can you start a sentence with it in an essay

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Scholarly Voice: Use of "It"

Beginning a sentence with "it".

Starting a sentence with "it" is acceptable in APA, but doing so may make sentences needlessly wordy and take the emphasis off of the subject.

For example:

“It was found that 25% of… (Smith & Taylor, 2016)” is a grammatically acceptable way to begin a sentence.

Although grammatically acceptable, beginning the sentence with "it" instead of naming the subject can also lead to passive voice , in which the verb ("was") precedes the subject/actor (the researchers, Smith and Taylor).

APA recommends choosing voice carefully, and this often means opting for active voice, in which the subject/actor of the sentence precedes the verb, over passive voice in the interest of clarity..

Beginning the sentence by writing:

“Smith and Taylor (2016) found that…” or “Researchers found that… (Smith & Taylor, 2016)”

is a more concise and precise way of presenting the same information due to the use of active voice construction.

If you decide to begin a sentence with "It," we suggest doing so sparingly and for specific reasons, such as to take the emphasis off of the subject, to avoid overuse of the subject (repetition), or to vary sentence structure (e.g., not starting every sentence with an author’s name or with “Researchers…”).

Outside of the specific reasons for using "it" listed in the previous paragraph, its use is often a wasted opportunity to be more concise and accurate in your writing. Avoid ambiguity, be more concise, and use the active voice by replacing the word "it" with the subject itself.

For more information how to avoid beginning sentences with "it" (also known as expletive constructions), check out the following resources:

• “Avoid Expletive Constructions” section on the Walden Writing Center’s Writing Concisely webpage
• The Norton Field Guide to Writing 's page on Unnecessary Words
• The National Archives' page on plain writing tips

Using "It" As a Pronoun

When using "it," avoid being vague or ambiguous by alternatively referring clearly to a specific noun in the sentence.

Incorrect example: Even though the demographic questionnaire is often used in tandem with the survey, I did not have the participants complete it in this study. (Does the "it" refer to the demographic questionnaire or the survey?)

Correct example:  Knowles (1973) developed the theory of andragogy, and it is often used as a foundational study in research concerning adult learners. (The "it" in this sentence can only refer the specific noun in the previous clause, "the theory.")

Incorrect example: If a participant skips answering a question in the survey, I will code it as incomplete. (What does the "it" refer to, the question that was not answered or the whole survey?)

Correct example: If you download the Abstract Guidelines document, you can refer to it while drafting the abstract for your study. (Because there is only one specific noun, the "document," in the first clause, the use of "it" in the second clause to refer to the document is clear and not ambiguous.)

What APA Has to Say About Pronoun Use

APA indicates a few guidelines about pronouns that are addressed in Sections 4.16-4.21 as well as on these pages of our website:

• Point of View
• Noun-Pronoun Agreement
• Walden University's Gender-Neutral Pronoun Policy

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, how to write an introduction paragraph in 3 steps.

General Education

It’s the roadmap to your essay, it’s the forecast for your argument, it’s...your introduction paragraph, and writing one can feel pretty intimidating. The introduction paragraph is a part of just about every kind of academic writing , from persuasive essays to research papers. But that doesn’t mean writing one is easy!

If trying to write an intro paragraph makes you feel like a Muggle trying to do magic, trust us: you aren’t alone. But there are some tips and tricks that can make the process easier—and that’s where we come in.

In this article, we’re going to explain how to write a captivating intro paragraph by covering the following info:  

• A discussion of what an introduction paragraph is and its purpose in an essay
• An overview of the most effective introduction paragraph format, with explanations of the three main parts of an intro paragraph
• An analysis of real intro paragraph examples, with a discussion of what works and what doesn’t
• A list of four top tips on how to write an introduction paragraph

Are you ready? Let’s begin!

What Is an Introduction Paragraph? 

An introduction paragraph is the first paragraph of an essay , paper, or other type of academic writing. Argumentative essays , book reports, research papers, and even personal  essays are common types of writing that require an introduction paragraph. Whether you’re writing a research paper for a science course or an argumentative essay for English class , you’re going to have to write an intro paragraph. 

So what’s the purpose of an intro paragraph? As a reader’s first impression of your essay, the intro paragraph should introduce the topic of your paper. 

Your introduction will also state any claims, questions, or issues that your paper will focus on. This is commonly known as your paper’s thesis . This condenses the overall point of your paper into one or two short sentences that your reader can come back and reference later.

But intro paragraphs need to do a bit more than just introduce your topic. An intro paragraph is also supposed to grab your reader’s attention. The intro paragraph is your chance to provide just enough info and intrigue to make your reader say, “Hey, this topic sounds interesting. I think I’ll keep reading this essay!” That can help your essay stand out from the crowd.

In most cases, an intro paragraph will be relatively short. A good intro will be clear, brief, purposeful, and focused. While there are some exceptions to this rule, it’s common for intro paragraphs to consist of three to five sentences . 

Effectively introducing your essay’s topic, purpose, and getting your reader invested in your essay sounds like a lot to ask from one little paragraph, huh? In the next section, we’ll demystify the intro paragraph format by breaking it down into its core parts . When you learn how to approach each part of an intro, writing one won’t seem so scary!

Once you figure out the three parts of an intro paragraph, writing one will be a piece of cake!

The 3 Main Parts of an Intro Paragraph

In general, an intro paragraph is going to have three main parts: a hook, context, and a thesis statement . Each of these pieces of the intro plays a key role in acquainting the reader with the topic and purpose of your essay. 

Below, we’ll explain how to start an introduction paragraph by writing an effective hook, providing context, and crafting a thesis statement. When you put these elements together, you’ll have an intro paragraph that does a great job of making a great first impression on your audience!

Intro Paragraph Part 1: The Hook

When it comes to how to start an introduction paragraph, o ne of the most common approaches is to start with something called a hook. 

What does hook mean here, though? Think of it this way: it’s like when you start a new Netflix series: you look up a few hours (and a few episodes) later and you say, “Whoa. I guess I must be hooked on this show!” 

That’s how the hook is supposed to work in an intro paragrap h: it should get your reader interested enough that they don’t want to press the proverbial “pause” button while they’re reading it . In other words, a hook is designed to grab your reader’s attention and keep them reading your essay! 

This means that the hook comes first in the intro paragraph format—it’ll be the opening sentence of your intro. 

It’s important to realize  that there are many different ways to write a good hook. But generally speaking, hooks must include these two things: what your topic is, and the angle you’re taking on that topic in your essay. 

One approach to writing a hook that works is starting with a general, but interesting, statement on your topic. In this type of hook, you’re trying to provide a broad introduction to your topic and your angle on the topic in an engaging way . 

For example, if you’re writing an essay about the role of the government in the American healthcare system, your hook might look something like this: 

There's a growing movement to require that the federal government provide affordable, effective healthcare for all Americans. 

This hook introduces the essay topic in a broad way (government and healthcare) by presenting a general statement on the topic. But the assumption presented in the hook can also be seen as controversial, which gets readers interested in learning more about what the writer—and the essay—has to say.

In other words, the statement above fulfills the goals of a good hook: it’s intriguing and provides a general introduction to the essay topic.

Intro Paragraph Part 2: Context

Once you’ve provided an attention-grabbing hook, you’ll want to give more context about your essay topic. Context refers to additional details that reveal the specific focus of your paper. So, whereas the hook provides a general introduction to your topic, context starts helping readers understand what exactly you’re going to be writing about

You can include anywhere from one to several sentences of context in your intro, depending on your teacher’s expectations, the length of your paper, and complexity of your topic. In these context-providing sentences, you want to begin narrowing the focus of your intro. You can do this by describing a specific issue or question about your topic that you’ll address in your essay. It also helps readers start to understand why the topic you’re writing about matters and why they should read about it. 

