assignment on management functions

Project management

The four functions of management: Overview + examples

Being or becoming a manager can feel like a daunting task in today’s business world. But if you look closely, everything a manager does falls under four key functions:

Planning functions

Organizing functions

Leading functions

Controlling functions

While we can’t solve all the growing pains you face, we have some great news: No matter your industry or your level of management, you’ll perform this same set of functions. They may look different as a first-tier manager than they do as a CEO, and the problems within those functions vary endlessly.

But master each of these, and you’ll be well on your way to conquering nearly any business challenge.

A breakdown of the four functions of management

Let’s look more closely at each of the four functions — and the ways that effective managers leverage this framework to better meet their organization’s goals.

1) Planning

"Without a plan, even the most brilliant business can get lost. You need to have goals, create milestones, and have the right strategy in place to set yourself up for success." ~ Yogi Berra

Managers are responsible for the long-range vision and goals within a company. The planning function includes this vision and goal-setting along with the work of creating a plan to reach those goals. They identify business challenges, work on future-facing initiatives (such as growth plans, company goals, and business forecasting) and make decisions that move the business toward goals.

Another element of the planning phase of management is resource allocation or workload management . Typically, the manager decides which employees in the department are assigned to which projects, seeking to balance workload and maintain efficiency through this work. Managers often enlist the help of project managers ( a vital role for businesses across many industries) to determine workload and capacity. Or, in some cases where there is no formal project manager, managers may use project management tools themselves to fill this role.

Planning is essential within any organization, and it’s an important part of the management role for a few reasons. First, the rank-and-file employees are usually too busy completing tasks to step back and think strategically about the big picture. Second, people management tend to get there precisely because they have above-average decision-making, leadership, and planning skills.

Managers are typically responsible for several types of planning within an organization:

Strategic planning

The highest and most crucial level of planning looks at the long-range, big-picture view of the company. It identifies future threats and opportunities and sets long-term direction and organizational goals. Strategic planning isn’t concerned with day-to-day decisions and is looking instead at three-year plans, five-year plans, market trajectories, and similar big-picture elements.

In most organizations, top management does the bulk of the strategic planning. CEOs and other top-ranking leaders may rely on input from mid-level managers and will certainly inform them of the strategic plans, but most decisions here are made by the people in charge.

Tactical planning

Tactical planning looks at how to accomplish more midrange or short-term objectives — usually those that last a year or less. Tactical planning is more targeted than strategic planning and is informed by the strategic plan, setting a general course of action that will be fleshed out further in operational planning.

Middle managers usually complete tactical planning, taking the strategic plan and breaking down the high-level goals within it into smaller, more measurable and near-term achievable goals.

Tactical planning is more granular than strategic planning, but it still doesn’t delve into the details of day-to-day operations.

Operational planning

Operational planning, on the other hand, is all about those day-to-day operations — seeking to use the principles and strategies laid out in tactical plans to accomplish the big-picture goals in the strategic plan. Department managers, first-level leaders, and project managers often contribute to operational planning.

Weekly project team meetings are one example of operational planning in action. Project schedules, timelines, RACI charts , swimlanes, and Gantt charts are all tools used within operational planning.

2) Organizing

Next up is the organizing function, which refers to the way managers distribute resources, delegate tasks, structure departments, set staffing levels, etc. This function encompasses everything from assigning right-fit tasks to the appropriate team members to deciding how those team members relate to each other in an organizational structure .

If your company is growing rapidly, you’ll need more sales agents next year than you do this year (and more of just about every other role, too). At some point, even the structures and departments you have now will no longer make sense: you’ll need more managers to oversee those new hires, and you might need new divisions that wouldn’t have been feasible when you were smaller.

All of this takes careful organization from someone in a leadership role — which is why organizing is the second function of management.

Example of organizing functions

Managers have ongoing responsibilities to rebalance workload and even headcount as they respond to changes in the business landscape. Just 20 years ago, most marketing departments were doing little (if any) digital marketing, let alone content marketing or SEO. Today those areas comprise the majority of business for many marketing departments and agencies. And that same story plays out across numerous departments, roles, and business units.

Managers must keep jobs, job hierarchies, and resource allocation organized and appropriate for the business landscape of today — with an eye toward future needs and further changes.

Are you a manager or business leader at a creative agency? Find out why Teamwork.com is the project management software solution of choice for agencies .

The ultimate project management guide

Learn everything you need to know about the world of project management. Definitions, education, career paths, methodologies and more!

Check out the free guide

Every organization, from creative agencies to enterprise operations, needs a force to drive it forward: rallying the troops and pushing them toward a common goal. Move down through the layers of a business and you’ll find a similar need for teams, projects, departments, and any other organizational or work structure that’s in place.

This is the leading or leadership function of management — a crucial part of every manager’s job.

The leading function of management focuses on people (whether individual, teams, or groups) more than work tasks. That’s not to say that tasks don’t matter, but rather, how those people are or aren’t handling their tasks and responsibilities will influence the type of leadership response that managers ought to give.

Managers and business leaders provide both direction and inspiration to those who follow them. This can take all sorts of forms:

Instructing

Encouraging or praising

Redirecting

Demanding or commanding

Additionally, leadership includes both people management and making the tough right calls that others might miss.

There are many approaches to leadership in management, each with its own pros and cons. And it’s important to understand that there is no one right style — successful managers skillfully move between approaches, as each has its uses.

We’ll use the situational leadership model popularized by author and business coach Marshall Goldsmith , which highlights four other leadership styles: directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating.

A top-down, more authority-driven style of leadership, the director makes decisions and provides strong leadership without much, if any, input from the person or team being led. This style is useful when leading new or inexperienced teams, training new employees without a background in your industry, and potentially when forging ahead into a new market or technology (but only when the leader has experience worth trusting).

This method doesn’t work as well when the manager isn’t a powerful, experienced figure or when the people being managed have valuable input to offer.

"Each person holds so much power within themselves that needs to be let out. Sometimes they just need a little nudge, a little direction, a little support, a little coaching, and the greatest things can happen" ~ Pete Carroll

A coach comes alongside skilled contributors, guiding them as they use their skills. The coaching style of leadership is much the same, working alongside team members yet retaining authority to make the final call. Coaches also develop potential or raw talent into something better and more useful, and it works exactly the same way in business.

Coaching is highly effective for employees who have input to give or raw talent that needs refining. It’s also effective with skilled employees who need help staying on target. Just like in sports, a coach can’t be better than the sum of the players on the team. So coaching may not be the best approach for inexperienced employees or those with significant performance issues.

Supporting steps back even further than coaching. This method assumes team members know what to do and how to do it, so the manager takes a more hands-off approach. Supportive managers often step into the relational aspects of a team, helping team members work better together.

This style of leadership also comes into play when individuals grow unsteady in terms of output or performance, offering support to a person who may need a hand getting through a rough patch.

Supportive management works best with highly skilled teams that still have some issues with interpersonal relationships, consistent performance, or other metrics.

The delegating style of leadership assigns tasks to employees (delegation) and provides little more than basic oversight once assigned, freeing the leader to spend more time on high-level work — like long-term vision and goal-setting for the project.

This method is very attractive to managers because in some ways it’s the easiest and least time-consuming. However, it only works consistently well with high-performing teams and team members who don’t need directing, coaching, or support.

4) Controlling

Controlling includes all of management’s efforts to make sure the goal (established way back in the planning phase) is accomplished. It includes ongoing analysis of the plan and iterative updates to that plan as needed.

The manager’s project monitoring component (the analysis of how well the project team is adhering to the plan) may overlap slightly with project management. Not every business or project gets a dedicated project manager, either. If you’re a manager and find yourself doing more project management than you’d like, a good project management software tool can help.

Teamwork.com is a robust project management suite that managers and project leads alike can use to improve their project workflows. Take a look at Teamwork.com’s powerful Resource Management capabilities .

Examples of controlling functions

Schedule and deadline management , employee training, performance evaluations, adjustments to budgets or staffing assignments, and resource allocation are all included within the controlling function.

Lead better — stay organized with Teamwork.com

The four functions of management can be a powerful framework that helps effective leaders categorize and prioritize their tasks and responsibilities, identifying where their particular leadership skills best fit within an organization.

But even the most successful manager can struggle to stay on top of long-range plans, detailed planning processes, and the specifics of multiple concurrent projects. All of this combined is just too much information.

Teamwork.com is a powerful project management platform that helps busy managers stay organized so they can focus on leveraging their management skills, not tracking down project details.

See more of what Teamwork.com can do for your business now - get started now for free, view our comprehensive pricing plans , or book a demo today.

The only all-in-one platform for client work

Trusted by 20,000 businesses and 6,000 agencies, Teamwork.com lets you easily track, manage, and customize multiple complex projects. Get started with a free 30-day trial.

Try Teamwork.com for free

Teamwork.com: The all-in-one platform for client work

Learn how Teamwork.com helps you drive business efficiency, grow profits, and scale confidently.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• Controlling
• Stay organized with Teamwork.com

Ben is a Senior Content Marketing Specialist at Teamwork.com. Having held content roles at agencies and SaaS companies for the past 8 years, Ben loves writing about the latest tech trends and work hacks in the agency space.

What does a finance project manager do?

Product project management: How to ensure your agency delivers for early-stage founders

Standardizing your product management workflow for superior project outcomes

How product leads leverage the sprint cycle to meet client deadlines

What is professional services automation? Here’s what to know

Project management for financial services: A comprehensive guide

Stay updated by subscribing to the Teamwork.com newsletter. We’ll keep you in the loop with news and updates regularly.

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

1.4: Assignment- Primary Functions of Management

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 47599
• Lumen Learning

Preparation

Our text describes the four important and dynamic primary functions of management as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. In this assignment you will identify, describe, and differentiate the four functions. The following steps will help you prepare for your written assignment:

• Carefully consider the four primary functions of management in the context of a business you know. This could be your workplace, Nokia or ThyssenKrupp introduced to you earlier, or another selected business you are familiar with.
• Select one of the four functions of management that your reading and consideration leads you to believe is the most important. If you believe no single function stands out, then you may select the interoperability of all four.

Write a three-paragraph essay describing your chosen function, and why you rank its importance so highly. Your essay must include three properly referenced and defined terms from the module reading. For example, if you select Controlling, you could include the definition of feedback loop . Answer and address these questions:

• What is the primary function you selected?
• How does it interact with the other functions?
• What would happen to “management” without your selected function?
• What factors cause you to rank its importance above the others?

In addition to the text, you are encouraged to research your topic using reliable and properly cited Internet resources.

Contributors and Attributions

• Assignment: Primary Functions of Management. Authored by : Betty Fitte and Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

The Four Functions of Management - An essential guide to Management Principles

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Mike Coppola/Getty Images for LinkedIn

By Vanessa Leikvoll Leaders Staff

Vanessa Leikvoll

Culture and Personal Success Writer

Vanessa Leikvoll is a culture and personal success writer for Leaders Media. Vanessa is a certified Workplace Wellness Specialist and...

Learn about our editorial policy

Aug 9, 2022

How to Lead Using the 4 Functions of Management

The core functions of management, breaking down the 4 functions of management, where leadership and management intersect.

Few leaders have embodied the principles of effective management like Jack Welch, former CEO of General Electric. While General Electric received acclaim publicly, the internal systems Welch inherited in 1981 were anything but admirable. From unorganized processes and poor communication to falling stock value, Welch knew that company growth would only come by changing the bureaucratic structure completely.

So that’s what he did. As the new CEO, his first order of business was to change the systems radically. He called for fewer meetings, decreased layers of management and oversight, and more focus on employee growth and empowerment. Welch even cut about 100,000 GE employees to help streamline roles, earning him the nickname of “Neutron Jack,” according to the New York Times . Despite seeming rash at first, Welch’s management approach worked, and within 20 years, GE grew from a $14 billion company to a $400 billion company.

In Winning , Welch says: “Before you are a leader, success is all about growing yourself. When you become a leader, success is all about growing others.”

By building others up as leaders, demonstrating authenticity, and making purposeful decisions despite external criticisms, you begin to embrace the true power of the functions of management. Welch’s style wasn’t popular at the time, but he maintained his grit and determination to lead GE to unprecedented success. For this, he was named “Ultimate Manager” and “Manager of the Century” by Fortune , according to his obituary .

Analysis from Gallup shows 70% of the variance  in employee engagement and investment is a result of management functions .   This means that the level to which your employees are invested and engaged largely depends on how well the functions of management are practiced. An excellent manager, for example, will cultivate a great corporate culture , which attracts and retains top talent and builds stronger relationships. On the other hand, a manager who doesn’t perform the functions of management well can become a toxic boss who no one wants to work for.

However, if you practice the core functions of management, follow your passion, and model successful  leadership qualities , your team will follow you. 

