research proposal of job satisfaction

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Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Job Involvement: The Mediating Role of Job Involvement

We conducted an empirical study aimed at identifying and quantifying the relationship between work characteristics, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational policies and procedures in the transition economy of Serbia, South Eastern Europe. The study, which included 566 persons, employed by 8 companies, revealed that existing models of work motivation need to be adapted to fit the empirical data, resulting in a revised research model elaborated in the paper. In the proposed model, job involvement partially mediates the effect of job satisfaction on organizational commitment. Job satisfaction in Serbia is affected by work characteristics but, contrary to many studies conducted in developed economies, organizational policies and procedures do not seem significantly affect employee satisfaction.

1. Introduction

In the current climate of turbulent changes, companies have begun to realize that the employees represent their most valuable asset (Glen, 2006 ; Govaerts et al., 2011 ; Fulmer and Ployhart, 2014 ; Vomberg et al., 2015 ; Millar et al., 2017 ). Satisfied and motivated employees are imperative for contemporary business and a key factor that separates successful companies from the alternative. When considering job satisfaction and work motivation in general, of particular interest are the distinctive traits of these concepts in transition economies.

Serbia is a country that finds itself at the center of the South East region of Europe (SEE), which is still in the state of transition. Here transition refers to the generally accepted concept, which implies economic and political changes introduced by former socialist countries in Europe and beyond (e.g., China) after the years of economic stagnation and recession in the 1980's, in the attempt to move their economy from centralized to market-oriented principles (Ratkovic-Njegovan and Grubic-Nesic, 2015 ). Serbia exemplifies many of the problems faced by the SEE region as a whole, but also faces a number of problems uniquely related to the legacy of its past. Due to international economic sanctions, the country was isolated for most of the 1990s, and NATO air strikes, related to the Kosovo conflict and carried out in 1999, caused significant damage to the industry and economy. Transitioning to democracy in October 2000, Serbia embarked on a period of economic recovery, helped by the introduction of long overdue reforms, major inflows of foreign investment and substantial assistance from international funding institutions and others in the international community. However, the growth model on which Serbia and other SEE countries relied between 2001 and 2008, being based mainly on rapid capital inflows, a credit-fueled domestic demand boom and high current account deficit (above 20% of GDP in 2008), was not accompanied by the necessary progress in structural and institutional reforms to make this model sustainable (Uvalic, 2013 ). The central issue of the transition process in Serbia and other such countries is privatization of public enterprises, which in Serbia ran slowly and with a number of interruptions, failures and restarts (Radun et al., 2015 ). The process led the Serbian industry into a state of industrial collapse, i.e., deindustrialization. Today there are less than 400,000 employees working in the industry in Serbia and the overall unemployment rate exceeds 26% (Milisavljevic et al., 2013 ). The average growth of Serbia's GDP in the last 5 years was very low, at 0.6% per year, but has reached 2.7% in 2016 (GDP, 2017 ). The structure of the GDP by sector in 2015 was: services 60.5%, industry 31.4%, and agriculture 8.2% (Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 2017 ).

Taking into account the specific adversities faced by businesses in Serbia, we formulated two main research questions as a starting point for the analysis of the problem of work motivation in Serbia:

• To what extent are the previously developed models of work motivation (such as the model of Locke and Latham, 2004 ) applicable to the transition economy and business practices in Serbia?
• What is the nature of the relationships between different segments of work motivation (job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job involvement and work characteristics)?

The Hawthorn experiment, conducted in early 1930s (Mayo, 1933 ), spurred the interest of organizational behavior researchers into the problem of work motivation. Although Hawthorn focused mainly on the problems of increasing the productivity and the effects of supervision, incentives and the changing work conditions, his study had significant repercussions on the research of work motivation. All modern theories of work motivation stem from his study.

Building on his work, Maslow ( 1943 ) published his Hierarchy of Needs theory, which remains to this day the most cited and well known of all work motivation theories according to Denhardt et al. ( 2012 ). Maslow's theory is a content-based theory , belonging to a group of approaches which also includes the ERG Theory by Alderfer ( 1969 ), the Achievement Motivation Theory, Motivation-Hygiene Theory and the Role Motivation Theory.

These theories focus on attempting to uncover what the needs and motives that cause people to act in a certain way, within the organization, are. They do not concern themselves with the process humans use to fulfill their needs, but attempt to identify variables which influence this fulfillment. Thus, these theories are often referred to as individual theories , as they ignore the organizational aspects of work motivation, such as job characteristics or working environment, but concentrate on the individual and the influence of an individual's needs on work motivation.

The approach is contrasted by the process theories of work motivation, which take the view that the concept of needs is not enough to explain the studied phenomenon and include expectations, values, perception, as important aspects needed to explain why people behave in certain ways and why they are willing to invest effort to achieve their goals. The process theories include: Theory of Work and Motivation (Vroom, 1964 ), Goal Setting Theory (Locke, 1968 ), Equity Theory (Adams, 1963 ), as well as the The Porter-Lawler Model (Porter and Lawler, 1968 ).

Each of these theories has its limitations and, while they do not contradict each other, they focus on different aspects of the motivation process. This is the reason why lately they have been several attempts to create an integrated theory of work motivation, which would encompass all the relevant elements of different basic theories and explain most processes taking place within the domain of work motivation, the process of motivation, as well as employee expectations (Donovan, 2001 ; Mitchell and Daniels, 2002 ; Locke and Latham, 2004 ). One of the most influential integrated theories is the theory proposed by Locke and Latham ( 2004 ), which represents the basis for the study presented in this paper.

The model of Locke and Latham is show in Figure ​ Figure1. 1 . As the figure shows, it includes individual needs, values and motive, as well as personality. Incorporating the theory of expectations, the goal-setting theory and the social-cognitive theory, it focuses on goal setting, goals themselves and self-efficiency. Performance, by way of achievements and rewards, affects job satisfaction. The model defines relations between different constructs and, in particular, that job satisfaction is affected by the job characteristics and organizational policy and procedures and that it, in turn, affects organizational commitment and job involvement. Locke and Latham suggested that the theory they proposed needs more stringent empirical validation. In the study presented here, we take a closer look at the part of their theory which addresses the relationship between job satisfaction, involvement and organizational commitment. The results of the empirical study conducted in industrial systems suggest that this part of the model needs to be improved to reflect the mediating role of job involvement in the process through which job satisfaction influences organizational commitment.

Diagram of the Latham and Locke model. The frame on the right indicates the part of the model the current study focuses on.

Job satisfaction is one of the most researched phenomena in the domain of human resource management and organizational behavior. It is commonly defined as a “pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of oneś job or job experiences” (Schneider and Snyder, 1975 ; Locke, 1976 ). Job satisfaction is a key element of work motivation, which is a fundamental determinant of one's behavior in an organization.

Organizational commitment, on the other hand, represents the degree to which the employees identify with the organization in which they work, how engaged they are in the organization and whether they are ready leave it (Greenberg and Baron, 2008 ). Several studies have demonstrated that there is a strong connection between organizational commitment, job satisfaction and fluctuation (Porter et al., 1974 ), as well as that people who are more committed to an organization are less likely to leave their job. Organizational commitment can be thought of as an extension of job satisfaction, as it deals with the positive attitude that an employee has, not toward her own job, but toward the organization. The emotions, however, are much stronger in the case of organizational commitment and it is characterized by the attachment of the employee to the organization and readiness to make sacrifices for the organization.

The link between job satisfaction and organizational commitment has been researched relatively frequently (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990 ; Martin and Bennett, 1996 ; Meyer et al., 2002 ; Falkenburg and Schyns, 2007 ; Moynihan and Pandey, 2007 ; Morrow, 2011 ). The research consensus is that the link exists, but there is controversy about the direction of the relationship. Some research supports the hypothesis that job satisfaction predicts organizational commitment (Stevens et al., 1978 ; Angle and Perry, 1983 ; Williams and Hazer, 1986 ; Tsai and Huang, 2008 ; Yang and Chang, 2008 ; Yücel, 2012 ; Valaei et al., 2016 ), as is the case in the study presented in this paper. Other studies suggest that the organizational commitment is an antecedent to job satisfaction (Price and Mueller, 1981 ; Bateman and Strasser, 1984 ; Curry et al., 1986 ; Vandenberg and Lance, 1992 ).