So, what counts as context for an intro paragraph? Context can be any important details or descriptions that provide background on existing perspectives, common cultural attitudes, or a specific situation or controversy relating to your essay topic. The context you include should acquaint your reader with the issues, questions, or events that motivated you to write an essay on your topic...and that your reader should know in order to understand your thesis. 

For instance, if you’re writing an essay analyzing the consequences of sexism in Hollywood, the context you include after your hook might make reference to the #metoo and #timesup movements that have generated public support for victims of sexual harassment. 

The key takeaway here is that context establishes why you’re addressing your topic and what makes it important. It also sets you up for success on the final piece of an intro paragraph: the thesis statement.

Elle Woods' statement offers a specific point of view on the topic of murder...which means it could serve as a pretty decent thesis statement!

Intro Paragraph Part 3: The Thesis

The final key part of how to write an intro paragraph is the thesis statement. The thesis statement is the backbone of your introduction: it conveys your argument or point of view on your topic in a clear, concise, and compelling way . The thesis is usually the last sentence of your intro paragraph. 

Whether it’s making a claim, outlining key points, or stating a hypothesis, your thesis statement will tell your reader exactly what idea(s) are going to be addressed in your essay. A good thesis statement will be clear, straightforward, and highlight the overall point you’re trying to make.

Some instructors also ask students to include an essay map as part of their thesis. An essay map is a section that outlines the major topics a paper will address. So for instance, say you’re writing a paper that argues for the importance of public transport in rural communities. Your thesis and essay map might look like this: 

Having public transport in rural communities helps people improve their economic situation by giving them reliable transportation to their job, reducing the amount of money they spend on gas, and providing new and unionized work .

The underlined section is the essay map because it touches on the three big things the writer will talk about later. It literally maps out the rest of the essay!

So let’s review: Your thesis takes the idea you’ve introduced in your hook and context and wraps it up. Think of it like a television episode: the hook sets the scene by presenting a general statement and/or interesting idea that sucks you in. The context advances the plot by describing the topic in more detail and helping readers understand why the topic is important. And finally, the thesis statement provides the climax by telling the reader what you have to say about the topic. 

The thesis statement is the most important part of the intro. Without it, your reader won’t know what the purpose of your essay is! And for a piece of writing to be effective, it needs to have a clear purpose. Your thesis statement conveys that purpose , so it’s important to put careful thought into writing a clear and compelling thesis statement. 

How To Write an Introduction Paragraph: Example and Analysis

Now that we’ve provided an intro paragraph outline and have explained the three key parts of an intro paragraph, let’s take a look at an intro paragraph in action.

To show you how an intro paragraph works, we’ve included a sample introduction paragraph below, followed by an analysis of its strengths and weaknesses.

Example of Introduction Paragraph

While college students in the U.S. are struggling with how to pay for college, there is another surprising demographic that’s affected by the pressure to pay for college: families and parents. In the face of tuition price tags that total more than $100,000 (as a low estimate), families must make difficult decisions about how to save for their children’s college education. Charting a feasible path to saving for college is further complicated by the FAFSA’s estimates for an “Expected Family Contribution”—an amount of money that is rarely feasible for most American families. Due to these challenging financial circumstances and cultural pressure to give one’s children the best possible chance of success in adulthood, many families are going into serious debt to pay for their children’s college education. The U.S. government should move toward bearing more of the financial burden of college education. 

Example of Introduction Paragraph: Analysis

Before we dive into analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of this example intro paragraph, let’s establish the essay topic. The sample intro indicates that t he essay topic will focus on one specific issue: who should cover the cost of college education in the U.S., and why. Both the hook and the context help us identify the topic, while the thesis in the last sentence tells us why this topic matters to the writer—they think the U.S. Government needs to help finance college education. This is also the writer’s argument, which they’ll cover in the body of their essay. 

Now that we’ve identified the essay topic presented in the sample intro, let’s dig into some analysis. To pin down its strengths and weaknesses, we’re going to use the following three questions to guide our example of introduction paragraph analysis: 

• Does this intro provide an attention-grabbing opening sentence that conveys the essay topic? 
• Does this intro provide relevant, engaging context about the essay topic? 
• Does this intro provide a thesis statement that establishes the writer’s point of view on the topic and what specific aspects of the issue the essay will address? 

Now, let’s use the questions above to analyze the strengths and weaknesses of this sample intro paragraph. 

Does the Intro Have a Good Hook? 

First, the intro starts out with an attention-grabbing hook . The writer starts by presenting  an assumption (that the U.S. federal government bears most of the financial burden of college education), which makes the topic relatable to a wide audience of readers. Also note that the hook relates to the general topic of the essay, which is the high cost of college education. 

The hook then takes a surprising turn by presenting a counterclaim : that American families, rather than students, feel the true burden of paying for college. Some readers will have a strong emotional reaction to this provocative counterclaim, which will make them want to keep reading! As such, this intro provides an effective opening sentence that conveys the essay topic. 

Does the Intro Give Context?

T he second, third, and fourth sentences of the intro provide contextual details that reveal the specific focus of the writer’s paper . Remember: the context helps readers start to zoom in on what the paper will focus on, and what aspect of the general topic (college costs) will be discussed later on. 

The context in this intro reveals the intent and direction of the paper by explaining why the issue of families financing college is important. In other words, the context helps readers understand why this issue matters , and what aspects of this issue will be addressed in the paper.  

To provide effective context, the writer refers to issues (the exorbitant cost of college and high levels of family debt) that have received a lot of recent scholarly and media attention. These sentences of context also elaborate on the interesting perspective included in the hook: that American families are most affected by college costs.

Does the Intro Have a Thesis? 

Finally, this intro provides a thesis statement that conveys the writer’s point of view on the issue of financing college education. This writer believes that the U.S. government should do more to pay for students’ college educations. 

However, the thesis statement doesn’t give us any details about why the writer has made this claim or why this will help American families . There isn’t an essay map that helps readers understand what points the writer will make in the essay.

To revise this thesis statement so that it establishes the specific aspects of the topic that the essay will address, the writer could add the following to the beginning of the thesis statement:

The U.S. government should take on more of the financial burden of college education because other countries have shown this can improve education rates while reducing levels of familial poverty.

Check out the new section in bold. Not only does it clarify that the writer is talking about the pressure put on families, it touches on the big topics the writer will address in the paper: improving education rates and reduction of poverty. So not only do we have a clearer argumentative statement in this thesis, we also have an essay map!  

So, let’s recap our analysis. This sample intro paragraph does an effective job of providing an engaging hook and relatable, interesting context, but the thesis statement needs some work ! As you write your own intro paragraphs, you might consider using the questions above to evaluate and revise your work. Doing this will help ensure you’ve covered all of your bases and written an intro that your readers will find interesting!

4 Tips for How To Write an Introduction Paragraph

Now that we’ve gone over an example of introduction paragraph analysis, let’s talk about how to write an introduction paragraph of your own. Keep reading for four tips for writing a successful intro paragraph for any essay. 

Tip 1: Analyze Your Essay Prompt

If you’re having trouble with how to start an introduction paragraph, analyze your essay prompt! Most teachers give you some kind of assignment sheet, formal instructions, or prompt to set the expectations for an essay they’ve assigned, right? Those instructions can help guide you as you write your intro paragraph!

Because they’ll be reading and responding to your essay, you want to make sure you meet your teacher’s expectations for an intro paragraph . For instance, if they’ve provided specific instructions about how long the intro should be or where the thesis statement should be located, be sure to follow them!

The type of paper you’re writing can give you clues as to how to approach your intro as well. If you’re writing a research paper, your professor might expect you to provide a research question or state a hypothesis in your intro. If you’re writing an argumentative essay, you’ll need to make sure your intro overviews the context surrounding your argument and your thesis statement includes a clear, defensible claim. 

