psychology 30 assignments

Faculty Resources

Assignments.

The assignments in this course are openly licensed, and are available as-is, or can be modified to suit your students’ needs. Selected answer keys are available to faculty who adopt Waymaker, OHM, or Candela courses with paid support from Lumen Learning. This approach helps us protect the academic integrity of these materials by ensuring they are shared only with authorized and institution-affiliated faculty and staff.

If you import this course into your learning management system (Blackboard, Canvas, etc.), the assignments will automatically be loaded into the assignment tool, where they may be adjusted, or edited there. Assignments also come with rubrics and pre-assigned point values that may easily be edited or removed.

The assignments for Introductory Psychology are ideas and suggestions to use as you see appropriate. Some are larger assignments spanning several weeks, while others are smaller, less-time consuming tasks. You can view them below or throughout the course.

You can view them below or throughout the course.

Discussion Grading Rubric

The discussions in the course vary in their requirements and design, but this rubric below may be used and modified to facilitate grading.

• Assignments with Solutions. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
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Faculty Resources

Assignments

The assignments in this course are openly licensed, and are available as-is, or can be modified to suit your students’ needs. Selected answer keys are available to faculty who adopt Waymaker, OHM, or Candela courses with paid support from Lumen Learning. This approach helps us protect the academic integrity of these materials by ensuring they are shared only with authorized and institution-affiliated faculty and staff.

If you import this course into your learning management system (Blackboard, Canvas, etc.), the assignments will automatically be loaded into the assignment tool, where they may be adjusted, or edited there. Assignments also come with rubrics and pre-assigned point values that may easily be edited or removed.

The assignments for Introductory Psychology are ideas and suggestions to use as you see appropriate. Some are larger assignments spanning several weeks, while others are smaller, less-time consuming tasks. You can view them below or throughout the course.

You can view them below or throughout the course.

CC licensed content, Original

• Assignments with Solutions. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

CC licensed content, Shared previously

• Pencil Cup. Authored by : IconfactoryTeam. Provided by : Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/pencil-cup/628840/ . License : CC BY: Attribution

General Psychology Copyright © by OpenStax and Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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TOPSS Classroom Activities

Are you looking for an activity or lesson plan to use tomorrow in class? Quickly search over 100 activities from our popular Teachers of Psychology in Secondary School (TOPSS) unit lesson plans. Choose from popular topics like biological basis of behavior, memory, research methods and more. Be sure to check back regularly as activities will be added as they become available. These activities were originally available to TOPSS members only but in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, they have been made publicly available in order to benefit any teacher. Teachers are still encouraged to join TOPSS . 

Search Activities

Search dozens of activities created and vetted by classroom teachers.

See all the activities

Lab Exercises

Also included are laboratory exercises for high school psychology teachers, originally printed in the Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP; APA Div. 2) e-book "Promoting Psychological Science: A Compendium of Laboratory Exercises for Teachers of High School Psychology" (Miller, 2018). 

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Featured Activity

Sampling or Assignment?

Students often confuse the terms “sampling” and “assignment.” For each of the scenarios described in this activity, students should indicate which process is being discussed and how you can tell.

Activities are available for the following topics. Click on the topics below to find the full TOPSS unit lesson plan.

• Biological Bases of Behavior (PDF, 333KB)
• Careers, Education and Vocational Applications in Psychology (PDF, 290.2KB)
• Cognition 1
• Consciousness (PDF, 342.48KB)
• Critical Thinking 1
• Emotion (PDF, 442.17KB)
• Intelligence 1
• Learning (PDF, 319.01KB)
• Life Span Development (PDF, 409.09KB)
• Memory (PDF, 711.51KB)
• Motivation (PDF, 171.01KB)
• Personality (PDF, 394.62 KB)
• Perspectives in Psychological Science (PDF, 305.01 KB)
• Positive Psychology (PDF, 163.45 KB)
• Psychological Disorders (304.7 KB)
• Research Methods and Statistics (PDF, 623.84 KB)
• Sensation and Perception (PDF, 252.48 KB)
• Social Psychology (PDF, 429.34 KB)
• Stress and Health Promotion (PDF, 311.99 KB)
• Treatment of Psychological Disorders (PDF, 305.85 KB)

TOPSS has also made two-day lesson plans available from recent past winners of the APA TOPSS Charles T. Blair-Broeker Excellence in Teaching Awards. These include activities that are not included in the search feature above.  

1 These topics can be found in the STP e-book.

Miller, R. L. (Ed.). (2018).  Promoting psychological science: A Compendium of laboratory exercises for teachers of high school psychology . Retrieved from the  Society for the Teaching of Psychology

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The Best Study Tips for Psychology Students

Dougal Waters / Digital Vision / Getty Images

At a Glance

Using research-backed study strategies can help you deepen your understanding of psychology and succeed as a student.

Psychology classes can be challenging, especially if students have never studied the topic before. Since psychology is such a diverse field, students can become easily overwhelmed by the amount of information they’re expected to learn.

Even an introductory psychology  course includes discussions of psychology's philosophical background,  social statistics , biological influences,  experimental methods , social behavior, personality,  research methods , and therapeutic techniques.

Here’s why good study habits are key to mastering new theories and concepts as a psychology student.

Research-Backed Study Methods for Psychology Students

Following a few simple study tips can help you effectively learn new concepts and theories. Creating good study habits won't just help you in your psychology classes, either. These skills and routines will probably come in handy for all your courses.

Make a Study Plan

A study plan is key to staying on track with your learning, whether you’ve got a weekly assignment or a term paper due. At the start of every new class, sit down and come up with a study plan that will lead to success in the course. A little planning now can save you a lot of last-minute stress.

There are a few techniques that can help you plan out your study path.

• Set a timeline:  The time you need to study will probably vary depending on the topic, but plan to set aside time each week for reviewing materials from class. At the start of the week, think about the material you need to cover and estimate how long you will need to finish your assignments, readings, and reviews.
• Make a schedule:  Ideally, schedule a block of time to devote to each of your courses. Try to set aside a specific time every day to concentrate on your  classwork . Stick to your schedule even when you’re busy.
• Use the two-hour rule as a baseline:  A general rule of thumb for studying is that for every hour you spend in class, spend two hours of your own time working through the material.

Use Study Techniques Supported by Research

Throughout your education, you’ll have plenty of opportunities to learn what study methods work best for you as a psychology student. If you’re just starting, here are a few evidence-based pointers about studying to keep in mind.

• Think critically about the material:  Effective studying is more than just reading the assigned texts and skimming through your notes. You need to think about and analyze what you’re reading to deepen your understanding.
• Take notes as you go:  Read through your materials slowly and note the key points as you go. Also, note any questions you have about the subject to discuss with your classmates or course instructor.
• Test yourself:  When you've finished an assigned reading, quiz yourself on the material you have just learned. You can ask yourself questions using the elaborative interrogation technique. For example, you can ask yourself why a specific region of the brain is involved in emotional regulation to give yourself a clear path for studying the anatomy and function of the brain. If you struggle with certain questions, make note of these areas for additional study.
• Try self-explanation. To make sure you fully understand the definitions of words and concepts you’re learning about, try putting them into your own words and teaching yourself what they mean.
• Summarize the main points:  Once you have worked your way through the material, ask yourself what the main concepts are. Review these ideas often as you study.
• Repeated retrieval. Research suggests that if you remember material that you’ve learned multiple times, it’s more effective than just trying to retrieve the information once.
• Space out study sessions. Rather than trying to fit all your studying into a single session, try spacing out your study sessions at various times over multiple days. Research suggests this method is more useful than cramming the night before a test.
• Interleaved practice. While you can dedicate a single study session to one concept, you can also try working on related ideas during the same study session.
• Engage all your senses. You may find that you typically have a certain style of learning that works best—for example, some people need to hear things to learn well, while others prefer to see material. You may find that a combination of learning styles works best, like listening to a recording of a lecture and mind-mapping out your notes with diagrams and charts.

Make Class Time Count

At the start of every new semester, plan for how you’ll make the most of your in-class time. The time spent with your instructors and fellow students is just as important as the study time you have on your own—if not more so.

• Prepare for class:  Read the assigned chapters before you show up for class. Complete any assignments, projects, and pre-tests, and be ready to talk about them.
• Be ready to take part: If you come to each class with a solid understanding of the material, you will be better able to take part in class discussions.
• Listen to others: It’s not only important to listen to your professor or lecturer; you also want to pay attention to what your classmates are saying. They may have ideas that differ from yours and can expand your understanding of the topics you’re learning about or see them in a new light.
• Take good notes: Your psychology class notes should be a  summary  of what you learned in class, not a transcription of everything that your instructor or classmates discussed. Learn how to take brief but effective notes that summarize what was said and leave you with the key takeaways.

Work With Others

To make sure you can fully focus on the material, study on your own at first. After you’ve gotten a bit more comfortable with the material, find others who you can study with.

• Find a group:  Review sessions with classmates or joining a study group can be a great way to make studying more engaging. They can be especially helpful if you need to refresh your knowledge of the material before a quiz or exam.
• Teach others: One way to gauge your understanding of a topic is by trying to teach someone else about it. You can practice teaching concepts and definitions to your group study mates or enlist a friend to be your “student."

Examples of Good Study Strategies

Here are a few examples of how you can use research-backed study techniques as a psychology student:

• If you’re learning about theories of development, keep a running list as you go. Once you’ve got the basics down, go back to your list regularly over the next couple of weeks and practice remembering each theory.
• Use flashcards to quiz yourself on key psychology terminology you expect will be on a test.
• Map out a study plan using the two-hour rule. For example, if you have a two-hour lecture in cognitive science each week, schedule two hours of study time to go over your notes and assigned readings.
• Create charts, mind maps, or other visuals of the study material to help you see it in a new way. You may find that the visuals help you uncover connections you hadn’t made before between concepts. These connections can also serve as memory “hacks” that make it easier for you to remember what you’ve learned.
• Once you’ve covered the material and tested yourself, ask a friend if you can teach them about it. Note any areas where you make mistakes or struggle to explain a concept. This will help you get a sense of where your understanding of a topic isn’t strong.

What to Do If You Have to Cram Before a Test

You have probably been told hundreds of times that cramming is not an effective way to study. That said, even students with a plan and good study habits may eventually be in the position of needing to cram the night before a test.

Tara Kuther, PhD, a graduate school expert, has a handy reference guide with tips for how to cram for an exam. Kuther suggests prioritizing the topics you are going to study, reviewing class notes and required readings, and answering questions about the material in your own words.

You don’t want to make a habit of cramming, but you can use a last-minute study session effectively to review notes and organize your thoughts.

Here are a few tips for cramming:

• Prioritize and make a study plan: Create a quick outline of the topics that will most likely be on the exam. Put a star next to the subjects that are giving you the most trouble, and study those topics  first . Then, move on to the material that you are more familiar with to give yourself a quick refresher.
• Don't take on too much:  Trying to learn an entire semester's worth of material in one night is an impossible task. Instead of attempting to cover every single thing in the text, focus on the material that is most likely to be on the test. A quick rule of thumb: if your instructor talked about it in class, it is  very likely  to show up on an exam. Use your class notes as a guide for what to focus on.
• Get some sleep:  It might be tempting to stay up all night and learn as much of the material as you possibly can, but this strategy can backfire. You’ll just end up exhausted and burned out, which will not put you in the right headspace for your exam. Study as much as you reasonably and effectively can, then get some uninterrupted sleep the night before your exam. If you need more study time, you can wake up early the next morning and review the materials one more time before you test.

Stanford Undergrad Academic Advising. What is a unit? .

UC San Diego Department of Psychology. Other learning techniques .

UC San Diego Department of Psychology. How to effectively study .

American Psychological Association. Six research-tested ways to study better .

UC San Diego Department of Psychology. Spaced practice .

Bay Atlantic University. Eight types of learning styles .

Cen L, Ruta D, Powell L, Ng J. Learning alone or in a group - an empirical case study of the collaborative learning patterns and their impact on student grades . Proc Int Conf Interact Collab Learn (Dubai, UAE) . 2014. doi:10.1109/ICL.2014.7017845

Huang S, Deshpande A, Yeo S-C, Lo JC, Chee MWL, Gooley JJ. Sleep restriction impairs vocabulary learning when adolescents cram for exams: the Need for Sleep Study . Sleep . 2016;39(9):1681-1690. doi:10.5665/sleep.6092

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Rosie Psychology: Your online tutor

How to demonstrate critical evaluation in your psychology assignments

Thinking critically about psychology research

Critical thinking is often taught in undergraduate psychology degrees, and is a key marking criteria for higher marks in many assignments. But getting your head around how to write critically can sometimes be difficult. It can take practice. The aim of this short blog is to provide an introduction to critical evaluation, and how to start including evidence of critical evaluation in your psychology assignments.

So what does “critical evaluation” really mean?

Broadly speaking, critical evaluation is the process of thinking and writing critically about the quality of the sources of evidence used to support or refute an argument. By “ evidence “, I mean the literature you cite (e.g., a journal article or book chapter). By “ quality   of the evidence “, I mean thinking about whether this topic has been tested is in a robust way. If the quality of the sources is poor, then this could suggest poor support for your argument, and vice versa. Even if the quality is poor, this is important to discuss in your assignments as evidence of critical thinking in this way!

In the rest of this blog, I outline a few different ways you can start to implement critical thinking into your work and reading of psychology. I talk about the quality of the evidence, a few pointers for critiquing the methods, theoretical and practical critical evaluation too. This is not an exhaustive list, but hopefully it’ll help you to start getting those higher-level marks in psychology. I also include an example write-up at the end to illustrate how to write all of this up!