In our study, job involvement represents a type of attitude toward work and is usually defined as the degree to which one identifies psychologically with one's work, i.e., how much importance one places on their work. A distinction should be made between work involvement and job involvement. Work involvement is conditioned by the process of early socialization and relates to the values one has wrt. work and its benefits, while job involvement relates to the current job and is conditioned with the one's current employment situation and to what extent it meets one's needs (Brown, 1996 ).

2.1. Research method

Based on the relevant literature, the results of recent studies and the model proposed by Locke and Latham ( 2004 ), we designed a conceptual model shown in Figure ​ Figure2. 2 . The model was then used to formulate the following hypotheses:

• H0 - Work motivation factors, such as organizational commitment, job involvement, job satisfaction and work characteristics, represent interlinked significant indicators of work motivation in the organizations examined.
• H1 - Work characteristics will have a positive relationship with job satisfaction.
• H2 - Organizational policies and procedures will have a positive relationship with job satisfaction.
• H3 - Job satisfaction will have a positive relationship with job involvement.
• H4 - Job satisfaction will have a positive relationship with organizational commitment.
• H5 - Job involvement will have a mediating role between job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

The research model.

2.2. Participants

For the purpose of this study, 125 organizations from the Serbian Chamber of Commerce database ( www.stat.gov.rs ) were randomly selected to take part in this study. Each organization was contacted and an invitation letter was sent. Eight companies expressed a desire to take part and provided contact details for 700 of their employees. The questionnaire distribution process was conducted according to Dillman's approach (Dillman, 2011 ). Thus, the initial questionnaire dissemination process was followed by a series of follow-up email reminders, if required. After a 2-month period, out of 625 received, 566 responses were valid. Therefore, the study included 566 persons, 235 males (42%) and 331 women (58%) employed by 8 companies located in Serbia, Eastern Europe.

The sample encompassed staff from both public (53%) and private (47%) companies in manufacturing (31%) and service (69%) industries. The companies were of varied size and had between 150 and 6,500 employees, 3 of them (37.5%) medium-sized (<250 employees) and 5 (62.5%) large enterprises.

For the sake of representativeness, the sample consisted of respondents across different categories of: age, years of work service and education. The age of the individuals was between 20 and 62 years of age and we divided them into 5 categories as shown in Table ​ Table1. 1 . The table provides the number of persons per category and the relative size of the category wrt. to the whole sample. In the same table, a similar breakdown is shown in terms of years a person spent with the company, their education and the type of the position they occupy within the company (managerial or not).

Data sample characteristics.

2.3. Ethics statement

The study was carried out in accordance with the Law on Personal Data Protection of the Republic of Serbia and the Codex of Professional Ethics of the University of Novi Sad. The relevant ethics committee is the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Technical Sciences of the University of Novi Sad.

All participants took part voluntarily and were free to fill in the questionnaire or not.

The questionnaire included a cover sheet explaining the aim of the research, ways in which the data will be used and the anonymous nature of the survey.

2.4. Measures

This study is based on a self reported questionnaire as a research instrument.

The questionnaire was developed in line with previous empirical findings, theoretical foundations and relevant literature recommendations (Brayfield and Rothe, 1951 ; Weiss et al., 1967 ; Mowday et al., 1979 ; Kanungo, 1982 ; Fields, 2002 ). We then conducted a face validity check. Based on the results, some minor corrections were made, in accordance with the recommendations provided by university professors. After that, the pilot test was conducted with 2 companies. Managers from each of these companies were asked to assess the questionnaire. Generally, there were not any major complaints. Most of the questions were meaningful, clearly written and understandable. The final research instrument contained 86 items. For acquiring respondents' subjective estimates, a five-point Likert scale was used.

The questionnaire took about 30 min to fill in. It consisted of: 10 general demographic questions, 20 questions from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), 15 questions from the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ), 10 questions from the Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ), 18 questions of the Brayfield-Rothe Job Satisfaction Scale (JSS), 6 questions of the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) and 7 additional original questions related to the rules and procedures within the organization.

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), 20 items short form (Weiss et al., 1967 ), was used to gather data about job satisfaction of participants. The MSQ – short version items, are rated on 5-points Likert scale (1 very dissatisfied with this aspect of my job, and 5 – very satisfied with this aspect of my job) with two subscales measuring intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction.

Organizational commitment was measured using The Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ). It is a 15-item scale developed by Mowday, Steers and Porter (Mowday et al., 1979 ) and uses a 5-point Likert type response format, with 3 factors that can describe this commitment: willingness to exert effort, desire to maintain membership in the organization, and acceptance of organizational values.

The most commonly used measure of job involvement has been the Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ, Kanungo, 1982 ), 10-items scale designed to assess how participants feel toward their present job. The response scale on a 5-point scale varied between “strongly disagree/not applicable to me” to “strongly agree/fully applicable”.

The Brayfield and Rothe's 18-item Job Satisfaction Index (JSI, Brayfield and Rothe, 1951 ) was used to measure overall job satisfaction, operationalized on five-point Likert scale.

Psychometric analysis conducted showed that all the questionnaires were adequately reliable (Cronbach alpha > 0.7). The suitability of the data for factor analysis has been confirmed using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Test (see Table ​ Table2 2 ).

Basic psychometric characteristics of the instruments.

For further analysis we used summary scores for the different scales. Job satisfaction was represented with the overall score of MSQ, as the data analysis revealed a strong connection between the extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. The overall score on the OCQ was used as a measure of organizational commitment, while the score on JDS was used to reflect job characteristics. The JSS and JIQ scales have been modified, by eliminating a few questions, in order to improve reliability and suitability for factor analysis.

Statistical analysis was carried out using the SPSS software. The SPSS Amos structural equation modeling software was used to create the Structural Equation Models (SEMs).

The data was first checked for outliers using box-plot analysis. The only outliers identified were related to the years of employment, but these seem to be consistent to what is expected in practice in Serbia, so no observations needed to be removed from the dataset.

3.1. Exploratory factor analysis

Although research dimensions were empirically validated and confirmed in several prior studies, to the best of our knowledge, the empirical confirmation of the research instrument (i.e., questionnaire) and its constituents in the case of Serbia and South-Eastern Europe is quite scarce. Furthermore, the conditions in which previous studies were conducted could vary between research populations. Also, such differences could affect the structure of the research concepts. Thus, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted in order to empirically validate the structure of research dimensions and to test the research instrument, within the context of the research population of South-Eastern Europe and Serbia.

Using the maximum likelihood method we identified four factors, which account for 67% of the variance present in the data. The scree plot of the results of the analysis is shown in Figure ​ Figure3. 3 . As the figure shows, we retained the factors above the inflection point.

Scree plot of the EFA results.

The communalities for the variables loading into the factors are shown in Table ​ Table3 3 and the questions corresponding to our variables are listed in Table ​ Table4. 4 . Initial communalities are estimates of the proportion of variance in each variable accounted for by all components (factors) identified, while the extraction communalities refer to the part of the variance explained by the four factors extracted. The model explains more of the variance then the initial factors, for all but the last variable.

Communalities.

Questions that build our constructs.

More detailed results of the EFA for the four factors, are shown in Table ​ Table5. 5 . The unique loadings of specific items measured with the different questions in the questionnaire on the factors identified are shown in the pattern matrix (Table ​ (Table6). 6 ). As the table shows, each factor is loaded into by items that were designed to measure a specific construct and there are no cross-loadings. The first factor corresponds to job characteristics, second to job satisfaction, third to job involvement and the final to organizational commitment. The correlation between the factors is relatively low and shown in Table ​ Table7 7 .

Total variance explained by the dominant factors.

Pattern matrix for the factors identified.

Factor correlation matrix.

3.2. Confirmatory factor analysis

In the next part of our analysis we used Structural Equation Modeling to validate and improve a part of the model proposed by Locke and Latham ( 2004 ) that focuses on work characteristics, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job involvement.