Using the parameters set out by your instructor and assignment sheet can put some easy-to-follow boundaries in place for things like your intro’s length, structure, and content. Following these guidelines can free you up to focus on other aspects of your intro... like coming up with an exciting hook and conveying your point of view on your topic!

Tip 2: Narrow Your Topic

You can’t write an intro paragraph without first identifying your topic. To make your intro as effective as possible, you need to define the parameters of your topic clearly—and you need to be specific. 

For example, let’s say you want to write about college football. “NCAA football” is too broad of a topic for a paper. There is a lot to talk about in terms of college football! It would be tough to write an intro paragraph that’s focused, purposeful, and engaging on this topic. In fact, if you did try to address this whole topic, you’d probably end up writing a book!

Instead, you should narrow broad topics to  identify a specific question, claim, or issue pertaining to some aspect of NCAA football for your intro to be effective. So, for instance, you could frame your topic as, “How can college professors better support NCAA football players in academics?” This focused topic pertaining to NCAA football would give you a more manageable angle to discuss in your paper.

So before you think about writing your intro, ask yourself: Is my essay topic specific, focused, and logical? Does it convey an issue or question that I can explore over the course of several pages? Once you’ve established a good topic, you’ll have the foundation you need to write an effective intro paragraph . 

Once you've figured out your topic, it's time to hit the books!

Tip 3: Do Your Research

This tip is tightly intertwined with the one above, and it’s crucial to writing a good intro: do your research! And, guess what? This tip applies to all papers—even ones that aren’t technically research papers. 

Here’s why you need to do some research: getting the lay of the land on what others have said about your topic—whether that’s scholars and researchers or the mass media— will help you narrow your topic, write an engaging hook, and provide relatable context. 

You don't want to sit down to write your intro without a solid understanding of the different perspectives on your topic. Whether those are the perspectives of experts or the general public, these points of view will help you write your intro in a way that is intriguing and compelling for your audience of readers. 

Tip 4: Write Multiple Drafts

Some say to write your intro first; others say write it last. The truth is, there isn’t a right or wrong time to write your intro—but you do need to have enough time to write multiple drafts . 

Oftentimes, your professor will ask you to write multiple drafts of your paper, which gives you a built-in way to make sure you revise your intro. Another approach you could take is to write out a rough draft of your intro before you begin writing your essay, then revise it multiple times as you draft out your paper. 

Here’s why this approach can work: as you write your paper, you’ll probably come up with new insights on your topic that you didn’t have right from the start. You can use these “light bulb” moments to reevaluate your intro and make revisions that keep it in line with your developing essay draft. 

Once you’ve written your entire essay, consider going back and revising your intro again . You can ask yourself these questions as you evaluate your intro: 

• Is my hook still relevant to the way I’ve approached the topic in my essay?
• Do I provide enough appropriate context to introduce my essay? 
• Now that my essay is written, does my thesis statement still accurately reflect the point of view that I present in my essay?

Using these questions as a guide and putting your intro through multiple revisions will help ensure that you’ve written the best intro for the final draft of your essay. Also, revising your writing is always a good thing to do—and this applies to your intro, too!

What's Next?

Your college essays also need great intro paragraphs. Here’s a guide that focuses on how to write the perfect intro for your admissions essays. 

Of course, the intro is just one part of your college essay . This article will teach you how to write a college essay that makes admissions counselors sit up and take notice.

Are you trying to write an analytical essay? Our step-by-step guide can help you knock it out of the park.

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

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• 40 Useful Words and Phrases for Top-Notch Essays

To be truly brilliant, an essay needs to utilise the right language. You could make a great point, but if it’s not intelligently articulated, you almost needn’t have bothered.

Developing the language skills to build an argument and to write persuasively is crucial if you’re to write outstanding essays every time. In this article, we’re going to equip you with the words and phrases you need to write a top-notch essay, along with examples of how to utilise them.

It’s by no means an exhaustive list, and there will often be other ways of using the words and phrases we describe that we won’t have room to include, but there should be more than enough below to help you make an instant improvement to your essay-writing skills.

If you’re interested in developing your language and persuasive skills, Oxford Royale offers summer courses at its Oxford Summer School , Cambridge Summer School , London Summer School , San Francisco Summer School and Yale Summer School . You can study courses to learn english , prepare for careers in law , medicine , business , engineering and leadership.

General explaining

Let’s start by looking at language for general explanations of complex points.

1. In order to

Usage: “In order to” can be used to introduce an explanation for the purpose of an argument. Example: “In order to understand X, we need first to understand Y.”

2. In other words

Usage: Use “in other words” when you want to express something in a different way (more simply), to make it easier to understand, or to emphasise or expand on a point. Example: “Frogs are amphibians. In other words, they live on the land and in the water.”

3. To put it another way

Usage: This phrase is another way of saying “in other words”, and can be used in particularly complex points, when you feel that an alternative way of wording a problem may help the reader achieve a better understanding of its significance. Example: “Plants rely on photosynthesis. To put it another way, they will die without the sun.”

4. That is to say

Usage: “That is” and “that is to say” can be used to add further detail to your explanation, or to be more precise. Example: “Whales are mammals. That is to say, they must breathe air.”

5. To that end

Usage: Use “to that end” or “to this end” in a similar way to “in order to” or “so”. Example: “Zoologists have long sought to understand how animals communicate with each other. To that end, a new study has been launched that looks at elephant sounds and their possible meanings.”

Adding additional information to support a point

Students often make the mistake of using synonyms of “and” each time they want to add further information in support of a point they’re making, or to build an argument . Here are some cleverer ways of doing this.

6. Moreover

Usage: Employ “moreover” at the start of a sentence to add extra information in support of a point you’re making. Example: “Moreover, the results of a recent piece of research provide compelling evidence in support of…”

7. Furthermore

Usage:This is also generally used at the start of a sentence, to add extra information. Example: “Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that…”

8. What’s more

Usage: This is used in the same way as “moreover” and “furthermore”. Example: “What’s more, this isn’t the only evidence that supports this hypothesis.”

9. Likewise

Usage: Use “likewise” when you want to talk about something that agrees with what you’ve just mentioned. Example: “Scholar A believes X. Likewise, Scholar B argues compellingly in favour of this point of view.”

10. Similarly

Usage: Use “similarly” in the same way as “likewise”. Example: “Audiences at the time reacted with shock to Beethoven’s new work, because it was very different to what they were used to. Similarly, we have a tendency to react with surprise to the unfamiliar.”

11. Another key thing to remember

Usage: Use the phrase “another key point to remember” or “another key fact to remember” to introduce additional facts without using the word “also”. Example: “As a Romantic, Blake was a proponent of a closer relationship between humans and nature. Another key point to remember is that Blake was writing during the Industrial Revolution, which had a major impact on the world around him.”

12. As well as

Usage: Use “as well as” instead of “also” or “and”. Example: “Scholar A argued that this was due to X, as well as Y.”

13. Not only… but also

Usage: This wording is used to add an extra piece of information, often something that’s in some way more surprising or unexpected than the first piece of information. Example: “Not only did Edmund Hillary have the honour of being the first to reach the summit of Everest, but he was also appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.”

14. Coupled with

Usage: Used when considering two or more arguments at a time. Example: “Coupled with the literary evidence, the statistics paint a compelling view of…”

15. Firstly, secondly, thirdly…

Usage: This can be used to structure an argument, presenting facts clearly one after the other. Example: “There are many points in support of this view. Firstly, X. Secondly, Y. And thirdly, Z.