The quality of the evidence

There are different types of study designs in psychology research, but some are of higher quality than others. The higher the quality of the evidence, the stronger the support for your argument the research offers, because the idea has been tested more rigorously. The pyramid image below can really help to explain what we mean by “quality of evidence”, by showing different study designs in the order of their quality. 

Not every area of psychology is going to be full of high quality studies, and even the strongest sources of evidence (i.e., systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses) can have limitations! Because no study is perfect, it can be a good habit to tell the reader, in your report, (i) what the  design  of the study is that you’re citing, AND, (ii)  how  this affects your argument. Doing so would be evidence of critical thought. (See an example write-up below for implementing this, but do not copy and paste it!) 

But first, what do I mean by “design”? The design of the study refers to  how  the study was carried out. There are sometimes broad categories of design that you’ll have heard of, like a ‘survey design’, ‘a review paper’, or an ‘experimental design’. Within these categories, though, there can be more specific types of design (e.g. a  cross-sectional  survey design, or a  longitudinal  survey design; a  randomised controlled  experiment or a  simple pre-post  experiment). Knowing these specific types of design is a good place to start when thinking about how to critique the evidence when citing your sources, and the image below can help with that. 

Image source: https://thelogicofscience.com/2016/01/12/the-hierarchy-of-evidence-is-the-studys-design-robust/

In summary, there are various types of designs in psychology research. To name a few from the image above, we have: a meta-analysis or a systematic review (a review paper that summarises the research that explores the same research question); a cross-sectional survey study (a questionnaire that people complete once – these are really common in psychology!). If you’re not familiar with these, I would  highly suggest  doing a bit of reading around these methods and some of their general limitations – you can then use these limitation points in your assignments! To help with this, you could do a Google Scholar search for ‘limitations of a cross-sectional study’, or ‘why are randomised control trials gold standard?’. You can use any published papers as further support as a limitation.

Methodological critical evaluation

• Internal validity: Are the findings or the measures used in the study reliable (e.g., have they been replicated by another study, and is the reliability high)? 
• External validity: Are there any biases in the study that might affect generalisability(e.g., gender bias, where one gender may be overrepresented for the population in the sample recruited)?  Lack of generalisability is a common limitation that undergraduates tend to use by default as a limitation in their reports. It’s a perfectly valid limitation, but it can usually be made much more impactful by explaining exactly  how  it’s a problem for the topic of study. In some cases, this limitation may not be all that warranted; for example, a female bias may be expected in a sample of psychology students, because undergraduate courses tend to be filled mostly with females! 
• What is the design of the study, and how it a good or bad quality design (randomised control trial, cross-sectional study)? 

Theoretical critical evaluation

• Do the findings in the literature support the relevant psychological theories?
• Have the findings been replicated in another study? (If so, say so and add a reference!)

Practical critical evaluation

• In the real world, how easy would it be to implement these findings?
• Have these findings been implemented? (If so, you could find out if this has been done well!)

Summary points

In summary, there are various types of designs in psychology research. To name a few from the image above, we have: a meta-analysis or a systematic review (a review paper that summarises the research that explores the same research question); a cross-sectional survey study (a questionnaire that people complete once – these are really common in psychology!). If you’re not familiar with these, I would highly suggest doing a bit of reading around these methods and some of their general limitations – you can then use these limitation points in your assignments! To help with this, I would do a Google Scholar search for ‘limitations of a cross-sectional study’, or ‘why are randomised control trials gold standard?’. You can use these papers as further support as a limitation.

You don’t have to use all of these points in your writing, these are just examples of how you can demonstrate critical thinking in your work. Try to use at least a couple in any assignment. Here is an example of how to write these up:

An example write-up

“Depression and anxiety are generally associated with each other (see the meta-analysis by [reference here]). For example, one of these studies was a cross-sectional study [reference here] with 500 undergraduate psychology students. The researchers found that depression and anxiety (measured using the DASS-21 measure) were correlated at  r  = .76, indicating a strong effect. However, this one study is limited in that it used a cross-sectional design, which do not tell us whether depression causes anxiety or whether anxiety causes depression; it just tells us that they are correlated. It’s also limited in that the participants are not a clinical sample, which does not tell us about whether these are clinically co-morbid constructs. Finally, a strength of this study is that it used the DASS-21 which is generally found to be a reliable measure. Future studies would therefore benefit from using a longitudinal design to gain an idea as to how these variables are causally related to one another, and use more clinical samples to understand the implications for clinical practice. Overall, however, the research generally suggests that depression and anxiety are associated. That there is a meta-analysis on this topic [reference here], showing that there is lots of evidence, suggests that this finding is generally well-accepted.”

• Notice how I first found a review paper on the topic to broadly tell the reader how much evidence there is in the first place. I set the scene of the paragraph with the first sentence, and then the last sentence I brought it back, rounding the paragraph off. 
• Notice how I then described one study from this paper in more detail. Specifically, I mentioned the participants, the design of the study and the measure the researchers used to assess these variables. Critically, I then described  how  each of these pieces of the method are disadvantages/strengths of the study. Sometimes, it’s enough to just say “the study was limited in that it was a cross-sectional study”, but it can really show that you are thinking critically, if you also add “… because it does not tell us….”. 
• Notice how I added a statistic there to further illustrate my point (in this case, it was the correlation coefficient), showing that I didn’t just read the abstract of the paper. Doing this for the effect sizes in a study can also help demonstrate to a reader that you understand statistics (a higher-level marking criteria). 

Are these points you can include in your own work?

Thanks for reading,

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Browse Course Material

Course info.

• Prof. John D. E. Gabrieli

Departments

• Brain and Cognitive Sciences

As Taught In

• Cognitive Science

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Introduction to psychology, assignments.

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Resources for Teachers of Psychology

The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP) curates and distributes teaching and advising materials to all teachers of psychology (e.g., 4-year instructors, 2-year instructors, and high-school teachers).  The resources available below are documents that can pertain to any aspect of teaching. (NOTE:  Syllabi have their own listings under Project Syllabus .)

Instructors have generously shared classroom activities, annotated bibliographies, film guides, lab manuals, advising aids, textbook compendiums, and much more. Notations indicate those that developed from Instructional Resource Awards .

Guidelines for Authors and Reviewers of Prospective Resources

All of These Resources are Peer-Reviewed

Did you know that all of the resources on this site are peer-reviewed before they are accepted for distribution?  In this way, STP attempts to encourage teaching as scholarship and to provide an endorsement of such work to heighten its value at the local level.  Our peer-review process requires all submissions to describe how the resource is based on evidence-based practices.

Please note:   Because we require all resources on this page to undergo our peer-review process, we do not include links to any resources available from other websites that have not first undergone our peer-review process.

Do you have an idea for a teaching or advising resource that we could distribute? If you are interested in discussing an idea for a possible project, please contact Ashley Waggoner Denton, STP's Editor of Best Practices in Teaching and Learning, at [email protected] .

Request for Volunteers

Would you like to volunteer to review new teaching resource submissions? Reviewing resources is a great way to contribute to STP with a modest time commitment.  If you would like to join the reviewer pool, please send the following information to  Ashley Waggoner Denton, STP's Editor of Best Practices in Teaching and Learning, at  [email protected] .  1) Complete contact information, especially e-mail address, phone number, and institution(s) where you teach 2) A list of courses you teach 3) Other areas that you feel competent to review (e.g., Advising, Careers, Ethics, Film, Practica/Internships, Technology)

Abnormal/Clinical/Counseling   Return to Index

An experiential approach to teaching counseling skills: instructional modules for undergraduate and graduate students in psychology (2020).

Note: 2019 Instructional Resource Award

Educating Students about Professional Licensure in Health Service Psychology (2016)

Dsm-5: using key changes to highlight critical teaching points for undergraduate psychology instructors (2014), why does johnny tantrum (2014).

• Introduction to narration (Word)
• Why Does Johnny Trantrum (PowerPoint)  

Author: Ennio Cipani Affiliation: National University Description: The PowerPoint file provides an introductory narrated presentation (under 8 min.) on a functional behavioral perspective on human behavior, especially explaining why challenging problem behaviors occur. Dr. Cipani contrasts this approach to understanding human behavior with a more traditional approach. The Word document suggests how to use the narration to stimulate class discussion.

Advising    Return to Index

Developing and enhancing students’ job search skills and motivation: an online job search intervention training module (2018).

STP Best Practices Author: Christopher J. Budnick & Larissa K. Barber Affiliation: Southern Connecticut State University & Northern Illinois University Description: This 47-page online training program provides a flexible, low labor, and low cost approach to implementing undergraduate student job search skills and motivation training into psychology courses. Designed to be easily modifiable, this module can be presented via online survey software (e.g., Qualtrics, SurveyMonkey) and housed/deployed using learning management systems. Although this resource should be useful for any instructor wishing to embed job search training in their courses, it will likely especially benefit internship advisors, psychology instructors teaching career-focused courses, and industrial-organizational psychology instructors discussing application and selection processes.

Note: 2016 Instructional Resource Award

Interpersonal Helping Skills Instruction in Undergraduate Psychology Internship Courses (2017)

• Part 1:  Introduction to Resources and Background
• Part 2:  Student Handouts
• Part 3:  Instructor’s Guide

Author: Melissa J. Himelein Affiliation: University of North Carolina, Asheville Description: This 3-part resource advocates a curriculum focused on the instruction of interpersonal helping skills, defined as communication strategies that demonstrate a listener’s attention, interest, understanding, self-awareness, and ability to help. The resource provides instructors with the tools needed to integrate a helping skills curriculum into practicum-centered courses. Part 1 summarizes research establishing the theoretical and empirical basis of a helping skills curriculum. Part 2 provides a set of handouts, which can be distributed to students, summarizing each of 10 specific helping skills. Part 3 offers an instructor’s guide for faculty teaching internship courses containing background information, pedagogical strategies, and resource suggestions pertinent to the teaching of each skill.

Creating a Successful Career in Art Therapy: Advising Guide for Psychology Faculty and Students (2017)

An online career-exploration resource for psychology majors (2018).

For Faculty:  A Formal Introduction to the Resource For Students:  An Online Career-Exploration Resource for Psychology Majors For Departments:  An Online Career-Exploration Resource for Psychology Majors (Poster) - 2016.pptx  (Version for modifying to suit your needs) For Departments: A n Online Career-Exploration Resource for Psychology Majors Poster - PDF (Version for printing or viewing on a mobile device) For High School Teachers:  An Online Vocational-Exploration Resource for High School Psychology Students

Author: Drew C. Appleby Affiliation: Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis

Description: This resource is composed of the following four parts.

• The first (for faculty) is a formal introduction containing ways to use the resource to promote student success and lists of printed and online sources to aid faculty in their career-advising activities.  
• The second (for students) consists of more than 2,400 hotlinks psychology majors can use to explore 300 careers they can prepare to enter that have been organized into 15 broad occupational categories to facilitate searching.  Persons employed in 57 of these careers are psychologists who must hold the appropriate graduate degree. The remaining 243 psychology-related careers (i.e., those that require the demonstration of psychological knowledge and skills, but which do not carry the title of psychologist) are divided almost equally into two categories: those that can be entered with a bachelor’s degree and those that require a graduate degree.  
• The third is a poster departments can print and post. Faculty, advisors, and administrators can use this resource in classes, advising sessions, and departmental websites to help psychology majors begin the process of accomplishing Goal 5: Professional Development of APA’s Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major: Version 2.0 by acquiring an understanding of the “settings in which people with backgrounds in psychology typically work,” thus helping them to “develop meaningful professional directions.” 
• The fourth is a poster that high school teachers can use to help their students begin the process of accomplishing the Vocational Applications component of APA’s  National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula  by identifying “careers in psychological science and practice,” “careers related to psychology,” and “degree requirements for psychologists and psychology-related careers.”

Three New Ways to Bring Students’ Attention to the Kisses of Death in the Graduate School Application Process (2015)

Psychology career advice videos (2015), internship supervision resources for developing student employability (2015), educating prospective students of professional psychology about the supply-demand internship crisis (2013), a job list of one's own: creating customized career information for psychology majors (2009), doctor of psychology programs today: location, accreditation, administration, specialization (2007), undergraduate preparation for graduate training in forensic psychology (2006), so your students want to be sport psychologists (2003), a student's guide to careers in the helping professions (1999), position opening: professor--is college teaching a career you should consider (1992), writing letters of recommendation for students: how to protect yourself from liability (1991), what departments and faculty can do to assist their undergraduate students with their graduate school planning (1990), capstones   return to index, work-integrated learning internships in psychology (2023), child development    return to index, the benefits of incorporating a community project in a child development course (2021).

Authors: Jason McCartney and Rhyannon Bemis

Lev’s Research Legacy: A Developmental Psychology Research Methods Activity (2016)

Punishment on trial: a resource guide to child discipline (2009), curriculum guide for instruction in child maltreatment (2007), cognitive psychology    return to index, cognitive psychology games day manual (2024), conference hosting    return to index, how to host an undergraduate twitter poster conference (2021), how to host a student psychology conference at your college: a model from the national office of psi beta (1999), diversity    return to index, social justice pedagogy in psychology: advocating for access to mental health care for youth (2019), increasing inclusiveness and awareness: disability in introductory psychology (2019), presidential taskforce on diversity education (ptde)  (2012).

