinomas of cervix, SCNCC, and malignant neoplasm of cervix uteri as outcome variables. For adenocarcinomas of cervix, eight immune traits belonging to three cell types (B cell, T cell, and monocyte) were identified (Fig.  4 ). Among the identified cell subtypes, four types of immune traits were positively correlated with adenocarcinomas of cervix, while the other four immunophenotypes were negatively correlated with the disease. It is worth noting that different subtypes of the same class of cells surprisingly play varying roles in the onset of diseases. B cell subsets BAFF-R on IgD+ CD38− naive, CD24 on unsw mem, and CD38 on CD20− were positively associated with the occurrence of adenocarcinomas of cervix, whereas CD20− %B cells exhibited a protective effect against the disease. Similarly, Monocyte AC showed a positive correlation with adenocarcinomas of cervix, while CD64 on CD14+ CD16+ monocytes had a negative causal effect on adenocarcinomas of the cervix. This result indicates that in-depth study of cell typing is of crucial significance for understanding the occurrence and development of CC. There was no evidence of a causal relationship between adenocarcinomas of cervix and the eight immune traits in the reverse MR analysis. Supplementary Tables  3 , 4 and 5 provided a comprehensive overview of the detailed findings. In summary, a causal relationship between adenocarcinomas of the cervix and the eight immune traits was identified.

Forest plot showing the causal effects of immune cell traits and adenocarcinomas of cervix.

Considering SCNCC, a total of 23 immune traits were found to be associated with the disease (Fig.  5 ). Most of these immunophenotypes were identified as protective factors, while only four showed a positive correlation with the onset of the disease. Out of the 23 identified subtypes of immune cells, 14 are B cells, and 13 of these cells express BAFF-R (B-cell activating factor receptor). Therefore, the expression of BAFF-R may have a protective effect on the development of squamous CC. Different subtypes of T cells exert different functions, but regulatory T cells exhibit a protective effect. Like adenocarcinomas of cervix and non-neoplastic diseases, monocytes (CD11c+ HLA DR++ monocyte AC) showed a positive correlation trend with disease progression. In the reverse MR analysis, no evidence was found to suggest a causal relationship between SCNCC and the 23 immune traits. Supplementary Tables  6 , 7 and 8 presented a detailed summary of the findings.

Forest plot revealed the causal effects of immune cell traits and squamous cell neoplasms and carcinoma of cervix.

In cases of malignant neoplasm of the cervix uteri, a total of 12 immune traits were screened (Fig.  6 ). Supplementary Tables  9 , 10 and 11 demonstrated a detailed summary of the findings. Nine were B cell and three were T cell, all of which were found to have a negative association with the onset of the disease. Similar to SCNCC, the B cell was BAFF-R positive. Among these eight B cell subtypes, except for BAFF-R on IgD− CD38−, the others were identified as disease-relevant factors in SCNCC. Furthermore, BAFF-R on IgD + CD38− and BAFF-R on IgD− CD38− only differ in IgD expression, but both have been identified as having a causal relationship with malignant neoplasm of the cervix uteri. This result further emphasizes the importance of BAFF-R in the development of malignant CC. The three T cells expressed HVEM (Herpesvirus entry mediator), with HVEM on CM CD4+ and HVEM on EM CD4+ belonging to HVEM on CD45RA−CD4+ . No evidence was found in the reverse MR analysis to suggest a causal relationship between malignant neoplasm of the cervix uteri and the 12 immune traits. Collectively, a causal effect of immune traits was identified in three types of malignant CC, namely adenocarcinomas of cervix, SCNCC, and malignant neoplasm of cervix uteri.

Forest plot to depict the causal effects of immune cell traits and malignant neoplasm of cervix uteri.

TME plays a crucial role in cancer initiation and progression, with T cells, B cells, NK cells, stromal cells, NKT cells, and fibroblasts being the main components of TME. Therefore, research on the composition of immune cells in the TME is vital for understanding tumor onset and development. In this study, four types of immune traits were found to be associated with the onset of inflammatory diseases of the cervix: B cells, T cells, cDCs, and monocytes. Specifically, CCR2 on monocytes and CD11c on monocytes were identified as potential factors increasing the risk of inflammatory diseases of the cervix. These traits characterize classical monocytes known for their proinflammatory nature and high production of various inflammatory factors. Additionally, CD11c, a member of the integrin family, facilitates cell migration during inflammatory responses. We also found that CCR2 on CD14−CD16− (Monocyte panel) was linked to a higher likelihood of developing cervical disorders. CCR2 (C–C motif chemokine receptor 2) is expressed on classical monocytes and interacts with CCL2 to facilitate the migration of monocytes 26 , 27 . Classical monocytes exhibit a proinflammatory nature and generate the highest amounts of CCL2, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (CSF), and IL-6/10 28 . Additionally, they release high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and show the highest production of CCL2/3 and IL-8/10 when stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 29 . During inflammatory responses, cell migration is facilitated by CD11c, a member of the integrin family, through cell–cell adhesion 30 . With other noninflammatory disorders of the cervix uteri, CCR2 on CD14−CD16− (monocyte panel) was linked to a higher likelihood of developing cervical disorders. Combining our analysis results with the experimental results of previous researchers, we believe that classic monocytes may play an important role in the non-neoplastic conditions of CC through their pro-inflammatory effects. In the other immune cell phenotypes we identified, aside from CD45 on NK cells, all others were specific immune cells, indicating a potential role of acquired immunity in inhibiting the progression of diseases.

For adenocarcinomas of cervix, the absolute count of monocytes was found to be positively correlated with the disease. However, the presence of CD64 on CD14+ CD16+ monocytes was identified as having a negative causal effect. In humans, three primary subsets of monocytes have been recognized: classical (CD14+ CD16−), intermediate (CD14+ CD16+), and nonclassical (CD14−CD16+−) 31 . These subsets exhibit functional variances, including their responses to inflammation and ability to migrate 32 . Intermediate monocytes exhibit elevated levels of HLA-DR, CD80, CD86, and TNFR1, suggesting their involvement in both antigen presentation and inflammatory functions 33 . In addition, intermediate monocytes demonstrate genes that oversee chemotaxis and angiogenesis (AIF1 and TIE2) as well as phagocytosis and tissue repair (TGFB and CD93) 34 . This suggests that intermediate monocytes, despite being considered inflammatory, are also likely participating in anti-inflammatory processes 35 . We believe that CD64 on CD14+ CD16+ monocytes plays an important anti-inflammatory role in the pathogenesis of adenocarcinomas of the cervix, showing a negative correlation with disease progression. The percentage of CD20- in B cell was negatively associated with adenocarcinomas of cervix, however, CD38 on CD20- (B cell) was a risk factor for disease progression. Consequently, further research is necessary to deepen our understanding of the relationship between the classification of immune cells and adenocarcinomas of the cervix.

Compared with other types of cervical diseases, SCNCC present with more disease-related factors. Specifically, CD11c+ HLA DR++ monocyte AC was positively correlated with disease progression in these conditions. Almost all of the 14 identified B cell types that offer protective effects against the disease express BAFF-R. BAFF, also known as CD257, TNFSF13B, and BLyS, belongs to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family. It binds specifically to BAFF-R (TNFRSF13C) and plays a critical role in regulating B-cell functions and autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and blood cancers 36 . B-cell subsets exhibit varying levels of expression of BAFF system receptors 37 . BAFF promotes B-cell growth and survival both in vitro and in vivo by enhancing protein levels and activating genes linked to glucose uptake and glycolytic metabolism, leading to B-cell hyperactivity in response to mitogenic stimulation during inflammation 38 . Based on our analysis and previous studies, we believe that the expression of BAFF-R in B cells plays a crucial protective role in the progress of SCNCC. Similarly, BAFF-R positive B cells are beneficial in the advancement of malignant neoplasm of the cervix uteri, indicating the significance of BAFF-R.

In pre-cancerous lesions and malignant cervical cancer, acquired immune cells typically play a protective role in the development of the disease. However, in the in situ of cervix uteri, T cells and B cells have been identified as being associated with the progression of the disease, with all cells playing a promotive role in its development. This analysis result has significant contradictions with our perception. There was a widespread agreement on the important role of effector T cells in antitumour responses 39 . Tumors can be categorized based on how cytotoxic immune cells are dispersed within the tumor microenvironment (TME) into immune-inflamed, immune-excluded, and immune-desert phenotypes. Based on the dispersion of cytotoxic immune cells within the TME, a tumor can be classified into one of three primary immunophenotypes: immune-inflamed, immune-excluded, and immune-desert phenotypes 40 . Immune-inflamed tumors, also known as "hot tumors", are characterized by high levels of T-cell infiltration, increased interferon-y (IFN-y) signaling, and a high tumor mutational burden (TMB) 41 . Conversely, immune-excluded and immune-desert tumors are commonly known as 'cold tumors' 42 , 43 . In immune-excluded tumors, CD8+ T lymphocytes are limited to the edges of the tumor invasion and do not effectively penetrate the tumor 43 . Therefore, we suspect that in the case of cervix uteri, it may exhibit characteristics of immune-excluded tumors. Despite having a large number of T cells, they do not infiltrate the tumor tissues effectively, indicating a positive correlation between the T cell phenotype and the disease.

In conclusion, this study involved the analysis of GWAS data for 731 immune traits and six GWAS data sets for CC and cervical non-cancer cases. Two-sample MR analysis was conducted to determine the causal role of immune cells in the onset of CC. Our findings revealed a positive correlation between classic monocytes and various cervical diseases. Additionally, we observed that B cells expressing BAFF-R have an inhibitory effect on malignant CC, specifically SCNCC. The results of our analysis provide valuable insights into the pathogenesis of cervical diseases and offer potential implications for the clinical treatment of cervical cancer through immune cell subtyping.

In conclusion, this study involved the analysis of GWAS data for 731 immune traits and six GWAS data sets for CC and non-cancer cases. Two-sample MR analysis was conducted to determine the causal role of immune cells in the onset of CC. Our findings revealed a positive correlation between classic monocytes and various cervical diseases. Additionally, we observed that B cells expressing BAFF-R have a inhibitory effect on malignant cervical cancer, specifically SCNCC. Our analysis yields valuable insights into the pathogenesis of cervical diseases, revealing a correlation between local immune status and cervical lesions through analysis integrated with GWAS.