16. Not to mention/to say nothing of

Usage: “Not to mention” and “to say nothing of” can be used to add extra information with a bit of emphasis. Example: “The war caused unprecedented suffering to millions of people, not to mention its impact on the country’s economy.”

Words and phrases for demonstrating contrast

When you’re developing an argument, you will often need to present contrasting or opposing opinions or evidence – “it could show this, but it could also show this”, or “X says this, but Y disagrees”. This section covers words you can use instead of the “but” in these examples, to make your writing sound more intelligent and interesting.

17. However

Usage: Use “however” to introduce a point that disagrees with what you’ve just said. Example: “Scholar A thinks this. However, Scholar B reached a different conclusion.”

18. On the other hand

Usage: Usage of this phrase includes introducing a contrasting interpretation of the same piece of evidence, a different piece of evidence that suggests something else, or an opposing opinion. Example: “The historical evidence appears to suggest a clear-cut situation. On the other hand, the archaeological evidence presents a somewhat less straightforward picture of what happened that day.”

19. Having said that

Usage: Used in a similar manner to “on the other hand” or “but”. Example: “The historians are unanimous in telling us X, an agreement that suggests that this version of events must be an accurate account. Having said that, the archaeology tells a different story.”

20. By contrast/in comparison

Usage: Use “by contrast” or “in comparison” when you’re comparing and contrasting pieces of evidence. Example: “Scholar A’s opinion, then, is based on insufficient evidence. By contrast, Scholar B’s opinion seems more plausible.”

21. Then again

Usage: Use this to cast doubt on an assertion. Example: “Writer A asserts that this was the reason for what happened. Then again, it’s possible that he was being paid to say this.”

22. That said

Usage: This is used in the same way as “then again”. Example: “The evidence ostensibly appears to point to this conclusion. That said, much of the evidence is unreliable at best.”

Usage: Use this when you want to introduce a contrasting idea. Example: “Much of scholarship has focused on this evidence. Yet not everyone agrees that this is the most important aspect of the situation.”

Adding a proviso or acknowledging reservations

Sometimes, you may need to acknowledge a shortfalling in a piece of evidence, or add a proviso. Here are some ways of doing so.

24. Despite this

Usage: Use “despite this” or “in spite of this” when you want to outline a point that stands regardless of a shortfalling in the evidence. Example: “The sample size was small, but the results were important despite this.”

25. With this in mind

Usage: Use this when you want your reader to consider a point in the knowledge of something else. Example: “We’ve seen that the methods used in the 19th century study did not always live up to the rigorous standards expected in scientific research today, which makes it difficult to draw definite conclusions. With this in mind, let’s look at a more recent study to see how the results compare.”

26. Provided that

Usage: This means “on condition that”. You can also say “providing that” or just “providing” to mean the same thing. Example: “We may use this as evidence to support our argument, provided that we bear in mind the limitations of the methods used to obtain it.”

27. In view of/in light of

Usage: These phrases are used when something has shed light on something else. Example: “In light of the evidence from the 2013 study, we have a better understanding of…”

28. Nonetheless

Usage: This is similar to “despite this”. Example: “The study had its limitations, but it was nonetheless groundbreaking for its day.”

29. Nevertheless

Usage: This is the same as “nonetheless”. Example: “The study was flawed, but it was important nevertheless.”

30. Notwithstanding

Usage: This is another way of saying “nonetheless”. Example: “Notwithstanding the limitations of the methodology used, it was an important study in the development of how we view the workings of the human mind.”

Giving examples

Good essays always back up points with examples, but it’s going to get boring if you use the expression “for example” every time. Here are a couple of other ways of saying the same thing.

31. For instance

Example: “Some birds migrate to avoid harsher winter climates. Swallows, for instance, leave the UK in early winter and fly south…”

32. To give an illustration

Example: “To give an illustration of what I mean, let’s look at the case of…”

Signifying importance

When you want to demonstrate that a point is particularly important, there are several ways of highlighting it as such.

33. Significantly

Usage: Used to introduce a point that is loaded with meaning that might not be immediately apparent. Example: “Significantly, Tacitus omits to tell us the kind of gossip prevalent in Suetonius’ accounts of the same period.”

34. Notably

Usage: This can be used to mean “significantly” (as above), and it can also be used interchangeably with “in particular” (the example below demonstrates the first of these ways of using it). Example: “Actual figures are notably absent from Scholar A’s analysis.”

35. Importantly

Usage: Use “importantly” interchangeably with “significantly”. Example: “Importantly, Scholar A was being employed by X when he wrote this work, and was presumably therefore under pressure to portray the situation more favourably than he perhaps might otherwise have done.”

Summarising

You’ve almost made it to the end of the essay, but your work isn’t over yet. You need to end by wrapping up everything you’ve talked about, showing that you’ve considered the arguments on both sides and reached the most likely conclusion. Here are some words and phrases to help you.

36. In conclusion

Usage: Typically used to introduce the concluding paragraph or sentence of an essay, summarising what you’ve discussed in a broad overview. Example: “In conclusion, the evidence points almost exclusively to Argument A.”

37. Above all

Usage: Used to signify what you believe to be the most significant point, and the main takeaway from the essay. Example: “Above all, it seems pertinent to remember that…”

38. Persuasive

Usage: This is a useful word to use when summarising which argument you find most convincing. Example: “Scholar A’s point – that Constanze Mozart was motivated by financial gain – seems to me to be the most persuasive argument for her actions following Mozart’s death.”

39. Compelling

Usage: Use in the same way as “persuasive” above. Example: “The most compelling argument is presented by Scholar A.”

40. All things considered

Usage: This means “taking everything into account”. Example: “All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that…”

How many of these words and phrases will you get into your next essay? And are any of your favourite essay terms missing from our list? Let us know in the comments below, or get in touch here to find out more about courses that can help you with your essays.

At Oxford Royale Academy, we offer a number of  summer school courses for young people who are keen to improve their essay writing skills. Click here to apply for one of our courses today, including law , business , medicine  and engineering .

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Starting a Sentence with “And” or “But” – Should You Do It?

Julia Granowicz-Johnson

You should never start a sentence with the words “and” or “but”— never .

If that was drilled into your head at some point during your elementary school English lessons, then you’re not alone. Most of us were taught this rule in school—and we followed it with every writing assessment, research paper, and book report we ever wrote.

So, if it’s improper to start a sentence with the words “and” or “but” then why do so many prolific, notable writers do it? As do bloggers, journalists, and copywriters. It might seem like a rebellious move—but the truth is, it’s not really “against the rules” at all.

Telling It Straight

Why were we all taught a rule that doesn’t exist, when is it okay to start a sentence with “and” or “but”, when should you follow the old “english class rule”, breathe easy knowing you’re not the only misled student.

The truth is, it’s okay to start a sentence with the words “and” or “but”—if you do it correctly. After all, there is a time and place for everything, right?

First, let’s take a quick jump down memory lane to those Schoolhouse Rock! tapes you watched when the substitute teacher didn’t know the subject. Ever had the tune to “Conjunction Junction” stuck in your head for no apparent reason? You’re not alone.

However, after so many years, do you remember what the function of a conjunction really is? It might seem obvious—a conjunction connects two thoughts or ideas. “And” and “but” are called coordinating conjunctions and are a part of a much longer list of words.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions:

However, the ones we were specifically taught to avoid starting a sentence with are “and” and “but.” The good news is, you can rest easy knowing that there is no true grammar rule that says you can’t ever start a sentence with one of these conjunctions.

“Contrary to what your high school English teacher told you, there’s no reason not to begin a sentence with but or and ; in fact, these words often make a sentence more forceful and graceful. They are almost always better than beginning with however or additionally .” — Professor Jack Lynch , Associate Professor of English, Rutgers University, New Jersey

Realizing now, ten, twenty, or even thirty years or more later that you were lied to might be frustrating—but your teachers really did have your best interests in mind. While there is no definitive answer as to why we were taught this “rule,” the explanation that makes the most sense was that it was meant to prevent kids from writing the way they talk.