Author: Mary Kite, Ball State University, Chair, Rosemary Blieszner, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, James E. Freeman, University of Virginia, Ladonna Lewis, Glendale Community College, Jeffery Scott Mio, California State Polytechnic University Description: The APA Task Force on Diversity Education Resources was established by the 2006 APA President Gerry Koocher. The group’s mission was to provide support for instructors who want to address diversity issues in their classrooms. The Task Force compiled annotated bibliographies of teaching resources, including books, book chapters, journal articles, films, websites, and other media. Topics (noted on the navigational bar on the left of this page) included cross-cutting issues, such as assessment, institutional support for diversity education and, power and privilege and specific categories such as Race/Ethnicity, Religion, Gender/Sex, Sexual Orientation, and Age. The resources were developed for teachers of psychology at the high school, undergraduate, graduate, and post-graduate level. The Division 2 Diversity Committee will continue the PTDE's work by making yearly updates to these resources.

Diversity Related Bibliography and Resources (2008)

Understanding and expanding multicultural competence in teaching: a faculty guide (2005), psychology of peace and mass violence -- genocide, torture, and human rights: informational resources (2004), psychology of peace and mass violence -- war, ethnopolitical conflict, and terrorism: informational resources (2004), psychology of peace and mass violence: instructional resources (2004), simulation of a world congress of sexology symposium on aids (2001), informational resources for teaching cross-cultural issues in psychology (1998), activities and videos for teaching cross-cultural issues in psychology (1998), including gay, lesbian, and bisexual students on campus: a short annotated reading list (1994), environmental psychology    return to index, teaching psychology for sustainability: a manual of resources (2006), ethical issues    return to index, plagiarism prevention tutorial: how to avoid common forms of plagiarism (2020, revised).

• Introduction to Plagiarism Prevention Tutorial
• Plagiarism Prevention Tutorial
• Plagiarism Prevention Quiz Questions
• Plagiarism Prevention Quiz Key (requires login)

Tutoriel sur la prévention du plagiat : comment éviter les formes communes de plagiat. [French translation] (2023, Revised)

• Présentation du tutoriel
• Tutoriel sur la prévention du plagiat
• Questionnaire sur la prévention du plagiat
• Corrigé du questionnaire

Auteure: Kosha Bramesfeld Affiliation: Humber College Description : Le tutoriel de 79 diapositives traite des erreurs fréquentes pouvant mener au plagiat, incluant (a) ne pas citer ses sources correctement; (b) copier les mots ou la structure du travail d’autres auteurs; (c) surutiliser le travail d’autres auteurs, aux dépens de sa propre contribution. Les étudiants apprennent comment corriger ces erreurs au fur et à mesure de leur progression à travers les cinq sections du tutoriel : (1) Qu’est-ce que le plagiat; (2) Citer ses sources selon les normes de l’APA; (3) Reformuler; (4) S’assurer que votre travail vous appartient; (5) Mettre en forme une liste de références. Les ressources disponibles comprennent une description du tutoriel et une banque de questions de type vrai ou faux et de questions à choix de réponses multiples. Le corrigé du questionnaire est accessible sur la section du site réservée aux membres ou en contactant l’auteure par courrier électronique. La traduction par: Marie-Claude Richard & Sophie Dubé (Université Laval) Note : La ressource suivante a été traduite du texte original en anglais vers le français avec la permission de la Division 2 de l’Association américaine de psychologie. La Division 2 ne garantit pas l’exactitude de la traduction qui n’est pas un produit officiel de la Division 2 de l’Association américaine de psychologie. Pour tout renseignement concernant cette ressource ou toute autre publication de la Division 2 de l’Association américaine de psychologie, veuillez envoyer un courriel à [email protected].

IRBs and Research on Teaching and Learning (2014)

Activities guide: teaching ethics in the introduction to psychology course (2013), beyond milgram: expanding research ethics education to participant responsibilities (2012), educating students about plagiarism (2012), scientific misconduct: an annotated bibliography of articles selected for their lecture development value (1994), sensitizing undergraduate students to the nature, causes, scope, and consequences of research fraud: preliminary report (1993), ethical issues in teaching and academic life: annotated bibliography (1993), faculty development    return to index, video clips of elements of master teaching (2013), peer review of teaching: an overview (1998), film in psychology    return to index, documentary films for teaching psychology (2011), films illustrating psychopathology (2009), films illustrating character strengths and virtues (2008), using film to teach psychology: a resource of film study guides (2006), history of psychology    return to index, women in psychology (2003), human sexuality    return to index, the development of sexual orientation: a teaching resource (2007 – module 8 added in 2009), industrial/organizational psychology    return to index, materials for incorporating i/o into an introductory psychology course (2013), international psychology    return to index, taking psychology abroad: resources for designing your study abroad course (2009), international psychology: a compendium of textbooks for selected courses evaluated for international content (2002), international psychology: annotated bibliography, relevant organizations, and course suggestions (2002), introductory psychology    return to index, the psychological myth project: research and application (2024), introductory psychology scientific reasoning modules (for small classes) (2019).

• Table of Contents
• ZIP file with Resources

Accessible Modules for Improving Scientific Reasoning in Large Introductory Psychology Classes (2019)

Game-based experiential learning in introductory psychology (2016).

• Instructor's Guide
• Student's Guide

Author(s): Jaclyn Spivey Affiliation: York College Description: This resource introduces a game-based approach to out-of-class activities for Introductory Psychology students. The 16-page instructor’s guide provides background and implementation advice; the 4-page students’ guide lists 9 individual and 6 small-group activities. Because of the asynchronous nature of the activities and required social media documentation, these activities can be used in traditional as well as online settings. Note: 2015 Instructional Resource Award

Writing to Learn, Reciting to Remember: Applying Learning and Memory Principles to Flashcards (2015)

Author(s): Mark L. Mitchell and Janina M. Jolley Affiliation: Clarion University Description: This resource is a tutorial (using PowerPoint®) for students to help them understand, retain, and apply both effective concept learning strategies and effective memory strategies, primarily by creating and then studying from flashcards.  Following the presentation of material, students can take a quiz and print out their results to turn in to their instructor.  In addition, a 5-page document summarizes for instructors what students will be learning.

Statistical Literacy in the Introductory Psychology Course (2014)

• Psychology major learning goals
• Introductory Psychology learning goals
• Literacy resources

Author(s): STP Statistical Literacy Taskforce 2012

Description: The Taskforce created two sets of statistical literacy standards: one for Introductory Psychology at both the high school and college levels and one for undergraduates majoring in basic and applied psychological science. In addition they created a 40-page annotated list of resources that provides examples of the kinds of resources that might be useful for instructors who want to implement the learning goals. Those resources are organized around the topics of general statistical literacy issues, general teaching resources, specific activities and assignments, technology, assessment, websites with more general resources, and ethics/research methods.

Scientific Literacy in a Psychology Curriculum Module (2013)

• Instructional Materials
• Student Materials
• PowerPoint Slides (If using internet explorer, ignore the username/password box that appears when you click on "open")
• Undercover.pptx

Flashcards-Plus: A Strategy to Help Students Prepare for Three Types of Multiple-Choice Questions Commonly Found on Introductory Psychology Tests (2013)

• Introductory Article
• PowerPoint Slides  (If using internet explorer, ignore the username/password box that appears when you click on "open")

Author: Drew C. Appleby Affiliation: Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (Retired) Description: The purpose of this resource is to provide students with a research-based study strategy (creating flashcards) designed to help them understand, prepare for, and take multiple-choice tests more successfully. The 32 slides that accompany the introductory article familiarize students with three types of cognitive processes their instructors will commonly ask them to use in their classes and then invite them to model the behavior of their instructors by creating flashcards.  Their flashcards should contain verbatim definitions for retention questions, accurate paraphrases for comprehension questions, and realistic examples for application questions.

Integrating Mnemonics into Psychology Instruction (2011)

A compendium of introductory psychology texts (2003-2006) (2006), frequently cited concepts in current introduction to psychology textbooks (2006), principles of psychology: experimental foundations laboratory manual (2002), learning and memory    return to index, writing to learn, reciting to remember: applying learning and memory principles to flashcards (2015), learning and memory strategy demonstrations for the psychology classroom (2014), cases in negative reinforcement (2010), media psychology    return to index, teaching scientific literacy and public engagement with social media (2018), instructor resources for media psychology (2010), taking it to the streets: how to give psychology away and become a local media hero (2009), national standards    return to index, national standards for the teaching of high school psychology (2011), principles for quality undergraduate education in psychology (2011), apa guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major (2007), open educational resources    return to index, a primer on open educational resources (oer) for psychology instructors: background, resources, and materials (2017), outcomes    return to index, psychology for the public: a project to foster good science communication (2017).

• ZIP Folder Containing All Resources

Authors: T.M. Vanessa Chan and Jamie M. Trost Affiliation: University of Notre Dame Description: Over the past few years, the media frenzy around our evolving understanding of COVID-19 and its vaccines has highlighted the need for people being trained in the sciences to not only understand the research process, but also be able to explain research to others without the same background and education. While the fields of science journalism and science communication have grown, they are still not well known to students, nor do they preclude the imperative for all students to learn how to talk about what they have learned in an accessible manner. This instructional resource introduces a media project in cognitive psychology / neuroscience, in which students write a press release for a scholarly article and then present the article in a creative media format. Throughout the project, students are invited to think about how the media portrays science and practice communicating without jargon. In this way, the project will not only expose students to the media process, it will also make them more equipped to take scholarly research out of the ivory tower. This resource includes assignment instructions, suggestions for facilitating science communication in psychology, and rubrics for evaluating materials. Note: 2024 Instructional Resource Award

The Employable Skills Self-Efficacy Survey: An Assessment of and Resource for Fostering Skill Development (2017)

An electronic workbook for assessing the dunn et al. (2007) “quality benchmarks in undergraduate psychology programs" (2008), measuring the varied skills of psychology majors: a revision and update of the academic skills inventory (2013), a guide to writing learning objectives for teachers of psychology (2012), goals and objectives for the undergraduate psychology major: recommendations from a meeting of california state university psychology faculty (2000), physiological / biological psychology    return to index, authentic assessments for biopsychology: encouraging learning and retention by applying biopsychological knowledge in real-world contexts (2019), enhancing the physiological psychology course through the development of neuroanatomy laboratory experiences and integrative exercises (2013), interactive teaching activities for introductory biopsychology (2012), positive psychology    return to index, positive psychology teaching tools: supplemental readings to core texts (2012), psychology and law    return to index, psychology and law: a teaching resource (2005), sensation and perception    return to index, build-your-own sensation and perception lab kits: a compilation of inexpensive, accessible activities (2022), sensation and perception: activities to enhance learning (2017), using the drawing and animation tools in powerpoint® to build your own visual perception demonstrations (2010), problem-based group activities for a sensation & perception course [english version] (2009), actividades grupales basadas en problemas para un curso sobre sensación & percepción [spanish translation] (2009), social psychology    return to index, “c’est la vie: the game of social life: a role-playing game for teaching about privilege, oppression, and intersectionality” (2015).

Author: Kosha D. Bramesfeld Institution: Ryerson University Description:  This resource is an empathy-based privilege and oppression awareness intervention that can be used to help students engage in difficult dialogues surrounding the issues of privilege, oppression, and intersectionality.  The materials include (a) 64 character profiles and game sheets that describe the demographic characteristics and resources assigned to each player’s character, (b) a strategy game that presents students with a variety of different decision scenarios that interact with their character’s resources (described in a 33-slide presentation), and (c) an instructor’s guide that covers the development of the game, its recommended uses, and a debriefing and discussion points that help students reflect on the outcomes of the game, its connections with real life inequality, and the role that privilege and oppression might play in the students’ own lives.

Activities for Teaching about Prejudice and Discrimination (2013)

Statistics and research methods    return to index, writing testable research hypotheses: a guided student activity (2023).

• Writing Testable Research Hypotheses: A Guided Student Activity (DOCX)
• Hypothesis Activity Instructional Slides: PDF
• Hypothesis Activity Instructional Slides: Powerpoint Slides
• Hypothesis Activity Instructional Slides: Powerpoint Slides (Accessible Version)
• Hypothesis Activity Student Handout (PDF)
• Hypothesis Activity Student Handout (DOCX)

Author: Kate G. Anderson Affiliation: Presbyterian College Description: This three-part resource describes an activity for teaching students how to write testable research hypotheses. Through this scaffolded activity, students are introduced to the structure of a testable hypothesis and are given the opportunity to practice writing operational definitions and testable correlational and experimental hypothesis. Suitable for use in an introductory research methods class, this activity can be also used by instructors looking to review these fundamental skills in any course. The resource includes an instructor guide, ready-to-use instructional slides, and a student handout.

Making Research Reproducible (2022)

• Making Research Reproducible: Teaching Guide
• Making Research Reproducible: Powerpoint Slides
• Music and Room Color Data

Authors: Jason McCarley & Raechel Soicher Affiliations: Oregon State University Description: This 32-page resource (plus supplementary materials) provides instructors with the resources they need to teach analytical reproducibility to undergraduate students. It includes an introduction to the concept of reproducibility and its importance, a discussion of the challenges researchers face when trying to reproduce others' work, and an activity that teaches students how to prepare their materials in a reproducible way (with step-by-step instructions for both JASP and R users). Instructors will also benefit from a set of ready-to-use PowerPoint slides. Note: 2021 Instructional Resource Award

Evaluating Research Summaries (2021)

Answers & Explanations  (PDF)

Authors: Keith Millis 1 , Diane Halpern 2 , Katja Wiemer 1 , Patricia Wallace 1 Affiliations: 1 Northern Illinois University, 2 Claremont McKenna College Description: This two-part resource, geared toward undergraduate and high school students, provides students with opportunities to learn ways research may be flawed or limited. The first document includes 16 research summaries that contain one or more methodological flaws (e.g., no control group, small sample size). Students must identify which of the 12 possible flaws could be limiting the research presented. Answers and explanations are provided in the second document.