Data availability

The data utilized in this study were obtained from the GWAS platform ( https://gwas.mrcieu.ac.uk/ ) and the FinnGen Research ( https://risteys.finregistry.fi/ ), both of which are freely accessible.

Cohen, P. A., Jhingran, A., Oaknin, A. & Denny, L. Cervical cancer. Lancet 393 , 169–182 (2019).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Arbyn, M. et al. Estimates of incidence and mortality of cervical cancer in 2018: A worldwide analysis. Lancet Glob. Health 8 , e191–e203 (2020).

Yu, X. H., Yang, Y. Q., Cao, R. R., Bo, L. & Lei, S. F. The causal role of gut microbiota in development of osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartil. 29 , 1741–1750 (2021).

Article   Google Scholar  

Morris, M. et al. Pelvic radiation with concurrent chemotherapy compared with pelvic and para-aortic radiation for high-risk cervical cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 340 , 1137–1143 (1999).

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Stehman, F. B. et al. Radiation therapy with or without weekly cisplatin for bulky stage 1B cervical carcinoma: Follow-up of a Gynecologic Oncology Group trial. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 197 (503), e501-506 (2007).

Google Scholar  

Garcia, E., Ayoub, N. & Tewari, K. S. Recent breakthroughs in the management of locally advanced and recurrent/metastatic cervical cancer. J. Gynecol. Oncol. 35 , e30 (2024).

Brisson, M. et al. Impact of HPV vaccination and cervical screening on cervical cancer elimination: A comparative modelling analysis in 78 low-income and lower-middle-income countries. Lancet 395 , 575–590 (2020).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Johnson, C. A., James, D., Marzan, A. & Armaos, M. Cervical cancer: An overview of pathophysiology and management. Semin. Oncol. Nurs. 35 , 166–174 (2019).

Vu, M., Yu, J., Awolude, O. A. & Chuang, L. Cervical cancer worldwide. Curr. Probl. Cancer 42 , 457–465 (2018).

Kobayashi, O. et al. Immunotherapy that leverages HPV-specific immune responses for precancer lesions of cervical cancer. Taiwan J. Obstet. Gynecol. 63 , 22–28 (2024).

Chauhan, S. R. & Bharadwaj, M. Gearing up T-cell immunotherapy in cervical cancer. Curr. Probl. Cancer 42 , 175–188 (2018).

Alshami, I., Alattas, R. O., Waad, A. A. & Anwar, A. S. Role of T cells in cervical cancer. Bioinformation 19 , 556–561 (2023).

Sekula, P., Del Greco, M. F., Pattaro, C. & Kottgen, A. Mendelian randomization as an approach to assess causality using observational data. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 27 , 3253–3265 (2016).

Smith, G. D. & Ebrahim, S. Mendelian randomization: Prospects, potentials, and limitations. Int. J. Epidemiol. 33 , 30–42 (2004).

Kojima, S. et al. The prevalence of cervical regulatory T cells in HPV-related cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) correlates inversely with spontaneous regression of CIN. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 69 , 134–141 (2013).

Kawachi, A. et al. Tumor-associated CD204(+) M2 macrophages are unfavorable prognostic indicators in uterine cervical adenocarcinoma. Cancer Sci. 109 , 863–870 (2018).

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Orru, V. et al. Complex genetic signatures in immune cells underlie autoimmunity and inform therapy. Nat. Genet. 52 , 1036–1045 (2020).

Wang, C. et al. Causal role of immune cells in schizophrenia: Mendelian randomization (MR) study. BMC Psychiatry 23 , 590 (2023).

Sidore, C. et al. Genome sequencing elucidates Sardinian genetic architecture and augments association analyses for lipid and blood inflammatory markers. Nat. Genet. 47 , 1272–1281 (2015).

Orru, V. et al. Genetic variants regulating immune cell levels in health and disease. Cell 155 , 242–256 (2013).

Genomes Project C et al. A global reference for human genetic variation. Nature 526 , 68–74 (2015).

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Bowden, J., Davey Smith, G. & Burgess, S. Mendelian randomization with invalid instruments: Effect estimation and bias detection through Egger regression. Int. J. Epidemiol. 44 , 512–525 (2015).

Burgess, S., Dudbridge, F. & Thompson, S. G. Combining information on multiple instrumental variables in Mendelian randomization: Comparison of allele score and summarized data methods. Stat. Med. 35 , 1880–1906 (2016).

Article   MathSciNet   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Burgess, S., Small, D. S. & Thompson, S. G. A review of instrumental variable estimators for Mendelian randomization. Stat. Methods Med. Res. 26 , 2333–2355 (2017).

Verbanck, M., Chen, C. Y., Neale, B. & Do, R. Detection of widespread horizontal pleiotropy in causal relationships inferred from Mendelian randomization between complex traits and diseases. Nat. Genet. 50 , 693–698 (2018).

Bai, M., Sun, R., Cao, B., Feng, J. & Wang, J. Monocyte-related cytokines/chemokines in cerebral ischemic stroke. CNS Neurosci. Ther. 29 , 3693–3712 (2023).

Shantsila, E. et al. Immunophenotypic characterization of human monocyte subsets: Possible implications for cardiovascular disease pathophysiology. J. Thromb. Haemost. 9 , 1056–1066 (2011).

Damasceno, D. et al. Distribution of subsets of blood monocytic cells throughout life. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 144 , 320-323e326 (2019).

Cormican, S. & Griffin, M. D. Human monocyte subset distinctions and function: Insights from gene expression analysis. Front. Immunol. 11 , 1070 (2020).

Wu, H. et al. Functional role of CD11c+ monocytes in atherogenesis associated with hypercholesterolemia. Circulation 119 , 2708–2717 (2009).

Ziegler-Heitbrock, L. et al. Nomenclature of monocytes and dendritic cells in blood. Blood 116 , e74-80 (2010).

Cros, J. et al. Human CD14dim monocytes patrol and sense nucleic acids and viruses via TLR7 and TLR8 receptors. Immunity 33 , 375–386 (2010).

Hijdra, D., Vorselaars, A. D., Grutters, J. C., Claessen, A. M. & Rijkers, G. T. Differential expression of TNFR1 (CD120a) and TNFR2 (CD120b) on subpopulations of human monocytes. J. Inflamm. (Lond) 9 , 38 (2012).

Beyer, M. et al. High-resolution transcriptome of human macrophages. PLoS One 7 , e45466 (2012).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Williams, H. et al. Monocyte differentiation and heterogeneity: inter-subset and interindividual differences. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 24 , 8757 (2023).

Thompson, J. S. et al. BAFF-R, a newly identified TNF receptor that specifically interacts with BAFF. Science 293 , 2108–2111 (2001).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Darce, J. R., Arendt, B. K., Wu, X. & Jelinek, D. F. Regulated expression of BAFF-binding receptors during human B cell differentiation. J. Immunol. 179 , 7276–7286 (2007).

Caro-Maldonado, A. et al. Metabolic reprogramming is required for antibody production that is suppressed in anergic but exaggerated in chronically BAFF-exposed B cells. J. Immunol. 192 , 3626–3636 (2014).

Galon, J. & Bruni, D. Approaches to treat immune hot, altered and cold tumours with combination immunotherapies. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 18 , 197–218 (2019).

Chen, D. S. & Mellman, I. Elements of cancer immunity and the cancer-immune set point. Nature 541 , 321–330 (2017).

Hegde, P. S., Karanikas, V. & Evers, S. The where, the when, and the how of immune monitoring for cancer immunotherapies in the era of checkpoint inhibition. Clin. Cancer Res. 22 , 1865–1874 (2016).

Liu, Y. T. & Sun, Z. J. Turning cold tumors into hot tumors by improving T-cell infiltration. Theranostics 11 , 5365–5386 (2021).

Hegde, P. S. & Chen, D. S. Top 10 challenges in cancer immunotherapy. Immunity 52 , 17–35 (2020).

Download references

This work was supported by Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (H2020406049) and Initial Scientific Research Fund for High-Level Talents of Chengde Medical University (201901).

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Zicheng Zhao and Pengxian Yan.

Authors and Affiliations

Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Genomics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, Hebei, China

Zicheng Zhao, Pengxian Yan, Xiaoyu Zhang, Xiaomin Yu, Fengchun Lv, Mingyu Gong & Xiu-An Yang

Graduate School of Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, China

Xiaoyu Zhang

Hebei Key Laboratory of Nerve Injury and Repair, Chengde Medical University, Chengde, 067000, China

Xiu-An Yang

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

ZZ designed the study, performed data analysis, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. YP, ZX, YX, LF, and GM participated in data collation. Y XA designed the study, analyzed data, and wrote the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xiu-An Yang .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary figure 1., supplementary figure 2., supplementary figure 3., supplementary table 1., supplementary table 2., supplementary table 3., supplementary table 4., supplementary table 5., supplementary table 6., supplementary table 7., supplementary table 8., supplementary table 9., supplementary table 10., supplementary table 11., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Zhao, Z., Yan, P., Zhang, X. et al. Causal role of immune cells on cervical cancer onset revealed by two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Sci Rep 14 , 14890 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65957-7

Download citation

Received : 08 April 2024

Accepted : 25 June 2024

Published : 28 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65957-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Cervical non-neoplastic conditions
• Immune traits
• Two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis
• Causal effects

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Cancer newsletter — what matters in cancer research, free to your inbox weekly.

Spring 2025 Semester

Undergraduate courses.

Composition courses that offer many sections (ENGL 101, 201, 277 and 379) are not listed on this schedule unless they are tailored to specific thematic content or particularly appropriate for specific programs and majors.

• 100-200 level

ENGL 201.ST2 Composition II: The Mind/Body Connection

Dr. sharon smith.