Think about it—have you listened to a child or teenager talk for any extended amount of time? If you have, then you can understand exactly what these teachers were trying to avoid.

If you haven’t—well, these two examples will help provide some insight…

“We wanted to go to get burgers and they weren’t open. But we still got burgers. But we had to go somewhere else to get them. But they weren’t as good as the ones we were going to get.”

“My friend and I went to the beach yesterday. And while we were on the beach, we saw lots of seagulls and other birds. And this one seagull stole some guy's fries while he was trying to eat them! And it scared the guy so much, he jumped nearly ten feet in the air!”

It’s one thing to verbally hear a story told in this fashion. But reading it is an entirely different experience. No matter what the word is, you never want to start too many consecutive sentences with the same word. The overuse of “and” and “but” in spoken English is likely the main reason our teachers forbid us from starting a sentence with them in our writing!

So, if there is a time and place for everything—where is the proper time and place to use “and” or “but” at the beginning of your sentence?

The first thing you want to remember is that you’re using this word to connect two thoughts—so your phrase should be able to stand on its own. This means it has a clearly defined subject and verb.

If you remove your conjunction and you suddenly have a sentence fragment that doesn’t seem to make sense, then you need to rework your wording. Perhaps this means making your two sentences one—using “and” or “but” with a comma, rather than a period.

You should also take into consideration what you are writing. Different types of writing call for different approaches. The use of “and” or “but” at the start of a sentence sometimes brings a sense of informality. It might be right for your blog posts, whereas more formal coordinating conjunctions like “additionally” or “however” might read better in a white paper.

The bottom line is though, it’s never truly off limits. Sometimes it’s more impactful to be so precise and direct.

In most business writing—especially digital marketing copy like blog posts, emails, and social media posts—you shouldn’t stress using “and” or “but” to start your sentence. No one is going to point it out. No one is going to laugh at you. In fact, someone else who doesn’t already know the truth might think you’re the rebel for being so daring in the first place!

But there are times when you’ll want to follow this mock rule. Data-driven content—case studies, statistic focused white papers, text book content, these are places where you might not only see less opportunity to start a sentence with a conjunction, but also where it could be beneficial to avoid doing so.

If you’ve already got years of practice avoiding starting your sentence with one of these words, then it might take some retraining to find yourself starting a sentence this way. On the other hand, following this rule helps you to expand your vocabulary and use other words and phrases to get your points across. (I could have used “but” to start that last sentence; "on the other hand" adds variety while also giving a stronger sense of weighing up options.)

It’s been years now since teachers started drumming into students that they should never—ever—start their sentence with the words “and” or “but.” If you’re one of likely millions who was taught this lie during your schooldays, don’t feel bad. This is just another case of a few people creating a problem for the rest of us.

Since teachers didn’t think they could trust some students to be more creative in telling their stories, they restricted everyone. Sure, it worked—you’ll hardly come across something written on the internet with repetitive starts, especially not “and” or “but”—but at what cost? Many of us were following a grammar rule that doesn’t exist—and probably got irrationally mad that editors missed such a common mistake again and again.

Can you already feel the weight lifted? If you’re one of many who has been avoiding using “and” or “but” to start a sentence, don’t hold back! It’s the freedom that comes with finding out a constraint you’ve worked around for years is no longer an issue.

Try using this new technique in your writing to create more direct and powerful statements.

Take your writing to the next level:

20 Editing Tips From Professional Writers

Whether you are writing a novel, essay, article or email, good writing is an essential part of communicating your ideas., this guide contains the 20 most important writing tips and techniques from a wide range of professional writers..

Be confident about grammar

Check every email, essay, or story for grammar mistakes. Fix them before you press send.

Julia Granowicz-Johnson is a freelance writer from Florida and has been selling her words for a living since 2014. As a staff writer for The Marijuana Times she educates the masses on medical cannabis, legalization and activism efforts. As a freelance copywriter she helps businesses of all sizes succeed in captivating and converting their audience to long-term customers.