Although the EFA suggest the existence of four, not five, dominant factors in the model, diverging from the model proposed by Locke and Latham ( 2004 ), in our initial experiments we used their original model, shown in Figure ​ Figure4A, 4A , taking into account also organizational policies and procedures.

The evolution of our model (the path coefficients are standardized): (A) the initial model based on Locke and Latham ( 2004 ), (B) no partial mediation, and (C) partial mediation introduced.

In this (default) model, the only independent variable are the job characteristics. The standardized regression coefficients shown in Figure ​ Figure4A 4A (we show standardized coefficients throughout Figure ​ Figure4) 4 ) indicate that the relationship between the satisfaction and organizational commitment seems to be stronger (standard coefficient value of 0.54) than the one between satisfaction and involvement (standard coefficient value of 0.37). The effect of job characteristics and policies and procedures on the employee satisfaction seems to be balanced (standard coefficient values of 0.31 and 0.30, respectively).

The default model does not fit our data well. The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) for this model is 0.759, the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) is 0.598, while the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) is 0.192.

A more detailed analysis of the model revealed that it could indeed (as the EFA suggests) be improved by eliminating the organizational policies and procedures variable, as it has a high residual covariance with job involvement (−3.071) and organizational commitment (−4.934).

We therefore propose to eliminate the “Organizational policies and procedures” variable from the model. Dropping the variable resulted in an improved model shown in Figure ​ Figure4B. 4B . The improved model fits the data better, but the fit is still not good ( RMSEA = 0.125, CFI = 0.915 and TLI = 0.830).

We then hypothesized that job involvement influences organizational commitment, yielding the final model tested in this study (Figure ​ (Figure4C). 4C ). This model turned out to be the one that fits our data very well ( RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1 and TLI = 1.015).

4. Mediation analysis

In the final part of the study we conducted the mediation analysis, to understand the relationship between job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment. We used bootstrapping, based on 5000 samples and the confidence interval of 95%.

We started with a model that contains just one relation between satisfaction and commitment (Figure ​ (Figure5A), 5A ), then tested for full mediation (Figure ​ (Figure5B) 5B ) and finally partial mediation as indicated in out proposed model (Figure ​ (Figure5C). 5C ). The unstandardized, direct effect regression weights and the p -values obtained in these experiments are shown in Table ​ Table8. 8 . As the p -values show, all the connections in our three models are significant and that they remain so throughout the evolution of the model. Therefore, job involvement mediates the influence of satisfaction on organizational commitment, but this is a partial mediation and a major part of the effect of satisfaction on the organizational commitment is achieved directly.

Mediation analysis models. (A) , Model 1; (B) , Model 2; (C) , Model 3.

Mediation analysis regression weights.

5. Discussion

We conducted an empirical study aimed at exploring the relationship between employee satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, work characteristics and organizational policies and procedures.

Based on the relevant scientific literature, recent studies in the area and the integrative model of work motivation of Locke and Latham ( 2004 ), we have formulated an initial conceptual model for our research and hypothesized the connections between the relevant variables. The initial model has been improved iteratively, with the goal of increasing its fit to the empirical data collected in the study.

Starting from the model proposed by Locke and Latham ( 2004 ) we determined that their model does not fit our experimental data well and that we observe a connection between job involvement that is not present in their model. In addition, our data does not support the hypothesis that organizational procedures and policies affect employee satisfaction in the organizations considered. As a result we propose a 4 factor model shown in Figure ​ Figure4C 4C for the relationship between the concepts of work characteristics, employee satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment.

We analyzed the results of the study based on 1 general and 5 specific hypotheses. The research confirms that there is a link between work characteristics and job satisfaction (H1), but that it is weak, suggesting that a dominant effect of the material factors of motivation exists.

We have also determined that there is a connection between the rules and procedures variable (H2) and the rest of the variables, indicating that it should be considered in future studies, but that the constructs need to be operationalized better.

The third specific hypothesis (H3) that job satisfaction has a positive relationship with job involvement has been confirmed and we have observed that extrinsic work motivation has a stronger effect than intrinsic, which can be explained by low wages and insufficient funds for everyday life. Other research has confirmed this link (Govender and Parumasur, 2010 ) and showed that most of the employee motivation dimensions have significant links with the dimensions of job involvement (9 out of 10 pairs).

The fourth specific hypothesis (H4 - Job satisfaction will have a positive relationship with organizational commitment) has also been confirmed and we can conclude that a positive relationship exists, which is in line with recent research in this area. The subscale focused on identification with the organization is strongly connected with both intrinsic and extrinsic factors of job satisfaction, but this cannot be said for the subscale focused on organizational attachment. Our research supports the existence of a weak connection between job satisfaction and organizational attachment, both when intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction is considered as a motivator. A study of work motivation and organizational commitment conducted in Bulgaria (Serbia's neighbor) showed that extrinsic factors are key sources of organizational commitment (Roe et al., 2000 ), as well as that job involvement and the chances for the fulfillment o higher-order needs pay a very important part in the motivation of the employees.

One of the reasons for such a result can be the economic situation in Serbia, which has a severely detrimental effect on work motivation. The transition and economic crisis is accompanied by the shrinking purchasing power of the population, higher unemployment rates and a rising disparity in the salary levels, all of which causes the adjustment of the behavior of the employees to these conditions. Under the economic conditions that exist in Serbia it is to be expected that the individuals will put more value on the salary and advancement prospects than on the opportunities for growth and development, which do not present a direct financial benefit.

The research did not reveal any differences with respect to the sex of the participants, regardless of the variable considered. Other research has not reached a consensus on the matter, as a part of the studies suggests that there are differences in job involvement between men and women (Lodahl and Kejnar, 1965 ; Hall and Mansfield, 1975 ; Rabinowitz and Hall, 1977 ; Saal, 1978 ).

Regarding the ownership of the organizations examined, the research revealed statistically significant differences between the employees working in public and private companies, i.e., that the participants working in the private sector scores significantly higher on every variable except work characteristics, meaning that they are more committed to work, more involved and more satisfied.

In addition, we have determined that there are statistically significant differences when it comes to the position of the employees in the organization's hierarchy, i.e., whether they occupy a managerial or a non-managerial position. The study shows that managers have higher scores for organizational attachment, organizational commitment, intrinsic motivators, extrinsic motivators, job satisfaction and job involvement. We can, therefore, conclude that the managers are more satisfied with their work in general and that they are more committed to the organization than other employees. This can be explained by the fact that, due to the nature of the work they do, they are able to make decisions, they have a more varied job and have better material and non-material rewards. A more detailed analysis of the commitment of the managers, focused on identifying if we are dealing with normative, continuous or affective commitment would provide more insight into the structure and nature of the relationship between the organization and the individual.

Considering the type of the company (manufacturing or service) our study showed that the participants working in manufacturing companies are the ones who identify more with the company, are more committed to the company, more satisfied with their work and more involved.

Our study also identified a significant difference with respect to the vocation of the participants, showing that those with training in humanistic sciences awarded most positive scores to the characteristics of their work, while the opposite was true for those of technical vocations.

The part of our analysis focused on the age of the participants revealed that there is a statistically significant connection between the age and job satisfaction, where the older the employee, the less satisfied he/she is with their job and cares less about the characteristics of work. A reason for such a result could again be found in the economic situation of Serbia and the high unemployment rate (over 20%), causing the younger people to be satisfied with the simple fact that they managed to get a job, rather than being satisfied with the job itself. Another reason could be the difference in the perception of desires and possibilities that exists between the younger and older employees.

The years with the company are negatively linked with employee satisfaction, as well as job characteristics, which is in line with the effect discussed in the previous paragraph, as those with more time spent in the company are less satisfied with their job and care less about the characteristics of their work.

Considering the level of education of the participants, our study showed that the more educated the employees are, the less involved they are in their work and that they seem to care more about the characteristics of their work.