In this online section of English 201, students will use research and writing to learn more about problems that are important to them and articulate ways to address those problems. The course will focus specifically on issues related to the body, the mind, and the relationship between them. The topics we will discuss during the course will include the correlation between social media and body image; the psychological effects of self-objectification; and the unique mental and physical challenges faced by college students today, including food insecurity and stress.

English 201 S06 and S11: Composition II with an emphasis in Environmental Writing

S06: MWF at 10–10:50 a.m. in Yeager Hall Addition 231

S11: MWF at 12–12:50 p.m. in Crothers Engineering Hall 217

Gwen Horsley

English 201 will help students develop skills to write effectively for other university courses, careers, and themselves. This course will provide opportunities to further develop research skills, to write vividly, and to share their own stories and ideas. Specifically, in this class, students will (1) focus on the relationships between world environments, land, animals and humankind; (2) read various essays by environmental, conservational, and regional authors; and (3) produce student writings. Students will improve their writing skills by reading essays and applying techniques they witness in others’ work and those learned in class. This class is also a course in logical and creative thought. Students will write about humankind’s place in the world and our influence on the land and animals, places that hold special meaning to them or have influenced their lives, and stories of their own families and their places and passions in the world. Students will practice writing in an informed and persuasive manner, in language that engages and enlivens readers by using vivid verbs and avoiding unnecessary passives, nominalizations, and expletive constructions.

Students will prepare writing assignments based on readings and discussions of essays included in Literature and the Environment and other sources. They will use The St. Martin’s Handbook to review grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and usage as needed.

Required Text: Literature and the Environment: A Reader On Nature and Culture. 2nd ed., edited by Lorraine Anderson, Scott Slovic, and John P. O’Grady.

LING 203.S01 English Grammar

TuTh 12:30-1:45 p.m.

Dr. Nathan Serfling

The South Dakota State University 2023-2024 Undergraduate Catalog describes LING 203 as consisting of “[i]nstruction in the theory and practice of traditional grammar including the study of parts of speech, parsing, and practical problems in usage.”

“Grammar” is a mercurial term, though. Typically, we think of it to mean “correct” sentence structure, and, indeed, that is one of its meanings. But Merriam-Webster reminds us “grammar” also refers to “the principles or rules of an art, science, or technique,” taking it beyond the confines of syntactic structures. Grammar also evolves in practice through application (and social, historical, economic changes, among others). Furthermore, grammar evolves as a concept as scholars and educators in the various fields of English studies debate the definition and nature of grammar, including how well its explicit instruction improves students’ writing. In this course, we will use the differing sensibilities, definitions, and fluctuations regarding grammar to guide our work. We will examine the parts of speech, address syntactic structures and functions, and parse and diagram sentences. We will also explore definitions of and debates about grammar. All of this will occur in units about the rules and structures of grammar; the application of grammar rhetorically and stylistically; and the debates surrounding various aspects of grammar, including, but not limited to, its instruction.

ENGL 210 Introduction to Literature

Jodi andrews.

Readings in fiction, drama and poetry to acquaint students with literature and aesthetic form. Prerequisites: ENGL 101. Notes: Course meets SGR #4 or IGR #3.

ENGL 222 British Literature II

TuTh 9:30-10:45 a.m.

This course serves as a chronological survey of the second half of British literature. Students will read a variety of texts from the Romantic period, the Victorian period, and the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, placing these texts within their historical and literary contexts and identifying the major characteristics of the literary periods and movements that produced them.

ENGL 240.ST1 Juvenile Literature

Randi l. anderson.

A survey of the history of literature written for children and adolescents, and a consideration of the various types of juvenile literature.

ENGL 240.ST1 Juvenile Literature: 5-12 Grade

In English 240 students will develop the skills to interpret and evaluate various genres of literature for juvenile readers. This particular section will focus on various works of literature at approximately the 5th-12th grade level.

Readings for this course include works such as Night, Brown Girl Dreaming, All American Boys, Esperanza Rising, Anne Frank’s Diary: A Graphic Adaptation, Animal Farm, Fahrenheit 451, The Giver, The Hobbit, Little Women, and Lord of the Flies . These readings will be paired with chapters from Reading Children’s Literature: A Critical Introduction to help develop understanding of various genres, themes, and concepts that are both related to juvenile literature, and also present in our readings.

In addition to exploring various genres of writing (poetry, non-fiction, fantasy, historical, non-fiction, graphic novels, etc.) this course will also allow students to engage in a discussion of larger themes present in these works such as censorship, race, rebellion and dissent, power and oppression, gender, knowledge, and the power of language and the written word. Students’ understanding of these works and concepts will be developed through readings, discussion posts, quizzes and exams.

ENGL 240.ST2 Juvenile Literature Elementary-5th Grade

April myrick.

A survey of the history of literature written for children and adolescents, and a consideration of the various genres of juvenile literature. Text selection will focus on the themes of imagination and breaking boundaries.

ENGL 242.S01 American Literature II

TuTh 11 a.m.-12:15 p.m.

Dr. Paul Baggett

This course surveys a range of U.S. literatures from about 1865 to the present, writings that treat the end of slavery and the development of a segregated America, increasingly urbanized and industrialized U.S. landscapes, waves of immigration, and the fulfilled promise of “America” as imperial nation. The class will explore the diversity of identities represented during that time, and the problems/potentials writers imagined in response to the century’s changes—especially literature’s critical power in a time of nation-building. Required texts for the course are The Norton Anthology of American Literature: 1865 to the Present and Toni Morrison’s A Mercy.

WMST 247.S01: Introduction to Women, Gender and Sexuality Studies

As an introduction to Women, Gender and Sexuality studies, this course considers the experiences of women and provides an overview of the history of feminist thought and activism, particularly within the United States. Students will also consider the concepts of gender and sexuality more broadly to encompass a diversity of gender identifications and sexualities and will explore the degree to which mainstream feminism has—and has not—accommodated this diversity. The course will focus in particular on the ways in which gender and sexuality intersect with race, class, ethnicity, and disability. Topics and concepts covered will include: movements for women’s and LGBTQ+ rights; gender, sexuality and the body; intersectionality; rape culture; domestic and gender violence; reproductive rights; Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women (MMIW); and more.

ENGL 283.S01 Introduction to Creative Writing

MWF 1-1:50 p.m.

Prof. Steven Wingate

Students will explore the various forms of creative writing (fiction, nonfiction and poetry) not one at a time in a survey format—as if there were decisive walls of separation between then—but as intensely related genres that share much of their creative DNA. Through close reading and work on personal texts, students will address the decisions that writers in any genre must face on voice, rhetorical position, relationship to audience, etc. Students will produce and revise portfolios of original creative work developed from prompts and research. This course fulfills the same SGR #2 requirements ENGL 201; note that the course will involve creative research projects. Successful completion of ENGL 101 (including by test or dual credit) is a prerequisite.

English 284: Introduction to Criticism

This course introduces students to selected traditions of literary and cultural theory and to some of the key issues that animate discussion among literary scholars today. These include questions about the production of cultural value, about ideology and hegemony, about the patriarchal and colonial bases of Western culture, and about the status of the cultural object, of the cultural critic, and of cultural theory itself.

To address these and other questions, we will survey the history of literary theory and criticism (a history spanning 2500 years) by focusing upon a number of key periods and -isms: Greek and Roman Classicism, The Middle Ages and Renaissance, The Enlightenment, Romanticism, Realism, Formalism, Historicism, Political Criticism (Marxism, Post-Colonialism, Feminism, et al.), and Psychological Criticism. We also will “test” various theories we discuss by examining how well they account for and help us to understand various works of poetry and fiction.

• 300-400 level

ENGL 330.S01 Shakespeare

TuTh 8-9:15 a.m.

Dr. Michael S. Nagy

This course will focus on William Shakespeare’s poetic and dramatic works and on the cultural and social contexts in which he wrote them. In this way, we will gain a greater appreciation of the fact that literature does not exist in a vacuum, for it both reflects and influences contemporary and subsequent cultures. Text: The Riverside Shakespeare: Complete Works. Ed. Evans, G. Blakemore and J. J. M. Tobin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.

ENGL 363 Science Fiction

MWF 11-11:50 a.m.

This course explores one of the most significant literary genres of the past century in fiction and in film. We will focus in particular on the relationship between science fiction works and technological and social developments, with considerable attention paid to the role of artificial intelligence in the human imagination. Why does science fiction seem to predict the future? What do readers and writers of the genre hope to find in it? Through readings and viewings of original work, as well as selected criticism in the field, we will address these and other questions. Our reading and viewing selections will include such artists as Ursula K. LeGuin, Octavia Butler, Stanley Kubrick and Phillip K. Dick. Students will also have ample opportunity to introduce the rest of the class to their own favorite science fiction works.

ENGL 383.S01 Creative Writing I

MWF 2-2:50 p.m.

Amber Jensen

Creative Writing I encourages students to strengthen poetry, creative nonfiction, and/or fiction writing skills through sustained focus on creative projects throughout the course (for example, collections of shorter works focused on a particular form/style/theme, longer prose pieces, hybrid works, etc.). Students will engage in small- and large-group writing workshops as well as individual conferences with the instructor throughout the course to develop a portfolio of creative work. The class allows students to explore multiple genres through the processes of writing and revising their own creative texts and through writing workshop, emphasizing the application of craft concepts across genre, but also allows students to choose one genre of emphasis, which they will explore through analysis of self-select texts, which they will use to deepen their understanding of the genre and to contextualize their own creative work.

ENGL 475.S01 Creative Nonfiction

Mondays 3-5:50 p.m.

In this course, students will explore the expansive and exciting genre of creative nonfiction, including a variety of forms such as personal essay, braided essay, flash nonfiction, hermit crab essays, profiles and more. Through rhetorical reading, discussion, and workshop, students will engage published works, their own writing process, and peer work as they expand their understanding of the possibilities presented in this genre and the craft elements that can be used to shape readers’ experience of a text. Students will compile a portfolio of polished work that demonstrates their engagement with course concepts and the writing process.

ENGL 485.S01 Writing Center Tutoring

MW 8:30-9:45 a.m.