An Exercise to Assess Student Understanding of Bottleneck Concepts in Research Methods (2018)

Statistics that stick: embedding humor in statistics related teaching materials (2016), poker chip people: using manipulatives in a college level statistics course (2015).

• Instructor Manual
• Male Face Labels
• Female Face Labels
• Back labels:  Page 1   -  Page 2

Instructor Materials for Teaching Research Methods Using a Consulting Model (2015)

Increasing graphing literacy and graphing ability in undergraduate psychology majors through active learning based exercises (2014) .

Author: Meridith Pease Selden Affiliation: Yuba College Description: This 63-page resource is designed to increase students’ ability to read graphs and to create a variety of types of graphs in Microsoft’s Excel program. In-class activities and detailed instructions (including screen shots) are appropriate primarily for the graphing unit in a statistics or research methods class, but other instructors who want to help students read primary sources can select particular stand-alone activities from the set provided. Note: 2010 OTRP Instructional Resource Award 

Statistical Literacy Taskforce Learning Goals and Resources (2014)

Instructor's guide to using research methods and statistics concept maps (2013), research readings and statistical exercises using spss and excel (2012), statistics assignments using excel(r) (2010), factorial research design (2010), a template paper with comments for illustrating the 6th edition of apa style (2010), why and how to write apa-style citations in the body and reference section of your papers (2010), exemplar studies for teaching research methodology (2010), yes, you can write in a statistics class: an instructional tool to reduce anxiety and improve statistics performance (2010), statistics decision aids [english version] (2009), ayudas para la decisión estadística [spanish translation] (2009), assessing student learning: a collection of evaluation tools (2009), a self-scoring exercise on apa style and research language (2008), teaching statistics and research methods: a collection of hands-on activities and demonstrations (2008), a student-faculty research agreement (2007), guidelines for preparing posters using powerpoint presentation software (2001), an instructor's guide to electronic databases of indexed professional literature (2000), publication and award opportunities for undergraduate students (1998), teaching tools / programs    return to index, transferable skills assessments (2024).

Authors: Michael B. Madson, Eric R. Dahlen, Kruti Surti, Mark J. Huff, Kelsey Bonfils, & Marisa Alawine

Affiliation: University of Southern Mississippi

Description: This 14-page resource includes instructions and materials for two skills-related assessments. The first assessment is designed to measure students' perceptions of which transferable skills (from the Skillful Psychology Student ) are emphasized within a course and their perceived value and benefit (e.g., "I understand how the skills emphasized in this course will be valuable to my career"). The second assessment is intended as a program or department level measure of how much students are exposed to skills throughout their degree (as described in Madson et al., 2023). The resource includes advice on how to best implement each assessment, and instructors are encouraged to adapt the items and measures to their own unique context. Note: 2023 Instructional Resource Award

Effective Study Strategies Exercises in Online or Blended Delivery (2023)

• Powerpoint Slides (.pptx)

Authors: Sue Morris 1 , Jacquelyn Cranney 1 , and Carolyn Elizabeth Alchin 2

Affiliations: 1 School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2 School of Psychology and Wellbeing, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia

Description: This 17-page resource provides instructors with resources and activities they can use to help students reflect on their own study strategies and understand which study strategies are supported by research and which are not. Task instructions, sample rubrics, PowerPoint slides, and links to additional instructional resources (e.g., videos) are provided. The resource also includes a helpful table for instructors wishing to connect the material to key learning and memory concepts.

Teaching Students to Synthesize Research Articles: An Online Interactive Tutorial (2023)

• Powerpoint Lecture (.pptx)

Authors: Nikole D. Patson 1 , Emily S. Darowski 2 , and Elizabeth Helder 3

Affiliations: 1 Ohio State University at Marion, 2 Brigham Young University, 3 Augustana College

Holding Space for Reflection: Bringing Current Events into the Classroom  (2022)

Authors: Amy Maslowski

Affiliation: University of North Dakota

Description:  This 25-page resource provides guidance for instructors on how to incorporate the discussion of current events into their psychology classes. It outlines the potential benefits of addressing current events before the start of class and offers advice on how instructors can best structure and plan for these discussions. A sample syllabus statement is provided, as well as specific tips for facilitating these conversations and dealing with challenges that may arise. The resource concludes with a call for more research on the potential effects of including open spaces for discussion in the classroom.

• Instructor Guide
• Fillable PDF Form
• Multiple Courses
• Sample Final

Authors: Ashley Waggoner Denton

Affiliation: University of Toronto

Description:  This 12 page resource and accompanying documents is a resource designed to help psychology students better identify and understand how what they have learned within their courses will transfer to their career and life after graduation. More specifically, this resource helps students be able to articulate the professional skills they have acquired in their psychology courses and understand the competencies that are the basis of these skills. A sample worksheet is provided along with the worksheets that can be utilized with psychology students as they examine either an individual course or when examining multiple courses.

Note: 2021 Instructional Resource Award

Sequential Assignments to Critically Evaluate Psychological Journal Articles (2020)

Authors: Suzanne Wood and Vanessa Chan Affiliations: University of Toronto Description: This 24-page resource contains a series of assignments to teach students the skills needed to interpret and critically evaluate original psychological research (APA Goal #2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking.) There are five separate activities varying in complexity according to Bloom’s taxonomy. Each assignment includes an overview, guidelines, and a suggested rubric for grading. The individual assignments are hyperlinked in the table of contents to assist in navigation.   Note: 2019 Instructional Resource Award

Critical Thinking in Psychology (& Life) Workshop Series: Instructional Materials (2018)

Authors: Ashley Waggoner Denton and Thalia Vrantsidis Affiliations: University of Toronto Description: This 17-page resource describes the first workshop from a newly developed series of critical thinking workshops aimed at early undergraduate students. This initial workshop,  Setting the Stage: An Introduction to Good Thinking , introduces students to the notion of actively open-minded thinking and emphasizes the idea that critical thinking involves habits, skills, and mindsets that can be developed and continually improved with practice. The purpose of this resource is to offer instructors a brief, effective, and freely available guide that will enable them to incorporate lessons on critical thinking into their existing courses or allow them to run their own critical thinking workshop. The resource includes a list of learning outcomes for the workshop, corresponding lessons and activities, as well as potential assessment strategies. Throughout the resource, the authors also offer insight into which strategies or activities have worked particular well for them, and offer suggestions for alternatives or variations that may work well for others.   Note: 2016 Instructional Resource Award

A Guide to Incorporating Social-Emotional Learning in the College Classroom: Busting Anxiety, Boosting Ability (2018)

Authors: Kristel M. Gallagher and Shevaun L. Stocker Affiliation: Theil College and University of Wisconsin - Superior Description:  This 69-page comprehensive teaching manual describes a novel application of social-emotional learning in the college classroom. It describes an easy-to-implement and scientifically-driven intervention targeting the stress and anxiety experienced by students both within and outside of the classroom. The program includes 15 short, weekly activities that promote key mindfulness and anxiety-reduction practices. Included in the manual are all program materials (including a detailed narrative describing the implementation of the program), as well as an empirical assessment of the efficacy of the program, ideas for possible variations of the program, and a summary of key background research with accompanying references and recommended readings. Note: Note: 2017 Instructional Resource Award

This Class is a Joke! Humor as a Pedagogical Tool in the Teaching of Psychology (2015)

Authors: Dan J. Segrist and Stephen D. A. Hupp Affiliation: Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Description:  This 31-page annotated bibliography provides a representative and relatively comprehensive list of articles, book chapters, and books on the use of humor in teaching psychology, including using humor as a teaching tool, on exams, and in online teaching, and students' perceptions of instructor humor. Note: 2012 OTRP Instructional Resource Award

Instructor Resources for Psychology: Learning to Blog -- Blogging to Learn (2011)

Student Response Systems ("Clickers") in the Psychology Classroom: A Beginner's Guide" (2009)

Traveling psychology fair: learner-centered outreach activities to stimulate interest in psychology (2006), building community in the classroom through ice-breakers and parting ways [english version] (2004), construyendo un sentido de comunidad en clase a través de estrategias para “romper el hielo” y estrategias de cierre [spanish translation] (2004).

What this handout is about

This handout discusses some of the common writing assignments in psychology courses, and it presents strategies for completing them. The handout also provides general tips for writing psychology papers and for reducing bias in your writing.

What is psychology?

Psychology, one of the behavioral sciences, is the scientific study of observable behaviors, like sleeping, and abstract mental processes, such as dreaming. Psychologists study, explain, and predict behaviors. Because of the complexity of human behaviors, researchers use a variety of methods and approaches.  They ask questions about behaviors and answer them using systematic methods. For example, to understand why female students tend to perform better in school than their male classmates, psychologists have examined whether parents, teachers, schools, and society behave in ways that support the educational outcomes of female students to a greater extent than those of males.

Writing in psychology

Writing in psychology is similar to other forms of scientific writing in that organization, clarity, and concision are important.  The Psychology Department at UNC has a strong research emphasis, so many of your assignments will focus on synthesizing and critically evaluating research, connecting your course material with current research literature, and designing and carrying out your own studies.

Common assignments

Reaction papers.

These assignments ask you to react to a scholarly journal article.  Instructors use reaction papers to teach students to critically evaluate research and to synthesize current research with course material.  Reaction papers typically include a brief summary of the article, including prior research, hypotheses, research method, main results, and conclusions. The next step is your critical reaction. You might critique the study, identify unresolved issues, suggest future research, or reflect on the study’s implications.  Some instructors may want you to connect the material you are learning in class with the article’s theories, methodology, and findings. Remember, reaction papers require more than a simple summary of what you have read.

To successfully complete this assignment, you should carefully read the article. Go beyond highlighting important facts and interesting findings. Ask yourself questions as you read: What are the researchers’ assumptions? How does the article contribute to the field? Are the findings generalizable, and to whom?  Are the conclusions valid and based on the results?  It is important to pay attention to the graphs and tables because they can help you better assess the researchers’ claims.

Your instructor may give you a list of articles to choose from, or you may need to find your own.  The American Psychological Association (APA) PsycINFO database is the most comprehensive collection of psychology research; it is an excellent resource for finding journal articles.  You can access PsycINFO from the E-research tab on the Library’s webpage.   Here are the most common types of articles you will find:

• Empirical studies test hypotheses by gathering and analyzing data. Empirical articles are organized into distinct sections based on stages in the research process: introduction, method, results, and discussion.
• Literature reviews synthesize previously published material on a topic.  The authors define or clarify the problem, summarize research findings, identify gaps/inconsistencies in the research, and make suggestions for future work. Meta-analyses, in which the authors use quantitative procedures to combine the results of multiple studies, fall into this category.
• Theoretical articles trace the development of a specific theory to expand or refine it, or they present a new theory.  Theoretical articles and literature reviews are organized similarly, but empirical information is included in theoretical articles only when it is used to support the theoretical issue.

You may also find methodological articles, case studies, brief reports, and commentary on previously published material. Check with your instructor to determine which articles are appropriate.

Research papers

This assignment involves using published research to provide an overview of and argument about a topic.  Simply summarizing the information you read is not enough. Instead, carefully synthesize the information to support your argument. Only discuss the parts of the studies that are relevant to your argument or topic.  Headings and subheadings can help guide readers through a long research paper. Our handout on literature reviews may help you organize your research literature.

Choose a topic that is appropriate to the length of the assignment and for which you can find adequate sources. For example, “self-esteem” might be too broad for a 10- page paper, but it may be difficult to find enough articles on “the effects of private school education on female African American children’s self-esteem.” A paper in which you focus on the more general topic of “the effects of school transitions on adolescents’ self-esteem,” however, might work well for the assignment.

Designing your own study/research proposal

You may have the opportunity to design and conduct your own research study or write about the design for one in the form of a research proposal. A good approach is to model your paper on articles you’ve read for class. Here is a general overview of the information that should be included in each section of a research study or proposal:

• Introduction: The introduction conveys a clear understanding of what will be done and why. Present the problem, address its significance, and describe your research strategy. Also discuss the theories that guide the research, previous research that has been conducted, and how your study builds on this literature. Set forth the hypotheses and objectives of the study.
• Methods:   This section describes the procedures used to answer your research questions and provides an overview of the analyses that you conducted. For a research proposal, address the procedures that will be used to collect and analyze your data. Do not use the passive voice in this section. For example, it is better to say, “We randomly assigned patients to a treatment group and monitored their progress,” instead of “Patients were randomly assigned to a treatment group and their progress was monitored.” It is acceptable to use “I” or “we,” instead of the third person, when describing your procedures. See the section on reducing bias in language for more tips on writing this section and for discussing the study’s participants.
• Results: This section presents the findings that answer your research questions. Include all data, even if they do not support your hypotheses.  If you are presenting statistical results, your instructor will probably expect you to follow the style recommendations of the American Psychological Association. You can also consult our handout on figures and charts . Note that research proposals will not include a results section, but your instructor might expect you to hypothesize about expected results.
• Discussion: Use this section to address the limitations of your study as well as the practical and/or theoretical implications of the results. You should contextualize and support your conclusions by noting how your results compare to the work of others. You can also discuss questions that emerged and call for future research. A research proposal will not include a discussion section.  But you can include a short section that addresses the proposed study’s contribution to the literature on the topic.