Our research showed that links exist between all the variables studied and that the weakest of these links is between work characteristics and other constructs. Of those, the weakest link in turn is the link between the work characteristics and the subscale of organizational commitment related to the identification with the organization. Thus, we can conclude that work characteristics do not exhibit a significant influence on whether and to what extent the employee will identify with the organization in which he/she works, i.e., whether he/she will be committed to the organization.

A moderate to strong connection exists between organizational commitment and job satisfaction, which is in line with the results of numerous previous studies (Currivan, 1999 ; Meyer et al., 2002 ; Malhotra and Mukherjee, 2004 ; Saari and Judge, 2004 ; Chen, 2007 ; Falkenburg and Schyns, 2007 ; Moynihan and Pandey, 2007 ; Getahun et al., 2008 ; Colakoglu et al., 2010 ; Yücel, 2012 ; Fu and Deshpande, 2014 ).

Our study confirms the existence of a strong connection between job satisfaction and job involvement (Moynihan and Pandey, 2007 ; Wegge et al., 2007 ; Griffin et al., 2010 ; Raymond and Mjoli, 2013 ; Zopiatis et al., 2014 ). Many studies have been carried out in an attempt to examine and define the relationship between job involvement and organizational commitment. Our results are in line with previous studies, which diverge only on the strength of the connection, ranging from moderate to strong (Blau and Boal, 1989 ; Brewer and Lok, 1995 ; Sjöberg and Sverke, 2000 ; Brooks and Swailes, 2002 ; Toga, 2011 ). Our study provides more evidence for the existence of such a relationship, which is moderately strong. Such a relationship does not exist in the integrative model of Locke and Latham ( 2004 ), which served as a starting point for this study.

In addition, we have determined that job involvement has a mediating role between job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job involvement mediates the influence of satisfaction on organizational commitment, but this is a partial mediation and a major part of the effect of satisfaction on the organizational commitment is achieved directly.

The construct related to organizational policies and procedures seems not to have significant bearing on employee satisfaction, based on the data collected. Two plausible explanations exist for this. The first is the fact that this was the only construct in our study for which a suitable standard questionnaire could not be found, so one had to be constructed specifically, meaning that the construct should be operationalized better in future studies and that this represents the limitation of our study. The other is the fact that in Serbia, as in most transition economies, the lack of suitable institutional and legislative framework at the national level is often accompanied with lax, not clearly defined and even less adhered-to business policies and procedures. In such a state of affairs, the employees seldom have a relatively clear idea of what the policies and procedures of their organization are and are unable to evaluate them with respect to those of other organizations, making this construct very hard to measure. At the same time it can be argued that, in such a situation, the policies and procedures are not perceived by the employees as a significant factor of their organizational behavior and indeed do not affect their work motivation. Whatever the reason, the relationship of policies and procedures to the other variables of work motivation within the transition economies merits further investigation.

Author contributions

JĆ and SM designed the study. JĆ collected the data and conducted the bulk of the research. MD and DĆ conducted the statistical analysis and modeling. All authors took part in the manuscript writing, led by JĆ and DĆ.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Funding. The research leading to these results has received funding from the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2012-2016/ under REA grant agreement n° 295220.

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INTRODUCTION

With increased technological growth and globalization of markets the business environment has become very competitive and complex. This requires organizations to up their game in order to remain competitive and survive in the changed business environment. To succeed in this very turbulent market, most organizations have invested in acquisition of high quality resources that are valuable, unique, non- imitable and rare in order to sustain their competitiveness. Such resources include human, physical, technological and financial resources. Among the identified resources, the human resources have been found to be the best source of sustainable competitive advantage. The success of any organization depends on the satisfaction of its workforce (Mekonin & Teklu, 2021).

Every organization’s success indeed depends on employee satisfaction on job as their effort has been paid off ( Khaira, Afifah, Shariff & Sima, 2021) . Leaders today believe that impressive human resource is the power factor of an organization. This is because human resources are unique and cannot be copied. Human resource is an active resource which has emotions and can react differently to different situations. Human resource is considered as the most important asset which serves as the engine for providing a sustainable source of energy and service delivery in the organization (Muhammad & Wajidi, 2013). The importance of intellectual capital has increased to the point of being one of the most valuable assets that must be better understood in order to be developed (Ouedraogo & ALeclerc, 2013).  This is largely because the human resource is an active resource that has the capability to activate other resources in pursuit of organizational goals/ objectives. It is also very unique and cannot be copied.

The millennium generation employees (millennials) have different expectations from the job environment compared to the expectations of the previous generation of workers. For this new generation of employees to be productive and to unleash their full potential, they should be satisfied with their job. This requires managers to be very cautious while dealing with the millennials and also to understand their needs/ expectations in order to fully benefit from their skills and knowledge. Job satisfaction is a result of employees’ perception of how well their job provides those things which are viewed as important (Ndulue & Ekechukwu, 2016). If the human resource or employees are happy and contended with the moves and actions of the employer, they do their best for the best of the organization (Khan, Nawaz, Aleem & Hamed, 2012). A satisfied work force will create a pleasant atmosphere within the organization to perform well (Pushpakumari, 2008).

There is a reciprocal relationship between satisfaction and performance; this means that satisfaction and performance influence each other. Increased job satisfaction will motivate employees to achieve the organizational goals. When employees perform well and achieve the organizational goals they are also likely to be motivated by the improved performance which in turn leads to higher job satisfaction. The factors that contribute to the positive morale and attitude also result in a higher degree of job satisfaction (Saranya, 2014). A highly satisfied work force is absolutely necessary for achieving a high level of performance in an organization. Satisfied workers tend to extend more effort to job performance, then work harder and better (Pushpakumari, 2008). Job satisfaction is an important factor for improving effectiveness and also a person’s satisfaction in a company. Job satisfaction is achieved from situations a person experience in his job, so factors such as management method, organization policy and structure, job conditions and type of relation with coworkers are important (Weiss, 2002).

Many studies have been done on the relationship between job satisfaction and performance, for example, Khan, Nawaz, Aleem and Hamed, (2012); Revenio Jr. (2016); Ndulue and Ekechukwu (2016) and Bakotic, (2016) have all done studies on this topic. However, due to the changing nature of the work environment as a result of advancement in technology and the changed expectation of the current millennial employee, this topic remains a topic of interest and requires continuous research in order to meet the psychological needs of the new category of employees whose expectations are quite different from those of the previous generation of workers. The purpose of this paper is to review literature on the factors that influence level of job satisfaction among the workforce and its effects on performance.

Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction is an affective or emotional response towards various facets of one’s job (Ndulue & Ekechukwu, 2016). Cranny, Smith and Stone (2014) defined job satisfaction as employees’ emotional state regarding the job, considering what they expected and what they actually got out of it. According to Willem, (2007) job satisfaction shows the relation between human expectations and advantages taken from job. Vroom (1964) as cited in Revenio Jr. (2016) defines job satisfaction as an “effective orientations on the part of the individuals towards work roles which they are presently occupying”. Job satisfaction is a positive emotional state that arises from the employee’s work or practical experience, and results in job satisfaction from the realization of the extent to which the employees work provides the things that he or she considers important (Hareem, 2013). According to Spector (1997) job satisfaction shows peoples emotion about their job generally or about some parts of it (i.e. organization, job, supervisory, coworkers, salary and income and promotions). Job satisfaction describes the positive or negative attitude of a person regarding his employment and work environment (Weiss, 2002; Greenberg, 2008). This could be both psychological as well as physiological factors (Revenio Jr., 2016).

Satisfaction is a complex and multifaceted concept (Revenio Jr., 2016) that is influenced by both internal and external environmental factors. Work environment is an important determinant of job satisfaction of employees (Herzberg, 1968; Spector, 2008).  Existing literature and research results show that job satisfaction is influenced by a variety of factors- both internal and external to the organization. The organizations have a level of control over the internal factors, however, they have very limited or no control of the external environmental factors that influence job satisfaction. Different factors within the working environment such as wages, working hours, autonomy given to employees, organizational structure and communication between employees and management may affect job satisfaction (Lane, Esser, Holte, & Anne, 2010). Therefore, the organization should strive to improve on the factors that they have control over in order to increase the level of job satisfaction. At the same time they should try as much as possible to support those responsible for the external environment to improve it. This may call for initiatives that are similar to the existing public-private partnerships.