Since their beginnings in the 1920s and 30s, writing centers have come to serve numerous functions: as hubs for writing across the curriculum initiatives, sites to develop and deliver workshops, and resource centers for faculty as well as students, among other functions. But the primary function of writing centers has necessarily and rightfully remained the tutoring of student writers. This course will immerse you in that function in two parts. During the first four weeks, you will explore writing center praxis—that is, the dialogic interplay of theory and practice related to writing center work. This part of the course will orient you to writing center history, key theoretical tenets and practical aspects of writing center tutoring. Once we have developed and practiced this foundation, you will begin work in the writing center as a tutor, responsible for assisting a wide variety of student clients with numerous writing tasks. Through this work, you will learn to actively engage with student clients in the revision of a text, respond to different student needs and abilities, work with a variety of writing tasks and rhetorical situations and develop a richer sense of writing as a complex and negotiated social process.

ENGL 492.S01 The Vietnam War in Literature and Film

Tuesdays 3-5:50 p.m.

Dr. Jason McEntee

In 1975, the United States officially included its involvement in the Vietnam War, thus marking 2025 as the 50th anniversary of the conclusion (in name only) of one of the most chaotic, confusing, and complex periods in American history. In this course, we will consider how literature and film attempt to chronicle the Vietnam War and, perhaps more important, its aftermath. I have designed this course for those looking to extend their understanding of literature and film to include the ideas of art, experience, commercial products, and cultural documents. Learning how to interpret literature and movies remains the highest priority of the course, including, for movies, the study of such things as genre, mise-en-scene (camera movement, lighting, etc.), editing, sound and so forth.

We will read Dispatches , A Rumor of War , The Things They Carried , A Piece of My Heart , and Bloods , among others. Some of the movies that we will screen are: Apocalypse Now (the original version), Full Metal Jacket , Platoon , Coming Home , Born on the Fourth of July , Dead Presidents , and Hearts and Minds . Because we must do so, we will also look at some of the more fascinatingly outrageous yet culturally significant fantasies about the war, such as The Green Berets and Rambo: First Blood, Part II .

ENGL 492.S02 Classical Mythology

TuTh 3:30-4:45 p.m.

Drs. Michael S. Nagy and Graham Wrightson

Modern society’s fascination with mythology manifests itself in the continued success of novels, films and television programs about mythological or quasi-mythological characters such as Hercules, the Fisher King, and Gandalf the Grey, all of whom are celebrated for their perseverance or their daring deeds in the face of adversity. This preoccupation with mythological figures necessarily extends back to the cultures which first propagated these myths in early folk tales and poems about such figures as Oðin, King Arthur, Rhiannon, Gilgamesh, and Odysseus, to name just a few. English 492, a reading-intensive course cross-listed with History 492, primarily aims to expose students to the rich tradition of mythological literature written in languages as varied as French, Gaelic, Welsh, Old Icelandic, Greek, and Sumerian; to explore the historical, social, political, religious, and literary contexts in which these works flourished (if indeed they did); and to grapple with the deceptively simple question of what makes these myths continue to resonate with modern audiences. Likely topics and themes of this course will include: Theories of myth; Mythological Beginnings: Creation myths and the fall of man; Male and Female Gods in Myth; Foundation myths; Nature Myths; The Heroic Personality; the mythological portrayal of (evil/disruptive) women in myth; and Monsters in myth.

Likely Texts:

• Dalley, Stephanie, trans. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford World’s Classics, 2009
• Faulkes, Anthony, trans. Edda. Everyman, 1995
• Gregory, Lady Augusta. Cuchulain of Muirthemne: The Story of the Men of the Red Branch of Ulster. Forgotten Books, 2007
• Jones, Gwyn, Thomas Jones, and Mair Jones. The Mabinogion. Everyman Paperback Classics, 1993
• Larrington, Carolyne, trans. The Poetic Edda . Oxford World’s Classics, 2009
• Matarasso, Pauline M., trans. The Quest of the Holy Grail. Penguin Classics, 1969
• Apollodorus, Hesiod’s Theogony
• Hesiod’s Works and Days
• Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Homeric Hymns
• Virgil’s Aeneid
• Iliad, Odyssey
• Apollonius of Rhodes Argonautica
• Ovid’s Heroides
• Greek tragedies: Orestaia, Oedipus trilogy, Trojan Women, Medea, Hippoolytus, Frogs, Seneca's Thyestes, Dyskolos, Amphitryon
• Clash of the Titans, Hercules, Jason and the Argonauts, Troy (and recent miniseries), Oh Brother, Where Art Thou?

ENGL 492.ST1 Science Writing

Erica summerfield.

This course aims to teach the fundamentals of effective scientific writing and presentation. The course examines opportunities for covering science, the skills required to produce clear and understandable text about technical subjects, and important ethical and practical constraints that govern the reporting of scientific information. Students will learn to present technical and scientific issues to various audiences. Particular emphasis will be placed on conveying the significance of research, outlining the aims, and discussing the results for scientific papers and grant proposals. Students will learn to write effectively, concisely, and clearly while preparing a media post, fact sheet, and scientific manuscript or grant.

Graduate Courses

Engl 575.s01 creative nonfiction.

In this course, students will explore the expansive and exciting genre of creative nonfiction, including a variety of forms such as personal essay, braided essay, flash nonfiction, hermit crab essays, profiles, and more. Through rhetorical reading, discussion, and workshop, students will engage published works, their own writing process, and peer work as they expand their understanding of the possibilities presented in this genre and the craft elements that can be used to shape readers’ experience of a text. Students will compile a portfolio of polished work that demonstrates their engagement with course concepts and the writing process.

ENGL 592.S01: The Vietnam War in Literature and Film

Engl 704.s01 introduction to graduate studies.

Thursdays 3-5:50 p.m.

Introduction to Graduate Studies is required of all first-year graduate students. The primary purpose of this course is to introduce students to modern and contemporary literary theory and its applications. Students will write short response papers and will engage at least one theoretical approach in their own fifteen- to twenty-page scholarly research project. In addition, this course will further introduce students to the M.A. program in English at South Dakota State University and provide insight into issues related to the profession of English studies.

ENGL 792.ST1 Grant Writing

This online course will familiarize students with the language, rhetorical situation, and components of writing grant proposals. Students will explore various funding sources, learn to read an RFP, and develop an understanding of different professional contexts and the rhetorical and structural elements that suit those distinct contexts. Students will write a sample proposal throughout the course and offer feedback to their peers, who may be writing in different contexts, which will enhance their understanding of the varied applications of course content. Through their work in the course, students will gain confidence in their ability to find, apply for, and receive grant funding to support their communities and organizations.

• Open access
• Published: 25 June 2024

Risk factors associated with loneliness among mexican-origin adults in southern Arizona

• Mario Morales 1 ,
• Ada M. Wilkinson-Lee 1 , 2 ,
• Maia Ingram 1 ,
• Thomas Nuño 1 ,
• Jill E. Guernsey De Zapien 1 ,
• Ramses Sepulveda 1 &
• Scott Carvajal 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1694 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

100 Accesses

Metrics details

This study examines factors associated with symptoms of loneliness among a sample ( n  = 213) of mostly Mexican-origin adults at risk of chronic diseases in Southern Arizona’s Pima, Yuma, and Santa Cruz counties. It uses baseline data from a community-based participatory research partnership and multinominal logistic regression models. Controlling for chronic diseases and sociodemographic characteristics, perceived social support and hope exhibit negative main effects on loneliness when comparing individuals who experienced loneliness for 5–7 days in the preceding week with those who did not encounter such feelings during the same period (adjusted odds ratio, AOR = 0.49 and 0.47; 95% confidence interval, CI = 0.34–0.73 and 0.29–0.75, respectively). However, when considered together, perceived social support and hope display a positive and statistically significant combined effect on loneliness (AOR = 1.03; 95% CI = 1.01–1.06). Holding all covariates constant, individuals reporting loneliness for 5–7 days exhibit a relative risk ratio of 1.24 (95% CI = 1.06–1.46) for a one-unit increase in physical problem severity compared to those who do not experience loneliness. Moreover, being 65 years old or older (AOR = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.03–0.84), and having been born in Mexico and lived in the US for less than 30 years (AOR = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.02–0.74) are associated with negative main effects on loneliness when comparing individuals who experienced loneliness 1–2, and 5–7 days in the preceding week with those who did not feel loneliness during the same timeframe, respectively. Recognizing the crucial role of loneliness in shaping health outcomes for Mexican-origin adults, our findings underscore the significance of fostering supportive environments that not only enhance well-being but also cultivate robust community bonds within the US-Mexico border region.

Peer Review reports

Loneliness is a major risk factor for physical and mental health issues, as well as premature death, and has been documented worldwide [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Loneliness is a subjective feeling of being isolated, while social isolation refers to the objective state of having few social relationships, social roles, group memberships, or infrequent social contact with others [ 2 , 3 , 5 ]. This research investigates factors linked to self-reported loneliness symptoms within a population of mostly Mexican-origin adults vulnerable to chronic ailments residing in Pima, Yuma, and Santa Cruz counties in southern Arizona. The study posits that heightened loneliness correlates with diminished social support, hope, and heightened physical discomfort. Furthermore, the study anticipates an association between increased self-reported loneliness and self-reported instances of diabetes and depression. Recognizing the prevalence of loneliness among Mexican-origin adults across these three southern Arizona counties is pivotal for devising strategies and interventions to tackle this notable public health issue.

Globally, the prevalence of loneliness among adults varies from 5 to 43% [ 1 ]. Within the United States (US), three surveys conducted in 2018 yielded loneliness prevalence estimates ranging from 22 to 54% [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, a CIGNA survey disclosed that 61% of the US populace acknowledged experiencing loneliness, with the Latine community reporting the highest level of loneliness at 47.7% [ 10 ]. A study involving a random sample of 755 elderly individuals from southern New Mexico, comprising 72% whites, 23% Latine (primarily of Mexican origin), and 5% from other ethnic backgrounds, revealed that Latine individuals exhibited greater perceived social isolation compared to whites. Notably, there were no substantial disparities in levels of loneliness between these two groups [ 11 ]. This study seeks to fill the gap in research investigating the connection between loneliness and health outcomes among a sample of mostly Mexican-origin adults in the US-Mexico border region. It defines Latine as an inclusive term covering a broader cultural and linguistic identity [ 12 ], and distinguishes Mexican-origin as a descriptor of origin within a specific geographical and temporal context.