Key Insights on the Functions of Management

• The functions of management were established in 1908 from the theories of French engineer Henri Fayol.
• Today, the functions consist of four phases: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.
• Poor management is what drives 50 percent of employees to quit their jobs.
• Business success increases when the four functions of management intersect with servant leadership.

Productivity is never an accident. It is always the result of a commitment to excellence, intelligent planning, and focused effort. paul j. meyer

In 1888, Henri Fayol became the managing director of a French ironmaking company called Boigues Rambourg. The company at that time was on the verge of bankruptcy, but under Fayol’s management, the business turned around. By 1900, it had grown to become one of the country’s most significant steel and iron producers. 

Fayol observed many management problems during his time at Boigues Rambourg, especially at the organizational level. He studied the issues and posed solutions that would prove effective. Then, in 1908, he published his theories and what he had learned to share his knowledge with the world. His theories attracted global attention and respect, earning him the nickname, “The Father of Modern Management.”

Fayol’s theories included five original functions of management: planning, organizing, command, coordination, and control. Today, these functions of management are four phases:  planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. These four functions are the foundation for effective and successful management practice. As Fayol began demonstrating in 1888, integrating these functions of management into your company can save your business. 

Gain more insight into the four functions of management by learning more about how each one of these works below.

1. Planning

Planning means both to assess the future and make provision for it. henri fayol

This stage involves identifying overarching company goals and forming a plan to achieve them. What are the primary thresholds to meet? What is the timeline for completing these thresholds? Which human and physical resources will be needed?

Once these answers are determined, it’s time to craft a strategy. Who will do what tasks? What stages are those tasks broken down into? And what is the priority level of these tasks? These questions are all examined during the planning phase. 

Fayol describes four components of planning:

• The desired result
• The methods

Example:  A manager is hired to run a new restaurant. One of his goals is to staff the restaurant adequately while remaining financially efficient for overhead and profit. In the planning phase, the manager identifies how many servers, kitchen staff, hostesses, and bussers are needed when the restaurant is open. The manager will consider busy times, like evenings and weekends, and slower times, like mid-week lunch, to form his plan. 

Three types of planning:

• Strategic: With a time frame of usually three years, strategic planning looks at overall company threats and the environment. It examines competition, outliers, consumer markets, and other variables that can help reveal areas of strength and weakness.
• Tactical: Tactical planning focuses on one specific department, like production, human resources, or food and beverage. This kind of planning focuses on tactical goals that will take less than a year to achieve.
• Operational: This planning type leverages tactical planning to conduct strategic planning. By putting a goal defined in strategic planning into practice operationally, a whole company can work towards achieving that goal together.

2. Organizing

To organize means building up the dual structure, material, and human, of the undertaking. To command means binding together, unifying and harmonizing all activity and effort. henri fayol

Once the planning is done, the next function of management is organizing. This phase is about delegation, processes, and expectations. A  manager’s job  at this stage is to coordinate teams, assign tasks to qualified employees, and set clear expectations. The purpose of organizing is to set your employees up for successfully executing the goals   established during planning. 

In the organizing stage, it’s also vital to set contingency plans. Tasks and projects don’t always go as planned. Anticipating potential problems and working through a plan to avoid them ahead of time is key. This will help you and your team stay on track even when things go awry. 

Example:  The new restaurant manager organizes human and physical resources to help the company run smoothly. For instance, they might have their top servers working weekends. Additionally, they schedule prep work in the early morning to avoid long customer wait times during dinner service. They clearly communicate what time people should show up for work, when they can take breaks, how operations run, which tasks should be completed, and who is doing what.

The manner in which the subordinates do their work has incontestably a great effect upon the ultimate result, but the operation of management has a much greater effect. henri fayol

Once a team has clear goals, priorities, processes, and timelines, the following required function of management to ensure success is leading. Leading is inspiring and motivating your team to perform at their best . It means giving praise and constructive criticism —when warranted—so your team knows how they are doing and how they should pivot. Managers who demonstrate a strong sense of direction and clear vision command the most buy-in from their employees.

Leading is also about modeling empathy, showing support, and providing encouragement. Your team members aren’t robots—they’re humans. They have lives, worries, and other things outside of work that affect them. Recognizing this and showing compassion will not only strengthen your relationship with your team but will lead them to do their best work.

Example:  One of the restaurant manager’s servers received excellent reviews for their service on Saturday night. Because of this, the manager takes time to give praise to the server. Additionally, another one of their staff members had a family emergency and had to leave during a busy time. Instead of getting angry, the manager practices servant leadership and covers the remainder of their shift. After work, they also check in on them to make sure everything is okay. 

4. Controlling

To be a good manager of people requires both fairness and bluntness. james cook

The last function of management is the controlling phase. With the controlling phase, the goal is to identify areas of concern and make necessary adjustments. For example, who is performing well or not so well? What areas of weakness or concern are there? Are there any tasks that are off-track? These are all questions managers should ask at this point. 

Under the controlling phase,  make any tweaks and pivots necessary  to make sure the work done in the planning, organizing, and leading phases are all being honored. This might look like meeting with employees who are struggling and assigning them tasks that are better suited to their strengths.

Example:  The restaurant manager reviews the previous quarter’s sales, reservations, and losses. They know examining these areas is key because it reveals potential problems and areas to work on. With this knowledge, they can make decisions and changes to improve during the next quarter. For instance, they realize the business actually loses money by remaining open on Mondays, so they decide to keep the restaurant closed on this day.

Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things. peter f. drucker

Bad management can cost a company big time. In a recent poll from GoodHire, 82% of employees  said  they’d consider leaving their company simply because of a bad manager. Furthermore, according to Gallup, 50% of U.S. employees actually do quit their job because of their boss.

While the two terms are often interchangeable,  leadership and management  are different. You can be a good leader but not necessarily a good manager, and vice versa. What many managers lack, and why their employees are disengaged, de-motivated, and uninvested, are good leadership qualities. Traits like emotional intelligence , communication, empathy , passion, and balance are reflective of someone both leading and managing effectively.

Once the  functions of management —that is, planning, organizing, leading, and controlling—intersect with these leadership traits, real business success can occur.

Continue advancing your management knowledge and expertise with  How to Excel at a Manager’s Job . 

Search Leaders.com

The Four Functions of Management (with Examples)

Dive into the four functions of management: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Learn how they drive business success and how Motion can help.

In today’s dynamic and competitive business landscape, effective management is crucial for achieving growth, optimizing performance, and staying ahead of the curve. That’s where the four functions of management come into play.

Although originally identified in the early 20th century by visionary Henri Fayol, this time-tested framework is still applicable to business leaders and managers today. It provides a roadmap through which to navigate the complexities of the modern business world.

In this article, we’ll explain what each of the four functions of management entails and offer some practical examples. We’ll also show you how Motion can help you apply these management functions in your team.

The four functions of management, with examples

The four functions of management — planning, organizing, leading, and controlling — serve as the pillars that allow organizations to meet their goals. These functions are interdependent and equally important for ensuring the smooth operation of any business.

Planning is the foundational function of management. It involves setting objectives and determining the best ways to achieve them. Planning by management is crucial, as it sets the direction for the business and helps prepare for potential challenges and uncertainties.

‎Common steps in the planning process include the following:

• Setting objectives
• Analyzing the situation
• Developing strategies
• Evaluating your options
• Implementing the plan
• Monitoring and reviewing

Imagine you are the manager of a  marketing department  and responsible for planning the launch of a new product. You would plan by setting clear objectives, conducting market research, and identifying target demographics. You would also develop a pricing strategy, create a marketing campaign timeline, and  allocate resources effectively . Planning ensures that the product launch is strategically organized, aligning with customer needs and market opportunities.

The organizing function involves arranging and structuring work to accomplish organizational goals. In other words, this function of management is about setting things up so that the business runs efficiently.

‎Proper organization is crucial for several reasons, including the following:

• Resource efficiency:  Organizing ensures that vital resources, such as time, money, and equipment, are allocated optimally. This not only prevents wastage but also maximizes the return on investment. With the right organizational structure, businesses can avoid redundancy, and employees can avoid duplicating their efforts.
• Clear roles:  A well-organized system means that every member of the team knows exactly what they’re responsible for. This reduces confusion and the chances that tasks will fall through the cracks. It also promotes accountability and helps team members focus on their specific roles without overstepping their boundaries or leaving tasks undone.
• Defined authority:  Knowing who is in charge of what is more than just a hierarchy — it’s about streamlining decision-making processes. By defining authority, organizations ensure that decisions are made at the right levels without unnecessary bureaucracy or delay. This clear delineation of roles and reporting lines fosters an environment of respect and understanding, leading to quicker resolutions and more efficient operations.

Let’s continue with the example of the marketing department manager. Once the objectives and plans for the product launch are set, organization comes into play. This step involves assigning roles and responsibilities to team members, creating a marketing campaign team, and establishing the budget and resources needed.

You would organize regular meetings, develop a project plan, and ensure effective communication channels are in place for team collaboration.

In management, leading involves guiding and motivating a team toward a common goal. Leaders ensure that all team members understand their roles and how best to execute them. With the right leadership and inspiration, everyone works together efficiently to achieve the company’s objectives.

‎Effective leaders possess the following qualities:

• Emotional intelligence
• Good communication skills
• The ability to inspire
• Task delegation skills

A good example of successful leadership is  Microsoft’s CEO Satya Nadella , who focuses on a “growth mindset.” His emphasis on cooperation and empathy has made significant improvements in the company’s performance and employee satisfaction.

In our marketing manager example, you would inspire and motivate your marketing team by providing guidance and direction and clearly communicating the company’s vision and  goals  for the marketing campaign.

Effective leadership also involves supporting team members, encouraging innovation, and resolving any conflicts that arise during the product launch process.

Controlling

The term “controlling” often has negative connotations. In the world of management, it can sound as though managers are trying to dominate or micromanage their employees.

However, the controlling function of management is about monitoring progress toward goal achievement and taking corrective action when necessary. Taking a certain level of control helps managers ensure proper resource allocation, maintain quality control, and keep the team on track toward its objectives.

‎Toyota’s production system, known as  “Just-in-Time” production , is an excellent example of successful controlling. This system emphasizes efficiency by controlling inventory and reducing waste, which leads to improved product quality and reduced costs.

Controlling plays a vital role in the success of a product launch. As a manager, you would establish performance metrics to measure the progress of the marketing campaign. You could use sales numbers or website traffic, for instance, to monitor and compare the actual results against the set goals.

If there is a big difference between them, you would take corrective action. For instance, if actual sales are lower than what was forecasted, you could adjust the marketing strategy or reallocate resources to improve performance.

How the four management functions work together

The four functions of management don’t operate in isolation. Instead, they are interrelated and mutually dependent. They work together in a cyclical nature, with each one influencing and supporting the others.

For example, the feedback from controlling can lead to new planning. Effective organization depends on a clear plan, while effective leadership depends on a well-organized team. Finally, effective control measures rely on clear leadership and direction.

‎If any one of these functions is weak or not performed well, the entire management process can suffer. For example, without proper planning, organization becomes chaotic. Without effective leadership, even the best plans might not be correctly executed. And without control, managers won’t know if they’re on track or need to adjust their strategies.

Successfully apply the four functions of management with Motion

Getting the four functions of management right is no small feat. But the challenge is more manageable with the right tool in hand.

Motion is the ultimate ally for successful managers, saving them time, providing clarity, and helping to prevent them from feeling overwhelmed. Our intuitive platform enhances every management function, promoting streamlined operations and decisive leadership.

Here’s how Motion helps with each of the four management functions:

Whether you’re a visual person who loves the clarity a Kanban board offers or thrive on using lists, Motion’s got you covered. You can lay out tasks,  structure your day , and even sketch out an entire  project timeline .

‎But the  Motion Task Manager  takes task management to the next level, not only organizing your tasks but also scheduling and prioritizing them for on-time completion. No more disjointed tools or overwhelming to-do lists — just enhanced productivity!

Forget scattered notes and isolated data. With Motion, everything you need to  manage a project  is in one central hub. The platform fosters team collaboration, ensuring everyone’s on the same page.

‎‎And with its resource allocation and task assignment features, you can ensure each team member has a clear direction.

Great leadership thrives on information. Motion provides managers with a clear window into team schedules and task updates, ensuring they have all the intel they need to guide their troops effectively. Then, armed with this knowledge, they can make swift and informed decisions.

‎Controlling

Whether you’re heading up a  sales team  or a group of  IT specialists , staying on track is paramount. Motion offers valuable insights into how individuals and teams spend their hours. By monitoring progress and recognizing trends, management can adapt and maintain a firm grip on the team’s workload, ensuring every challenge is met head-on.

‎Embrace a world where efficiency meets simplicity with Motion, and let every management challenge become a walk in the park.

Experience the difference first-hand and sign up today for a  free 7-day trial .