The results of a study by Dawal and Taha, (2015) showed that job and environmental factors are significantly related to job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is an outcome of different factors like pay, promotion, the work itself, supervision, relationships with co-workers and opportunities for promotions (Opkara, 2002). Ndulue and Ekechukwu, (2016) have also identified pay, the work itself, promotions, supervision, workgroup, and working conditions as the factors that influence job satisfaction. The level of job satisfaction is affected by intrinsic and extrinsic motivating factors, the quality of supervision, social relationships with work group and the degree to which individuals succeed or fail in their work (Armstrong, 2006).

Pay, the work itself, promotions, supervision, workgroup and working conditions have a great influence on the level of an employee’s satisfaction with the job (Luthans, 1985). According to Saranya, (2014) the important factors that contribute to the higher level of job satisfaction are challenging and responsible job, numerous promotional opportunities, impartial treatment by the management, creativity and innovative ideas of job security, attractive salary and perks, freedom in work situation, participative management and welfare facilities like medical, uniform, canteen etc. Smith, Kendall and Hullin (1969) expressed the five aspects that can be used to determine job satisfaction as; being satisfied from job (i.e. interesting tasks and opportunities for learning and training), being satisfied from supervisor (i.e. technical and managing abilities and their considerations about employees), being satisfied from coworkers (technical qualification and support they show), being satisfied from promotion (achieving real opportunity to advance), being satisfied from income (amount of income, its equality and way of paying to staff).

Other researchers who have investigated the factors that affect job satisfaction include Tabassum, Khan, Sherani, and Khan, (2016) who say that the major determinants of job satisfaction are basically nine facets which are pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, nature of works and communication. Purcell, Kinnie, Hutchinson, Rayton, and Swart, (2003) also did a research and found that the key factors affecting job satisfaction were career opportunities, job influence, team work and job challenge. According to Revenio Jr. (2016) leadership style also has a great role in the employee’s level of job satisfaction. Brudney and Coundry (1993) have also explained different variables that influence performance of the employees in the organization. They included factors such as pay, organization commitment, relationship between pay and performance, etc. Working conditions have positive impact on job satisfaction (Guest, 2004; Silla, Gracia & Peiro, 2005). Job satisfaction is adversely affected by factors such as lack of promotion, working conditions, low job security and low level of autonomy (Guest, 2004; Silla et al., 2005).

It is essential for an organization to motivate their employees to work hard for achieving the organizational goals and objectives. According to Jerrell, Coggburn, Battaglio Jr., and Bradbury, (2014) how an organization manages conflict also has a bearing on employee job satisfaction.

Empirical Review

Various studies have been done on the factors affecting job satisfaction. Some of the factors researched about include job security, leadership/ supervision styles, salaries, promotion opportunities among others.  Javed, Balouch and Hassan, (2014) did a study on the determinants of job satisfaction and its impact on employee performance and turnover intentions. The results of the study showed a significant positive association of employee empowerment, workplace environment, job loyalty and job performance with job satisfaction. The results show that employee empowerment has a significant positive relationship and it contributes more than 37% to job satisfaction. Therefore, when an employee is given autonomy in business decisions then his satisfaction level will rise. Furthermore, there was a significant negative relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention. According to the result of the study, job satisfaction has a significant negative relationship with turnover intentions contributing more than 32% to turnover intentions. Whenever there is low level of employee satisfaction in any organization, the employees of that organization will intentionally leave that organization.

Cheginy, Isfahani, Mohseni, Khakian and Khosravizadeh (2014) did a study to investigate the factors influencing job satisfaction among hospital personnel. The results of the study showed that there is a significant relationship between job satisfaction and personnel’s perceptions about their work conditions, satisfaction with supervision, satisfaction with coworkers, satisfaction with work nature and satisfaction with salary and advantage. Rukh, Choundhary and Abbasi (2015) did a study on the analysis of factors affecting employee satisfaction in Pakistan. Research findings indicated the significant factors that affect the satisfaction level of employees as pay, promotion, relation with employees, relation with supervisor, work stress and job security. The results further showed that the median group differences existed between responses based on age, work experience, salary and designation (i.e. job position/rank) of employees. Job satisfaction was also positively and significantly associated with job related factors such as pay, promotion, relation with employees, relation with supervisor, work stress and job security. From the study they concluded that job satisfaction of employees was significantly affected by demographic, financial and non-financial factors. Employees who are older than 50 years, with greater experience, and in higher management positions were more satisfied with pay, promotion, work stress, work condition and working environment. The employees’ departments did not play any significant role in affecting satisfaction levels.

Viñas-Bardolet, Velazco and Torrent-Sellens (2013) did a study on the determinants of Job Satisfaction, the Role of Knowledge-based work: An illustration from Spain and found that job satisfaction, depends on worker attributes, financial and non-financial job characteristics. The results also show that net monthly income is a positive and highly significant variable in explaining job satisfaction. Evidence suggests that financial and non-financial (work organisation and work intensity) job dimensions are the most important determinants of knowledge-based workers satisfaction in Spain. Mosadegh Rad and De Moraes (2009) did a study to investigate the specific factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction in employees at the Isfahan University Hospitals (lUHs) in Isfahan, Iran. The study also focused on revealing homogeneous demographic characteristics that these employees exhibited, and which affect their satisfaction level. It was found that overall employees were moderately satisfied with their jobs, and more satisfied with the following aspects of their current work situation: supervision, job identity and co-workers. The lowest satisfaction scores were found for benefits, contingent rewards, communication, salaries, work conditions and promotion. Motivating factors included loyalty to employees, job security, good pay, good working conditions, tactful discipline, involvement, recognition and promotion.

Job security is a significant determinant of job satisfaction. Job security provides workers with a much-needed sense of structure (Woods, 2018). The effect of job security on worker job satisfaction is different depending on whether perceived job loss occurs (or not), whether job openings are scarce or whether job openings are plentiful (Artz & Kaya, 2014). In the results of their study Artz & Kaya (2014) showed that three measures of job security increase private sector worker job satisfaction, and reduce worker incentives to quit. Few workers quit when job openings are relatively scarce (during contractions) than when job openings are relatively plentiful (during expansions). People want to know their job is available for as long as they wish to hold it. When job security decreases, satisfaction and performance levels also take a hit. Results of a study by Reisel, Probst, Chia, Maloles and König, (2010) on the effects of job insecurity on job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, deviant behavior, and negative emotions of employees show that job insecurity is negatively related to satisfaction and that job insecurity has both direct and indirect effects on work behaviors and emotions.

The work environment has also been researched in relation to job satisfaction. Raziq and Maulabakhsh, (2015) did a study on the Impact of Working Environment on Job Satisfaction and found a positive relationship between working environment and employee job satisfaction. Their study concluded that the businesses need to realize the importance of good working environment for maximizing the level of job satisfaction.  Other results have also shown that there is a positive link between work environment and intrinsic aspect of the job satisfaction. According to Javed, Balouch, and Hassan, (2014) work place environment has a positive relation with job satisfaction and it contributes 16% to job satisfaction. Since it has a positive impact on job satisfaction so it shows that when an employee is given favorable and clean environment then his/her satisfaction level rises. Bakotic and Babic (2013) found that the workers who work under difficult working conditions, are dissatisfied through this work environment.

Promotions are also an important aspect of a worker’s career and life, affecting other facets of the work experience. With regard to promotions some studies have also been done by various researchers. Malik, Danish and Munir, (2012) did a study  to determine the impact of pay and promotion on job satisfaction in higher education institutes of Pakistan and found that pay has significant influence on job satisfaction but the promotion has less influence and partially significant to the job satisfaction. Kosteas (2007) did a study on job Satisfaction and Promotions and found that promotions have a lasting, but diminishing impact on job satisfaction. Kosteas (2007) also find a strong, negative correlation between quits and both job satisfaction and promotion expectations. Promotion has a positive impact on job satisfaction (Nguyen et al., 2003; Teseema & Soeters, 2006). Khan and Mishra, (2013) also did a research on promotion as job satisfaction, a study on Colleges of Muscat, Sultanate Of Oman and the research findings indicate that academic teaching employees where satisfied with the promotion. There was a significant difference in the level of satisfaction. Analysis showed that promotion has a modest and positive effect on job satisfaction.