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• Which novels would you recommend to 15-year-olds on the theme of places and forms of power?
• In The Pearl, why didn't John Steinbeck give the pearl buyers identifying names?
• In the play, The Crucible , why would Arthur Miller include the Note on Historical Accuracy?
• What is perfidy (from Sister Carrie, by Theodore Dreiser)?
• Is being pedantic a good or bad thing?
• Is a termagant a type of seabird?
• What is ichor (from The Iliad )?
• In The Hunger Games, why did Cinna choose to be the designer for District 12?
• Is a rivulet really a river, only smaller?
• Charles Dickens has this person called the beadle" in lots of his books. Is that like a nickname for a man with buggy eyes or something?"
• In Brave New World, why are family words like father and mother viewed as obscene?
• What is the main tenet of stoicism?
• What's the meaning of obsequious (from Theodore Dreiser's urban novel Sister Carrie )?
• Where are the Antipodes (from Much Ado about Nothing )?
• What is a truckle bed (from Romeo and Juliet )?
• What does truculent (from Great Expectations ) mean?
• If someone inculcates you, should you feel insulted?
• What does the phrase Ethiop words" mean in Shakespeare's As You Like It ?"
• I was chatting with a neighbor who said I was quite garrulous . Nice or mean?
• What does laconic mean?
• At a restaurant famous for its rude servers, a waitress told me to lump it" when I asked for another napkin. Can you tell me about that phrase?"
• What does urbane (from Daisy Miller ) mean?
• I thought necro had something to do with being dead. So, what's a necromancer ? Sounds creepy.
• In The House of Mirth, this guy named Gus Trenor is eating a jellied plover." Is that some kind of doughnut?"
• What are some well-known novels whose titles are quotations from Shakespeare?
• In Orwell's 1984, what does the opening sentence suggest about the book?
• Understanding the literary genre Magical Realism
• What's a prig?
• I asked my granddad if he liked his new apartment and he said, It's all hunky-dory, kiddo." What did he mean?"
• What does mephitic (from Man and Superman ) mean?
• I hate finding typos in books. Here's one I've seen several times: jalousies instead of jealousies.
• On the second week of my summer job at a bookstore, my boss handed me an envelope with what she called my emoluments. Looked like a paycheck to me, though.
• In To Kill a Mockingbird, what are some examples of the characters having courage?
• What's cud? I was once told to stop chewing my cud and get back to work.
• What can you tell me about the word patois from The Awakening ?
• What are thews (from Ivanhoe )?
• What does pot-shop (from The Pickwick Papers ) mean?
• Are all dowagers women?
• If someone is the titular head of a political party, does it mean they have all the power?
• The word flummox confuses me. What does it mean?
• Somebody told me I looked pasty. Does that mean I've eaten too many sweets?
• I started taking private bassoon lessons. When I arrived at my teacher’s house, he told me to wait in the anteroom. I wasn’t sure where to go.
• Is anomalous the same as anonymous ?
• I know that a fathom is a unit of measure used by sailors, but how long is a fathom?
• What is a joss (from Victory, by Joseph Conrad)?
• What does eschew (from The Pickwick Papers ) mean?
• What does excrescence (from The Call of the Wild ) mean?
• What does the word covert mean?
• In Shakespeare's Sonnet 125, what is an oblation ?
• In Moby-Dick , what does vitiate mean?
• In War and Peace , what does bane mean?
• In Jane Eyre , what are chilblains ?
• Does mendacious refer to something that is fixable (mendable)?
• Is kickshawses one of those weird words that Shakespeare coined? What does it mean?
• You say in CliffsNotes that In Cold Blood was Truman Capote's undoing. How?
• What is renege , in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra ?
• What is maxim ? I think it's a female name but I'm not sure.
• Last Valentine's Day, this guy I barely know gave me a rose and said something about ardent love. What does ardent mean?
• In Act I, Scene 1, of King Lear, what does benison mean?
• What kind of literature is a picaresque novel?
• What does culpable mean?
• What's a cenotaph ? Every Veterans Day, I hear about the Queen of England laying a wreath at the Cenotaph in London.
• What does gallimaufry mean in The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo ? My vocabulary is pretty good, but that one has me stumped!
• What does it mean to genuflect ?
• Someone told me I was looking wistful. What is wistful ?
• In David Copperfield, what does superannuated mean?
• Does the word syllogism have something to do with biology?
• I see the word benefactor a lot in my reading assignments. Is that somebody who benefits from something?
• I found a funny word in The Glass Castle. Where did skedaddle come from and what does it mean?
• Does sinuous mean something like full of sin"? I saw the word in The Devil in the White City ."
• In Upton Sinclair's The Jungle, what is the meaning of the word propaganda ?
• What are characteristics of Modernist literature, fiction in particular?
• What does my brother mean when he says he's too ensconced in his studies to look for a girlfriend?
• My grandpa complained about a bunch of politicians making what he called chin music . Did he mean they were in a loud band?
• What is melodrama?
• In Dracula, what's a missal ?
• In the terms abject poverty and abject misery, what does abject mean?
• In Moby-Dick, what does craven mean?
• What does cicatrize mean?
• What is a noisome smell" in Tolstoy's War and Peace ?"
• What is an apostasy, from the George Bernard Shaw play, Man and Superman ?
• In Jane Eyre, what's syncope ?
• I just read Dracula. What's the forcemeat in Jonathan Harker's journal?
• Can the word stern mean more than one thing?
• Where is Yoknapatawpha county?
• What does smouch mean?
• I'm supposed to write a comparison of Hektor and Achilles from Homer's The Iliad, but I don't know where to start.
• How do you pronounce quay ? And what does it mean, anyway?
• What are some examples of paradox in the novel Frankenstein ?
• In Ivanhoe, what does mammock mean?
• What does rummage mean?
• Is a mummer some type of religious person?
• Some guy I don't like told his friend I was acting all demure. What does that mean?
• When I complained about our cafeteria food, my biology teacher told me he wished they'd serve agarics. Was he talking about some kind of dessert?
• Where did the name Of Mice and Men come from?
• What genre would you consider the book, The Outsiders ?
• In Fahrenheit 451, why would a society make being a pedestrian a crime?
• What does the phrase, a worn-out man of fashion" mean from Jane Eyre ?"
• Is sagacity a medical condition?
• My teacher told me I was being obdurate. Was that a compliment?
• What motives inspired Iago to plot revenge against Othello?
• Who was the first king of Rome?
• What does enervate mean?
• What is a parvenu ? I saw the word in William Makepeace Thackeray's book Vanity Fair.
• Is salubrity somehow related to being famous?
• Do capers have something to do with cops?
• What's the difference between a soliloquy and a monologue?
• In A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, James Joyce uses the word pandybat . What's a pandybat?
• Does the word inexorable have something to do with driving demons out of a person?
• Do people who prognosticate have some sort of special power?
• What is a hegemony, from James Joyce's Ulysses ?
• What are fallow fields ? I'm a city gal who heard the term at a 4-H fair and just read it in Anna Karenina.
• What's the difference between parody and satire?
• Lord of the Flies uses the word inimical. What does it mean?
• What does dreadnaught mean, as it’s used in Bleak House?
• I saw vertiginous in Madame Bovary. What does mean the word mean?
• What does overweening mean, in Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes?
• Can you hear a dirge anyplace but a funeral?
• Does imperturbable refer to something you can't break through?
• What are the seven ages of man?
• What is a chimera , in Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë?
• What's dross ?
• What is an injunction ?
• For school I had to make a Napoleon hat, which called for a cockade. What is that?
• If someone studies assiduously, does it mean they're working really hard or really slowly?
• Define mood as it relates to a work of fiction. Distinguish mood from effect.
• My sister calls me the Princess of Prevarication." What's prevarication ?"
• What's turpitude, as in moral turpitude"?"
• What's the definition of tenebrous ?
• This biography I'm reading about Queen Victoria says that she refused to remove the hatchment she had for her husband Prince Albert. What does that word mean?
• What does sine qua non mean?
• What's lugubrious mean?
• What's impugn mean, from Ivanhoe?
• What does postprandial mean?
• I love reading fashion magazines and occasionally come across the word atelier. What is that?
• What does King Lear mean when he says that ingratitude is a marble-hearted fiend"?"
• What is celerity , from Ivanhoe ?
• In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein , what are disquisitions ?
• What's shrive ? My neighbor said she's been unshriven for years, but I think her skin looks quite shriveled.
• What's a dobbin ?
• What's polemic ? Over winter break, my uncle told me I was polemic and asked if I was on the debate team at school.
• I came across a list of homonyms: mu, moo, moue . I know mu is Greek for the letter m , and moo is the sound cows make, but what's a moue ?
• What does trow mean?
• In Far from the Madding Crowd , what does cavil mean?
• What does Charles Dickens mean when he says “toadies and humbugs” in his book, Great Expectations ?
• Where can I find the word naught in The Scarlet Letter ?
• I found an old diary from the 1800s where the writer describes how he almost died but was saved by a sinapism . What is that?
• I know what mulch is, but what's mulct ?
• When our teacher was introducing the next reading assignment, he said we'll be using the unexpurgated version. What did he mean?