Related articles

The 8 Best Calendars for Work in 2023

What Is a Project Status Report, and How Do You Create One?

13 Time Management Techniques to Boost Your Productivity

Put motion to the test., tech and media companies are talking about motion.

• Contact sales

Start free trial

Management Levels & the Four Functions of Management

The word “management” doesn’t always have a positive connotation. But try getting anything done in a fast-paced work environment without applying the four functions of management.

No matter what type of work you do, having a clear understanding of the management levels and the four functions of management will help you do that work more efficiently. It’s all about adapting to whatever work environment you’re in and making it perform better. Let’s learn more about the four functions of management.

What Is Management?

Management is a word that’s thrown around a lot, but do people really know what the definition of management is? Management is about coordinating and administering work that will achieve a goal. To do this requires strategizing and resources. Management is also used in business to describe the organization of a company’s staff.

Managers are the people who implement management. This requires a myriad of skills to do so effectively. Some of those skills include planning, communication, organization and leadership. In addition, an effective manager will understand the company’s goals and be able to use employees to achieve those goals.

ProjectManager is project management software that can be used for business management. Use Gantt charts, kanban boards, dashboards and timesheets to keep track of the daily performance of your employees and guide them toward success. Our kanban boards are ideal to manage your workflows no matter what industry you’re in. Get started today for free.

Management Levels

Management is organized in a hierarchical fashion. There are always people to whom managers report. This management level is made up of three main tiers: top management, middle management and lower or operational management .

Top Level Management

These are the top of the management chain. These managers are CEOs, presidents, vice presidents and board members. They set the goals for the organization and its course, as well as develop strategies, policies and make decisions that impact the direction of the organization. Therefore, they’re accountable to shareholders and stakeholders  if these initiatives are successful or not.

Middle-Level Management

The next layer of management is middle management. They’re in charge of the tactical planning of the organization, report to the top management and are made up of department managers, regional managers and branch managers. Their responsibilities include communicating the strategic goals of top management. They’re more involved in directional and organizational functions than top management and provide guidance for lower management.

Lower or Operational Management

Lower or operational management is the front-line team leaders, foreman, section leads and supervisors. Their responsibilities include overseeing the daily work of employees, staff or team members and providing direction. They make sure quality standards are upheld, deal with interpersonal conflict and offer feedback on performance.

What Does a Manager Do?

Managers are responsible for five basic duties. As noted, they’ll set up objectives for the organization, employees, team members, etc. This is necessary because it maintains the success of the organization. This involves leadership qualities that motivate staff.

Managers also organize. They look at the work that must be done and break it into smaller, more manageable tasks. They must know the organizational structure of the organization and the relationship between departments.

As we mentioned, managers must be strong leaders . They must motivate those under them to deliver on the goals and objectives of the organization. This involves soft skills such as knowing how to interact and respond to a variety of personality types to get them to work together on a common goal.

Employees are the most valuable resource in an organization and it’s management’s job to cultivate and develop them. Investing in staff is critical to achieving the goals of the organization, which, after all, is a manager’s main responsibility.

But managers must also evaluate those working under them. This means creating metrics by which to measure an employee’s performance. This allows managers to develop employees while addressing shortcomings and how to improve them through training and other means.

What Are the Four Functions of Management?

The four functions of management are planning, organizing, leading and controlling. Successful managers must do all four while managing their work and team. These are foundational of any professional managerial position. Plus, there are other skills and specialized knowledge related specifically to the job you manage.

The concept of how management should interact with personnel was first codified by Henri Fayol, a French mining engineer. He developed a general theory of business administration and management functions, which developed into the four functions of management.

Without these four pillars of management supporting other responsibilities, nothing will get done on time and within budget . If you’re managing yourself or teams, you need to understand these fundamentals of management, which are the basis of management skills.

Of course, the four functions of management are theoretical. When you’re ready to put them into practice, you’ll need project management tools that let you connect with your coworkers and teams wherever they’re working. It’s part of the core responsibilities of a manager, no matter what your organizational structure is.

Function 1: Planning

The first function of management is planning: you can’t manage your work until you have a planning process. This means understanding your goals and objectives, which is the start of strategic planning . Having a strategic or tactical plan is how you get from point A to point B.

Of course, tactical planning is more than getting from one place to another. There’s operational planning , which involves identifying and assigning resources, both in terms of personnel and materials. That means assembling a team and being able to allocate resources, such as the equipment they need to execute the work.

There’s also organizing your tasks, prioritizing them and giving each a deadline and duration. The plan includes adding tasks to a timeline to schedule your work. Then, you have to stay updated on your team’s progress and performance and adjust your plan if they aren’t meeting benchmarks.

Communication is a key element of planning. Managers must clearly communicate the plan to their team for them to properly execute the work. But they must also communicate with stakeholders and keep them updated on the progress of the work that they’re invested in.

Function 2: Organizing

Organization falls on every aspect of a manager’s responsibility. You can’t manage teams successfully without having some kind of organization. When you prioritize tasks in planning, you keep your organization in detail .

In terms of the larger picture when it comes to organization, a manager is responsible for ensuring their company, department or project is running smoothly. This is done by creating internal processes and structures, as well as understanding your team or employees so you can place them where they’re best suited. Managers have to keep their work organized and manage the operation of their department and the people therein.

That doesn’t mean a manager is only delegating tasks and making sure those working under them have the resources they need. They must keep an eye on the processes and structures they employ and adjust them as needed to ensure they’re working efficiently and keeping everyone productive. This organizing function is critical, which is why it’s one of the essential functions of management.

Get your free

RACI Matrix Template

Use this free RACI Matrix Template for Excel to manage your projects better.

Function 3: Leading

Leading is about having the skills, communication aptitude and ability to motivate those you manage. Leadership is a critical role for anyone in management, which is why it’s one of the four functions of management. If you can’t lead, regardless of your leadership style, you won’t be a successful manager. It’s about building trust with your team.

Leadership skills include conflict resolution . When managing a diverse group, there will be conflicts that can delay tasks and cost your organization money. The better you are at identifying and resolving these conflicts, the better your management is.

Leadership styles vary, but they share giving their teams a strong sense of direction when defining goals and objectives. This is regardless of if they’re assigning regular work or introducing a new process to the team.

Because leadership can be expressed in myriad ways, managers of all types can find themselves cast as leaders. Some are more top-down authoritarians; they employ autocratic leadership. Conversely, there are bottom-up managers who seek collaboration from everyone and encourage employees to participate in the process.

Whatever leadership style you have, or a combination of leadership styles, it can be applied to the way you manage your team members. Even the most hands-off leaders motivate and drive their teams to successful ends. There’s no one way to do this, but the basic functions of a strong leader in management are understanding employees and what takes to get the best out of them.

Function 4: Controlling

The controlling function involves monitoring and tracking progress and performance to help make decisions in a work environment. You can plan, organize and lead to your heart’s content, but if you’re not monitoring the quality of work, you’re in trouble. If you need help with the controlling process, try our free dashboard template.

Beyond progress, performance and quality, the controlling process also includes how efficiently they’re doing their jobs and how reliable they are when taking on their tasks. Another term for this is control management and quality management. It’s a part of any decision-making process. You can’t make an insightful choice without data to support it.

The purpose of controlling in management isn’t to dominate your workers but to make sure they’re meeting the goals and objectives of the business. Some managers prefer to chart out the entire workflow of their teams while others allow their workers to be self-directed.

These are two sides of the same coin: delivering quality, on time and within the budget projects. Controlling is the most important aspect of the four management functions. It’s about meeting your financial goals and should be at the forefront of your management team.

How ProjectManager Helps With the Four Functions of Management

ProjectManager is an online tool that gives managers the tools they need to plan, organize, lead and control their teams, whether they’re under the same roof, distributed across time zones or in different departments. ProjectManager’s features give you real-time data to make more insightful decisions, work more productively and deliver success.

Easily Create Robust Project Plans

Making a successful plan means organizing tasks, linking dependencies and setting milestones. One of ProjectManager’s multiple project views is an interactive Gantt chart that does that and much more. You can easily filter for the critical path instead of taking time with complicated calculations. Then, set the baseline. Now, you’ve captured the plan to compare it to your actual effort once you start working.

Monitor Your Team’s Progress in Real-Time and Improve the Organization

You can’t control your team if you’re not monitoring them. You don’t want to get in their way, though, which is why ProjectManager’s real-time dashboard automatically collects data and calculates that information into easy-to-read graphs and charts on workload, time, cost and more. It’s like getting an instant status report whenever you want.

Generate Reports for Shareholders and Enhance the Controlling Function

To drill down deeper into the data use, ProjectManager’s one-click reports, which you can filter to focus only on the information you want to see. ProjectManager has a report on timesheets to see how long teams are taking on their tasks, project variance to capture the planned versus actual effort and even portfolio status reports if you’re managing more than one project. Reports can then be shared with stakeholders to keep them updated. This has obvious applications to the four functions of management.

ProjectManager is award-winning software that helps manage teams, no matter where they are or how they work. Our tool connects teams to help them work better while giving managers the transparency they need to better lead and deliver results for their stakeholders. Get started today for free and join the 35,000-plus professionals using ProjectManager.

Deliver your projects on time and under budget

Start planning your projects.

Explore Jobs

• Jobs Near Me
• Remote Jobs
• Full Time Jobs
• Part Time Jobs
• Entry Level Jobs
• Work From Home Jobs

Find Specific Jobs

• $15 Per Hour Jobs
• $20 Per Hour Jobs
• Hiring Immediately Jobs
• High School Jobs
• H1b Visa Jobs

Explore Careers

• Business And Financial
• Architecture And Engineering
• Computer And Mathematical

Explore Professions

• What They Do
• Certifications
• Demographics

Best Companies

• Health Care
• Fortune 500

Explore Companies

• CEO And Executies
• Resume Builder
• Career Advice
• Explore Majors
• Questions And Answers
• Interview Questions

The Four Functions of Management (With Examples)

• What Is A Mentor
• Mentor Traits
• Talent Management
• Performance Improvement Plan
• Performance Review Phrases
• Four Functions Of Management
• Difference Between Goals And Objectives
• How To Give Employees Feedback
• What Is An Operational Environment
• Key Success Factors
• How To Not Get Fired
• How To Be More Confident At Work
• One-On-One Meeting
• Performance Management
• Professional Development
• The Peter Principle
• Positive Feedback
• Low Hanging Fruit
• Upskill Your Employees
• Motivation Letter

The four functions of management are generally accepted to be planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Managers need to be able to effectively make use of each of these functions to be successful in leading their direct reports. Properly managing a team leads to higher productivity, better relationships, and trust.

Being an effective manager is complex and requires adapting to situations. If you’re wondering what the four functions of management are, then this article will delve into the four functions and how they help you to manage a team.

Key Takeaways:

Planning requires identifying challenges and formulating objectives accurately.

To lead successfully, create a shared vision, communicate effectively, and lead by example.

Understanding and mastering these four functions will allow you to lead teams that break records and stand out in the workplace.

Using the four functions will create stronger bonds between a manager and the employee and create an overall better work environment.

The four functions of management

Tips for practicing the four functions of management, the four functions of management faq, final thoughts.

• Sign Up For More Advice and Jobs

The four functions of management are often laid out as if they’re meant to be in order: plan, organize, lead, and control. Managing a project rarely goes in a straight line, meaning that your management style can get tangled up. While not being rigid is a positive thing, sometimes it’s good to return to basics so you don’t get pulled off course.

Here’s more detail on the four essential managerial tasks: planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

Planning. Managers must navigate the decision-making process to help their team reach company goals. Effectively mapping out a strategy to tackle a project is a must for a manager, as it breaks the project down into pieces that can be completed by team members.

Effective planning involves a few important aspects:

Identify challenges. Managers need to be aware of the challenges facing their team or business and what potential solutions are available to them.

Forecast future business. To determine the proper solution to each challenge, managers must be able to forecast the future impact of each particular solution on the business.

Formulate objectives and deadlines. Once a solution to a problem is identified, a manager needs to create a game plan to apply it. This involves planning out individual steps and setting appropriate deadlines and time frames .

Reevaluation. Managers need to stay constantly alert to changing situations. If a plan requires adjustments or isn’t working at all, it’s up to managers to identify the proper direction to lead the team.

Maintain efficiency . Throughout the entire planning process, effective managers should also understand how to allocate resources and reduce waste efficiently.

Organizing. To complete projects or meet any other company goals, managers must effectively organize resources. Doing so is often a fine balancing act, as any given team will only have a limited pool of available workers, funding, and other resources to accomplish their objectives.

Creating structure. The main purpose of organizing is to create structure and a set of rules to follow. This includes assigning authority, laying the groundwork for the project, and setting expectations for employees.

Assigning tasks. A vital part of organizing a project is deciding who does what. If a task doesn’t end up being anyone’s responsibility, there’s a good chance it won’t be finished. That’s why assignments are so important: they ensure the project runs smoothly.