Mabaso and Dlamini (2017) did a study on the impact of compensation and benefits on job satisfaction and found a positive and significant effect of compensation on job satisfaction (p = 0.263). Moreover, they found that there was no significant effect between benefits and job satisfaction. Therefore, only compensation significantly predicted job satisfaction among academic staff. A study by Usman, Akbar and Ramzan (2013) on the effect of salary and stress on job satisfaction of teachers in District Sialkot, Pakistan found that from the two independent variables (salary and stress) only salary of the teachers was significantly affecting the job satisfaction of teachers. Financial rewards (salary) were found to significantly affect job satisfaction of teachers. Based on the findings of the study by Usman, Akbar and Ramzan (2013) it means that if employees are not given proper salary in time, they would be highly dissatisfied with their jobs and may ultimately start thinking of leaving the profession. This is due to the fact that cost of living is highly increasing in Pakistan. Other results of a study by Muhammed zia Ur Rehman, (2010) found that job satisfaction was significantly related with extrinsic rewards (salary and other benefits). Arian, Soleimani and Oghazian (2018) did a study on job satisfaction and the factors affecting satisfaction in nurse educators and found that there is a positive correlation between job satisfaction and promotion opportunities and that those professors with a high level of job satisfaction had a higher pay and salary. Job satisfaction of bank officers is significantly dependent upon compensation, promotion opportunities, rewards, relation with boss and coworkers. The study found that compensation is the main factor affecting job satisfaction, and it also has significant relationships with job involvement and promotion. Some evidence that workers who are dissatisfied with their bosses are more sensitive to their compensation in deciding on whether they are satisfied with their job was also established from the study.

An affable relationship between supervisor and employee leads to job satisfaction. According to the Essays, UK (November 2013) an amiable supervisor-employee relationship builds the employee’s morale, which makes him to feel affective about his job, especially when his efforts are recognized and rewarded. This brings him satisfaction in his job. Thus, the employee strives to achieve both organizational and personal goals.

A study by Nidadhavolu, Akhila, (2018) on the impact of leadership styles on employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the construction sector in India proved that an organization’s leadership style strongly influences employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The application of transformational leadership style leads to stronger job satisfaction. This finding established that leadership has a major influence on work outcome and job satisfaction in the company. The employees are most satisfied when they see their leaders possess both relation-oriented and task-oriented behaviors. The study also highlighted a laissez-faire leadership style is a consequence of job satisfaction. The findings show that the laissez-faire leadership style could result in low interpersonal relationships, resulting in weak employee job satisfaction and productivity levels. The research findings found that out of the three construction companies chosen for the study, the laissez-faire leadership style had a negative influence on job satisfaction and organizational commitment on the employees of two companies. Whereas, the transformational leadership style had a positive impact on the employees of one company. The study also discovered the negative influence of upper-management leadership style on employees has a negative influence on organization performance.

Saleem, (2015) did a study on the impact of leadership styles on job satisfaction and mediating role of perceived organizational politics. Research findings revealed that transformational leadership has a positive impact on job satisfaction and transactional leadership has a negative impact on job satisfaction. The findings also suggest that, perceived organizational politics partially mediate the relationship between both leadership styles and job satisfaction.

Sarwar, Mumtaz, Batool and Ikram, (2015) also did a study on the impact of leadership styles on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. This study tested the effects of both transactional and transformational leadership styles of supervisors/ managers on job satisfaction and organizational commitment of employees. Data was collected from the managers and employees working in IT research and development department in Pakistan. The results of the study revealed a positive effect of both transformational and transactional leadership on job satisfaction and organizational commitment, but this effect is more in case of transactional leadership.

Chien- Wen Tsai (2008) did a study on leadership style and employee’s job satisfaction in international tourist hotels. Through correlation analysis, this research found that employees are more satisfied under consideration-style-leadership than construction-style-leadership. After controlling for differences in salary, employees appear to prefer consideration-style-leadership. No matter what the leadership style is, employees’ job satisfaction does not relate towards their coworkers. Besides, employees have different perceptions on work, salary, and overall satisfaction depending on their education level and seniority.

Bulitia, Godrick (2006) did a survey of supervision styles and employee job satisfaction in commercial banks in Kenya. The findings of this study showed a high correlation between supervision styles and job satisfaction. All the correlated statements between supervision styles and job satisfaction had +1 correlation coefficient. This gave a perfect positive correlation meaning the two variables supervision styles and job satisfaction move together in the completely linear manner. However, based on the study results by Bulitia, Godrick (2006) there is need for line managers to improve the use of supervision styles and relationship with employee job satisfaction in Commercial banks in Kenya. For them to improve and succeed in their supervision styles there should be changes at the individual and organizational levels. At individual level improving line managers’ supervision styles, would involve basic education and specific job related training. They should also be encouraged to enhance their skills through continuous self-learning. At organizational level top management should provide appropriate reinforcements for line managers in learning about and improving their supervision styles (Bulitia, Godrick, 2006).

Ayodele, Ekemode and Kajimo-Shakantu (2020) investigated the job satisfaction levels of real estate firms’ employees and the relationship between employees’ personal and demographic characteristics and their job satisfaction levels. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. The result showed that financial consideration/personal accomplishment was the most important factor influencing employees’ level of satisfaction, followed by work environment skill variety/organizational culture, feedback/fairness, work passion and supervision/workload/work-life balance. The results of the analysis also showed that demographic factors such as age, marital status, academic qualification, management level, years spent under the current line manager, remuneration and number of firm branches had a significant relationship with job satisfaction.

Park (2020) did a study to investigate the direct effects of supervisor satisfaction, public service motivation, and job characteristics on job satisfaction and the indirect effects mediated by organizational commitment. The survey data used for the empirical analysis was collected from central government agencies in the Republic of Korea. The study found that all three factors indirectly affect job satisfaction through organizational commitment. Only job characteristics were found to directly affect job satisfaction (Park, 2020).

Another study done by Abdelmoula and Boudabbous (2021) with the aim of identifying the factors that affect the job satisfaction of professional accountants. The study examined the relative effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on job satisfaction among accounting professionals using the principal component analysis (PCA) and multiple regression methods of data analysis. The results of the study showed that three intrinsic factors, namely achievement, the work itself, recognition, along with four extrinsic ones, i.e., salary, relationship with supervisor and co-workers, working conditions, and the company policy, significantly affect the job satisfaction. However, promotion, growth and recognition do not have a significant effect on job satisfaction.

The study by Hussain and Diaz, (2021) identified factors affecting employee job satisfaction in the University of Karachi using a survey questionnaire data. The study found that a generous rewards and compensation packages lead to job satisfaction and are affected by promotion and job security. Good working relationship with co-workers also contributes to employee job satisfaction. The study also found that good working environment also contributes to employee motivation, and is influenced by better facilities, and training and development. Finally, good supervision provides motivation that enhances the quality of output and employee performance.

Jędrzejczak-Gas and Wyrwa (2020) conducted a study to analyze and evaluate environmental factors shaping job satisfaction in a company from the TSL industry. For the study the correlation between general job satisfaction and particular factors of job satisfaction was examined. The values of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients and Kendall’s tau coefficients were also calculated. The results of the study show that the two most important factors necessary to achieve job satisfaction are access to information necessary for proper performance of work and independence in performing the entrusted tasks.

Okuwa (2019) examined the determinants of job satisfaction and job turnover intention of the workers of selected banks in Ibadan. Multiple sampling methods were used to select the sample (purposive sampling method was employed to select 12 banks that have the highest number of branches in Ibadan, while random sampling technique was used to select 20 respondents from each of the bank). The results showed that adequacy of salary, safety in work place, possibility of promotion, and interpersonal relations among the staff were the factors that enhanced job satisfaction. However, long working hours, job insecurity and conflicts between office and family schedules reduced the job satisfaction of the bankers.