Loneliness is associated with unfavorable cardiovascular health indicators, including high blood pressure and diabetes [ 13 ], elevated cholesterol levels [ 14 ], and coronary heart disease [ 15 ]. Furthermore, loneliness correlates with depression [ 16 ], anxiety [ 17 ], stress [ 18 ], sleep disturbance [ 19 ], physical inactivity [ 20 ], obesity [ 21 ], suicidal ideation [ 22 ], substance use [ 23 ], cognitive impairment, and dementia [ 24 , 25 ]. A meta-analysis review ( n  = 70) revealed that reported loneliness was associated with a 26% increased likelihood of death [ 4 ]. Another meta-analysis ( n  = 31) found that the impact of loneliness on all-cause mortality was slightly higher for males than females [ 26 ].

Social support, encompassing the presence of individuals available to offer aid during challenging situations [ 27 ], functions as a safeguard against the onset of loneliness symptoms [ 28 , 29 ]. Complementary to this, hope, denoting optimistic prospects for the future [ 30 ], likewise acts as a shield against loneliness symptoms [ 31 ]. Previous research has identified a positive correlation between social support and hope [ 32 ]. Individuals can embrace hope as an adaptive mechanism, utilizing it to generate a positive impact after accessing essential resources through the lens of perceived social support [ 33 ]. In challenging situations, hope functions as a positive coping mechanism or adaptive factor, while social support furnished the necessary coping resources [ 33 ]. However, the current understanding does not explore the role of hope as a moderating factor in the relationship between perceived social support and loneliness within the context of the US-Mexico border region. For instance, it may be plausible that Mexican-origin adults who maintain optimism and possess strong social ties are more likely to report fewer loneliness symptoms than their counterparts. Thus, this study hypothesizes that hope positively moderates the effect of social support on loneliness.

Physical illness and disability are positively associated with loneliness [ 34 , 35 ]. This relationship can be understood through the lens of pain, which can hinder both physical activity and social interactions, consequently contributing to feelings of isolation. 40 Furthermore, the distress stemming from loneliness can potentially exacerbate pain, creating a reciprocal relationship. 40 Illustratively, within a sample of 741 community-dwelling adults situated in Phoenix, Arizona, pain intensity and frequency demonstrated a cross-sectional association with heightened loneliness, although this relationship was not echoed longitudinally [ 36 ]. Similarly, in the context of older adults, loneliness showed an association with the symptom grouping of pain, fatigue, and depression [ 37 ]. In light of these premises, the current study hypothesizes that a dearth of physical problem severity is positively related to loneliness.

Arizona notably boasts a higher proportion of Latine individuals, accounting for approximately 30% of the populace, 88% of whom trace their origins to Mexico [ 38 , 39 ]. Given the challenging socioeconomic circumstances, Mexican-origin adults in Arizona encounter substantial impediments to healthcare access, further compounded for undocumented immigrants [ 40 , 41 ]. This underscores the pertinence of investigating the pressing public health concerns of loneliness and social isolation [ 9 , 42 ]. The imperative for conducting this study rests in the urgent need to comprehend and address the nuanced interplay of social, cultural, and health determinants within these distinctive contexts. By unraveling these intricate dynamics, we can inform targeted interventions, foster well-being, enhance support systems, and ultimately enrich the quality of life for this underserved demographic.

Study and intervention

This study was initiated as part of the Linking Individuals Needs to Community and Clinical Services (LINKS) project, employing a prospective matched observational study design integrated with electronic health records, as previously detailed [ 43 ]. In the LINKS project, clinic-based community health workers (CHWs) in three federally qualified health centers (FQHCs) referred eligible patients to community-based CHWs in county health department using a project REDcap database. The community-based CHWs enrolled the participant in the study and conducted baseline surveys in either English or Spanish. Beyond survey administration, the community-based CHWs identified participants’ needs related to the social determinants of health, facilitated referrals to relevant programs and services, and provided guidance on emotional well-being techniques [ 43 ]. Notably, the FQHCs are pivotal providers of primary care to uninsured and underinsured populations, serving as cornerstones within the study counties.

Sample and setting

The study sample encompassed a sample ( n  = 213) of mostly Mexican-origin adults who fulfilled baseline assessment requirements. Inclusion criteria necessitated a minimum age of 21, proficiency in either English or Spanish, and being at risk of or afflicted by a chronic disease, as indicated by individual electronic health records containing weight, height, body mass index, glycosylated hemoglobin, blood pressure, and blood lipid profile data [ 43 ]. Participants engaged with CHWs at one of three federally qualified health centers—located in Pima, Yuma, or Santa Cruz County—to complete baseline surveys in either English or Spanish. This data collection transpired between July 2017 and September 2018, with CHWs securing written consent from all participants enrolled in the LINKS initiative. The research was conducted in accordance with the approval granted by the University of Arizona Institutional Review Board (1612044741R001).

Questionnaire

Conceived as a community-based participatory research endeavor, the LINKS project emerged through partnership between an academic institution and community collaborators encompassing health centers, county health departments, and other community health advocates. This dynamic partnership extended across the entire spectrum of the study, notably including the development of the Emotional Well-being Questionnaire. This questionnaire included adaptations (for language and local responsiveness) of the Social Support Inventory—Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease (SSI-ENRICHED) [ 44 ], the State Hope Scale (SHS) [ 45 ], the Short Form 8 Health Survey (SF-8) [ 46 ], and sociodemographics [ 43 ]. The dependent variable (i.e., loneliness) was measured using the following statement/question: I felt lonely during the past week; response categories scored 1 = less than 1 day, 2 = 1–2 days, 3 = 3–4 days, and 4 = 5–7 days. The supplemental material also includes the results of four logit models running loneliness as a binary variable: 0 = less than 1 day, and 1 = 1–7 days.

Comprising six items, the Emotional Well-being Questionnaire gauged perceptions of social support over the preceding four weeks. Participants responded to prompts such as “Is there someone available to you whom you can count on to listen to you when you need to talk?”, “Is there someone available to give you good advice about a problem?”, “Is there someone available to you who shows you love and affection?”, “Is there someone available to help you with daily chores?”, “Can you count on anyone to provide you with emotional support?”, and “Do you have as much contact as you would like with someone you feel close to, someone in whom you can trust and confide?” Each question’s response options were grouped as follows: scale was reversed, where 1 = none of the time, 2 = a little of the time, 3 = some of the time, 4 = most of the time, and 5 = all the time. The cumulative scores, ranging from 1 to 24, furnished insight into the level of social support, with higher scores denoting greater support. Notably, the measure exhibited robust reliability within this sample, with a Cronbach’s α of 0.856 (95% CI: 0.817, 0.884).

Hope was assessed through six items that explored participants’ present agency and pathways toward achieving their objectives. That is, “If I should find myself in a jam, I could think of many ways to get out of it”, “At the present time, I am energetically pursuing my goals”, “There are lots of ways around any problem that I am facing now”, “Right now I see myself as being pretty successful”, “I can think of many ways to reach my current goals”, and “At this time, I am meeting the goals that I have set for myself”. Each item’s response options were grouped as follows: scale was reversed, where 1 = none of the time, 2 = a little of the time, 3 = some of the time, 4 = most of the time, and 5 = all the time. Scores were aggregated, resulting in a range of 1 to 20, wherein higher scores were indicative of heightened hopefulness. Encouragingly, the reliability coefficient for this sample was robust (Cronbach’s α = 0.879; 95% CI: 0.844, 0.905).

The physical problem severity index was assessed using four items that considered the previous four weeks. Participants were asked about the extent to which physical health issues constrained their physical activities, the challenges they faced in performing daily tasks at home and outside due to their physical health, the level of bodily pain experienced, and how their physical or emotional health impacted their usual social interactions with family and friends. For items pertaining to limitations on physical activities, response options were 1 = not at all, 2 = very little, 3 = somewhat, 4 = quite a lot, and 5 = could not do daily work. On the other hand, for items addressing bodily pain, answer choices ranged from 1 = none to 6 = very severe. Cumulative scores ranged from 1 to 18, with higher scores denoting greater severity of physical problems. The measure exhibited robust reliability within this sample, boasting a Cronbach’s α of 0.848 (95% CI: 0.811, 0.878).

Self-reported diabetes and depression were gauged through a single question: “Do you have any of the following health problems—diabetes and depression?” Participants responded with 0 for no and 1 for yes. Control variables, representing sociodemographic factors, were measured as follows: Age was captured as a categorical variable: 0 < 45, 1 = 45–64, 2 = 65+. Gender was denoted as a binary variable, with 0 signifying male and 1 signifying female. Education was categorized into 0 for < 12 years and 1 for ≥ 12 years of education. Time lived in the US was categorized into three groups: 0 for being born in the US, 1 for being born in Mexico and residing in the US for ≤ 30 years, and 2 for being born in Mexico and residing in the US for > 30 years. The delineation aimed to ensure a balanced sample distribution. County was depicted as a nominal variable with values of 0 for Pima, 1 for Yuma, and 2 for Santa Cruz, reflecting the respective study locales.

The Arizona Prevention Research Center (AzPRC) closely collaborated with the enduring 25-year Community Action Board, instrumental in selecting study questionnaires and shaping research questions [ 47 ]. Adaptation, driven by community needs, aimed to capture their unique viewpoints. In enhancing measurement tools, research partners adjusted instruments to suit the intervention context [ 48 ]. AzPRC’s translation process employed a functional adequacy approach, consensually defining each question’s functional meaning, deviating from the traditional back-translation [ 49 ]. This method ensured high-quality translations, vital in cross-cultural research. For example, eight items from the SF-8 quality-of-life instrument were adapted and translated for LINKS participants to reflect local culture and language nuances [ 49 ]. In contrast to the standard SF-8 in English, the adapted instrument lacked normative values, representing quality of life by summing responses from the eight items [ 49 ].