Allocating resources. In order to get a project done, you’ll need resources. Budgeting, equipment, technology, and office space are all necessary resources, and personnel need access to them to be able to proceed.

Determining staffing needs. As goals change, your need for staff will also change. Who gets assigned where is an aspect of this, as is whether or not you need to hire new personnel. As times change, different departments become more important, or will need to be created, and staffing needs change as a result.

Leading. Sometimes referred to as motivating or even directing, this is where managers show their leadership skills. Managers give their direct reports goals and objectives, as well as check in to make sure that they’re accomplishing their assigned tasks.

There are generally considered to be four overarching styles of leading:

Directing. If you tend to give your employees detailed assigned tasks and then leave them to it, you’re a director . That means that you give precise instructions, but aren’t very involved in how your subordinates go about completing the task.

Coaching. This is the most hands-on of the four styles. The coaching style involves detailed instructions along with a lot of follow-up and assistance. This is most often needed for new employees who are still learning or an employee that’s taking on a new task or role.

Supporting. Almost the exact opposite of directing, supporting is not giving your employees a lot of direction in their task, but offering yourself to help whenever they need it.

Delegating. This is the most hands-off of any of the leadership styles. Delegating means that you essentially cede part of your authority to a direct report. They are then completely in charge of whatever the task is, and you trust them to make decisions where needed.

Controlling. Despite the negative aspect of the word control, this is just as import an aspect of management as any other. Keeping control of the project and the employees is a requirement, in terms of maintaining authority and keeping control of the project itself.

There are two primary aspects to controlling:

Budgeting. Making alterations to the budget may become necessary as a project progresses. This can be cutting back on certain places, or going over budget in others. Sometimes money needs to be pulled from one place to another, or pieces need to be cut out entirely.

Staffing. If your staff isn’t performing properly — or you don’t have enough — then altering the dynamic is necessary. This can be hiring new people, reassigning employees, or letting them go.

Whether you’re an engineer or marketing manager , the principles behind effective management remain the same.

Follow these tips to maximize your performance:

Planning tips

Effective planners employ strategies to help them accurately identify important tasks and their priority levels and determine appropriate timelines to complete them:

Carefully assess time frames.

Before setting any concrete time frames for a major task, carefully evaluate whether the deadline is appropriate.

Casually committing to unreasonable time frames can cause major problems for a project later down the line.

If you later realize that a certain task requires more time than originally planned, then you may need to delay other dependent tasks as a result.

This translates to a massive waste of resources in multiple areas.

Some employees will be sitting idly, while others will be overworked and lose morale . Your team may suffer the consequences of delayed deadlines, and in extreme cases, entire projects will need to be abandoned.

Perform SWOT analysis. A SWOT analysis provides you with a comprehensive view of your team’s strengths, weaknesses, and potential risks.

Understanding your company’s strengths allows you to choose the right strategies for capitalizing on short-term opportunities.

Identifying weaknesses and risks are critical for improving them and setting your business on the right path for long-term growth.

Organizing tips

Effective resource coordination is a foundational requirement for any business or team’s future success. Disorganized managers result in employees being shuffled around and resource bottlenecks, which are both highly disruptive to any team’s goals.

Define and classify activities. Before assigning a single employee, clearly define the goals and duties associated with each position.

You don’t want to realize later on that although a certain employee’s job title matches the position, their experience doesn’t match what’s required in this specific case.

Many companies also fail to recognize tasks that could be easily automated , which translates to employee hours constantly wasted.

Specify reporting status/breadth of power. Even if a team or company is filled with competent employees, it’s doomed to fail if there isn’t a coherent internal structure.

Specify which roles report to which management positions, and determine the breadth of power that each supervisor holds in different departments.

Don’t be scared to alter your team’s structure. Many initially successful start-ups fail because they weren’t able to adjust to rapid growth.

As long as you’ve closely analyzed the pros and cons, don’t be scared to make necessary drastic changes to your team’s internal structure.

Leading tips

Effective leadership isn’t hard science, but there are key principles that most great leaders put into practice.

Create a shared vision. Align the success of the team with that of the individual.

Although bonuses and financial incentives are great tools, they shouldn’t be the only motivators you employ.

Try to provide training and developmental opportunities for your employees to list on their resumes and cover letters . Challenge them and make projects gratifying experiences to work through.

Establish a positive team culture where employees support each other and celebrate their progress and victories.

Lead by example. Exemplify the qualities that you want your team to have.

If team members see you tackling a difficult project with an obstacle head-on, they’ll feel compelled to put in the same amount of effort and do their part.

If you foster a positive attitude, others will react accordingly and spread that mindset around the team.

Develop strong communication skills . You need to inspire employees so that they become self-motivating.

Being a good listener and using empathy allows you to identify team members’ concerns and questions before they become problems.

Managers are responsible for ensuring that all employees understand the team’s objectives. You shouldn’t just say them and assume that everyone is on board.

Make sure that each employee knows what’s expected of them and adjust your communication methods to match the individual.

With the rise of remote work and team communications moving to platforms such as Slack , you need to adjust and make sure you’re proficient with the necessary tools.

Teams are often diverse in their personalities and backgrounds, meaning that miscommunication and conflicts will inevitably arise. You need to be able to adjudicate and resolve miscommunications in a way that’s perceived as fair by all.

Foster respect and trust. There are many ways to build respect and trust with your fellow team members.

Rather than micromanage employees, monitor their performance.

If a worker is performing poorly, then try and step in and assess how you can help them improve. If an employee is meeting performance standards, then micromanagement and constant supervision will only disrupt their activities.

Team lunches can also be a great way to get to know your coworkers and build a cohesive team dynamic.

Controlling tips

Controlling is all about making sure that objectives are met and understanding how to make appropriate adjustments when issues arise.

Set concrete quality standards.

Set concrete standards so that you can actually determine if a particular goal has been met.

This is especially important to do for project milestones. It’s bad if a team is behind schedule or underperforming, but downright disastrous if they don’t even realize it.

Concrete standards allow you and supervisors under you to identify poor performance and respond accordingly.

Monitor, but don’t micromanage. You need to develop a strategy so that managers in each department can continually monitor workers’ work quality and performance.

However, make sure that your method doesn’t micromanage and disrupt employee activities.

Prepare strategies for improving performance. You want to prepare methods for responding to poor performance and contingencies before they actually occur.

This could come in the form of training programs or resources to help employees . It could also involve alternative business procedures and processes.

What are examples of the four functions of management?

Examples of the four functions of management include planning checkpoints into a project schedule to help your team hit the end deadline, assigning tasks to team members in accordance with their skills, leading by example by assigning yourself a task and completing it well, and readjusting the team’s workload as needed throughout the project.

Planning. Incorporating checkpoints or mini-deadlines into a project to help ensure your team is going to hit their end goal on time is an example of the planning function of management. By slicing up the timeline into smaller, more manageable chunks, your team will (hopefully) be less likely to procrastinate, and you’ll be able to review their work and make adjustments along the way.

In setting up these deadlines, you’ll be identifying challenges that your team may run into along the way and creating solutions to overcome, avoid, or minimize them. You’ll also be reevaluating the project’s performance as it moves along and ensuring it’s as efficient as possible, all of which are important steps in the planning function of management.

Organizing. Organizing is the second function of management, and a large part of this is assigning tasks to your team members according to their abilities. This requires knowing what needs to be done to finish a project and understanding what each of your team members brings to the table as far as strengths, weaknesses, available time, and the assumed time it will take to complete.

Leading. The third function of management is leadership, and one of the most powerful forms of this is leading by example. Don’t just assign a bunch of tasks and then go hide in your office until the project’s done. Show your team that you’re invested in the project by taking on some tasks yourself.

That doesn’t mean micromanaging or taking over someone else’s job, but you can take on appropriate tasks such as ensuring your team has all the resources they need when they need them, setting up clear communication channels so no one is confused or frustrated, and providing support with anything else you can, even if that’s buying everyone lunch during crunch time.

Controlling. Finally, being willing to readjust the workload as the project progresses is an example of the controlling function of management. You can’t just set a project in motion and walk away: You need to keep tabs on it and make adjustments as it progresses. This often means reassigning tasks as some turn out to be more time-consuming, challenging, or unproductive than expected.

How do you describe the type of management activity with each function of management?

You can describe the type of management activity with the planning function of management as looking ahead at the goals your team needs to reach and the challenges they might encounter along the way. Then, you make a plan to get to those goals and conquer those challenges.

For the organizing function of management, you can describe it as taking stock of and managing resources in a way that allows your team to reach their goals. These resources may be physical materials and finances, but they also may be people, which means you need to be able to assess each team member’s strengths and weaknesses and train them and assign them tasks accordingly.

You can describe the leading function of management as directing and motivating your team members so that they can accomplish their goals. This involves communicating with them, motivating them, and providing them with opportunities to grow, as well as standing up for them, getting them the resources they need, and leading by example.

What are the three levels of management and their functions?

The three levels of management are administrative, executive, and supervisory. Their functions are to oversee the company’s direction, policies, and strategies, to ensure departments are functioning in accordance with that direction and those policies and strategies, and to oversee and direct the day-to-day activities of employees, respectively.

Administrative. The administrative level of management is also called the managerial or top level of management, and it comprises companies’ CEOs and boards of directors. These leaders are responsible for the big picture of the company: What its ultimate mission is and the widespread policies and practices that will allow it to get there.

Executive. The executive or middle-level management’s job is to ensure that those policies and practices are successfully put into practice in their respective departments. These managers do more day-to-day than the administrative managers do, but they’re also in charge of the big-picture success of their departments, giving them a unique set of responsibilities.

This level of management is made up of branch managers, department heads, and vice presidents, and it can often include multiple layers of managers.

Supervisory. The third level of management is the supervisory level, also referred to as the operative or lower level of management. These managers work directly with employees to ensure their work is furthering goals and strategies put into place by middle- and upper-level managers.

These managers have the most day-to-day responsibilities such as creating work schedules, assigning tasks, motivating employees, and handling workers’ mistakes or complaints. They’re the ones tasked with making sure the week’s work gets done correctly and on time so that the company can meet its overarching goals.

Why are the four functions of management important?

The four functions of management are important because they’re a way to order management’s duties and ensure that projects are done properly. Managers aren’t required to follow them to the letter, but they do offer guidelines and guardrails in terms of how to manage, as well as a roadmap to being an effective manager.

Developing your leadership skills will lead to career success, but knowing how to make decisions and execute plans is only half the battle. Understanding the key functions of your role will help keep you on track and make you a more effective leader .

For managers looking to improve employee performance and engagement, taking the time to assess your own leadership style and identify areas for improvement will help make you a more effective leader. Whether it’s planning, organizing, leading, or controlling, every manager can take steps toward better adhering to the four functions of management.

Fort Hays State University – The Four Functions of Management: An Essential Guide to Management Principles

Forbes — The Role of the Successful Manager in Four Simple Functions

Harvard Business Review — The Role of a Manager Has to Change in 5 Key Ways

How useful was this post?

Click on a star to rate it!

Average rating / 5. Vote count:

No votes so far! Be the first to rate this post.

Kate is a graduate of Brigham Young University, where she completed a degree in Comparative Literature with a minor in Mathematics. She lives in the Pacific Northwest and enjoys hiking and reading.

Recent Job Searches

• Registered Nurse Jobs Resume Location
• Truck Driver Jobs Resume Location
• Call Center Representative Jobs Resume Location
• Customer Service Representative Jobs Resume
• Delivery Driver Jobs Resume Location
• Warehouse Worker Jobs Resume Location
• Account Executive Jobs Resume Location
• Sales Associate Jobs Resume Location
• Licensed Practical Nurse Jobs Resume Location
• Company Driver Jobs Resume

Related posts

What Makes A Great Mentor?

Motivational And Inspirational Quotes For Work

SMART Goals: Time Management Training

What Is Low-Hanging Fruit In Business?

• Career Advice >
• Get Promoted >

• Management Basics
• Functions of Management

Management has been described as a social process involving responsibility for economical and effective planning & regulation of operation of an enterprise in the fulfillment of given purposes.

It is a dynamic process consisting of various elements and activities. These activities are different from operative functions like marketing, finance, purchase etc. Rather these activities are common to each and every manger irrespective of his level or status.

Different experts have classified functions of management.

According to George & Jerry , “There are four fundamental functions of management i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and controlling”.

According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to control”.

Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ’ POSDCORB ’ where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for reporting & B for Budgeting.

But the most widely accepted are functions of management given by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL i.e. Planning , Organizing , Staffing , Directing and Controlling .

For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the function of management but practically these functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each function blends into the other & each affects the performance of others.

It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals.

According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be”.

A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making .

Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals.

Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

Know more about - Planning Function of Management

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals.

According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel’s”.