• For some reason, the word dingle sticks in my head after having read Treasure Island years ago. I never did discover what it meant. How about it, Cliff?
• In Dracula , what's stertorous breathing?
• What does philippic mean?
• I'm usually pretty good at guessing what words mean, but have no clue about exigence . What is it?
• What's doughty ? How do you pronounce it?
• What's sharecropping? I'm kind of embarrassed to ask, because it's one of those words everyone assumes you know what it means.
• I'm working on my summer reading list with Kafka's The Trial. The very first sentence uses traduce , and I don't know what that means.
• What does the cormorant (bird) symbolize in mythology?
• I saw the word badinage in the book Uncle Tom's Cabin . Do you think that's a typo that really should be bandage ?
• On a TV modeling contest, a judge said, Her simian walk is unbelievable." Was that a good thing?"
• What is the definition of adverbiously , from Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities ?
• In Oliver Twist , Dodger refers to Oliver as flash companion . Can't find a definition of this anywhere. What does it mean?
• Do elocutionists kill people?
• For my English homework, I have to write a love poem. I'm only 13 and I haven't had my first love yet. How would I go about writing about feelings that I haven't felt yet?
• Where on the body would I find my sarcophagus ?
• What's stolid ? It sounds like someone who's stupid and built solid like a wall.
• What's a wonton person?
• In which play did William Shakespeare state that misery loves company?
• What's comfit ? Is it a different way of saying comfort?
• Where did the story Frankenstein by Mary Shelley take place?
• What kind of person would a shallow-pate be?
• What are myrmidons of Justice" in Great Expectations ?"
• Faseeshis … no clue on the spelling, but I kind of got yelled at in school today for being that. What did I do?
• In The Red Badge of Courage , what's an imprecation ?
• The word portmanteau shows up in a lot of the literature I read for school assignments. It sounds French. What does it mean?
• I did something really stupid yesterday, and my grandfather told me I was hoist with my own petard." What does that mean? And what's a petard ?"
• How do you pronounce Cymbeline, one of Shakespeare's early comedies?
• What's a bourse ? I read it in my finance class.
• In The House of Mirth, what are oubliettes ?
• In Tess of the d'Urbervilles, what are thimble-riggers ?
• In Wuthering Heights , what's a thible ?
• Which Hemingway story references the running of the bulls" in Spain?"
• What's a clink? My dad mentioned that his granddad was there for a long time during World War I.
• If somebody is toady," does it mean they're ugly?"
• Who said all's fair in love and war" and where?"
• Why is there so much talk about baseball, especially Joe DiMaggio, in The Old Man and the Sea ?
• In the movie Failure to Launch , there's a line that goes, Well, she certainly is yar," in reference to a yacht. What's yar ?"
• What does mangle mean in Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities ?
• I got detention because a teacher said I was being contumacious . What's that?
• What are encomiums?
• What are billets in The Three Musketeers ?
• In Orwell's 1984 , what is doublethink ?
• What are orts ? That's a weird word that reminds me of orcs from The Lord of the Rings .
• What are alliteration and assonance?
• How is John the Savage's name ironic in Brave New World ?
• What's quinsy?
• What is a doppelgänger?
• What is New Historicism?
• I found the word unwonted in a book I'm reading. Is that a typo, you think?
• In Heart of Darkness , what does cipher mean?
• In the play The Glass Menagerie, would you describe Tom as selfish?
• What does Kantian mean, from a philosophical perspective?
• What's a colonnade ? My girlfriend is freaking me out with stories of her dream wedding where she walks down a colonnade. I know this is the least of my problems, but I'm curious.
• My grandma says she knows how I feel when I knit my brows. Is she crazy?
• Why is Shakespeare's play titled Julius Caesar , even though he is dead by Act III and plays a relatively small role?
• I know bier has something to do with dead people, but what is it exactly?
• My brainy brother owns a Harley and says his girlfriend is the pillion . Is he insulting her or just showing off?
• I ran across the word mien in a book. Is it a typo?
• Is a younker a person or a place?
• Does precipitancy have something to do with the weather?
• I'm writing a grade 12 comparative essay, and I need a book that I could compare with All Quiet on the Western Front. Any suggestions?
• A friend says she suffers from ineffable sadness. What's ineffable ?
• What's a scow ?
• Is a maelstrom some kind of dangerous weather?
• What is the meaning of this saying, The cat will mew and dog will have his day"?"
• What is a paradox ?
• The Picture of Dorian Gray mentions a panegyric on youth. What does that mean?
• In Madame Bovary , what's a mairie?
• In The Kite Runner, what's palliative mean?
• So what's oligarchy ? In government class, my teacher mentioned that word when we were talking about the Blagojevich scandal in Illinois.
• Is intrepidity a good thing or a bad thing?
• My grandmother told me that she thinks grandpa should see an alienist. Does she think he's from another planet or what?
• Do you have to have licentiousness to get your driver's license?
• I ran across the word hardihood in something I read the other day. Is it some kind of clothing?
• I saw mention of haversack in my history book. What does that word mean?
• I'm guessing the word quadroon is four of something. But what's a roon?
• I'm trying to understand Shakespeare's play, King Lear . Can you explain these quotes from Act 1, Scene 1?
• In Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment , what's a samovar ?
• I came across a music channel that featured tejano," and then I saw the same word when I was reading Bless Me, Ultima. What does it mean?"
• In The Awakening , there's a term prunella gaiter." I'm guessing that gaiters are a type of covering for your legs, like the gaiters I use on my ski boots to keep snow out. But what the heck is prunella? Is it a purplish color like prunes?"
• What's sedulous mean?
• In Chapter 2 of Jane Eyre , what are divers parchments ?
• A friend of mine said she hopes to get a counterpane for Christmas. What's that?
• In Wuthering Heights, what does munificent mean?
• The other day, my dad called my friends a motley crew. Is that his way of saying I should hang out with a different crowd?
• Why is there an authorship problem with Shakespeare?
• What is it called when something is out of place in time, like a jet stream in a movie about ancient Rome?
• In 1984 , does Winston die from a bullet at the end of the book or is he in a dream-state?
• I saw some old guy in a soldier's uniform selling fake red flowers. He said it was for Veterans Day. What's the connection?
• I was kind of flirting with this really cute boy when my teacher told me to stop palavering. Did she want me to stop flirting or stop talking?
• My grandmother says when she was a kid in China, she became Catholic because of the Mary Knows nuns. I tried to look that up on the Internet but couldn't find anything. Can you help?
• In The Count of Monte Cristo , does cupidity mean love? I'm guessing that because of, you know, Cupid . . . Valentine's Day.
• My theater teacher called me a name the other day. I don't think it was supposed to be a compliment. What's a somnambulist, anyway?
• Why was Tartuffe such a jerk?
• To Kill a Mockingbird has this word fey in it, but I don't know what it means. Does it mean short lived or fleeting?
• In Pride and Prejudice , what's probity" &mdash
• I never met my grandma, who my mom says lives in a hovel and wants her to move in with us. Then I saw that word in Frankenstein . What's a hovel? I thought it was like a place that had room service.
• I have a friend who said something about phantasmagoric. That's not real, is it?
• Which of the following literary devices is used in these poetic lines by John Milton?
• In Faulkner's A Rose for Emily," what does noblesse oblige mean?"
• What is love?
• What is suggested by the coin image in Book II of A Tale of Two Cities ?
• Why does Satan rebel against God?
• I'm reading Candide, by Voltaire, and one of the dudes is an Anabaptist. What's that?
• What does the poem Summer Sun" by Robert Louis Stevenson really mean?"
• What did Shakespeare want to say about his beloved in Sonnet 18?
• In Romeo and Juliet , who was the last person to see Juliet alive?
• What is the Catechism?
• What is the overall meaning of the poem Before The Sun," by Charles Mungoshi?"
• What does ague mean?
• Is there a reference to venereal disease in Romeo and Juliet ?
• What is fantasy fiction?
• What is the exposition in Othello ?
• Who is the character Susan in Romeo and Juliet ?
• What is a found poem?
• What did Alice Walker mean in the essay Beauty"?"
• Why did Dr. Frankenstein create his monster?
• What is the name of the surgeon and the English ship he's on in Moby-Dick ?
• What are the differences between an epic hero and a Romantic hero?
• In Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead, does Gail Wynand commit suicide or only close The Banner at the end of the novel? I'm in a literary dispute over this!
• What did W.E.B. Du Bois mean when he wrote of second-sight?
• What is nihilism, and what should I read to get a better understanding of it?
• What is the difference between an atheist and an agnostic?
• What are intelligent design and creationism and how are they related?
• What is misanthropy ?
• I would like to understand the poem Blight" by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Please help."
• Can you explain the significance of the question, Which came first, the chicken or the egg?""
• In Little Lost Robot," by Isaac Asimov, why have some robots been impressioned with only part of the First Law of Robotics?"
• Can you explain Cartesian Dualism and how Descartes' philosophical endeavors led him to dualism?