Data analysis

Within the study, missing data, which accounted for less than 5% across all variables, were addressed through predictive mean matching imputation. This method involved replacing missing values with observed donor values through the utilization of the Mice package in R 4.1 [ 50 ]. A total of five imputations were generated and subsequently merged with the original observed dataset. To compare Mexican-origin individuals with and without self-reported loneliness, encompassing perceived social support, hope, self-reported diseases, and demographic traits, descriptive statistics were employed. The Mann–Whitney U test was utilized for analysis, and statistical significance was established at α = 0.05. To investigate the determinants of self-reported loneliness while adjusting for self-reported diseases and sociodemographic attributes, multinomial and logit regression models were employed. Potential moderator variables were identified through scrutiny of interaction terms, with their inclusion in the final model contingent on statistical significance at a p  value < 0.05. Model fit and comparison between nested models were assessed using the log likelihood test statistic. The entirety of the data analysis was executed using R software, with specific reliance on version R 4.1.

Table  1 presents a succinct overview of the baseline attributes within the analyzed sample. Predominantly, participants identified as female (85.9%), with the majority falling within the age range of 45 to 64 (49.8%). Slightly over half completed up to 12 years of education (57.3%). Only 16.9% were born in the US, while 34.7% had resided in the US for at least three decades. Within the total sample, 58.7% indicated not experiencing loneliness during the prior week. However, 11.7% reported feeling lonely for a minimum of 5 days in that same period. The average participant reported elevated levels of both social support (scoring 17.8 within a range of 1 to 24) and hope (scoring 14.5 within a range of 1 to 20). In contrast, participants signaled relatively lower levels of physical problem severity (averaging 6.56 within a range of 1 to 18). Notably, 39.4% and 26.8% of respondents reported having diabetes and depression, respectively.

Table  2 displays four multinomial logistic regression models, utilizing imputed data to explore the correlates of loneliness symptoms while adjusting for various health scales, chronic diseases and sociodemographic factors. The “Scales of Health and Chronic Diseases” model encompasses the scales of physical pain, social support and hope, along with chronic diseases such as diabetes and depression. The “Sociodemographics” model controls for age, sex, education, place of birth/years in the US, and county. The “Full Model” incorporates all previous scales, diseases, and sociodemographics. Finally, the “Full Model with Interaction Effect” introduces the combined effect of social support and hope into the previous model. The last model aims to uncover the nuanced associations between social support and loneliness, considering different levels of hope. After controlling for chronic diseases and sociodemographic characteristics, the final model (displayed in the last column) reveals significant findings. Perceived social support and hope demonstrate negative main effects on loneliness when comparing individuals who experienced loneliness for 5–7 days in the preceding week with those who did not feel lonely during the same period (adjusted odds ratio, AOR = 0.49 and 0.47; 95% confidence interval, CI = 0.34–0.73 and 0.29–0.75, respectively). However, the combination of perceived social support and hope displays a positive and statistically significant effect on loneliness (AOR = 1.03; 95% CI = 1.01–1.06). When holding all covariates constant, individuals reporting loneliness for 5–7 days exhibit a relative risk ratio of 1.24 (95% CI = 1.06–1.46) for a one-unit increase in physical problem severity compared to those who do not experience loneliness. Additionally, being 65 years old or older (AOR = 0.16, 95% CI = 0.03–0.84), and being born in Mexico and having lived in the US for less than 30 years (AOR = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.02–0.74) show negative main effects on loneliness when comparing individuals who experienced loneliness 1–2, and 5–7 days in the preceding week with those who did not feel loneliness during the same period, respectively. Notably, variables including diabetes, depression, sex, and education do not exhibit significant main effects or interaction effects on loneliness symptoms at a p  value < 0.05.

This study harnessed cross-sectional data centered on Mexican-origin adults at risk of chronic disease within three Arizona border counties to scrutinize the correlates of loneliness symptoms. These findings contribute to an enhanced understanding of the intricate relationships shaping loneliness symptoms within this study’s context. Approximately 40% of respondents reported experiencing loneliness for at least one day in the preceding week. This prevalence aligns with both international and national reports on loneliness symptoms [ 1 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 51 ]. The statistical examination yielded intriguing insights: the interplay between social support and loneliness symptoms could be influenced by participants’ hope levels. Specifically, the combined effect of heightened hope and social support was linked to elevated reports of loneliness symptoms. Additionally, a noteworthy positive association emerged between physical problem severity index and loneliness symptoms. Interestingly, variables such as diabetes, depression, sex, and education exhibited no statistically significant associations with self-reported loneliness among participants. Nevertheless, these aspects remain vital considerations for comprehending the study’s focal outcome. This study extends the existing body of research by incorporating confirmatory factor analysis for primary independent variables, incorporating imputations for addressing missing data, and employing multinomial logistic regression models to dissect explanatory factors. The findings underscore the persistent necessity for holistic prevention and treatment healthcare interventions tailored to tackle the distinct challenges posed by loneliness. The insights garnered here propel us toward more effective strategies for addressing the multifaceted impacts of loneliness within vulnerable populations.

Contrary to existing findings suggesting that heightened perceived social support and hope correlate with reduced loneliness [ 32 , 33 ], this study presents a divergence. It is important to recognize that perceived social support may not automatically translate into immediate access to coping mechanisms, thus potentially necessitating the adoption of hopeful thinking as a coping strategy. The interplay between the nature of support (e.g., directive vs. non-directive or synthetic vs. instinctive) and support provider matters (e.g., clinicians and CHW vs. family and friends) [ 48 ]. A previous report identified four cluster narratives of support within this population: those with high emotional but minimal tangible/informational assistance; those with high emotional support but low appraisal/informational assistance; those with high informational assistance but low emotional/appraisal support; and those with a balanced mix of emotional, appraisal and informational support [ 48 ]. The noteworthy negative and significant interaction effect of social support and hope on loneliness warrants a cautious interpretation. Social support typically nurtures a sense of optimism about life [ 29 ], which one would anticipate having a beneficial impact on loneliness symptoms. Paradoxically, this study identifies a small but statistically significant association in the opposite direction: greater social support and hope corresponded with heightened loneliness symptoms. It is possible that a more nuanced approached to quantifying social support, breaking it down into different types, may shed light on this paradoxical results. Likewise, it is plausible that individuals who have family history of life-threatening diseases and long disease duration had low levels of hope and social support [ 52 ]. This underscores the complexity of these relationships and highlights the necessity of further research to unravel these intricate dynamics and their potential implications for intervention strategies.

Social support, encompassing cultural values such as familismo and respeto, can prove instrumental in alleviating loneliness symptoms [ 48 ]. Given the reinforcement of collectivism and interpersonal bonds in Mexican culture [ 53 ], Mexican-origin adults might rely significantly on social relationships to navigate daily stressors [ 54 , 55 ]. Furthermore, familial and friend networks could serve as pathways to accessing formal social services [ 56 ]. However, given the multidimensional nature of social support, forthcoming research could profitably investigate various forms and sources of support. This could encompass tangible, instrumental, and emotional support, alongside assistance from partners, family, friends, colleagues, neighbors, and pets [ 11 ]. Likewise, hope’s potential to activate mechanisms that moderate psychological distress is noteworthy. Future inquiries should discern between two closely linked patterns of hopeful thinking: agentic and pathway thinking. The former delves into the driving force behind defining and achieving goals, while the latter involves formulating strategies to navigate obstacles and achieve success [ 31 , 32 , 33 ].

These findings hold significant policy and practice implications. Firstly, healthcare interventions should integrate hope-centric approaches, especially when social support diminishes due to the evolving dynamics of caring for older adults or the growing burden of their illnesses on families [ 52 ]. This integration may involve fostering optimistic thinking and resilience. Secondly, in contexts like the US-Mexico border region in Southern Arizona, characterized by strong familial bonds, community-based efforts should explore hope as a communal asset. Strategies such as collaborative projects, support networks, and community engagement can build resilience and foster hope. Lastly, the positive association between satisfaction with health information from professionals and hope suggests the potential efficacy of educational interventions [ 57 ]. Viewing hope as a dynamic resource guides the development of interventions enhancing individuals’ ability to navigate challenges and cultivate connectedness within social networks. Recognizing hope as a valuable asset allows interventions to foster optimism, resilience, and ultimately alleviate loneliness in diverse populations.

Prior research has illuminated correlations between baseline loneliness and subsequent moderate to intense pain, as well as the reciprocal link where baseline pain is connected to later loneliness [ 35 ]. Nonetheless, a more comprehensive exploration is warranted to discern the intricate interplay between pain intensity and loneliness, particularly within specific populations marked by frequent pain [ 36 ]. Future inquiries could also delve into potential moderating factors such as negative mood, depression, fatigue, or anger to uncover their impact on the longitudinal relationship between pain and loneliness [ 36 ]. This paradigm extends to the consideration of symptom clusters, including pain, depression, and fatigue, which are recognized within distinct populations, such as those grappling with multiple sclerosis, fibromyalgia, and cancer [ 58 ]. Given this context, it becomes imperative for forthcoming research to not only probe the linkage between loneliness and these symptoms individually but also investigate their collective manifestation. As such, a comprehensive exploration of the interconnected distress these factors pose is crucial to advancing our understanding of loneliness within these contexts.

Although depression and loneliness both reside within the realm of cognitive-psychosocial states [ 37 ], their interrelationship did not yield statistical significance. Similarly, no significant association emerged between diabetes and loneliness. An investigation conducted in Tucson during 2013–2014, involving interviews with 32 first-generation Mexican immigrants, underscored that a considerable 72.5% of participants felt lonely due to their legal status and a lack of community support [ 59 ]. Similarly, among 39 immigrants receiving legal services in western Texas and New Mexico in 2015, 38.5% reported grappling with feelings of loneliness and isolation within the US [ 60 ]. This study detected a negative and statistically significant association between loneliness, and being born in Mexico and having lived in the US for less than 30 years. This may potentially be attributed to the fact that a substantial proportion of participants born outside the US had accumulated significant years of residency within the country. The noteworthy negative and statistically significant association observed between experiencing loneliness for 1–2 days and being 65 years old or older underscores a crucial point: both younger and older adults encounter loneliness. Despite this, societal attention has primarily concentrated on loneliness among older adults [ 14 ]. Therefore, it becomes imperative to redirect our focus towards addressing loneliness experienced during middle ages within this specific demographic residing in the US-Mexico border region.