To organize a business involves determining & providing human and non-human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves:

Know more about - Organizing Function of Management

It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc.

The main purpose of staffing is to put right man/woman on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes.

According to Koontz & O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure”. Staffing involves:

Know more about - Staffing Function of Management

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes.

It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion and action of people, because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work.

Direction is that inter-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

Know more about - Directing Function of Management

Controlling

It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals.

The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations before they actually occur.

According to Theo Haimann , “Controlling is the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation”.

According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:

Know more about - Controlling Function of Management

  Related Articles

• Planning Function of Management
• Organizing Function of Management
• Staffing Function of Management
• Directing Function of Management
• Controlling Function of Management
• Principles of Management
• Importance of Management
• Management and Administration

View All Articles

Authorship/Referencing - About the Author(s)

The article is Written and Reviewed by Management Study Guide Content Team . MSG Content Team comprises experienced Faculty Member, Professionals and Subject Matter Experts. We are a ISO 2001:2015 Certified Education Provider . To Know more, click on About Us . The use of this material is free for learning and education purpose. Please reference authorship of content used, including link(s) to ManagementStudyGuide.com and the content page url.

• What is Management ?
• Management as a Process
• Management as an Activity
• Management as a Discipline
• Management as a Group
• Management as a Science
• Management as an Art
• Management as a Profession
• Features of Management
• Levels of Management
• Objectives of Management
• Co-ordination - Introduction
• Co-ordination and Co-operation
• Management Principles
• Management Principles - Features
• Importance of Management Principles
• How Management Functions are Performed at Coca Cola
• Scientific Management - Introduction
• Principles of Scientific Management
• Techniques of Scientific Management
• Criticism of Scientific Management
• Taylor and Fayol

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

1.5 Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling

Learning objectives.

• Know the dimensions of the planning-organizing-leading-controlling (P-O-L-C) framework.
• Know the general inputs into each P-O-L-C dimension.

A manager’s primary challenge is to solve problems creatively. While drawing from a variety of academic disciplines, and to help managers respond to the challenge of creative problem solving, principles of management have long been categorized into the four major functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling (the P-O-L-C framework). The four functions, summarized in the P-O-L-C figure, are actually highly integrated when carried out in the day-to-day realities of running an organization. Therefore, you should not get caught up in trying to analyze and understand a complete, clear rationale for categorizing skills and practices that compose the whole of the P-O-L-C framework.

It is important to note that this framework is not without criticism. Specifically, these criticisms stem from the observation that the P-O-L-C functions might be ideal but that they do not accurately depict the day-to-day actions of actual managers (Mintzberg, 1973; Lamond, 2004). The typical day in the life of a manager at any level can be fragmented and hectic, with the constant threat of having priorities dictated by the law of the trivial many and important few (i.e., the 80/20 rule). However, the general conclusion seems to be that the P-O-L-C functions of management still provide a very useful way of classifying the activities managers engage in as they attempt to achieve organizational goals (Lamond, 2004).

Figure 1.7 The P-O-L-C Framework

Planning is the function of management that involves setting objectives and determining a course of action for achieving those objectives. Planning requires that managers be aware of environmental conditions facing their organization and forecast future conditions. It also requires that managers be good decision makers.

Planning is a process consisting of several steps. The process begins with environmental scanning which simply means that planners must be aware of the critical contingencies facing their organization in terms of economic conditions, their competitors, and their customers. Planners must then attempt to forecast future conditions. These forecasts form the basis for planning.

Planners must establish objectives, which are statements of what needs to be achieved and when. Planners must then identify alternative courses of action for achieving objectives. After evaluating the various alternatives, planners must make decisions about the best courses of action for achieving objectives. They must then formulate necessary steps and ensure effective implementation of plans. Finally, planners must constantly evaluate the success of their plans and take corrective action when necessary.

There are many different types of plans and planning.

Strategic planning involves analyzing competitive opportunities and threats, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the organization, and then determining how to position the organization to compete effectively in their environment. Strategic planning has a long time frame, often three years or more. Strategic planning generally includes the entire organization and includes formulation of objectives. Strategic planning is often based on the organization’s mission, which is its fundamental reason for existence. An organization’s top management most often conducts strategic planning.

Tactical planning is intermediate-range (one to three years) planning that is designed to develop relatively concrete and specific means to implement the strategic plan. Middle-level managers often engage in tactical planning.

Operational planning generally assumes the existence of organization-wide or subunit goals and objectives and specifies ways to achieve them. Operational planning is short-range (less than a year) planning that is designed to develop specific action steps that support the strategic and tactical plans.

Organizing is the function of management that involves developing an organizational structure and allocating human resources to ensure the accomplishment of objectives. The structure of the organization is the framework within which effort is coordinated. The structure is usually represented by an organization chart, which provides a graphic representation of the chain of command within an organization. Decisions made about the structure of an organization are generally referred to as organizational design decisions.

Organizing also involves the design of individual jobs within the organization. Decisions must be made about the duties and responsibilities of individual jobs, as well as the manner in which the duties should be carried out. Decisions made about the nature of jobs within the organization are generally called “job design” decisions.

Organizing at the level of the organization involves deciding how best to departmentalize, or cluster, jobs into departments to coordinate effort effectively. There are many different ways to departmentalize, including organizing by function, product, geography, or customer. Many larger organizations use multiple methods of departmentalization.

Organizing at the level of a particular job involves how best to design individual jobs to most effectively use human resources. Traditionally, job design was based on principles of division of labor and specialization, which assumed that the more narrow the job content, the more proficient the individual performing the job could become. However, experience has shown that it is possible for jobs to become too narrow and specialized. For example, how would you like to screw lids on jars one day after another, as you might have done many decades ago if you worked in company that made and sold jellies and jams? When this happens, negative outcomes result, including decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment, increased absenteeism, and turnover.

Recently, many organizations have attempted to strike a balance between the need for worker specialization and the need for workers to have jobs that entail variety and autonomy. Many jobs are now designed based on such principles as empowerment, job enrichment and teamwork . For example, HUI Manufacturing, a custom sheet metal fabricator, has done away with traditional “departments” to focus on listening and responding to customer needs. From company-wide meetings to team huddles, HUI employees know and understand their customers and how HUI might service them best (Huimfg, 2008).

Leading involves the social and informal sources of influence that you use to inspire action taken by others. If managers are effective leaders, their subordinates will be enthusiastic about exerting effort to attain organizational objectives.

The behavioral sciences have made many contributions to understanding this function of management. Personality research and studies of job attitudes provide important information as to how managers can most effectively lead subordinates. For example, this research tells us that to become effective at leading, managers must first understand their subordinates’ personalities, values, attitudes, and emotions.

Studies of motivation and motivation theory provide important information about the ways in which workers can be energized to put forth productive effort. Studies of communication provide direction as to how managers can effectively and persuasively communicate. Studies of leadership and leadership style provide information regarding questions, such as, “What makes a manager a good leader?” and “In what situations are certain leadership styles most appropriate and effective?”

Quality control ensures that the organization delivers on its promises.

International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center – Maize seed quality control at small seed company Bidasem – CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Controlling

Controlling involves ensuring that performance does not deviate from standards. Controlling consists of three steps, which include (1) establishing performance standards, (2) comparing actual performance against standards, and (3) taking corrective action when necessary. Performance standards are often stated in monetary terms such as revenue, costs, or profits but may also be stated in other terms, such as units produced, number of defective products, or levels of quality or customer service.

The measurement of performance can be done in several ways, depending on the performance standards, including financial statements, sales reports, production results, customer satisfaction, and formal performance appraisals. Managers at all levels engage in the managerial function of controlling to some degree.

The managerial function of controlling should not be confused with control in the behavioral or manipulative sense. This function does not imply that managers should attempt to control or to manipulate the personalities, values, attitudes, or emotions of their subordinates. Instead, this function of management concerns the manager’s role in taking necessary actions to ensure that the work-related activities of subordinates are consistent with and contributing toward the accomplishment of organizational and departmental objectives.

Effective controlling requires the existence of plans, since planning provides the necessary performance standards or objectives. Controlling also requires a clear understanding of where responsibility for deviations from standards lies. Two traditional control techniques are budget and performance audits. An audit involves an examination and verification of records and supporting documents. A budget audit provides information about where the organization is with respect to what was planned or budgeted for, whereas a performance audit might try to determine whether the figures reported are a reflection of actual performance. Although controlling is often thought of in terms of financial criteria, managers must also control production and operations processes, procedures for delivery of services, compliance with company policies, and many other activities within the organization.

The management functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling are widely considered to be the best means of describing the manager’s job, as well as the best way to classify accumulated knowledge about the study of management. Although there have been tremendous changes in the environment faced by managers and the tools used by managers to perform their roles, managers still perform these essential functions.

Key Takeaway

The principles of management can be distilled down to four critical functions. These functions are planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. This P-O-L-C framework provides useful guidance into what the ideal job of a manager should look like.

• What are the management functions that comprise the P-O-L-C framework?
• Are there any criticisms of this framework?
• What function does planning serve?
• What function does organizing serve?
• What function does leading serve?
• What function does controlling serve?

Huimfg.com, http://www.huimfg.com/abouthui-yourteams.aspx (accessed October 15, 2008).

Lamond, D, “A Matter of Style: Reconciling Henri and Henry,” Management Decision 42, no. 2 (2004): 330–56.

Mintzberg, H. The Nature of Managerial Work (New York: Harper & Row, 1973); D. Lamond, “A Matter of Style: Reconciling Henri and Henry,” Management Decision 42 , no. 2 (2004): 330–56.

Principles of Management Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Assignment on The Five Functions of Management

The Five Functions of Management

• Controlling

Our Management functions:

• A manager who happens to manage a farm or horticultural business.
• A manager challenged to make efficient use of resources.
• A manager challenged with getting things done through people.
• A manager who has opportunity to use of all the tools of management that any other manager uses.
• A manager who has a way of life like any other manager.

Management functions are about changing people not about changing businesses. We change people by helping them improve their management skills. Our expectation is that with these tools, they are then likely to change their businesses.

Management:

In Management Function, we start with an assumption of the universality of management. Management is management. Management is generic. Management principles are general rather than specific to a type of firm or organization. However, management is universal only if the manager has become familiar with the specific situation in which it is applied. Production technology, customer characteristics and the culture of the industry are examples of specifics that managers need to learn to be effective in applying their generic management skills.

A definition:

Management is creative problem solving. This creative problem solving is accomplished through four functions of management: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. The intended result is the use of an organization’s resources in a way that accomplishes its mission and objectives.

In Management Function, this standard definition is modified to align more closely with our teaching objectives and to communicate more clearly the content of the organizing function. Organizing is divided into organizing and staffing so that the importance of staffing in small businesses receives emphasis along side organizing. In the management literature, directing and leading are used interchangeably.

Planning is the ongoing process of developing the business’ mission and objectives and determining how they will be accomplished. Planning includes both the broadest view of the organization, e.g., its mission, and the narrowest, e.g., a tactic for accomplishing a specific goal.

Organizing:

Organizing is establishing the internal organizational structure of the organization. The focus is on division, coordination, and control of tasks and the flow of information within the organization. It is in this function that managers distribute authority to job holders.

Staffing is filling and keeping filled with qualified people all positions in the business. Recruiting, hiring, training, evaluating and compensating are the specific activities included in the function. In the family business, staffing includes all paid and unpaid positions held by family members including the owner/operators.

Directing is influencing people’s behavior through motivation, communication, group dynamics, leadership and discipline. The purpose of directing is to channel the behavior of all personnel to accomplish the organization’s mission and objectives while simultaneously helping them accomplish their own career objectives.

Controlling:

Controlling is a four-step process of establishing performance standards based on the firm’s objectives, measuring and reporting actual performance, comparing the two, and taking corrective or preventive action as necessary.

Each of these functions involves creative problem solving. Creative problem solving is broader than problem finding, choice making or decision making. It extends from analysis of the environment within which the business is functioning to evaluation of the outcomes from the alternative implemented.

An Important Qualification to Success:

Management success is gained through accomplishment of mission and objectives. Managers fail when they do not accomplish mission and objectives. Success and failure are tied directly to the reasons for being in business, i.e., mission and objectives. However, accomplishing mission and objectives is not sufficient. Success requires both effectiveness and efficiency. Managers who accomplish their mission and objectives are said to be effective. Efficiency describes the relationship between the amount of resources used (input) and the extent to which objectives were accomplished (output). If the cost of accomplishing an objective is prohibitive, then the objective is not realistic in the context of the firm’s resources. Additional planning is necessary.