Other writing assignments

For some assignments, you may be asked to engage personally with the course material. For example, you might provide personal examples to evaluate a theory in a reflection paper.  It is appropriate to share personal experiences for this assignment, but be mindful of your audience and provide only relevant and appropriate details.

Writing tips for psychology papers

Psychology is a behavioral science, and writing in psychology is similar to writing in the hard sciences.  See our handout on writing in the sciences .  The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association provides an extensive discussion on how to write for the discipline.  The Manual also gives the rules for psychology’s citation style, called APA. The Library’s citation tutorial will also introduce you to the APA style.

Suggestions for achieving precision and clarity in your writing

• Jargon: Technical vocabulary that is not essential to understanding your ideas can confuse readers. Similarly, refrain from using euphemistic phrases instead of clearer terms.  Use “handicapped” instead of “handi-capable,” and “poverty” instead of “monetarily felt scarcity,” for example.
• Anthropomorphism: Anthropomorphism occurs when human characteristics are attributed to animals or inanimate entities.  Anthropomorphism can make your writing awkward.  Some examples include: “The experiment attempted to demonstrate…,” and “The tables compare…”  Reword such sentences so that a person performs the action: “The experimenter attempted to demonstrate…”  The verbs “show” or “indicate” can also be used: “The tables show…”
• Verb tenses: Select verb tenses carefully. Use the past tense when expressing actions or conditions that occurred at a specific time in the past, when discussing other people’s work, and when reporting results.  Use the present perfect tense to express past actions or conditions that did not occur at a specific time, or to describe an action beginning in the past and continuing in the present.
• Pronoun agreement: Be consistent within and across sentences with pronouns that refer to a noun introduced earlier (antecedent). A common error is a construction such as “Each child responded to questions about their favorite toys.” The sentence should have either a plural subject (children) or a singular pronoun (his or her). Vague pronouns, such as “this” or “that,” without a clear antecedent can confuse readers: “This shows that girls are more likely than boys …” could be rewritten as “These results show that girls are more likely than boys…”
• Avoid figurative language and superlatives: Scientific writing should be as concise and specific as possible.  Emotional language and superlatives, such as “very,” “highly,” “astonishingly,” “extremely,” “quite,” and even “exactly,” are imprecise or unnecessary. A line that is “exactly 100 centimeters” is, simply, 100 centimeters.
• Avoid colloquial expressions and informal language: Use “children” rather than “kids;” “many” rather than “a lot;” “acquire” rather than “get;” “prepare for” rather than “get ready;” etc.

Reducing bias in language

Your writing should show respect for research participants and readers, so it is important to choose language that is clear, accurate, and unbiased.  The APA sets forth guidelines for reducing bias in language: acknowledge participation, describe individuals at the appropriate level of specificity, and be sensitive to labels. Here are some specific examples of how to reduce bias in your language:

• Acknowledge participation: Use the active voice to acknowledge the subjects’ participation. It is preferable to say, “The students completed the surveys,” instead of “The experimenters administered surveys to the students.”  This is especially important when writing about participants in the methods section of a research study.
• Gender: It is inaccurate to use the term “men” when referring to groups composed of multiple genders. See our handout on gender-inclusive language for tips on writing appropriately about gender.
• Race/ethnicity: Be specific, consistent, and sensitive with terms for racial and ethnic groups. If the study participants are Chinese Americans, for instance, don’t refer to them as Asian Americans. Some ethnic designations are outdated or have negative connotations. Use terms that the individuals or groups prefer.
• Clinical terms: Broad clinical terms can be unclear. For example, if you mention “at risk” in your paper, be sure to specify the risk—“at risk for school failure.”  The same principle applies to psychological disorders. For instance, “borderline personality disorder” is more precise than “borderline.”
• Labels: Do not equate people with their physical or mental conditions or categorize people broadly as objects. For example, adjectival forms like “older adults” are preferable to labels such as “the elderly” or “the schizophrenics.” Another option is to mention the person first, followed by a descriptive phrase— “people diagnosed with schizophrenia.”  Be careful using the label “normal,” as it may imply that others are abnormal.
• Other ways to reduce bias: Consistently presenting information about the socially dominant group first can promote bias. Make sure that you don’t always begin with men followed by other genders when writing about gender, or whites followed by minorities when discussing race and ethnicity. Mention differences only when they are relevant and necessary to understanding the study. For example, it may not be important to indicate the sexual orientation of participants in a study about a drug treatment program’s effectiveness. Sexual orientation may be important to mention, however, when studying bullying among high school students.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

American Psychological Association. n.d. “Frequently Asked Questions About APA Style®.” APA Style. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://apastyle.apa.org/learn/faqs/index .

American Psychological Association. 2010. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Landrum, Eric. 2008. Undergraduate Writing in Psychology: Learning to Tell the Scientific Story . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Get the facts, psychology assignments 101.

Research assignments for CSN psychology classes can be among the most varied and challenging you will encounter. For certain class assignments your instructor will ask you to locate empirical research to help you examine a specific assigned topic. You may have to examine peer-reviewed journals. Occasionally, you are asked to select your own topic based on something you care about. You may have to prepare an oral presentation in addition to the paper. You may have a group project component to the assignment – or some combination of all of the above. It is always a good idea to start by first carefully reading your assignment and ask what exactly does my instructor want? How long does the paper or presentation have to be? What types of resources are required or permitted. Do you need books, peer-reviewed journals, DSM-5 , free-web sources? Is there a date range for acceptable resources? What are your due dates? Are there multiple due dates for the different components of the assignment? Is a draft expected? Be sure to ask your instructor if you are unsure of anything in the assignment. Most important – start preparing early in the semester!

If you have a group project, you should all take time to organize goals and tasks. Appoint a group leader. Exchange contact information, review due dates, create a calendar, and find an online workspace. For oral presentations, prepare visual aids in advance and rehearse for timing. You will also want to gather your APA information and review the title, pagination, in-text, and reference page formats.

Investigate

In psychology, ongoing research accomplished by behavioral scientists establishes valid scientific conclusions or claims. As part of the psychological research process, scientists in the field carefully evaluate the methods, evidence, and resulting conclusions reported. The research is then accepted or rejected – along with any claims made. It is only after this rigorous process that academic or professional journals publish certain research reports. These authoritative published research reports should form the core of your research investigations for most assignments. Additionally, you may need to use the DSM-5 , the cornerstone of diagnostic classification in mental health, to locate professional definitions of specific disorders and current treatments. Your best bets for basic psychology research include:

• ProQuest Central – An interdisciplinary collection of full-text articles from outstanding academic/professional journals. APA citations are available for every article in ProQuest . Be sure to filter for date range. While especially strong in the behavioral sciences, the interdisciplinary selection of scholarly articles found in ProQuest can also offer new ways of seeing problems, ideas or theories in other related fields.
• PsycARTICLES – A database of full-text peer-reviewed articles published by APA and affiliated journals. Includes current journal coverage as well as historical content.
• DSM-5 – The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – Fifth Edition. A handbook used by healthcare professionals in the US and around the world as the authoritative guide to the definitions and diagnosis of mental disorders. Our online DSM-5 Library includes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , the Handbook of Differential Diagnosis , and the DSM-5 Clinical Cases . Be sure to see a Librarian if you need assistance using this resource.

As you read reports of research in your topic area, be sure to focus on the hypothesis and ask yourself why the study is important to your topic? Ask who are the subjects, how and why were they selected? How was the study conducted and under what conditions? What were the results of the study and was there anything inconclusive? Ask your instructor if you encounter problems in understanding the research presented and its relevance to your topic. For effective online searching, you may also Ask a Librarian for help finding good keywords to express your topic, and for assistance in using these resources and recommendations for others.

For anyone working in psychology, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the definitive style guide. APA format can be challenging, and, as you work gathering resource citations generated in an online environment, it is important to be consistent with your reference page citations. Using a database like ProQuest or PsycArticles will allow you to locate scholarly resources from across various disciplines in the behavioral sciences, while at the same time maintaining consistency from citation to citation. If you’re also consulting and then citing information from resources found in the DSM-5 or other databases, go online to the APA Style Guide located under Research Help on the Libraries webpage – or check the APA Style Quick Guide found in paper in each campus Library. We also have a complete sample APA paper found by clicking Research Help , then How to Cite , and Additional Citation Resources on the Libraries webpage. APA uses a system of DOI’s or Digital Object Identifiers to help the reader identify the exact article used. All DSM-5 online information has a DOI associated with it. For assistance with editing or formatting an APA assignment, visit a CSN Writing Center or a Campus Library . We are all happy to help!

Understanding psychology starts with an understanding of scientific research methods. In order to be valid, opinions and claims all have to start with a scientific perspective of skeptical analysis of evidence and an understanding of how knowledge grows from the chain of research. For you, it all starts with Psychology 101, the classes that follow that course, and working your way through these first assignments.

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Beyond Finals Week: Self-Reflection Assignments in Your Psychology Course

Article Summary

• Self-reflection enables students to apply Psychology content to their lives.
• One effective self-reflection assignment involves three simple steps.
• Takeaway Projects can be engaging alternatives to final exams.

Ivan Wayne is a Doctoral Student in Educational Psychology at University of Northern Colorado.

Content in Psychology courses is easily applied to students’ lives. Many students reveal this is a primary reason they take Intro to Psychology or Psychology Foundations as elective courses.

However, the way a Psychology class can impact students long-term is not always discussed.

Ending a semester together, many students in Psychology courses have completed some level of informal self-reflection. Analyzing the field of Psychology reminds students of both themselves and things they’ve experienced in life so far.

Help Students Reap the Benefits of Self-Reflection

Bringing self-reflection into the class—and assigning a grade—reinforces the importance of active self-application. Towards the end of the semester, a project centered around self-reflection better enables students to take the Psychology content they’ve learned far beyond finals week.

Originally titled The Takeaway Project , you may name this summative assessment whatever you’d like, and modify it in any way you deem fit. The general goal is to have students reflect on how they’ve changed as a direct result of the Psychology content in your course.

This project empowers students to share those lasting takeaways with both their instructor and their peers. I typically use The Takeaway Project as either a final exam replacement or an assignment we focus on the week before Finals Week.

Have Students Self-Reflect in 3 Steps

As originally designed, this project requires students to select three different pieces of content from your course that they’ve found moving, impactful or memorable. I require students to bring these pieces of content from different units in the class, to prevent all their selections from referencing just one part of the course.

Requirements in The Takeaway Project begin with three questions, across each of the three pieces of course content, that students have selected:

• How did this piece of course content change a previous way of thinking for you?
• How did this piece of course content change a previous behavior of yours—or, how will it change a behavior of yours in the near future?
• What do you think most people in general society misunderstand about this piece of course content—or, what do you wish people in general society knew about it?

In total, these three prompts pertaining to three pieces of course content build nine requirements. The rubric is up to instructor discretion. I tell students this project can be completed in any format they choose. I sometimes require that students complete their assignment outside of writing a paper or creating a PowerPoint deck, enabling them to get out of their comfort zones.

Foster Self-Reflection with a Final Assignment

I require my class to present their final Takeaway Project to small groups of fellow students. I reserve a space on campus, however this can be done in Breakout Rooms on Zoom for online courses. For this portion of The Takeaway Project, I then:

• Assign students to small groups of five
• Instruct students to pick the order in which they’ll present
• Give each student 10 to 15 minutes to present their project and answer questions

I monitor the groups and listen in to what they have created. I typically don’t grade them on presentations, instead only grading their final product. You can then add the presentation into the rubric and assign points for this portion of the project.

Engage Learners on a Lifelong Scale

The Takeaway Project presentations remain one of my favorite class assignments. Students rave about it in their course evaluations, and sometimes even reach out on their own volition to thank me for assigning this type of self-reflection.

The idea that our courses can change students as people is incredibly powerful, and many students never get the opportunity to think this way about their classes.

As educators, we believe students should sign up for classes not to check off requirements, but to embrace and ignite their passions about learning. This project is one way to build that mission into our gradebooks and into the students’ college experience.

Reflect on Your Own Powerful Lessons

The Takeaway Project is powerful enough that I was inspired to start making my own Takeaway Project each semester. After students present in their groups, I share what my three biggest takeaways are. Each and every semester, I am pleasantly overwhelmed by the personal, emotional and connected nature of this day in class.

It’s time to inspire student learning by reminding them of the ways they’ve grown as a result of their hard work. They’ve studied, discussed and tested themselves on their Psychology content.

We should ask students to examine themselves in the mirror, inspiring them to become better people as a result of the psychological information they’ve learned. We can also model this behavior by sharing our own takeaways and letting them know we’re all lifetime students making sense of life one day at a time—using Psychology as our continual compass.

Learn More Teaching Tips

Want more ways to take teaching to the next level? Discover resources for various course formats and other ways to gain professional development in today’s higher-education landscape.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing in Psychology Overview

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

• Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
• Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
• Evidence-based reasoning: Psychology bases its arguments on empirical evidence. Personal examples, narratives, or opinions are not appropriate for psychology.
• Use of APA format: Psychologists use the American Psychological Association (APA) format for publications. While most student writing follows this format, some instructors may provide you with specific formatting requirements that differ from APA format .

Types of writing

Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

Experimental reports: Experimental reports detail the results of experimental research projects and are most often written in experimental psychology (lab) courses. Experimental reports are write-ups of your results after you have conducted research with participants. This handout provides a description of how to write an experimental report .