Research has identified practices that wield positive effects in alleviating loneliness. These encompass well-informed intergenerational program designs, which can incorporate elements such as technological integration, environmental enhancements, comprehensive training for both facilitators and participants, and fostering high-quality interactions among participants through mechanisms that foster friendship [ 61 ]. The potential interventions within an intergenerational framework can encompass diverse strategies, including one-to-one engagements, activities conducted in group settings, technology-driven initiatives, and hybrid approaches that blend these methods [ 5 ]. To engender effective intergenerational programs, practitioners should emphasize crafting an environment that is both secure and supportive. This should be coupled with the cultivation of consistent and positive adult-adolescent relationships, developmentally suitable programming, acknowledgment and celebration of the cultural and social influences on adolescent growth, and the provision of opportunities for both older adults and youth to exercise autonomy, empowerment, self-direction, responsibility, and self-awareness [ 62 ]. By conscientiously weaving these elements together, practitioners can pave the way for the successful execution of intergenerational programs that contribute to combatting loneliness.

The National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine have recommended the integration of education and training concerning social isolation and loneliness within the healthcare workforce [ 3 ]. As integral members of this workforce, CHWs are frontline public health professionals who possess profound insights into and trust within the communities they serve [ 38 , 63 , 64 ]. Their distinctive position empowers them to serve as a pivotal bridge between health and social services and the broader community [ 38 , 63 , 64 ]. Moreover, they have demonstrated the potential to cultivate social connectedness and enhance health outcomes [ 38 , 63 , 64 ]. Given the active involvement of the community health workforce in addressing mental health matters and their achievements in fostering patient rapport, it is imperative to assess their potential contribution in identifying loneliness and social isolation among both older adults and youth within the US-Mexico border region.

The cross-sectional data derived from the LINKS study present a blend of strengths and limitations. Among the prominent strengths lies its specific focus on a high-priority population residing within an underserved locale. Notably, the study adopts a model involving CHWs, who play a pivotal role in establishing links between participants and diverse health and social services. Furthermore, the research is enriched by its profound and continuous engagement with community organizations, ensuring valuable insights that inform all facets of the study. Additionally, the missing data represents less than 5% of the total sample. However, it is important to acknowledge several limitations. Especially, the target population and sample are somewhat homogenous. The findings primarily pertain to Mexican-origin adult females who attend community health clinics in Yuma, Pima, and Santa Cruz, Arizona. Hence, future research could consider diversifying the sample to include more males and potentially comparing a balanced sample of Mexican-origin and non-Mexican-origin individuals who access community health clinics versus those seeking healthcare elsewhere, or not at all, within the US–Mexico border region. Moreover, research indicates that delving into different facets of loneliness/social support or exploring distinct dimensions of loneliness/social support using specialized scales might furnish additional explanatory capabilities in forecasting loneliness symptoms among Mexican-origin adults [ 34 , 48 ].

This study explored a particular arrangement of the loneliness, social support, and hope variables, yet alternative configurations remain plausible. For instance, a prior study identified that perceived social support was linked to heightened hope exclusively through a reduction in loneliness [ 32 ]. Further analyses are required to unveil the intricate mechanisms interconnecting these three variables, which could ideally involve longitudinal investigations. Moving forward, research should adopt longitudinal and experimental designs to illuminate the enduring predictive role of perceived social support and hope in relation to loneliness. Similarly, it is prudent for future studies to account for additional factors contributing to loneliness symptoms, such as medication usage, mental health history, and other life stressors. Within the context of the US–Mexico border region, it is equally vital to expand measurements to incorporate the structural determinants of health. For instance, it is essential to comprehend how social stressors, including perceived discrimination and repeated exposure to discriminatory situations, might directly or indirectly influence loneliness symptoms through various psychological and physiological responses. This holistic approach would significantly enhance the comprehensiveness of our understanding of loneliness in this specific context.

The exploration of loneliness within the Mexican-origin population residing in the US-Mexico border region is of profound significance, bridging an enduring gap in the provision of mental health services for this historically excluded community. By embarking on this quest to rectify knowledge voids, this research endeavor carries substantial merit in advancing our comprehension of the intricate deleterious impact of loneliness on health outcomes, particularly within the complex context of rural and border communities. This effort paves the way for targeted intergenerational interventions and robust support frameworks that possess the potential to profoundly enhance the well-being of these underserved populations. In this endeavor, CHWs stand poised as instrumental agents capable of furnishing culturally attuned services within ethnic and language enclaves that grapple with constrained access to resources. Their pivotal role extends to the imperative task of disseminating information regarding available resources in a manner that is rooted in cultural sensitivities and contextual relevance. Given the indispensable role that social support and hope assume as vital resources for those navigating the challenges of loneliness, the pursuit of strategies geared toward bolstering these aspects gains even more prominence within the unique context of the US-Mexico border region.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Leigh-Hunt N, Bagguley D, Bash K, Turner V, Turnbull S, Valtorta N, et al. An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness. Public Health. 2017;152:157–71.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Murthy VH. Our Epidemic of Loneliness and Isolation. The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory on the Healing Effects of Social Connection and Community. Washington, D.C.; 2023.

NAP. Social isolation and loneliness in older adults: opportunities for the Health Care System. Social isolation and loneliness in older adults. Washington, D.C.: National Academies; 2020. p. 317.

Google Scholar  

Holt-Lunstad J, Smith TB, Baker M, Harris T, Stephenson D. Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2015;10(2):227–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352

Farooqi A, Gillies C, Sathanapally H, Abner S, Seidu S, Davies MJ et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis to compare the prevalence of depression between people with and without Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Prim Care Diabetes. 2022;16(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcd.2021.11.001

DiJulio B, Hamel L, Muñana C, Brodie M. Loneliness and Social Isolation in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan: An International Survey. Kaiser Fam Found. 2018;(August):1–27. https://www.kff.org/report-section/loneliness-and-social-isolation-in-the-united-states-the-united-kingdom-and-japan-an-international-survey-introduction/%0Ahttp:/files.kff.org/attachment/Report-Loneliness-and-Social-Isolation-in-the-United-States-the-Un

Anderson GO, Thayer CE. Loneliness and Social Connections. A National Survey of Adults 45 and Older. Washington, D.C.; 2018. https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/research/surveys_statistics/life-leisure/2018/loneliness-social-connections-2018.doi.10.26419-2Fres.00246.001.pdf

Demarinis S. Loneliness at epidemic levels in America. Explore. 2020;16(5):278–9.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Holt-Lunstad J. Social Isolation and Health. Health Aff. 2020; https://bit.ly/43fhXPe

CIGNA. Loneliness and the Workplace. 2020. https://newsroom.thecignagroup.com/loneliness-in-america

Tomaka J, Thompson S, Palacios R. The relation of social isolation, loneliness, and social support to disease outcomes among the elderly. J Aging Health. 2006;18(3):359–84.

Miranda AR, Perez-Brumer A, Charlton BM. Latino? Latinx? Latine? A call for inclusive categories in Epidemiologic Research. Am J Epidemiol. 2023;192(12):1929–32.

Zawadzki MJ, Gavrilova L. All the lonely people: Comparing the effects of loneliness as a social stressor to non-lonely stress on blood pressure recovery. Int J Psychophysiol. 2021;167(June):94–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.06.016

Lim MH, Eres R, Vasan S. Understanding loneliness in the twenty-first century: an update on correlates, risk factors, and potential solutions. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2020;55(7):793–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01889-7

Valtorta NK, Kanaan M, Gilbody S, Ronzi S, Hanratty B. Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart. 2016;102(13):1009–16.

Mann F, Wang J, Pearce E, Ma R, Schlief M, Lloyd-Evans B et al. Loneliness and the onset of new mental health problems in the general population. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2022;57(11):2161–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02261-7

Danneel S, Geukens F, Maes M, Bastin M, Bijttebier P, Colpin H, et al. Loneliness, social anxiety symptoms, and depressive symptoms in adolescence: longitudinal distinctiveness and correlated change. J Youth Adolesc. 2020;49(11):2246–64.

McHugh JE, Lawlor BA. Perceived stress mediates the relationship between emotional loneliness and sleep quality over time in older adults. Br J Health Psychol. 2013;18(3):546–55.

Griffin SC, Williams AB, Ravyts SG, Mladen SN, Rybarczyk BD. Loneliness and sleep: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Heal Psychol Open. 2020;7(1).

Lee IM, Shiroma EJ, Lobelo F, Puska P, Blair SN, Katzmarzyk PT et al. Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: An analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet. 2012;380(9838):219–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9

Di Angelantonio E, Bhupathiraju SN, Wormser D, Gao P, Kaptoge S, de Gonzalez AB, et al. Body-mass index and all-cause mortality: individual-participant-data meta-analysis of 239 prospective studies in four continents. Lancet. 2016;388(10046):776–86.

McClelland H, Evans JJ, Nowland R, Ferguson E, O’Connor RC. Loneliness as a predictor of suicidal ideation and behaviour: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Affect Disord. 2020;274(May):880–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.004

Kayaoğlu K, Okanlı A, Budak FK, Aslanoğlu E. The correlation between loneliness and substance use proclivity in child and adolescent substance users. J Subst Use. 2022;27(1):70–3. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2021.1894495

Lara E, Martín-María N, De la Torre-Luque A, Koyanagi A, Vancampfort D, Izquierdo A et al. Does loneliness contribute to mild cognitive impairment and dementia? A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Ageing Res Rev. 2019;52(September 2018):7–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2019.03.002

Lazzari C, Rabottini M. COVID-19, loneliness, social isolation and risk of dementia in older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the relevant literature. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2022;26(2):196–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/13651501.2021.1959616

Rico-Uribe LA, Caballero FF, Martín-María N, Cabello M, Ayuso-Mateos JL, Miret M. Association of loneliness with all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(1):1–21.