Management Skills:

Management Function concentrates on building management skills. There are three basic management skills: technical, human and conceptual. A technical skill is the ability to use tools, techniques, and specialized knowledge to carry out a method, process, or procedure. Much of the technology that farmers know and can use so well comes under this management skill. Human skills are used to build positive interpersonal relationships, solve human relations problems, build acceptance of one’s co-workers, and relate to them in a way that their behavior is consistent with the needs of the organization. Conceptual skills involve the ability to see the organization as a whole and to solve problems in a way that benefits the entire organization. Analytical, creative and intuitive talents make up the manager’s conceptual skills.

A Guarantee of Success?

Management Function does not and can not guarantee management success. As excited as we may be about the progress being made by some Management Function graduates, the reality is, “Sometimes the Dragon Wins!” Both factors external to the firm uncontrollable by managers and internal factors not perfectly controllable frustrate a manager’s use of her or his management skills. Nevertheless, Management Function remains firmly grounded on the teaching of five functions of management with the conviction that these functions define well what it is a manager must do to maximize the chances of success.

Explain Training In Global Project Management

Benefits of a successful appraisal system, british telecom -telephone account management, measuring peoples perception to understand branding in bangladesh, content management, information technology could benefit from majorana fermions’ zero resistance, abernathyite description with properties, the wooing of olwen, annual report 2012-2013 of karur vysya bank, southeast asian startups to watch in 2022, latest post, oceanic crust, hydrogen valve, climate and rock weathering – the biggest carbon sinks are low-lying mountain ranges, finding novel physics in the debris of colliding neutron stars, sulfur and life’s origin, cathodic protection – a technique for controlling corrosion.

Phone Login

Looks like you already have an account with this ID. You can try logging in

Forgot password?

Back to login

Register Now

This Email id already exist please try loging in

Create an account to find courses best suited to your profile

• April 18, 2023

What is Management? Definition, Functions, Levels, and Objectives

Drop your details to know more about programme

• Mobile Number *
• State * State* Andaman and Nicobar Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chandigarh Chhattisgarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Lakshadweep Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Odisha Puducherry Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Telangana Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal
• I accept Terms and Conditions

Management plays a crucial role within every organization as it encompasses the orchestration of resources to realize specific objectives. In simpler terms, management is the systematic procedure of strategizing, structuring, guiding, and overseeing the endeavors of individuals striving to meet the goals of the organization. This pivotal function is instrumental in enabling organizations to achieve efficiency and effectiveness in their operations.

The concept of management has evolved over time, and today, it encompasses a range of activities that are designed to help organizations achieve their objectives. In this article, we will explore what management is, its functions, the different levels of management, and the skills required to be an effective manager.

Functions of Management

The functions of management are the fundamental activities that managers perform to ensure that an organization achieves its goals. These functions are essential to the success of an organization, regardless of its size, structure, or industry. The four primary functions of management are planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

• Planning : Planning involves the formulation of objectives, the crafting of strategies to achieve those objectives, and the development of plans that harmonize and coordinate activities. This process enables managers to anticipate potential challenges and opportunities, allocate resources with precision, and align organizational efforts with the mission, vision, and values of the organization.
• Organizing : Organizing encompasses the structuring of people, resources, and tasks in pursuit of the organization’s goals. It entails creating a formal framework that defines the roles and responsibilities of individuals and groups, establishing transparent channels for communication and authority, and implementing systems and procedures that promote the efficient and effective utilization of resources.
• Leading : Leading is the art of inspiring and motivating individuals to work collaboratively towards the organization’s objectives. This process entails creating a compelling vision, setting a clear direction, empowering and encouraging employees, and nurturing relationships with stakeholders to secure their support and dedication to the organization’s goals.
• Controlling : Controlling entails the meticulous observation and assessment of organizational performance and the implementation of corrective actions when needed. This involves establishing performance benchmarks, evaluating actual results against planned outcomes, pinpointing variances and their underlying causes, and taking measures to ensure the organization attains its objectives.

Each of these functions is interrelated and interdependent. Planning provides the foundation for organizing, leading, and controlling, and each function helps ensure that the others are carried out effectively. For example, organizing provides the structure and resources that support leading and controlling, while leading provides the motivation and guidance that support organizing and controlling.

Effective management requires a balance of all four functions, with each function contributing to the achievement of organizational goals. Skilled managers understand the importance of each function and are able to apply them in a way that is tailored to the needs of their organization. By performing these functions effectively, managers can create a culture of success, in which employees are motivated, productive, and committed to the organization’s mission and values.

Levels of Management

Levels of management refer to the hierarchical arrangement of positions and roles in an organization. There are typically three levels of management in most organizations: top-level, middle-level, and lower-level. Each level of management is responsible for specific tasks and decision-making processes within the organization.

• Top-level management : Top-level management consists of executives and senior-level managers who are responsible for setting the overall direction and strategy for the organization. These managers make high-level decisions regarding the organization’s goals, policies, and procedures. They are responsible for managing the organization’s relationships with external stakeholders, such as investors, regulators, and customers. Top-level managers also oversee the work of middle and lower-level managers.
• Middle-level management : Middle-level management consists of managers who are responsible for implementing the strategies and policies developed by top-level management. These managers oversee the work of lower-level managers and employees. They are responsible for ensuring that the organization’s goals are achieved through effective planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Middle-level managers also serve as a link between top-level management and lower-level managers and employees.
• Lower-level management : Lower-level management consists of supervisors, team leaders, and other managers who are responsible for the day-to-day operations of the organization. These managers oversee the work of front-line employees and are responsible for ensuring that the organization’s goals are achieved at the operational level. They are responsible for implementing the policies and procedures developed by top-level and middle-level management and for providing feedback to higher-level managers on the effectiveness of those policies and procedures.

Each level of management plays a critical role in the success of the organization. Effective communication and collaboration between these levels are essential to ensure that the organization’s goals are achieved. Top-level management sets the overall direction and strategy for the organization, middle-level management implements those strategies, and lower-level management ensures that the strategies are executed effectively. By working together, these levels of management can create a culture of success and achieve the organization’s goals.

Objectives of Management

The objectives of management are the goals that managers aim to achieve through their actions and decisions. These objectives are critical for the success of an organization, as they provide a clear direction for managers and employees to follow. The primary objectives of management include:

• Maximizing profits : One of the primary objectives of management is to maximize profits. This involves managing the organization’s resources effectively to generate revenue and reduce costs, thus increasing the organization’s profits.
• Increasing market share : Another important objective of management is to increase the organization’s market share. This involves developing strategies to expand the organization’s customer base and increase its share of the market.
• Improving product quality : Management also aims to improve the quality of the organization’s products or services. This involves developing and implementing quality control processes to ensure that products or services meet or exceed customer expectations.
• Enhancing customer satisfaction : Management also aims to enhance customer satisfaction. This involves understanding customer needs and expectations, and developing strategies to meet those needs and exceed customer expectations.
• Developing employee skills : Management also aims to develop the skills and abilities of employees. This involves providing training and development programs to enhance employee performance and productivity.
• Promoting innovation : Management also aims to promote innovation. This involves encouraging employees to generate new ideas and develop new products or services that can provide a competitive advantage for the organization.
• Ensuring organizational sustainability : Management also aims to ensure the long-term sustainability of the organization. This involves developing and implementing strategies to ensure the organization’s viability over the long term, including ensuring financial stability and sustainability.

Overall, the objectives of management are closely tied to the organization’s overall mission, vision, and values. Effective management requires a clear understanding of these objectives and the ability to develop and implement strategies to achieve them. By focusing on these objectives, managers can create a culture of success in which the organization thrives and grows over the long term.

Skills Required for Effective Management

Effective management requires a combination of skills, knowledge, and experience. Managers need to possess a wide range of skills to be able to manage people, resources, and processes effectively. Here are some of the key skills required for effective management:

• Leadership Skills : Managers need to have strong leadership skills to inspire and motivate their team. They should be able to provide direction, delegate responsibilities, and communicate effectively to their team. A good leader is also able to build trust, resolve conflicts, and make tough decisions when required.
• Communication Skills : Effective communication is essential for management. Managers need to be able to communicate their vision, goals, and expectations clearly to their team. They should also be able to listen actively to their team and provide feedback to help them improve their performance.
• Planning and Organizational Skills : Managers should have strong planning and organizational skills to ensure that projects and tasks are completed on time and within budget. This involves setting goals, creating schedules, and allocating resources effectively.
• Problem-Solving Skills : Managers need to be able to identify problems and find solutions to resolve them. This requires the ability to analyze data, think critically, and make decisions based on sound reasoning.
• Interpersonal Skills : Managers need to have strong interpersonal skills to build relationships with their team, customers, and stakeholders. This involves the ability to work effectively with people from diverse backgrounds, resolve conflicts, and build trust.
• Financial Management Skills : Managers should have a basic understanding of financial management to ensure that the organization’s financial resources are being used effectively. This includes budgeting, forecasting, and financial analysis.
• Time Management Skills : Effective managers need to be able to manage their time effectively. This involves prioritizing tasks, delegating responsibilities, and being able to handle multiple tasks simultaneously.
• Technical Skills : Managers need to have a basic understanding of the technical aspects of their industry to be able to manage processes and make informed decisions. This includes knowledge of technology, production processes, and quality control.

Management stands as a pivotal cornerstone for the triumph of any organization. It encompasses the vital activities of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling resources to accomplish the organization’s overarching goals and objectives. The pursuit of effective management demands a blend of skills, knowledge, and experience distributed across various echelons within the organization.

These primary management functions include planning, organizing, leading, and controlling, while the core objectives encompass profit maximization, market share expansion, product quality enhancement, heightened customer satisfaction, employee skill development, innovation cultivation, and the promotion of organizational sustainability. By grasping the essence of management’s definition, its multifaceted functions, hierarchical significance, and overarching goals, individuals can cultivate the essential proficiencies and insights needed to become adept managers, thereby contributing to their organizations’ triumphant journeys.

Want to know how can this course help in your profile?

Talk to our counsellors to find a course best for your career.

• Will get in touch with you soon

Let us call you back

We'll contact you asap.

• Select a Course Select a course Post Graduate Diploma In Finance Doctor Of Business Administration Doctorate of Business Administration Certificate Program in Applied Data Science and Deep Learning Executive Development Programme in Leadership in Sales & Marketing – The CMO Programme Postgraduate Certificate In Business Analytics B- 6 New Digital Marketing Job Linked Bootcamp Executive Development Programme in Strategic Decision Making in the Digital Era Professional Certificate Program in Health Care Management with immersion Advanced Certificate in Digital Marketing and Communication S4 Advanced Certificate in Digital Marketing and Communication S3 Advanced Certificate in Digital Marketing and Communication S2 Executive Development Programme in Applied Finance Executive Development Programme in Talent Management Executive Certificate Program in HR Analytics Advanced Certificate in Supply Chain Management MBA from Staffordshire Business School Professional Certificate program in Cyber Security Doctor of Business Administration in Emerging Technologies Executive Development Program in HR Analytics from XLRI B6 Executive Development Programme in Digital HR Transformation & AI-Driven HR Analytics MICA-MBMC-14-1223 Professional Certificate Program in Business Analytics B8 Professional Certificate Program In Marketing And Sales Management Executive Development Program in Advanced Financial Management MS in Full Stack Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning MS in Full Stack Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning MS in Full Stack Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Advanced Program in Strategic Management for Business Excellence -B4 Executive Certificate Program in Supply Chain Management and Analytics Master of Business Administration (MBA) Liverpool Business School -immersion MBA (Global) | Deakin Business School- With immersion Executive Development Program in Human Resource Management from XLRI Jamshedpur -B15(Copy) Advanced Certificate in Sales Forecasting and Demand Planning EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME IN DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION STRATEGIES Executive Development Program in Human Resource Management from XLRI Jamshedpur -B15 Executive Development Program in Financial Analytics B-6 Full Stack Development Bootcamp Professional Certificate Program in Health Care Management Executive Development Program in Talent Management from XLRI- B12 Executive Certificate Programme in Advanced Strategic Management & Innovation Executive Development Programme in Driving Growth – The CXO Programme B-2 Executive Development Program in Project Management For Senior Professionals from XLRI Jamshedpur -B10 Ecommerce Supply Chain Management and Analytics Professional Certificate Program in General Management Batch 6 Master of Science in Computer Science Master of Science in Data Science Executive Post Graduate Programme in Machine Learning & AI Executive Development Programme in Strategic Marketing Management (Batch 2) Advanced Certificate Programme in Big Data Programming Advanced Certificate Program in Devops Advanced Certificate Programme in Cloud Backend Development Advanced Certificate Programme in Blockchain Executive Development Programme in Strategic Brand Management -B2 Advanced Certificate Programme in Cyber Security Executive Program in Supply Chain Management During Uncertain Times -B3 Executive Program in Marketing Strategy -B4 Executive Post Graduate Program in Full Stack Software Development Post Graduate Diploma in Management Post Graduate Certificate in Product Management Leadership and Management in New Age Business Executive Development Program in Data Science using Python, R & Excel B-10 Postgraduate Certificate In Business Analytics B- 6 Postgraduate Certificate in Human Capital Leadership -B-2 Executive Development Program in Digital Marketing B-7 100% Job-Guarantee Post Graduate Certificate in Software Engineering Full Stack Development Bootcamp - 100% job opportunities in MAANG/Top product companies Advanced General Management Program Professional Certificate Programme in HR Management and Analytics Executive Post Graduate Programme in Data Science Executive Post-Graduate Programme in Human Resource Management Professional Certificate Program in Data Science and Business Analytics Executive Post Graduate Program in Data Science and Machine Learning PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATE PROGRAM IN MARKETING AND SALES MANAGEMENT -BATCH 8 Advanced Program in Leadership in the Digital Era -b3 Executive Development Program in Transformational Leadership -B5 Executive Program in Business Management - Batch 3 Professional Certificate Program in Business Analytics from IIM Kozhikode -B7 Executive Development Program in Strategic Management from XLRI -Batch6 Executive Development Programme In Business Analytics and Big Data Executive Certificate Program in Business Analytics and Big Data Advanced Certificate in Managing Brands and Marketing Communication -B-13 Executive Development Program in Human Resource Management from XLRI Jamshedpur -B14 Executive Development Program in Leadership & Change Management b-9 Certificate Programme In Operations Management And Analytics Professional Certificate Program in Supply Chain Strategy and Management - B5 Executive Development Program in Advanced Financial Management Executive Certificate Program in Applied Financial Risk Management -batch-3 Advanced Certificate in Digital Marketing and Communication Global Doctor of Business Administration Executive Development Programme in Strategic Marketing Management (Batch 1) Executive Development Program in HR Analytics -Batch 5 Executive Development Programme in Strategic Brand Management Master of Business Administration (MBA) Liverpool Business School Professional Certificate Program in Business Analytics from IIM Kozhikode Advanced Program in Strategic Management for Business Excellence Executive Development Program in Financial Analytics Advanced Certificate in Advertising Management and Public Relations Executive Development Programme Digital HR Transformation & AI-Driven HR Analytics Executive Program in Business Management Executive Program in Supply Chain Management During Uncertain Times CERTIFICATE PROGRAMME IN STARTUP BOOT CAMP Professional Certificate Program in Supply Chain Strategy and Management CERTIFICATE PROGRAMME IN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, INNOVATION AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP Executive Development Program in HR Analytics B4 Executive Program in Marketing Strategy