Using an explanatory research design with a quantitative research approach Mekonin and Teklu (2021) did a study to investigate the determinants of employee job satisfaction in the case of kirkos sub-city of Addis Ababa city administration. The data for the study was collected using a structured close-ended questions from a sample of 310 randomly selected employees and was analyzed using inferential statistics with the aid of Statistical Packages for Social Scientists (SPSS) version 23.0. Multiple regression and ANOVA analysis techniques were also used to explain the nature and effects between employees’ job satisfaction and (Gender, Age, Academic level, Work experience, Work position, pay and benefit, working environment, promotion opportunity, relation with supervisors, trust in leadership). The study found that there is a significant effect with pay and benefit, working environment, Promotion opportunities, relation with supervisors, work experience, and trust in leadership to employees’ job satisfaction and regression analysis result indicated that 81.6% of the variation on the employees’ job satisfaction can be explained by the composite measure the independent variables.

Senek. et al. (2020) analyzed data from a cross-sectional mixed-methods survey to investigate the Determinants of nurse job dissatisfaction – findings from a cross-sectional survey analysis in the UK . Logistic regression analysis of the data was done in order to determine what impacts job dissatisfaction. The study found that nearly two-thirds of nurses were dissatisfied and demoralized.

Monica, Devi and Mohapatra (2020) did a study on Determinants of Job Satisfaction.  Using a sample of 150 respondents and data collected using questionnaire method the study examined whether job characteristics (JC) and individual characteristics (IC) have an effect on worker’s job satisfaction (JS). The result suggest that job characteristics and self-efficacy are significant predictors of job satisfaction (JS).

Khaira, Afifah; Shariff, and Sima, (2021) did a study on the determinants of employee job satisfaction in Malaysia . This study aimed to determine demographic factors (gender and living areas), education and skills, work environment and compensation as the determinants of employee job satisfaction. Data collected from 132 employees from various sectors in Malaysia was analyzed using Pearson’s correlation and the Ordinal Logistic Regression. From the study it was concluded that living area, education qualification and skills and compensation are significant and considered important factors to meet their job satisfaction compared to gender and work environment.

Ranatunga, (2020) did a study to identify the relationship between pay, promotion, supervision, co-workers and work itself of job satisfaction and job performance among employees in classified hotels. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 150 non–executive employees selected using the convenience sampling method. Frequencies, univariate analysis, Pearson’s correlation, T-test and multiple regression analysis as well as multivariate analysis were used in the study. The study concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between selected factors of job satisfaction and job performance. The results of the correlation coefficient showed that pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision, work itself has a significant positive relationship with job performance and it emphasized that pay and co-workers have a strong relationship with job performance. According to the multiple regression analysis, the model was strongly fitted to the data and 40.6% variance of job performance was explained by pay, promotion, co-workers, supervision and work itself of job satisfaction.

Parveen, Maimani, and Kassim (2016) did a study to examine the effects of demographic characteristics on the QWL dimensions and satisfaction, and the relationships between the QWL dimensions and satisfaction, and between satisfaction and retention among nurses and other health care professionals Saudi Arabia.  A sample of 360 nurses and other health care professionals was collected in Jeddah, in Saudi Arabia and the data collected was analysed using multivariate analysis of variance and structural equation modeling were used to test the hypotheses. The results of the study show that there is a significant difference between demographic and QWL dimensions and satisfaction. Satisfaction with personal growth and salary package were found to have significant positive impacts on overall retention.

Jigme, and Namgyal, (2021) did a study to determine the relationship between the determinants of job satisfaction such as work environment, pay and allowances, promotion, training and development, and job satisfaction in the Bhutanese context. Data from a sample of 76 civil servants were collected through a questionnaire survey and Google form and analyzed using SPSS 23. The Pearson correlation analysis was performed to find out the relationship between the independent variables (determinants of job satisfaction) and a dependent variable (job satisfaction). Linear regression and multiple regression analysis were also performed to understand the strength and types of relationship. The results of Pearson correlation and regression analysis indicate that the work environment (rp = 0.603, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.364, B = 0.460), and training and development (rp = 0.583, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.340, B = 0.383) have strong significant positive relationships with job satisfaction. However, other determinants such as pay and allowances (rp = 0.436, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.190, B = 0.283) and promotion (rp = 0.395, p < 0.01, R 2 = 0.156, B = 0.288) have moderate relationships with job satisfaction. The result for multiple regression analysis shows that all the determinants have a strong correlation (R = 0.624, R 2 = 0.481, p < 0.01) with job satisfaction and these determinants determine 48.1 percent of the total satisfaction level perceived by the employee. The findings indicate that the work environment is the strongest predictor of job satisfaction as compared to other determinants.

Mensah, Amrago, Asare, Yeboah and Donkor (2020) did a study to investigate the factors affecting job satisfaction amongst workers of the poultry sub-sector: a test of equity theory in the Dormaa Municipality in the Bono Region of Ghana. The multistage sampling technique was employed in collecting data from 100 poultry workers with the aid of a structured questionnaire. The logit model was employed in modeling the factors affecting job satisfaction. The empirical findings reveal that occupational level, pay, and relationships with co-workers were the statistically significant determinants of job satisfaction.

Subarto, Solihin, and Qurbani, (2021) did a study on the determinants of job satisfaction and its implications for the lecturers performance. The purpose of the study was to examine the positive effects of leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate on lecturer performance through Pamulang University’s job satisfaction.  The quantitative research method was used and data was collected using survey questionnaires distributed to a sample of 135 respondents selected using a proportional random sampling. Statistical analysis was done using the partial least squares (PLS). From the results of the analysis it was found that leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate have an impact on job satisfaction. Leadership style, work environment, and organizational atmosphere also affect the performance of lecturers. Job satisfaction affects the performance of lecturers and can mediate the influence of leadership style, work environment, and organizational climate on lecturer performance.

From this study it is concluded that the factors that contribute to the positive morale and attitude also result in a higher degree of job satisfaction (Saranya, 2014). The review has shown that the major determinants of job satisfaction are basically nine facets which are pay, promotion, supervision, fringe benefits, contingent rewards, operating procedures, co-workers, nature of works and communication. Job Satisfaction is thus derived from and is the result of many interrelated factors which cannot be completely isolated from one another for analytical purposes. Job Satisfaction is the essential component for employee motivation and encouragement towards better performance (Vroom, 1964). A highly satisfied work force is absolutely necessary for achieving a high level of performance in an organization. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly and responsive which attracts customers while dissatisfied employees can lead to customer dissatisfaction (Mahmud, Hasan, and Asif, 2014). It is therefore necessary for organizations to ensure that the above determinants are provided at the required levels to ensure optimum satisfaction of employees. Of all the major job satisfaction areas, satisfaction with the nature of the work itself—which includes job challenge, autonomy, variety, and scope—best predicts overall job satisfaction, as well as other important outcomes like employee retention (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Parisi & Weiner, 1999 as quoted in Ram, (2013).

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Impact of Motivation on Job Satisfaction: A Case Study of NGOs in Karachi

31 Pages Posted: 3 Feb 2017 Last revised: 7 Mar 2019

Saadia Bakhtawar

Independent; Independent

Date Written: December 17, 2016

In this research, empirical literature on work motivation and its relation with job satisfaction has been critically analysed and reviewed to further clarify the variations in each factors impact on employees’ motivation level, while being part of an organization. For this research, motivation factors such as salary, security, work environment and compensation & benefit have been correlated with job satisfaction, accumulated from the questionnaires filled by the employees of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Karachi. Research indicates that basic motivational factors as identified from the literature review have a significant impact on employee’s job satisfaction level, while the absence of motivational factors may lead to demotivation, as the level of motivation classifies employees either being satisfied or unsatisfied, in their career path. Furthermore, the analysis also indicates that basic factors such as health benefits, transport facilities, rewards and compensations, safety and security concerns are also given equal importance by the employees, in sustaining motivation levels and escalating job satisfaction. The results from regression analysis show a significance level at p<.035 which entails to acknowledge the alternative hypotheses. The correlations show insignificant positive correlation for Salary and a significant positive correlation for Work Environment p<0.042 and a significant negative correlation for Job Security p<-0.043 and Compensation & Benefits p<-0.037. The insights developed from this research suggest that it is important for managers to have certain knowledge about the relationship between work motivation factors and job satisfaction, in order to help employees in increasing work performance by adapting to new strategies, plans and procedures.