Article   Google Scholar  

Garcini LM, Chen MA, Brown R, LeRoy AS, Cano MA, Peek K, et al. Abrazame Que Ayuda (Hug Me, it helps): Social Support and the Effect of Perceived discrimination on Depression among US- and foreign-born Latinxs in the USA. J Racial Ethn Heal Disparities. 2020;7(3):481–7.

Wang J, Mann F, Lloyd-Evans B, Ma R, Johnson S. Associations between loneliness and perceived social support and outcomes of mental health problems: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. 2018;18(1):1–16.

Lee J, Hong J, Zhou Y, Robles G. The Relationships Between Loneliness, Social Support, and Resilience Among Latinx Immigrants in the United States. Clin Soc Work J. 2020;48(1):99–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-019-00728-w

Gonzalez P, Gonzalez GM. Acculturation, Optimism and relatively fewer symptoms among Mexican immigrants and Mexican americans. Psychol Rep. 2008;103:566–76.

Einav M, Margalit M. Loneliness before and after COVID-19: sense of coherence and hope as coping mechanisms. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023;20(10).

Bareket-Bojmel L, Shahar G, Abu-Kaf S, Margalit M. Perceived social support, loneliness, and hope during the COVID-19 pandemic: testing a mediating model in the UK, USA, and Israel. Br J Clin Psychol. 2021;60(2):133–48.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Zhang R, Gao Y, Xie P. The role of perceived social support for loneliness in the Chinese elderly: hope and core self-evaluations as mediators. Curr Psychol. 2022;(0123456789). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03967-2

Mushtaq R, Shoib S, Shah T, Mushtaq S. Relationship between loneliness, Psychiatric disorders and physical health ? A review on the psychological aspects of loneliness. J Clin Diagn Res. 2014;8(9):WE01–4.

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Loeffler A, Steptoe A. Bidirectional longitudinal associations between loneliness and pain, and the role of inflammation. Pain. 2021;162(3):930–7.

Boggero IA, Sturgeon JA, Arewasikporn A, Castro SA, King CD, Segerstrom SC. Associations of Pain intensity and frequency with loneliness, hostility, and Social Functioning: cross-sectional, longitudinal, and within-person relationships. Int J Behav Med. 2019;26(2):217–29.

Powell VD, Abedini NC, Galecki AT, Kabeto M, Kumar N, Silveira MJ. Unwelcome Companions: Loneliness Associates with the Cluster of Pain, Fatigue, and Depression in Older Adults. Gerontol Geriatr Med. 2021;7:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333721421997620

Sabo S, Butler M, McCue K, Wightman P, Pilling V, Celaya M, et al. Evaluation protocol to assess maternal and child health outcomes using administrative data: a community health worker home visiting programme. BMJ Open. 2019;9(12):e031780.

Shen FL, Shu J, Lee M, Oh H, Li M, Runger G et al. Evolution of COVID-19 Health Disparities in Arizona. J Immigr Minor Heal. 2023;(0123456789). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-023-01449-6

Batai K, Gachupin FC, Estrada AL, Garcia DO, Gomez J, Kittles RA. Patterns of Cancer Related Health disparities in Arizona. Cancer Heal Disparities. 2019;3:e1–20.

Lee E, Wilson CE, Lara-Valencia F, de la Parra CA, Van Schoik R, Patron-Soberano K, The State of the Border Report: a Comprehensive Analysis of the US-Mexico Border., Washington DC et al. 2013. http://kpbs.media.clients.ellingtoncms.com/news/documents/2013/05/23/mexico_state_of_border.pdf

Holt-Lunstad J. Social Connection as a Public Health Issue: the evidence and a systemic Framework for prioritizing the quot Social Quot in Social determinants of Health. Annu Rev Public Health. 2022;43:193–213.

Lohr AM, Ingram M, Carvajal SC, Doubleday K, Aceves B, Espinoza C, et al. Protocol for LINKS (linking individual needs to community and clinical services): a prospective matched observational study of a community health worker community clinical linkage intervention on the U.S.-Mexico border. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):1–10.

Timmerman IGH, Emanuels-Zuurveen ES, Emmelkamp PMG. The Social Support Inventory (SSI): a brief scale to assess Perceived Adequacy of Social Support. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2000;7:401–10.

Snyder CR, Sympson SC, Ybasco FC, Borders TF, Babyak MA, Higgins RL. Development and validation of the State Hope Scale. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1996;70(2):321–35.

Casanova MP, Nelson MC, Pickering MA, Larkins LW, Appleby KM, Grindley EJ et al. Disablement in the Physically Active Scale Short Form-8: psychometric evaluation. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil. 2021;13(1):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-021-00380-3

Lohr AM, Alves SS, Coulter K, Redondo-Martinez F, Coronado G, David C, et al. Community Health Worker-Led Community Clinical on the U.S. / Mexico Border: lessons learned. Prog Community Heal Partnerships Res Educ Action. 2022;16(1):93–103.

Ingram M, Coulter K, Doubleday K, Espinoza C, Redondo F, Wilkinson-Lee AM, et al. An integrated mixed methods approach to clarifying delivery, receipt and potential benefits of CHW-facilitated social support in a health promotion intervention. BMC Health Serv Res. 2021;21(1):1–13.

Lohr AM, Doubleday K, Ingram M, Wilkinson-Lee AM, Coulter K, Krupp K, et al. A Community Health Worker-Led Community-Clinical linkage model to address Emotional Well-being outcomes among Latino/a people on the US-Mexico Border. Prev Chronic Dis. 2021;18:1–9.

Van Buuren S, Groothuis-Oudshoorn K. Mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R. J Stat Softw. 2011;45(3):1–67.

Chawla K, Kunonga TP, Stow D, Barker R, Craig D, Hanratty B. Prevalence of loneliness amongst older people in high-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2021;16(7 July). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255088

Pehlivan S, Ovayolu O, Ovayolu N, Sevinc A, Camci C. Relationship between hopelessness, loneliness, and perceived social support from family in Turkish patients with cancer. Support Care Cancer. 2012;20(4):733–9.

Behnke AO, MacDermid SM, Coltrane SL, Parke RD, Duffy S, Widaman KF. Family cohesion in the lives of Mexican American and European American parents. J Marriage Fam. 2008;70(4):1045–59.

Hovey JD, Magaña C. Acculturative stress, anxiety, and Depression among Mexican immigrant farmworkers in the Midwest United States. J Immigr Health. 2000;2(3):119–31.

Rokach A, Goldberg JO. Editorial: from loneliness to beloging - the path we hope to take. Front Psychol. 2021;12(761440):2.

Ayón C. Service needs among latino immigrant families: implications for social work practice. Soc Work (United States). 2014;59(1):13–23.

Vellone E, Rega ML, Galletti C, Cohen MZ. Hope and related variables in Italian Cancer patients. Cancer Nurs. 2006;29(5):356–66.

Jaremka LM, Andridge RR, Fagundes CP, Alfano CM, Povoski SP, Lipari AM, et al. Pain, depression, and fatigue: loneliness as a longitudinal risk factor. Heal Psychol. 2014;33(9):948–57.

Crocker R. Emotional testimonies: An ethnographic study of emotional suffering related to migration from Mexico to arizona. Front Public Heal. 2015;3(JUL).

Paat YF, Green R. Mental health of immigrants and refugees seeking legal services on the US-Mexico border. Transcult Psychiatry. 2017;54(5–6):783–805.

Jarrott SE, Scrivano RM, Park C, Mendoza AN. Implementation of evidence-based practices in intergenerational programming: a scoping review. Res Aging. 2021;43(7–8):283–93.

Jarrott SE, Stremmel AJ, Naar JJ. Practice that Transforms Intergenerational Programs: A Model of Theory- and Evidence Informed Principles. J Intergener Relatsh. 2019;17(4):488–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/15350770.2019.1579154

Sabo S, O’Meara L, Russell K, Hemstreet C, Nashio JT, Bender B, et al. Community Health Representative Workforce: meeting the moment in American Indian Health Equity. Front Public Heal. 2021;9(July):1–10.

Schachter K, Ingram M, Jacobs L, De Zapien JG, Hafter H, Carvajal S. Developing an Action Learning Community Advocacy/Leadership Training Program for Community Health Workers and Their Agencies to Reduce Health Disparities in Arizona Border Communities. J Heal Disparities Res Pract. 2014;7(2):34–49. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=97077494&site=ehost-live

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge and thank our Community Action Board, clinical partners, and the LINKS intervention team who were critical in the design and implementation of this study.

This journal article was supported by the Grant or Cooperative Agreement Number U48DP006413 under the Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research Centers Program, funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the Department of Health and Human Services.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Arizona Prevention Research Center, Health Promotion Sciences Department, Mel & Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85724, USA

Mario Morales, Ada M. Wilkinson-Lee, Maia Ingram, Thomas Nuño, Jill E. Guernsey De Zapien, Ramses Sepulveda & Scott Carvajal

Department of Mexican American Studies, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA

Ada M. Wilkinson-Lee

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Overall conceptualization of this study was driven by S.C., A.M.W.-L., J.E.G.D.Z. and M.I. The material preparation of the manuscript and quantitative analyses were led by M.M. Advice and alternatives strategies employed regarding the quantitative analyses were provided by A.M.W.-L., T.N. and R.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mario Morales .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Written informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all participants. The University of Arizona Institutional Review Board approved all stages of the research (i.e., 1612044741R001; 12 November 2017).

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Morales, M., Wilkinson-Lee, A.M., Ingram, M. et al. Risk factors associated with loneliness among mexican-origin adults in southern Arizona. BMC Public Health 24 , 1694 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19199-x

Download citation

Received : 09 October 2023

Accepted : 19 June 2024

Published : 25 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19199-x

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Mexican-origin adults
• Social determinants of health
• US-Mexico border

BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

• General enquiries: [email protected]