Call us to get more information

Our counsellors will call you back in next 24 hours to help you with courses best suited for your career

• Human Capital Leadership XLRI Jamshedpur

*I hereby authorize Talentedge to contact me. It will override my registry on the NCPR.

Fee Structure

Program Fees

INR /- +GST

EMI Partners

No Cost EMI - 9 Months

Standard emi - 12 months, standard emi - 18 months, standard emi - 24 months.

* I accept Privacy Policy and Terms & Conditions. I appoint MyMoneyMantra as authorized representative to receive my credit information from Experian for the purpose of providing access to credit & targeted offers ('End Use Purpose') as defined in given Terms & Conditions.

* Loan Processing fee to be paid directly to the Loan Provider.

Request a call back

Let us help you guide towards your career path

• Non-biased career guidance
• Counselling based on your skills and preference
• No repetitive calls, only as per convenience

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

2 The History of Management

Learning Objectives

The purpose of this chapter is to:

• 1) Give you an overview of the evolution of management thought and theory.
• 2) Provide an understanding of management in the context of the modern-day world in which we reside.

The History of Management

The concept of management has been around for thousands of years. According to Pindur, Rogers, and Kim (1995), elemental approaches to management go back at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, a time in which records of business dealings were first recorded by Middle Eastern priests. Socrates, around 400 BC, stated that management was a competency distinctly separate from possessing technical skills and knowledge (Higgins, 1991). The Romans, famous for their legions of warriors led by Centurions, provided accountability through the hierarchy of authority. The Roman Catholic Church was organized along the lines of specific territories, a chain of command, and job descriptions. During the Middle Ages, a 1,000 year period roughly from 476 AD through 1450 AD, guilds, a collection of artisans and merchants provided goods, made by hand, ranging from bread to armor and swords for the Crusades. A hierarchy of control and power, similar to that of the Catholic Church, existed in which authority rested with the masters and trickled down to the journeymen and apprentices. These craftsmen were, in essence, small businesses producing products with varying degrees of quality, low rates of productivity, and little need for managerial control beyond that of the owner or master artisan.

The Industrial Revolution, a time from the late 1700s through the 1800s, was a period of great upheaval and massive change in the way people lived and worked. Before this time, most people made their living farming or working and resided in rural communities. With the invention of the steam engine, numerous innovations occurred, including the automated movement of coal from underground mines, powering factories that now mass-produced goods previously made by hand, and railroad locomotives that could move products and materials across nations in a timely and efficient manner. Factories needed workers who, in turn, required direction and organization. As these facilities became more substantial and productive, the need for managing and coordination became an essential factor. Think of Henry Ford, the man who developed a moving assembly line to produce his automobiles. In the early 1900s, cars were put together by craftsmen who would modify components to fit their product. With the advent of standardized parts in 1908, followed by Ford’s revolutionary assembly line introduced in 1913, the time required to build a Model T fell from days to just a few hours (Klaess, 2020). From a managerial standpoint, skilled craftsmen were no longer necessary to build automobiles. The use of lower-cost labor and the increased production yielded by moving production lines called for the need to guide and manage these massive operations (Wilson, 2015). To take advantage of new technologies, a different approach to organizational structure and management was required.

The Scientific Era – Measuring Human Capital

With the emergence of new technologies came demands for increased productivity and efficiency. The desire to understand how to best conduct business centered on the idea of work processes. That is, managers wanted to study how the work was performed and the impact on productivity. The idea was to optimize the way the work was done. One of the chief architects of measuring human output was Frederick Taylor. Taylor felt that increasing efficiency and reducing costs were the primary objectives of management. Taylor’s theories centered on a formula that calculated the number of units produced in a specific time frame (DiFranceso and Berman, 2000). Taylor conducted time studies to determine how many units could be produced by a worker in so many minutes. He used a stopwatch, weight measurement scale, and tape measure to compute how far materials moved and how many steps workers undertook in the completion of their tasks (Wren and Bedeian, 2009). Examine the image below – one can imagine Frederick Taylor standing nearby, measuring just how many steps were required by each worker to hoist a sheet of metal from the pile, walk it to the machine, perform the task, and repeat, countless times a day.   Beyond Taylor, other management theorists including Frank and Lilian Gilbreth, Harrington Emerson, and others expanded the concept of management reasoning with the goal of efficiency and consistency, all in the name of optimizing output . It made little difference whether the organization manufactured automobiles, mined coal, or made steel, the most efficient use of labor to maximize productivity was the goal.

The necessity to manage not just worker output but to link the entire organization toward a common objective began to emerge. Management, out of necessity, had to organize multiple complex processes for increasingly large industries. Henri Fayol, a Frenchman, is credited with developing the management concepts of planning, organizing, coordination, command, and control (Fayol, 1949), which were the precursors of today’s four basic management principles of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

Employees and the Organization

With the increased demand for production brought about by scientific measurement, conflict between labor and management was inevitable. The personnel department, forerunner of today’s human resources department, emerged as a method to slow down the demand for unions, initiate training programs to reduce employee turnover, and to acknowledge workers’ needs beyond the factory floor. The idea that to increase productivity, management should factor the needs of their employees by developing work that was interesting and rewarding burst on the scene (Nixon, 2003) and began to be part of management thinking. Numerous management theorists were starting to consider the human factor. Two giants credited with moving management thought in the direction of understanding worker needs were Douglas McGregor and Frederick Herzberg. McGregor’s Theory X factor was management’s assumption that workers disliked work, were lazy, lacked self-motivation, and therefore had to be persuaded by threats, punishment, or intimidation to exert the appropriate effort. His Theory Y factor was the opposite. McGregor felt that it was management’s job to develop work that gave the employees a feeling of self-actualization and worth. He argued that with more enlightened management practices, including providing clear goals to the employees and giving them the freedom to achieve those goals, the organization’s objectives and those of the employees could simultaneously be achieved (Koplelman, Prottas, & Davis, 2008).

Frederick Herzberg added considerably to management thinking on employee behavior with his theory of worker motivation. Herzberg contended that most management driven motivational efforts, including increased wages, better benefits, and more vacation time, ultimately failed because while they may reduce certain factors of job dissatisfaction (the things workers disliked about their jobs), they did not increase job satisfaction. Herzberg felt that these were two distinctly different management problems. Job satisfaction flowed from a sense of achievement, the work itself, a feeling of accomplishment, a chance for growth, and additional responsibility (Herzberg, 1968). One enduring outcome of Herzberg’s work was the idea that management could have a positive influence on employee job satisfaction, which, in turn, helped to achieve the organization’s goals and objectives.

The concept behind McGregor, Herzberg, and a host of other management theorists was to achieve managerial effectiveness by utilizing people more effectively. Previous management theories regarding employee motivation (thought to be directly correlated to increased productivity) emphasized control, specialized jobs, and gave little thought to employees’ intrinsic needs. Insights that considered the human factor by utilizing theories from psychology now became part of management thinking. Organizational changes suggested by management thinkers who saw a direct connection between improved work design, self-actualization, and challenging work began to take hold in more enlightened management theory.

The Modern Era

Koontz and O’Donnell (1955) defined management as “the function of getting things done through others (p. 3). One commanding figure stood above all others and is considered the father of modern management (Edersheim, (2007). That individual was Peter Drucker. Drucker, an author, educator, and management consultant is widely credited with developing the concept of Managing By Objective or MBO (Wren & Bedeian, 2009). Management by Objective is the process of defining specific objectives necessary to achieve the organization’s goals. The beauty of the MBO concept was that it provided employees a clear view of their organization’s objectives and defined their individual responsibilities. For example, let’s examine a company’s sales department. One of the firm’s organizational goals might be to grow sales (sometimes referred to as revenue) by 5% the next fiscal year. The first step, in consultation with the appropriate people in the sales department, would be to determine if that 5% goal is realistic and attainable. If so, the 5% sales growth objective is shared with the entire sales department and individuals are assigned specific targets. Let’s assume this is a regional firm that has seven sales representatives. Each sales rep is charged with a specific goal that, when combined with their colleagues, rolls up to the 5% sales increase. The role of management is now to support, monitor, and evaluate performance. Should a problem arise, it is management’s responsibility to take corrective action. If the 5% sales objective is met or exceeded, rewards can be shared. This MBO cycle applies to every department within an organization, large or small, and never-ending.

The MBO Process

Drucker’s contributions to modern management thinking went far beyond the MBO concept. Throughout his long life, Drucker argued that the singular role of business was to create a customer and that marketing and innovation were its two essential functions. Consider the Apple iPhone. From that single innovation came thousands of jobs in manufacturing plants, iPhone sales in stores around the globe, and profits returned to Apple, enabling them to continue the innovation process. Another lasting Drucker observation was that too many businesses failed to ask the question “what business are we in?” (Drucker, 2008, p. 103). On more than one occasion, a company has faltered, even gone out of business, after failing to recognize that their industry was changing or trying to expand into new markets beyond their core competency. Consider the fate of Blockbuster, Kodak, Blackberry, or Yahoo.

Management theories continued to evolve with additional concepts being put forth by other innovative thinkers. Henry Mintzberg is remembered for blowing holes in the idea that managers were iconic individuals lounging in their offices, sitting back and contemplating big-picture ideas. Mintzberg observed that management was hard work. Managers were on the move attending meetings, managing crises, and interacting with internal and external contacts. Further, depending on the exact nature of their role, managers fulfilled multiple duties including that of spokesperson, leader, resource allocator, and negotiator (Mintzberg, 1973). In the 1970s, Tom Peters and Robert Waterman traveled the globe exploring the current best management practices of the time. Their book, In Search of Excellence, spelled out what worked in terms of managing organizations. Perhaps the most relevant finding was their assertion that culture counts. They found that the best managed companies had a culture that promoted transparency, openly shared information, and effectively managed communication up and down the organizational hierarchy (Allison, 2014). The well managed companies Peterson and Waterman found were built in large part on the earlier managerial ideas of McGregor and Herzberg. Top-notch organizations succeeded by providing meaningful work and positive affirmation of their employees’ worth.