Critical analyses or reviews of research : Often called "term papers," a critical analysis of research narrowly examines and draws conclusions from existing literature on a topic of interest. These are frequently written in upper-division survey courses. Our research paper handouts provide a detailed overview of how to write these types of research papers.

Random Assignment in Psychology: Definition & Examples

Julia Simkus

Editor at Simply Psychology

BA (Hons) Psychology, Princeton University

Julia Simkus is a graduate of Princeton University with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology. She is currently studying for a Master's Degree in Counseling for Mental Health and Wellness in September 2023. Julia's research has been published in peer reviewed journals.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

In psychology, random assignment refers to the practice of allocating participants to different experimental groups in a study in a completely unbiased way, ensuring each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

In experimental research, random assignment, or random placement, organizes participants from your sample into different groups using randomization. 

Random assignment uses chance procedures to ensure that each participant has an equal opportunity of being assigned to either a control or experimental group.

The control group does not receive the treatment in question, whereas the experimental group does receive the treatment.

When using random assignment, neither the researcher nor the participant can choose the group to which the participant is assigned. This ensures that any differences between and within the groups are not systematic at the onset of the study. 

In a study to test the success of a weight-loss program, investigators randomly assigned a pool of participants to one of two groups.

Group A participants participated in the weight-loss program for 10 weeks and took a class where they learned about the benefits of healthy eating and exercise.

Group B participants read a 200-page book that explains the benefits of weight loss. The investigator randomly assigned participants to one of the two groups.

The researchers found that those who participated in the program and took the class were more likely to lose weight than those in the other group that received only the book.

Importance 

Random assignment ensures that each group in the experiment is identical before applying the independent variable.

In experiments , researchers will manipulate an independent variable to assess its effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for other variables. Random assignment increases the likelihood that the treatment groups are the same at the onset of a study.

Thus, any changes that result from the independent variable can be assumed to be a result of the treatment of interest. This is particularly important for eliminating sources of bias and strengthening the internal validity of an experiment.

Random assignment is the best method for inferring a causal relationship between a treatment and an outcome.

Random Selection vs. Random Assignment 

Random selection (also called probability sampling or random sampling) is a way of randomly selecting members of a population to be included in your study.

On the other hand, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample participants into control and treatment groups. 

Random selection ensures that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study. Once the pool of participants has been chosen, experimenters use random assignment to assign participants into groups. 

Random assignment is only used in between-subjects experimental designs, while random selection can be used in a variety of study designs.

Random Assignment vs Random Sampling

Random sampling refers to selecting participants from a population so that each individual has an equal chance of being chosen. This method enhances the representativeness of the sample.

Random assignment, on the other hand, is used in experimental designs once participants are selected. It involves allocating these participants to different experimental groups or conditions randomly.

This helps ensure that any differences in results across groups are due to manipulating the independent variable, not preexisting differences among participants.

When to Use Random Assignment

Random assignment is used in experiments with a between-groups or independent measures design.

In these research designs, researchers will manipulate an independent variable to assess its effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for other variables.

There is usually a control group and one or more experimental groups. Random assignment helps ensure that the groups are comparable at the onset of the study.

How to Use Random Assignment

There are a variety of ways to assign participants into study groups randomly. Here are a handful of popular methods: 

• Random Number Generator : Give each member of the sample a unique number; use a computer program to randomly generate a number from the list for each group.
• Lottery : Give each member of the sample a unique number. Place all numbers in a hat or bucket and draw numbers at random for each group.
• Flipping a Coin : Flip a coin for each participant to decide if they will be in the control group or experimental group (this method can only be used when you have just two groups) 
• Roll a Die : For each number on the list, roll a dice to decide which of the groups they will be in. For example, assume that rolling 1, 2, or 3 places them in a control group and rolling 3, 4, 5 lands them in an experimental group.

When is Random Assignment not used?

• When it is not ethically permissible: Randomization is only ethical if the researcher has no evidence that one treatment is superior to the other or that one treatment might have harmful side effects. 
• When answering non-causal questions : If the researcher is just interested in predicting the probability of an event, the causal relationship between the variables is not important and observational designs would be more suitable than random assignment. 
• When studying the effect of variables that cannot be manipulated: Some risk factors cannot be manipulated and so it would not make any sense to study them in a randomized trial. For example, we cannot randomly assign participants into categories based on age, gender, or genetic factors.

Drawbacks of Random Assignment

While randomization assures an unbiased assignment of participants to groups, it does not guarantee the equality of these groups. There could still be extraneous variables that differ between groups or group differences that arise from chance. Additionally, there is still an element of luck with random assignments.

Thus, researchers can not produce perfectly equal groups for each specific study. Differences between the treatment group and control group might still exist, and the results of a randomized trial may sometimes be wrong, but this is absolutely okay.

Scientific evidence is a long and continuous process, and the groups will tend to be equal in the long run when data is aggregated in a meta-analysis.

Additionally, external validity (i.e., the extent to which the researcher can use the results of the study to generalize to the larger population) is compromised with random assignment.

Random assignment is challenging to implement outside of controlled laboratory conditions and might not represent what would happen in the real world at the population level. 

Random assignment can also be more costly than simple observational studies, where an investigator is just observing events without intervening with the population.

Randomization also can be time-consuming and challenging, especially when participants refuse to receive the assigned treatment or do not adhere to recommendations. 

What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?

Random sampling refers to randomly selecting a sample of participants from a population. Random assignment refers to randomly assigning participants to treatment groups from the selected sample.

Does random assignment increase internal validity?

Yes, random assignment ensures that there are no systematic differences between the participants in each group, enhancing the study’s internal validity .

Does random assignment reduce sampling error?

Yes, with random assignment, participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either a control group or an experimental group, resulting in a sample that is, in theory, representative of the population.

Random assignment does not completely eliminate sampling error because a sample only approximates the population from which it is drawn. However, random sampling is a way to minimize sampling errors. 

When is random assignment not possible?

Random assignment is not possible when the experimenters cannot control the treatment or independent variable.

For example, if you want to compare how men and women perform on a test, you cannot randomly assign subjects to these groups.

Participants are not randomly assigned to different groups in this study, but instead assigned based on their characteristics.

Does random assignment eliminate confounding variables?

Yes, random assignment eliminates the influence of any confounding variables on the treatment because it distributes them at random among the study groups. Randomization invalidates any relationship between a confounding variable and the treatment.

Why is random assignment of participants to treatment conditions in an experiment used?

Random assignment is used to ensure that all groups are comparable at the start of a study. This allows researchers to conclude that the outcomes of the study can be attributed to the intervention at hand and to rule out alternative explanations for study results.

Further Reading

• Bogomolnaia, A., & Moulin, H. (2001). A new solution to the random assignment problem .  Journal of Economic theory ,  100 (2), 295-328.
• Krause, M. S., & Howard, K. I. (2003). What random assignment does and does not do .  Journal of Clinical Psychology ,  59 (7), 751-766.

Random Assignment in Psychology (Definition + 40 Examples)

Have you ever wondered how researchers discover new ways to help people learn, make decisions, or overcome challenges? A hidden hero in this adventure of discovery is a method called random assignment, a cornerstone in psychological research that helps scientists uncover the truths about the human mind and behavior.

Random Assignment is a process used in research where each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group within the study. This technique is essential in experiments as it helps to eliminate biases, ensuring that the different groups being compared are similar in all important aspects.

By doing so, researchers can be confident that any differences observed are likely due to the variable being tested, rather than other factors.

In this article, we’ll explore the intriguing world of random assignment, diving into its history, principles, real-world examples, and the impact it has had on the field of psychology.

History of Random Assignment

Stepping back in time, we delve into the origins of random assignment, which finds its roots in the early 20th century.

The pioneering mind behind this innovative technique was Sir Ronald A. Fisher , a British statistician and biologist. Fisher introduced the concept of random assignment in the 1920s, aiming to improve the quality and reliability of experimental research .

His contributions laid the groundwork for the method's evolution and its widespread adoption in various fields, particularly in psychology.

Fisher’s groundbreaking work on random assignment was motivated by his desire to control for confounding variables – those pesky factors that could muddy the waters of research findings.

By assigning participants to different groups purely by chance, he realized that the influence of these confounding variables could be minimized, paving the way for more accurate and trustworthy results.

Early Studies Utilizing Random Assignment

Following Fisher's initial development, random assignment started to gain traction in the research community. Early studies adopting this methodology focused on a variety of topics, from agriculture (which was Fisher’s primary field of interest) to medicine and psychology.

The approach allowed researchers to draw stronger conclusions from their experiments, bolstering the development of new theories and practices.

One notable early study utilizing random assignment was conducted in the field of educational psychology. Researchers were keen to understand the impact of different teaching methods on student outcomes.

By randomly assigning students to various instructional approaches, they were able to isolate the effects of the teaching methods, leading to valuable insights and recommendations for educators.

Evolution of the Methodology

As the decades rolled on, random assignment continued to evolve and adapt to the changing landscape of research.

Advances in technology introduced new tools and techniques for implementing randomization, such as computerized random number generators, which offered greater precision and ease of use.

The application of random assignment expanded beyond the confines of the laboratory, finding its way into field studies and large-scale surveys.

Researchers across diverse disciplines embraced the methodology, recognizing its potential to enhance the validity of their findings and contribute to the advancement of knowledge.

From its humble beginnings in the early 20th century to its widespread use today, random assignment has proven to be a cornerstone of scientific inquiry.

Its development and evolution have played a pivotal role in shaping the landscape of psychological research, driving discoveries that have improved lives and deepened our understanding of the human experience.

Principles of Random Assignment

Delving into the heart of random assignment, we uncover the theories and principles that form its foundation.

The method is steeped in the basics of probability theory and statistical inference, ensuring that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group, thus fostering fair and unbiased results.

Basic Principles of Random Assignment

Understanding the core principles of random assignment is key to grasping its significance in research. There are three principles: equal probability of selection, reduction of bias, and ensuring representativeness.

The first principle, equal probability of selection , ensures that every participant has an identical chance of being assigned to any group in the study. This randomness is crucial as it mitigates the risk of bias and establishes a level playing field.

The second principle focuses on the reduction of bias . Random assignment acts as a safeguard, ensuring that the groups being compared are alike in all essential aspects before the experiment begins.

This similarity between groups allows researchers to attribute any differences observed in the outcomes directly to the independent variable being studied.

Lastly, ensuring representativeness is a vital principle. When participants are assigned randomly, the resulting groups are more likely to be representative of the larger population.

This characteristic is crucial for the generalizability of the study’s findings, allowing researchers to apply their insights broadly.

Theoretical Foundation

The theoretical foundation of random assignment lies in probability theory and statistical inference .

Probability theory deals with the likelihood of different outcomes, providing a mathematical framework for analyzing random phenomena. In the context of random assignment, it helps in ensuring that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group.

Statistical inference, on the other hand, allows researchers to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample of data drawn from that population. It is the mechanism through which the results of a study can be generalized to a broader context.

Random assignment enhances the reliability of statistical inferences by reducing biases and ensuring that the sample is representative.

Differentiating Random Assignment from Random Selection

It’s essential to distinguish between random assignment and random selection, as the two terms, while related, have distinct meanings in the realm of research.

Random assignment refers to how participants are placed into different groups in an experiment, aiming to control for confounding variables and help determine causes.

In contrast, random selection pertains to how individuals are chosen to participate in a study. This method is used to ensure that the sample of participants is representative of the larger population, which is vital for the external validity of the research.

While both methods are rooted in randomness and probability, they serve different purposes in the research process.

Understanding the theories, principles, and distinctions of random assignment illuminates its pivotal role in psychological research.

This method, anchored in probability theory and statistical inference, serves as a beacon of reliability, guiding researchers in their quest for knowledge and ensuring that their findings stand the test of validity and applicability.

Methodology of Random Assignment

Implementing random assignment in a study is a meticulous process that involves several crucial steps.

The initial step is participant selection, where individuals are chosen to partake in the study. This stage is critical to ensure that the pool of participants is diverse and representative of the population the study aims to generalize to.

Once the pool of participants has been established, the actual assignment process begins. In this step, each participant is allocated randomly to one of the groups in the study.

Researchers use various tools, such as random number generators or computerized methods, to ensure that this assignment is genuinely random and free from biases.

Monitoring and adjusting form the final step in the implementation of random assignment. Researchers need to continuously observe the groups to ensure that they remain comparable in all essential aspects throughout the study.

If any significant discrepancies arise, adjustments might be necessary to maintain the study’s integrity and validity.

Tools and Techniques Used

The evolution of technology has introduced a variety of tools and techniques to facilitate random assignment.

Random number generators, both manual and computerized, are commonly used to assign participants to different groups. These generators ensure that each individual has an equal chance of being placed in any group, upholding the principle of equal probability of selection.

In addition to random number generators, researchers often use specialized computer software designed for statistical analysis and experimental design.

These software programs offer advanced features that allow for precise and efficient random assignment, minimizing the risk of human error and enhancing the study’s reliability.

Ethical Considerations

The implementation of random assignment is not devoid of ethical considerations. Informed consent is a fundamental ethical principle that researchers must uphold.

Informed consent means that every participant should be fully informed about the nature of the study, the procedures involved, and any potential risks or benefits, ensuring that they voluntarily agree to participate.

Beyond informed consent, researchers must conduct a thorough risk and benefit analysis. The potential benefits of the study should outweigh any risks or harms to the participants.