Keywords: Job Satisfaction, Work Motivation, NGOs, Salary, Work Environment, Job Security, Compensation, Benefits, Karachi, Pakistan, Quantitative Research

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Job Satisfaction Research Proposal

Related Papers

Raphael A Balogun

Dr.Shiladitya Verma , SANJAY JAIN

An individual’s general outlook towards his or her work is called as job satisfaction. It is the disparity between the amount of rewards one receives and the amount he or she believes he or she should receive. Job satisfaction has the direct relation with the job performance of an employee. Lower job satisfaction tends to lead to both turnover and absenteeism, whereas high job satisfaction results in increased job performance. Students are one of the valuable assets of any society. Well-being of society depends upon its students because these are the student who will take the accountability of the triumph of the society in future and in achieving this objective, the teacher’s play extremely vital role. They are source of guidance at many crucial steps in academic life. When teachers are satisfied with their job they can perform the responsibilities with more concentration, dedication and proficiency. College Teachers are the most imperative group of professionals for our nation’s future. Therefore, it is astonishing to know that still today many of the college teachers are dissatisfied with their jobs. Job satisfaction among college teachers is good, not only for themselves but for the society as a whole. It increases productivity and classroom performance in the college. Wellbeing of any society depends upon the role played by the teacher. Teachers are the source of guidance in all the essential steps in the scholastic lives of the students. When teachers are satisfied with their job they can execute their responsibilities with more concentration and dedication. Job satisfaction is one of the most widely discussed issues in organizational behavior, personnel and human resource management and organizational management. As teaching does require a great deal of meticulousness and dedication, so in teaching it is more important to have mental commitment and loyalty than physical presence.

IJRDO - Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research ISSN: 2456-2971

Sheena Mae T . Comighud, EdD

This study aimed to determine the motivational factors that influence teachers' job performance. The data pertain to the motivational factors that influence teachers' motivation which in turn affects their performance. These factors are categorized as existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs. The respondents of the study are the teachers of Bacong District, Division of Negros Oriental during the school year 2016-2017. The study utilized the descriptive-correlational method of research in the sense that it attempted to determine the motivational factors and their relationship to teachers' job performance. The study made use of a researcher-made questionnaire that determined the extent to which the motivational factors influence teachers' performance. The statistical tools used for the treatment of data are Frequency Distribution and Percentage, weighted mean and Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient. The following are the salient finding of the study. Majority of the teachers in Bacong District are female, on their prime of life, have advanced professionally, occupy Teacher 2 plantilla position, and with considerable years of teaching experience.Teachers' performance based on the RPMS is "Very Satisfactory". Teachers are "Very Highly Motivated" by the motivational factors relative to existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs. The extent to which teachers are motivated by the motivational factors is significantly related to their job performance. Teachers' profile in terms of sex, educational qualification and teaching experience is significantly related to their job performance based on the RPMS, however, in relation to the extent to which teachers are motivated by the motivational factors, teachers' profile was found to be insignificant. In general, it was concluded that the higher is teachers' motivation, the better is their job performance.

M.ED SEMINAR PAPER

ABAYOMI I S A A C ARAIYEGBEMI

The main purpose of this study was to examine the factors militating against teacher’s performance in secondary school. Four(4) research questions were formulated to guide this study. The questionnaire was used for data collection from teachers. The analysis was done using frequency and percentage. It was found that: Poor classroom management, poor communication, poor salary and unfavorable condition of service, lack of content knowledge, lack of enthusiasm, lack of effective school administration and conducive work environment, teachers' family problems, and discouraging behaviors by students are all factors that can make a teacher not to perform effectively in secondary schools. It was then recommended that teachers be motivated by their employees through a favorable salary structure, teachers should ensure to be enthusiastic about teaching and they should develop themselves for optimal productivity

AL-ISHLAH: Jurnal Pendidikan

Nisaul Khaira

This research aims to determine the effect of work motivation and principal&#39;s performance on teacher job satisfaction together at a senior high school in … sebutkan nama kota/kabupaten/provinsinya. This research uses a quantitative approach with associative methods. The analysis technique data used is simple and multiple linear regression analysis, t-test, and F test. The results showed that: 1) There is a significant influence between the principal&#39;s work motivation on teacher job satisfaction by 79.1%. This means that work motivation will affect the job satisfaction of teachers in schools for the achievement of maximum performance; 2) There is a significant influence between the principal&#39;s performance on teacher job satisfaction by 49.7%. Therefore, the two variables can go hand in hand, the better the principal&#39;s performance, the better the teacher&#39;s job satisfaction; 3) There is a significant influence between work motivation and principal performance on tea...

Miguel Soliman

Teaching is a highly noble profession and teachers are always a boon to the society. The ultimate process of education could be simplified as a meaningful interaction between the teacher and the taught. The teacher thus plays a direct and crucial role in moulding a pupil towards education. Since a teacher is a role model for the students, job satisfaction and eventually performance of teachers become very vital in the fields of education. Thus the researcher felt the need to investigate the job satisfaction and performance of teachers in different categories of schools following different systems of education. From the total population, a sample of 196 teachers from state board schools, 198 teachers from matriculation board schools and 194 teachers from central board schools were drawn. The results of the study indicated that teachers in central board schools were significantly better in their job satisfaction and performance compared to their counterparts in matriculation and state board schools. This may be attributed to the fact that central board school teachers enjoy better infrastructure facilities and congenial working environment than the matriculation and state board teachers. It is for the school authorities, policy makers and society at large to ensure factors contributing to job satisfaction of teachers to the maximum possible extent and thereby enhancing their teaching perforrmance to its optimum.

Mark Akoto-senaman

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the extent of job satisfaction of teachers in private and public basic schools in the Ketu South District. The study was guided by four research questions all of which sought to find out teachers’ level of job satisfaction and issues related to their job satisfaction. The literature reviewed acknowledged job satisfaction as one part of the motivational process. While motivation is primarily concerned with goal-directed behaviour, job satisfaction refers to the fulfilment acquired by experiencing various job activities and rewards. Descriptive survey design was the design employed for the study. There was a total population of 98 schools and 2180 teachers, out of which 150 teachers from 10 schools were used as the sample for the study. A questionnaire was used to gather information from respondents. The gathered data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software and organized in frequency distribution tables according to the demands of the research questions. The study showed that most teachers were dissatisfied and would not encourage pupils to become teachers in future. This is due to the fact that they believe that there is no prestige in the job and the teaching profession is not lucrative. There was no vast difference between the level of job satisfaction in the private schools and in the public schools. The study therefore recommends that there should be enhanced salaries to help boost the morale of the teachers.

This research examined student’s appraisal of the conduct of undergraduate examination in Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State. The instrument used in this research is a Student Questionnaire/Opinionaire on University Examination (SQOUE) designed specifically to investigate the perception of student on the conduct of examination in Olabisi Onabanjo University. The sample size of 100 questionnaire were used. Three hypotheses were tested using the Pearson Chi-Square method. The first hypothesis revealed that there is a significant relationship between student assessment and school examination timetable. The second hypothesis revealed that there is a significant relationship between student opinion and activities of the examination invigilators and the third hypothesis revealed that there is a significant relationship between examination ethics and examination malpractice. Also, at the end of the study, recommendations that were considered valid were suggested.

Indonesia journal of multidisciplinary research

Onikoyi Olawale

The study investigated the teachers job satisfaction and it's perceived influence on secondary School students academic performance using a descriptive survey research approach

Social Sciences

Berita Simonaitienė

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