Others made lasting contributions to modern management thinking. Steven Covey’s The Seven Habits of Highly Successful People , Peter Senge’s The Fifth Discipline , and Jim Collins and Jerry Porras’s Built to Last are among a pantheon of bestselling books on management principles. Among the iconic thinkers of this era was Michael Porter. Porter, a professor at the Harvard Business School, is widely credited with taking the concept of strategic reasoning to another level. Porter tackled the question of how organizations could effectively compete and achieve a long-term competitive advantage. He contended that there were just three ways a firm could gain such advantage: 1) a cost-based leadership – become the lowest cost producer, 2) valued-added leadership – offer a differentiated product or service for which a customer is willing to pay a premium price, and 3) focus – compete in a niche market with laser-like fixation (Dess & Davis, 1984). Name a company that fits these profiles: How about Walmart for low-cost leadership. For value-added leadership, many think of Apple. Focus leadership is a bit more challenging. What about Whole Foods before being acquired by Amazon? Porter’s thinking on competition and competitive advantage has become timeless principles of strategic management still used today. Perhaps Porter’s most significant contribution to modern management thinking is the connection between a firm’s choice of strategy and its financial performance. Should an organization fail to select and properly execute one of the three basic strategies, it faces the grave danger of being stuck in the middle – its prices are too high to compete based on price or its products lack features unique enough to entice customers to pay a premium price. Consider the fate of Sears and Roebuck, J.C. Penny, K-Mart, and Radio Shack, organizations that failed to navigate the evolving nature of their businesses.

The 21st Century

Managers in the 21st century must confront challenges their counterparts of even a few years ago could hardly imagine. The ever-growing wave of technology, the impact of artificial intelligence, the evolving nature of globalization, and the push-pull tug of war between the firm’s stakeholder and shareholder interests are chief among the demands today’s managers will face.

          Much has been written about the exponential growth of technology. It has been reported that today’s iPhone has more than 100,000 times the computing power of the computer that helped land a man on the moon (Kendall, 2019). Management today has to grapple with the explosion of data now available to facilitate business decisions. Data analytics, the examination of data sets, provides information to help managers better understand customer behavior, customer wants and needs, personalize the delivery of marketing messages, and track visits to online web sites. Developing an understanding of how to use data analytics without getting bogged down will be a significant challenge for the 21st century manager. Collecting, organizing, utilizing data in a logical, timely, and cost-effective manner is creating an entirely new paradigm of managerial competence.  In addition to data analytics, cybersecurity, drones, and virtual reality are new, exciting technologies and offer unprecedented change to the way business is conducted. Each of these opportunities requires a new degree of managerial competence which, in turn, creates opportunities for the modern-day manager.

Artificial Intelligence

Will robots replace workers? To be sure, this has already happened to some degree in many industries. However, while some jobs will be lost to AI, a host of others will emerge, requiring a new level of management expertise. AI has the ability to eliminate mundane tasks and free managers to focus on the crux of their job. Human skills such as empathy, teaching and coaching employees, focusing on people development and freeing time for creative thinking will become increasingly important as AI continues to develop as a critically important tool for today’s manager.

Globalization

Globalization has been defined as the interdependence of the world’s economies and has been on a steady march forward since the end of World War II. As markets mature, more countries are moving from the emerging ranks and fostering a growing middle class of consumers. This rising new class has the purchasing power to acquire goods and services previously unattainable, and companies around the globe have expanded outside their national borders to meet those demands. Managing in the era of globalization brought a new set of challenges. Adapting to new cultures, navigating the puzzle of different laws, tariffs, import/export regulations, human resource issues, logistics, marketing messages, supply chain management, currency, foreign investment, and government intervention are among the demands facing the 21st century global manager. Despite these enormous challenges, trade among the world’s nations has grown at an unprecedented rate. World trade jumped from around 20% of world GDP in 1960 to almost 60% in 2017.

Trade as a Percent of Global GDP

Despite its stupendous growth, globalization has its share of critics. Chief among them is that globalization has heightened the disparity between the haves and the have-nots in society. Opponents of globalization argue that in many cases, jobs have been lost to developing nations with lower prevailing wage rates. Additionally, inequality has worsened with the wealthiest consuming a disproportionate percent of the world’s resources (Collins, 2015). Proponents counter that on the macro level, globalization creates more jobs than are lost, more people are lifted out of poverty, and expansion globally enables companies to become more competitive on the world stage.

Since the election of Donald Trump as President of the United States in 2016 and Great Britain’s decision to exit the European Union, the concept of nationalism has manifested in many nations around the globe. Traditional obstacles to expanding outside one’s home country plus a host of new difficulties such as unplanned trade barriers, blocked acquisitions, and heightened scrutiny from regulators have added to the burdens of managing in the 21st century. The stage has been set for a new generation of managers with the skills to deal with this new, complex business environment. In the 20th century, the old command and control model of management may have worked. However, today, with technology, artificial intelligence, globalization, nationalism, and multiple other hurdles, organizations will continue the move toward a flatter, more agile organizational structure run by managers with the appropriate 21st century skills.

Stakeholder versus Shareholder

What is a stakeholder in a business, and what is a shareholder? The difference is important. Banton (2020) noted that shareholders, by owning even a single share of stock, has a stake in the company. The shareholder first view was put forth by the economist Milton Friedman (1962) who stated that “There is one and only one social responsibility of business – to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it engages in open and free competition, without deception or fraud” (p. 133). In other words, maximize profits so long as the pursuit of profit is done so legally and ethically. An alternate view is that a stakeholder has a clear interest in how the company performs, and this interest may stem from reasons other than the increase in the value of their share(s) of stock. Edward Freeman (1999), a philosopher and academic advanced his stakeholder theory contending that the idea was the success of an organization relied on its ability to manage a complex web of relationships with several different stakeholders. These stakeholders could be an employee, a customer, an investor, a supplier, the community in which the firm operates, and the government that collects taxes and stipulates the rules and regulations by which the company must operate. Which theory is correct? According to Emiliani (2001), businesses in the United States typically followed the shareholder model, while in other countries, firms tend to follow the stakeholder model. Events in the past decade have created a shift toward the shareholder model in the United States. The financial crisis of 2008/2009, global warming, the debate between globalization and nationalism, the push for green energy, a spate of natural disasters, and the world-wide impact of health crises such as AIDS, Ebola, the SARS virus and the Coronavirus have fostered a move toward a redefinition of the purpose of a corporation. In the coming decades, those companies that thrive and grow will be the ones that invest in their people, society, and the communities in which they operate. The managers of the 21st century must build on the work of those that proceeded them. Managers in the 21st century would do well if they heeded the words famously used by Isaac Newton who said “If I have seen a little further, it is because I stand on the shoulders of giants” (Harel, 2012).

Critical Thinking Questions

In what way has the role of manager changed in the past twenty years?

With the historical perspective of management in mind, reflect on changes you foresee in the manager’s role in the next 20 years?

Reflect on some of the significant issues you have witnessed in the past few years.  Among thoughts to consider are global warming, green energy, global health crisis, globalization, nationalism, national debt, or an issue of your choosing.  What role do you see business and management playing in effectively dealing with that specific issue?

How to Answer the Critical Thinking Questions

For each of these answers you should provide three elements.

• General Answer.  Give a general response to what the question is asking, or make your argument to what the question is asking.
• Outside Resource.  Provide a quotation from a source outside of this textbook.  This can be an academic article, news story, or popular press.  This should be something that supports your argument.  Use the sandwich technique explained below and cite your source in APA in text and then a list of full text citations at the end of the homework assignment of all three sources used.
• Personal Story.  Provide a personal story that illustrates the point as well.  This should be a personal experience you had, and not a hypothetical.  Talk about a time from your personal, professional, family, or school life.   Use the sandwich technique for this as well, which is explained below.

Use the sandwich technique:

For the outside resource and the personal story you should use the sandwich technique.  Good writing is not just about how to include these materials, but about how to make them flow into what you are saying and really support your argument.  The sandwich technique allows us to do that.  It goes like this:

Step 1:  Provide a sentence that sets up your outside resource by answering who, what, when, or where this source is referring to.

Step 2:  Provide the quoted material or story.

Step 3:  Tell the reader why this is relevant to the argument you are making.

Allison, S. (2014). An essential book for founders and CEOs: In Search of Excellence. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottallison/2014/01/27/an-essential-book-for-founders-and-ceos-in-search-of-excellence/#5a48e7da6c11

Banton, C. (2020). Shareholder vs. stakeholder: An overview. Investopedia. Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/08/difference-between-a-shareholder-and-a-stakeholder.asp

Collins, M. (2015). The pros and cons of globalization. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/mikecollins/2015/05/06/the-pros-and-cons-of-globalization/#609d7a53ccce

Dess, G.G., & Davis, P.S. (1984). Generic strategies as determinants of strategic group membership and organizational performance. The Academy of Management , (27)3, 467-488.

Difrancesco, J.M. & Berman, S.J. (2000). Human productivity: The new American frontier. National Productivity Review. Summer 2000. 29-36.

Drucker, P. F. (2008 ) Management – Revised Edition . New York: Collins Business.

Edersheim, E. (2007). The Definitive Drucker. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Emiliani, M.L. (2001). A mathematical logic approach to the shareholder vs stakeholder debate. Management Decision . (39)8, 618-622.

Fayol, H. (1949). General and Industrial Management . London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons (translated by Constance Storrs).

Freeman, E.R. 91999). Divergent stakeholder theory. The Academy of Management Review , (24)2, pp. 213-236.

Friedman, M, (1962). Capitalism and Freedom , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Harel, D. (2012). Standing on the shoulders of a giant. ICALP (International Colloquium on Automation). 16-22. Retrieved from http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~/dharel/papers/Standing%20on%20Shoulders.pdf

Herzberg, F. (1968). One more time: How do you motivate employees ? Harvard Business Review, January-February. pp 53-62.

Higgins, J.M. (1991). The Management Challenge: An Introduction to Management . New York: Macmillan

Kendall, G. (2019). Your mobile phone vs. Apollo 11’s guidance computer. Real Clear Science. Retrieved from https://www.realclearscience.com/articles/2019/07/02/your_mobile_phone_vs_apollo_11s_guidance_computer_111026.html

Klaess, J. (2020). The history and future of the assembly line . Tulip . Retrieved from https://tulip.co/blog/manufacturing/assembly-line-history-future/

Koontz, H., & O’Donnell, C. (1955). Principles of Management: An Analysis of Managerial Functions . New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kopelman, R.E., Prottas, D.J., & Davis, A.l. (2008). Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Y: Toward a construct-valid measure. Journal of Managerial Issues , (XX02, 255-271.

Mintzberg, H. (1973). The Nature of Managerial Work. In S. Crainer (Ed.).  The Ultimate Business Library (pp. 174). West Sussex, UK: Capstone Publishing.

Nixon, L. (2003). Management theories – An historical perspective.  Business Date, (11)4, 5-7.

Pindur, W., Rogers, S.E., & Kim, P.S. (1995). The history of management: a global perspective. Journal of Management History , (1) 1, 59-77.

Wilson J.M. (2015). Ford’s development and use of the assembly line, 1908-1927. In Bowden and Lamond (Eds.), Management History. It’s Global Past and Present (71-92). Charlotte, NC: Information Age, Publishing, Inc.

Wren, D.A., & Bedeian, A.G. (2009). The Evolution of Management Thought. Hoboken, NJ. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ

The Four Functions of Management Copyright © 2020 by Dr. Robert Lloyd and Dr. Wayne Aho is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Faculty Resources

Assignments.

The assignments in this course are openly licensed, and are available as-is, or can be modified to suit your students’ needs. Selected answer keys are available to faculty who adopt Waymaker, OHM, or Candela courses with paid support from Lumen Learning. This approach helps us protect the academic integrity of these materials by ensuring they are shared only with authorized and institution-affiliated faculty and staff.

If you import this course into your learning management system (Blackboard, Canvas, etc.), the assignments will automatically be loaded into the assignment tool.

Half of the written assignments are based on a fictional business called “Sun City Boards.” The business is initially profiled in the Why It Matters and Putting It Together sections of the Planning and Mission module. Additional information about the business appears in the Scenario and Preparation sections of each assignment. While these assignments work well together as a common framework for applying knowledge and skills developed through the course, it is not required to use all of the Sun City Boards assignments. Each assignment can stand on its own with the background information provided in previous assignments.

The other written assignments and discussions use a variety of approaches, depending on the subject and learning outcome being assessed; many ask students to go beyond course content to form connections between research topics and what they’ve learned in class. We recommend assigning  one discussion OR one assignment per chapter , rather than all of them.

You can view them below or throughout the course.

*This discussion invites conversation on race, which might require additional monitoring and involvement from instructors. This blog post from the Choices Program at Brown University contains links to helpful resources to facilitate talking about race in the classroom: “Approaching Race in the Classroom, Actively”

Rubrics for Written Assignments and Discussion Posts

For faculty using the assignments or discussions included here, there are also rubrics to assist you in grading. Instructors may download and modify these guidelines or use their own.

Grading Rubric for Discussion Posts

Written Assignment Rubric

• Assignments. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Pencil Cup. Authored by : IconfactoryTeam. Provided by : Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/pencil-cup/628840/ . License : CC BY: Attribution

Privacy Policy