Safeguarding the well-being of participants is paramount, and any study employing random assignment must adhere to established ethical guidelines and standards.

Conclusion of Methodology

The methodology of random assignment, while seemingly straightforward, is a multifaceted process that demands precision, fairness, and ethical integrity. From participant selection to assignment and monitoring, each step is crucial to ensure the validity of the study’s findings.

The tools and techniques employed, coupled with a steadfast commitment to ethical principles, underscore the significance of random assignment as a cornerstone of robust psychological research.

Benefits of Random Assignment in Psychological Research

The impact and importance of random assignment in psychological research cannot be overstated. It is fundamental for ensuring the study is accurate, allowing the researchers to determine if their study actually caused the results they saw, and making sure the findings can be applied to the real world.

Facilitating Causal Inferences

When participants are randomly assigned to different groups, researchers can be more confident that the observed effects are due to the independent variable being changed, and not other factors.

This ability to determine the cause is called causal inference .

This confidence allows for the drawing of causal relationships, which are foundational for theory development and application in psychology.

Ensuring Internal Validity

One of the foremost impacts of random assignment is its ability to enhance the internal validity of an experiment.

Internal validity refers to the extent to which a researcher can assert that changes in the dependent variable are solely due to manipulations of the independent variable , and not due to confounding variables.

By ensuring that each participant has an equal chance of being in any condition of the experiment, random assignment helps control for participant characteristics that could otherwise complicate the results.

Enhancing Generalizability

Beyond internal validity, random assignment also plays a crucial role in enhancing the generalizability of research findings.

When done correctly, it ensures that the sample groups are representative of the larger population, so can allow researchers to apply their findings more broadly.

This representative nature is essential for the practical application of research, impacting policy, interventions, and psychological therapies.

Limitations of Random Assignment

Potential for implementation issues.

While the principles of random assignment are robust, the method can face implementation issues.

One of the most common problems is logistical constraints. Some studies, due to their nature or the specific population being studied, find it challenging to implement random assignment effectively.

For instance, in educational settings, logistical issues such as class schedules and school policies might stop the random allocation of students to different teaching methods .

Ethical Dilemmas

Random assignment, while methodologically sound, can also present ethical dilemmas.

In some cases, withholding a potentially beneficial treatment from one of the groups of participants can raise serious ethical questions, especially in medical or clinical research where participants' well-being might be directly affected.

Researchers must navigate these ethical waters carefully, balancing the pursuit of knowledge with the well-being of participants.

Generalizability Concerns

Even when implemented correctly, random assignment does not always guarantee generalizable results.

The types of people in the participant pool, the specific context of the study, and the nature of the variables being studied can all influence the extent to which the findings can be applied to the broader population.

Researchers must be cautious in making broad generalizations from studies, even those employing strict random assignment.

Practical and Real-World Limitations

In the real world, many variables cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons, limiting the applicability of random assignment.

For instance, researchers cannot randomly assign individuals to different levels of intelligence, socioeconomic status, or cultural backgrounds.

This limitation necessitates the use of other research designs, such as correlational or observational studies , when exploring relationships involving such variables.

Response to Critiques

In response to these critiques, people in favor of random assignment argue that the method, despite its limitations, remains one of the most reliable ways to establish cause and effect in experimental research.

They acknowledge the challenges and ethical considerations but emphasize the rigorous frameworks in place to address them.

The ongoing discussion around the limitations and critiques of random assignment contributes to the evolution of the method, making sure it is continuously relevant and applicable in psychological research.

While random assignment is a powerful tool in experimental research, it is not without its critiques and limitations. Implementation issues, ethical dilemmas, generalizability concerns, and real-world limitations can pose significant challenges.

However, the continued discourse and refinement around these issues underline the method's enduring significance in the pursuit of knowledge in psychology.

By being careful with how we do things and doing what's right, random assignment stays a really important part of studying how people act and think.

Real-World Applications and Examples

Random assignment has been employed in many studies across various fields of psychology, leading to significant discoveries and advancements.

Here are some real-world applications and examples illustrating the diversity and impact of this method:

• Medicine and Health Psychology: Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) are the gold standard in medical research. In these studies, participants are randomly assigned to either the treatment or control group to test the efficacy of new medications or interventions.
• Educational Psychology: Studies in this field have used random assignment to explore the effects of different teaching methods, classroom environments, and educational technologies on student learning and outcomes.
• Cognitive Psychology: Researchers have employed random assignment to investigate various aspects of human cognition, including memory, attention, and problem-solving, leading to a deeper understanding of how the mind works.
• Social Psychology: Random assignment has been instrumental in studying social phenomena, such as conformity, aggression, and prosocial behavior, shedding light on the intricate dynamics of human interaction.

Let's get into some specific examples. You'll need to know one term though, and that is "control group." A control group is a set of participants in a study who do not receive the treatment or intervention being tested , serving as a baseline to compare with the group that does, in order to assess the effectiveness of the treatment.

• Smoking Cessation Study: Researchers used random assignment to put participants into two groups. One group received a new anti-smoking program, while the other did not. This helped determine if the program was effective in helping people quit smoking.
• Math Tutoring Program: A study on students used random assignment to place them into two groups. One group received additional math tutoring, while the other continued with regular classes, to see if the extra help improved their grades.
• Exercise and Mental Health: Adults were randomly assigned to either an exercise group or a control group to study the impact of physical activity on mental health and mood.
• Diet and Weight Loss: A study randomly assigned participants to different diet plans to compare their effectiveness in promoting weight loss and improving health markers.
• Sleep and Learning: Researchers randomly assigned students to either a sleep extension group or a regular sleep group to study the impact of sleep on learning and memory.
• Classroom Seating Arrangement: Teachers used random assignment to place students in different seating arrangements to examine the effect on focus and academic performance.
• Music and Productivity: Employees were randomly assigned to listen to music or work in silence to investigate the effect of music on workplace productivity.
• Medication for ADHD: Children with ADHD were randomly assigned to receive either medication, behavioral therapy, or a placebo to compare treatment effectiveness.
• Mindfulness Meditation for Stress: Adults were randomly assigned to a mindfulness meditation group or a waitlist control group to study the impact on stress levels.
• Video Games and Aggression: A study randomly assigned participants to play either violent or non-violent video games and then measured their aggression levels.
• Online Learning Platforms: Students were randomly assigned to use different online learning platforms to evaluate their effectiveness in enhancing learning outcomes.
• Hand Sanitizers in Schools: Schools were randomly assigned to use hand sanitizers or not to study the impact on student illness and absenteeism.
• Caffeine and Alertness: Participants were randomly assigned to consume caffeinated or decaffeinated beverages to measure the effects on alertness and cognitive performance.
• Green Spaces and Well-being: Neighborhoods were randomly assigned to receive green space interventions to study the impact on residents’ well-being and community connections.
• Pet Therapy for Hospital Patients: Patients were randomly assigned to receive pet therapy or standard care to assess the impact on recovery and mood.
• Yoga for Chronic Pain: Individuals with chronic pain were randomly assigned to a yoga intervention group or a control group to study the effect on pain levels and quality of life.
• Flu Vaccines Effectiveness: Different groups of people were randomly assigned to receive either the flu vaccine or a placebo to determine the vaccine’s effectiveness.
• Reading Strategies for Dyslexia: Children with dyslexia were randomly assigned to different reading intervention strategies to compare their effectiveness.
• Physical Environment and Creativity: Participants were randomly assigned to different room setups to study the impact of physical environment on creative thinking.
• Laughter Therapy for Depression: Individuals with depression were randomly assigned to laughter therapy sessions or control groups to assess the impact on mood.
• Financial Incentives for Exercise: Participants were randomly assigned to receive financial incentives for exercising to study the impact on physical activity levels.
• Art Therapy for Anxiety: Individuals with anxiety were randomly assigned to art therapy sessions or a waitlist control group to measure the effect on anxiety levels.
• Natural Light in Offices: Employees were randomly assigned to workspaces with natural or artificial light to study the impact on productivity and job satisfaction.
• School Start Times and Academic Performance: Schools were randomly assigned different start times to study the effect on student academic performance and well-being.
• Horticulture Therapy for Seniors: Older adults were randomly assigned to participate in horticulture therapy or traditional activities to study the impact on cognitive function and life satisfaction.
• Hydration and Cognitive Function: Participants were randomly assigned to different hydration levels to measure the impact on cognitive function and alertness.
• Intergenerational Programs: Seniors and young people were randomly assigned to intergenerational programs to study the effects on well-being and cross-generational understanding.
• Therapeutic Horseback Riding for Autism: Children with autism were randomly assigned to therapeutic horseback riding or traditional therapy to study the impact on social communication skills.
• Active Commuting and Health: Employees were randomly assigned to active commuting (cycling, walking) or passive commuting to study the effect on physical health.
• Mindful Eating for Weight Management: Individuals were randomly assigned to mindful eating workshops or control groups to study the impact on weight management and eating habits.
• Noise Levels and Learning: Students were randomly assigned to classrooms with different noise levels to study the effect on learning and concentration.
• Bilingual Education Methods: Schools were randomly assigned different bilingual education methods to compare their effectiveness in language acquisition.
• Outdoor Play and Child Development: Children were randomly assigned to different amounts of outdoor playtime to study the impact on physical and cognitive development.
• Social Media Detox: Participants were randomly assigned to a social media detox or regular usage to study the impact on mental health and well-being.
• Therapeutic Writing for Trauma Survivors: Individuals who experienced trauma were randomly assigned to therapeutic writing sessions or control groups to study the impact on psychological well-being.
• Mentoring Programs for At-risk Youth: At-risk youth were randomly assigned to mentoring programs or control groups to assess the impact on academic achievement and behavior.
• Dance Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease: Individuals with Parkinson’s disease were randomly assigned to dance therapy or traditional exercise to study the effect on motor function and quality of life.
• Aquaponics in Schools: Schools were randomly assigned to implement aquaponics programs to study the impact on student engagement and environmental awareness.
• Virtual Reality for Phobia Treatment: Individuals with phobias were randomly assigned to virtual reality exposure therapy or traditional therapy to compare effectiveness.
• Gardening and Mental Health: Participants were randomly assigned to engage in gardening or other leisure activities to study the impact on mental health and stress reduction.

Each of these studies exemplifies how random assignment is utilized in various fields and settings, shedding light on the multitude of ways it can be applied to glean valuable insights and knowledge.

Real-world Impact of Random Assignment

Random assignment is like a key tool in the world of learning about people's minds and behaviors. It’s super important and helps in many different areas of our everyday lives. It helps make better rules, creates new ways to help people, and is used in lots of different fields.

Health and Medicine

In health and medicine, random assignment has helped doctors and scientists make lots of discoveries. It’s a big part of tests that help create new medicines and treatments.

By putting people into different groups by chance, scientists can really see if a medicine works.

This has led to new ways to help people with all sorts of health problems, like diabetes, heart disease, and mental health issues like depression and anxiety.

Schools and education have also learned a lot from random assignment. Researchers have used it to look at different ways of teaching, what kind of classrooms are best, and how technology can help learning.

This knowledge has helped make better school rules, develop what we learn in school, and find the best ways to teach students of all ages and backgrounds.

Workplace and Organizational Behavior

Random assignment helps us understand how people act at work and what makes a workplace good or bad.

Studies have looked at different kinds of workplaces, how bosses should act, and how teams should be put together. This has helped companies make better rules and create places to work that are helpful and make people happy.

Environmental and Social Changes

Random assignment is also used to see how changes in the community and environment affect people. Studies have looked at community projects, changes to the environment, and social programs to see how they help or hurt people’s well-being.

This has led to better community projects, efforts to protect the environment, and programs to help people in society.

Technology and Human Interaction

In our world where technology is always changing, studies with random assignment help us see how tech like social media, virtual reality, and online stuff affect how we act and feel.

This has helped make better and safer technology and rules about using it so that everyone can benefit.

The effects of random assignment go far and wide, way beyond just a science lab. It helps us understand lots of different things, leads to new and improved ways to do things, and really makes a difference in the world around us.

From making healthcare and schools better to creating positive changes in communities and the environment, the real-world impact of random assignment shows just how important it is in helping us learn and make the world a better place.

So, what have we learned? Random assignment is like a super tool in learning about how people think and act. It's like a detective helping us find clues and solve mysteries in many parts of our lives.

From creating new medicines to helping kids learn better in school, and from making workplaces happier to protecting the environment, it’s got a big job!

This method isn’t just something scientists use in labs; it reaches out and touches our everyday lives. It helps make positive changes and teaches us valuable lessons.

Whether we are talking about technology, health, education, or the environment, random assignment is there, working behind the scenes, making things better and safer for all of us.

In the end, the simple act of putting people into groups by chance helps us make big discoveries and improvements. It’s like throwing a small stone into a pond and watching the ripples spread out far and wide.

Thanks to random assignment, we are always learning, growing, and finding new ways to make our world a happier and healthier place for everyone!

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• Teaching Tips

Portfolios in Psychology Classes

In this Teaching Tips article, our goal is to share our experience using portfolios in psychology courses and dispel some of the “myths” we encountered along the way. Our hope is that our experience can help others considering the use of portfolios who may be hesitant to implement them due to concerns such as: They are a haphazard collection of student work, are too time-intensive to incorporate into a large course, are independent and non-collaborative projects, or are technologically impossible to implement. The article that follows describes our collective experience implementing portfolios in a course taught by one of the authors (MB). ~Melissa, Linda, and Sue

“By doing this portfolio, I want to continue to learn more about {the topic}, even after the class is over.” Student comment, Fall 2009

What instructor wouldn’t like to see a comment like the one above at the end of the semester?  As an instructor of a sophomore-level Introduction to Neuroscience survey course several semesters ago, I found this comment especially rewarding. That semester, I  decided to implement portfolios for the first time in the course, a decision that I made after much deliberation. Along the way, I encountered a number of portfolio “myths” that could have stopped me in my tracks. Looking back, I’m glad that I did not believe the myths, and that my students and I were able to learn and grow from that first portfolio experience. Now, after using portfolios in the course for nearly three years, I would like to share what I have learned, and help to both dispel some of the more prevalent myths and offer some practical examples and suggestions for other instructors considering a portfolio project for their classes.

Why consider a portfolio project in the first place? In reflecting on my experiences in the survey class, I found myself thinking about some of my conversations with students in the course. Some students were passionate about topics in psychology that related to our course but that were not going to be covered that semester. As I thought more about these students, I realized that all of their topics could not be covered in the course and was disappointed  that these innate interests could not be cultivated and engaged. I wanted a way to allow students to explore a topic of their choice, particularly something they personally connected with or had an interest in as part of the survey course. I decided to try a portfolio project to allow students to pursue these topics in a more focused way than our in-class lectures and activities allowed.

In my course, students developed a working “personal interest” portfolio based on written assignments completed throughout the semester. There was an assignment approximately every two weeks, which involved researching causes, symptoms, and treatments for diseases of the nervous system and how the disease affects various parts of the nervous system. For each assignment, students were provided with a prompt about which aspect of the topic to research, ideas for locating primary or secondary research materials, and expectations about the use of American Psychological Association (APA) style format. Each assignment included a grading rubric available to students as they completed the assignment. Accompanying each assignment, students included a two- to three-paragraph reflection. Students selected three assignments as the focal points of their final portfolios at the end of the semester and wrote a one-page self-assessment of the entire project. This general approach could be used for other areas of psychology as well: for example, stages of development in developmental psychology, disorders in abnormal psychology, statistical techniques in a research methods class, or development of theories in social psychology.

As I designed and implemented the personal interest portfolio in the Introduction to Neuroscience survey course, I grappled with several portfolio myths:

Myth 1: A portfolio is a scrapbook.

Many professors’ understanding of a portfolio is that it is a collection of assignments put together to display student work. Admittedly, when I first thought about using a portfolio for my undergraduate psychology survey course, I, too, thought that it was just a collection of assignments, perhaps loosely woven together with a common research theme. As I discovered, however, portfolios are much more. The lesson artifacts gathered in a portfolio have a specific purpose, and that purpose includes “exhibiting to the student and others the student’s efforts, progress, or achievement” (Johnson & Rose, 1997, p. 6). By engaging in the portfolio process, students and/or professors carefully collect, select, and reflect on their work. While professor feedback is part of the process, student reflection is the key to “promoting student engagement and learning” (Birkett, Neff, Pieper, 2012, p. 49) and allowing students to get a full view of their own learning.

In designing my first portfolio project, I wanted to move beyond a scrapbook approach and guide students in creating an organized and professional presentation of their work, showcasing their reflection, learning, and progress over a semester. Efforts to produce a high-quality, professional product that students could be proud of took a big leap forward this past semester with the help of a teaching assistant. The teaching assistant organized and led APA-format writing workshops for students outside of class and provided additional feedback on APA-formatting on all assignments throughout the semester. She also helped select examples of “professional” work from past semesters to share with students and explained to students the importance of a professional writing style. Together, we implemented more thorough and descriptive rubric categories for “professionalism” for each assignment. These changes resulted in a notable increase in the quality of portfolios this past semester. Taking time to explain the importance of professional presentation and to make expectations explicit helped avoid a scattered scrapbook approach to our portfolios.

Myth 2: The amount of time it takes to provide quality feedback makes it impossible to implement portfolios in a large course.

When I first thought about using portfolios in my classroom, I was a little overwhelmed with the thought of grading 70 written assignments each week, but I was determined to create an environment that promoted student learning and engagement. As a result, I decided to spend a little more time in the planning stages and found that careful planning is one of the first steps to ensuring a successful portfolio project. As a part of this first step, I defined a purpose for the portfolio and then aligned the portfolio project to the course learning objectives. Next, I designed assignments and rubrics with these learning objectives in mind. I had to allocate an appropriate amount of time for each assignment, break assignments into smaller components, and find or build links between what students were learning in class and their port folio assignments.

Once I understood the connections between the assignments and course content, it was much easier to explicitly communicate to students the purpose of the portfolio in a clear, organized, and concise manner. During each class, I demonstrated the connections between the course content and the portfolio assignments. One way I did this was to model the reflection process by showing student assignments and reflection examples. In doing so, I set high expectations where students made connections between portfolio assignments, course/class concepts, student backgrounds, and the real world. As a result, students better understood that the portfolio was not just about organization and presentation, but also about reflection and making connections.

There were six graded portfolio assignments throughout the semester, which made the final portfolio submission easier to grade at the end of the semester. In fact, the total amount of time I spent on grading was equivalent to the time I would typically spend grading homework or disconnected written assignments (Birkett, Neff, & Pieper, 2012, p. 60). One other modification that helped facilitate written feedback while using time efficiently was to allow students to omit one assignment or drop one low writing assignment grade during the semester. This not only reduced the total number of assignments that were graded throughout the semester, but it also allowed students some control over the directions of their portfolios and provided them with the flexibility to modify their schedules/work loads over the course of the semester.

Finally, because individual assignments had already been graded once and students had received feedback to incorporate, with the help of a rubric, grading of the final portfolios was relatively efficient. The final portfolio rubric included weighted components for: the inclusion of required elements, the quality of those elements, and how well the student demonstrated basic principles of neuroscience as determined by the course outcomes. Overall, I provided very few comments on the final portfolios. A copy of the rubric used in past semesters was recently published in the Journal on Excellence in College Teaching (Birkett, Neff & Pieper, 2012). While it does take longer to grade a portfolio than a multiple-choice exam, I believe the benefits of using an authentic, in-depth learning activity far outweigh the loss of time spent grading each assignment. With careful planning and deliberate decisions about where you would like to spend time providing feedback to students, the grading process can be made manageable.

Myth 3: Portfolios are a self-contained course project for students to work on independently.

This myth might only be half-myth. In my experience, it is important for students to work on developing their research and writing for a portfolio independently. However, the portfolio is not a self-contained course project. Creating a successful portfolio experience has involved students collaborating with assessment and technology experts, librarians, and classmates.

Before beginning a portfolio assignment for the first time, I sought advice from campus experts on assessment and technology about the best ways to implement this type of project. These individuals became instrumental in informing decisions about how to structure assignments, how best to use features of the learning management system (LMS) on our campus (e.g., Blackboard Learn or similar systems), and how to develop rubrics and efficiently provide feedback to students. Key questions I asked these experts included:

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of using portfolios as opposed to other assignment options?
• What potential portfolio assignment delivery and grading options are available through the LMS at our school?
• What grading rubric options are available and which will best suit the needs of the assignments?
• What types of assessments best align the portfolio project with the learning outcomes for the class?

Next, because this portfolio project involved student use of research resources to investigate self-selected topics, I sought the assistance of librarians. Who better to teach students about the research resources available at your school than the people who specialize in the process? Our university has a librarian dedicated to helping students and faculty in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, from whom I learned that the Association of College and Research Librarians (ACRL) has outlined a set of information literacy standards for undergraduate psychology students, which align closely with the APA’s Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major (see Hughes and Birkett, 2011). The overlapping nature of these guidelines helped us discuss the relevance of a portfolio project involving research in both of our disciplines. As a result, we were able to set goals for the project that could benefit students in a more comprehensive way than I had initially envisioned. Near the beginning of the semester, the librarian visited the class to discuss research strategies and processes with the students. Over the past several semesters, this librarian-led instruction has evolved to include visiting a computer lab during class, leading students step-by-step through the process of selecting keywords and search terms, refining search results, and evaluating the quality of research resources.

Finally, I wanted to give students a personal responsibility over the portfolio projects. I wanted students to see that their work mattered, and to engage them in an authentic effort to create a professional piece of work that could be read by colleagues.  I’ve tried several different approaches over the semesters but most recently found that in order to strive to make a portfolio worthy of being read by colleagues, it must actually be read by them. I did this by organizing small groups of informal student “review panels” at the end of the semester and asked students in each panel to bring their completed portfolios to class and share them with their peers. To facilitate the process, I provided students with short prompts about what aspects of the portfolio to share. In the future, it might be beneficial to establish these reviews periodically throughout the semester so that students can receive peer feedback and suggestions during the portfolio creation process.

Myth 4: E(lectronic)-portfolios are the best solution.

Working with our e-Learning Center, I considered using an e-portfolio, or an online storage system for the course portfolio assignments, but upon further assessment, I decided against it. I was more interested in students learning how to engage in the research process and reflect on their learning than being technically savvy presenters of information. On the other hand, should your portfolio purpose include “learning that involves reflection, community, and making connections” in an online environment (Hyland & Kranzow, 2012, p. 70), then you may want to carefully consider both the challenges and benefits involved in building an e-portfolio.

Introducing an online e-portfolio system takes time. You will need to ensure that either you have the technical competency to answer students’ questions about the system or that you can partner with an instructional technology expert who has the time and expertise to answer these inevitable questions. Another obstacle to consider is the need to provide students “with clear guidance on confidentiality and the use of digital media” (Moores & Parks, 2010, p. 47). Students need to understand how to cite electronic sources and when to acquire consent to avoid plagiarizing or breaching individual confidentiality. E-portfolios may have many benefits in your learning context; however, you need to clearly evaluate “what added value the electronic portfolio can bring to the group of students” (Moores & Parks, 2010, p. 47).

If e-portfolios fit your needs, they offer a number of benefits over paper portfolios. E-portfolios allow students to incorporate multimedia products or research elements into their final portfolios and make it easy for students to link to additional sources or non-traditional resources, such as videos, interviews, animations, or artwork. E-portfolios can facilitate sharing student work outside the classroom, for instance, by posting them on websites to or setting up on-line collaborations with peers to receive feedback. Finally, e-portfolios provide a unique opportunity for students in online or hybrid courses to partake in the benefits of the portfolio process. For those considering e-portfolios, Vigorito (2011) provides a wealth of ideas for beginning to implement them in psychology classes.

My current plans do not include implementing e-portfolios because I still find value in having students bring a physical copy of their work to class on the final day. Anecdotally, students also report that they like to have a final hard copy to share with classmates and a physical representation of what they have learned over the course. However, if I were to develop a fully online section of this course, I would consider many of the unique e-portfolio options available from education companies and new tools or modules being added by learning management systems.

Altogether, my experience with portfolios has been overwhelmingly positive. This brief description of the process illustrates only one form that a portfolio project may take and addresses only a few of the portfolio myths and benefits. Other educators have tailored portfolios to suit the needs of their individual courses and written at greater length about their experiences (see References and Recommended Reading section). Although research about implementing portfolios has been slow to develop (Herman & Winter, 1994), empirical studies are slowly accumulating to help inform this evidence-based practice (see References and Recommended Reading section).

I have now been using this portfolio project in the survey class for nearly three years.

Each semester brings more refinement of the process and new ideas to evaluate. Implementing portfolios and dispelling myths has proven to be a rewarding and engaging process. Our hope is that in thinking about the ideas, examples, and myths raised in this article, you may find an opportunity to consider a portfolio project for your class and realize the benefits too.

Do you have any materials for teachers wanting to implement a portfolio assignment in their classroom that you would be willing to share?

I would be happy to share materials! Please email me directly at Melissa dot Birkett at NAU dot EDU.

Would you still be willing to share examples and rubrics? Thanks

Melissa do you still have materials regarding student portfolios? I would appreciate any help you can provide. Both examples & rubrics would be GREAT! Thanks.

I would appreciate receiving rubrics and handouts on instructions. I am implementing this for a large (over 100) lecture course. Thanks!

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April 5, 2024 - Location: McIntyre Medical 522

Vijay mohan k namboodiri, phd, weill institute for neurosciences university of california, san francisco.

Title:   Retrospective Learning in the Brain

Abstract:   A hallmark of intelligence is the ability to learn associations between causes and effects (e.g., environmental cues and associated rewards). The near consensus understanding of the last few decades is that animals learn cause-effect associations from errors in the prediction of the effect (e.g., a reward prediction error or RPE). This theory has been hugely influential in neuroscience as decades of evidence suggested that mesolimbic dopamine (DA)—known to be critical for associative learning—appears to signal RPE. Though some evidence questioned whether DA signals RPE, the RPE hypothesis remained the best explanation of learning because no other normative theory of learning explained experimental observations inconsistent with RPE while also capturing phenomena explained by RPE. My lab has recently provided such an alternative. Specifically, we proposed a new theory of associative learning (named ANCCR, read “anchor”) which postulates that animals learn associations by retrospectively identifying causes of meaningful effects such as rewards and that mesolimbic dopamine conveys that a current event is meaningful. The core idea is simple: you can learn to predict the future by retrodicting the past, and you retrodict the past only after meaningful events. Here, I will present the basic formulation of this theory, some experimental data focused on distinguishing predictions of ANCCR and RPE, unpublished experimental results demonstrating that behavioral and dopaminergic learning rates from cue-reward experiences are quantitatively scaled by reward sparsity, and end with discussions regarding the implications of the theory for translational applications for some neuropsychological disorders involving maladaptive associative memories.

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