• When reading Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice , what does entailment mean?
• What does ignominy mean? (From Shelley's Frankenstein )
• What does pecuniary mean? (From Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities )
• How do I analyze Kant's philosophy?
• What is an apostrophe in Macbeth ?
• Is music a language?
• Why should literature be studied?
• In the book The Scarlet Letter , what is a vigil ?
• The first week of school isn't even over yet and I'm already in trouble — I forgot my textbook at school and can't do my homework! What should I do now?!
• What are the renaissance features/characteristics in Hamlet ?
• What is the exact quote in Hamlet about something being wrong in Denmark? Something smells? Something is amiss?
• What does Utilitarianism mean, from a philosophical perspective?
• What was the form of English that Shakespeare used?
• At the beginning of Act V, Scene 2 of Much Ado About Nothing, does Shakespeare insinuate that anything is going on between Margaret and Benedick?
• What was the "final solution" in the book Night by Elie Wiesel?
• With the many novels out there, is there a database of some sort that can narrow down your choices to a specific book of interest for pleasure reading? And if not, why hasn't there been?
• How do you pronounce Houyhnhnms ? (From Swift's Gulliver's Travels )
• I just took the quiz on The Great Gatsby on this site. How can Jordan Baker be described as a professional golfer? To my knowledge, the LPGA did not form until the mid-1950s. Shouldn't she be referred to as an amateur golfer instead?
• What are the humanities?
• If Father, Son, and Holy Ghost aren't names, what is God's name?
• What classic novels take place in Florida?
• In which Hemingway short story is the saying, "Children's shoes for sale"?
• Who is the "lady" that Robert Plant speaks of in the song "Stairway to Heaven"?
• Was Odysseus the one who planned the Trojan horse, in the Trojan War?
• How do I get my smart-but-hates-to-read son interested in reading?
• Poetry gives me problems. How can I figure out what poems are about?
• How do you analyze a novel?
• What does it mean to ululate ? (From Golding's Lord of the Flies )
• Is ambrosia a salad? (From Homer's The Odyssey )
• What is a harbinger ? (From Shakespeare's Macbeth )
• What does it mean to be refractory ? (From Dickens' Great Expectations )
• What is a querulous kid? (From Wharton's Ethan Frome )
• What does the word runagate mean? (From Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet )
• What is the word, imprimis ? (From Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew )
• What does the word alchemy mean? (From Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter )
• What is an estuary ? (From Conrad's Heart of Darkness )
• What or who is a scullion ? (From Shakespeare's Hamlet )
• What is a schism ? (From Swift's Gulliver's Travels )
• What does it mean to be salubrious ? (From Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights )
• What is a replication ? (From Shakespeare's Hamlet )
• What is vicissitude ? (From Hawthorne's The House of Seven Gables )
• Can you define indolent ? (From Wharton's House of Mirth )
• What does the word replete mean? (From Shakespeare's Henry V )
• What are orisons ? (From Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet )
• What does it mean to be ephemeral ?
• What does it mean to be placid ? (From Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre )
• What is a paroxysm ? (From Stoker's Dracula )
• My English teacher got really mad when I said I was nauseous . Why?
• What does it mean to be farinaceous ? (From Tolstoy's Anna Karenina )
• What does dejection mean? (From Shelley's Frankenstein )
• What is animadversion ? (From Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter )
• What does it mean to be timorous ? (From Shakespeare's Othello )
• Someone called me erudite . Is that good?
• What is a mountebank ? (From Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter )
• What does incarnadine mean? (From Shakespeare's Macbeth )
• What does it mean to be puissant? (From Shakespeare's Julius Caesar)
• What is a purloiner? (From Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities)
• What does it mean to be affable ? (From Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment )
• What does it mean to be ostensible ? (From Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court )
• What does compunction mean? (From Dickens's Bleak House )
• What is behoveful ? (From Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet )
• What is a precentor ? (From Golding's Lord of the Flies )
• What does it mean to be loquacious ? (From Cervantes's Don Quixote )
• What does imprudence mean? (From Ibsen's A Doll's House )
• What is a conflagration ? (From Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde )
• What does it mean to be spurious ? (From James' Daisy Miller )
• What is a retinue ? (From Swift's Gulliver's Travels )
• What does the word forsworn mean? (From Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet )
• What does the word hauteur mean? (From Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby )
• What are vituperations ? (From Jacobs' Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl )
• What are ostents ? (From Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice )
• What is a sockdolager ? (From Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn )
• What does insuperable mean? (From Shelley's Frankenstein )
• What is calumny ? (From Shakespeare's Hamlet )
• What is an augury ? (From Sophocles' Antigone )
• What does squally mean? (From Dickens' Great Expectations )
• What does corporal mean? (From Shakespeare's Macbeth )
• What does it mean to be plausible ? (From Sinclair's The Jungle )
• What is a dearth ? (From Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre )
• What does it mean to vacillate ? (From Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest )
• What does it mean to obtrude someone? (From Dickens's Great Expectations )
• What is a heterodox ? (From Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter )
• What is felicity ? (From Austen's Emma )
• What does it mean to be effacing ? (From Adams's The Education of Henry Adams )
• What is a repast ? (From Chan Tsao's Dream of the Red Chamber )
• What does insouciance mean? (From Sinclair's The Jungle )
• What is a soliloquy ? (From Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn )
• I was reading The Iliad and there's this word in it: greaves . What's that?
• What does the word prodigality mean? (From Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby )
• Is there an easy way to understand The Canterbury Tales ?
• What does the scarlet letter symbolize?
• What is the significance of Grendel's cave in Beowulf ?
• How did Hawthorne show that Hester Prynne was a strong woman in The Scarlet Letter ?
• What purpose do the three witches serve at the beginning of Macbeth ?
• What can you tell me about Grendel from Beowulf ?
• What figurative language does Stephen Crane use in The Red Badge of Courage ?
• Why is Roger so mean in Lord of the Flies ?
• How do Gene and Finny mirror each other in A Separate Peace ?
• The old man and the young wife — what's up with story plots like this?
• What part does vengeance play in The Odyssey ?
• What kind of a woman is Penelope in The Odyssey ?
• Do fate and fortune guide the actions in Macbeth ?
• How does Frankenstein relate to Paradise Lost ?
• How has the way people view Othello changed over time?
• How does Henry change throughout The Red Badge of Courage ?
• What's so great about Gatsby?
• How is To Kill a Mockingbird a coming-of-age story?
• Why did Ophelia commit suicide in Hamlet ?
• What is the setting of The Scarlet Letter ?
• What is a slave narrative?
• What's an anachronism ?
• Doesn't Raskolnikov contradict himself in Crime and Punishment ?
• What is the main theme of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ?
• What does Shakespeare mean by memento mori ?
• What are inductive and deductive arguments?
• How does Alice Walker break the rules" of literature with The Color Purple ?"
• What role does Friar Laurence play in Romeo and Juliet ?
• Why did Elie Wiesel call his autobiography Night ?
• How does Shakespeare play with gender roles in Macbeth ?
• Where did Dickens get the idea to write A Tale of Two Cities ?
• What's the purpose of the preface to The Scarlet Letter ?
• What role do women play in A Tale of Two Cities ?
• Who are the heroes and villains in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn?
• What are the ides of March?
• Was Kate really a shrew in The Taming of the Shrew ?
• What role does innocence play in The Catcher in the Rye ?
• How are Tom and Huck different from each other in Huckleberry Finn ?
• What is blank verse and how does Shakespeare use it?
• How do the book and film versions of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest differ?
• What is a satirical novel?
• What is the role of censorship in Fahrenheit 451 ?
• How can I keep myself on track to get through my summer reading list?
• How does Jim fit into the overall theme of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ?
• What is a major theme of The Great Gatsby ?
• How does Shakespeare use light and darkness in Romeo and Juliet ?
• Who is the narrator in Faulkner's A Rose for Emily"?"
• In Lord of the Flies , what statement is William Golding making about evil?
• How is The Catcher in the Rye different from other coming-of-age novels?
• How does Scout in To Kill a Mockingbird show two sides?
• Was there supposed to be a nuclear war in The Handmaid's Tale ? I couldn't tell.
• What is experimental theater"?"
• Does Jonas die at the end of The Giver ?
• What is an inciting incident, and how do I find one in Lord of the Flies ?
• How does King Arthur die?
• In Julius Caesar , what does this mean: Cowards die many times before their deaths
• How do you write a paper on comparing a movie with the book?
• Please explain this Kipling quote: Words are, of course, the most powerful drug used by mankind.""
• What is a tragic flaw?
• What is a motif, and how can I find them in Macbeth ?
• Why didn't Socrates write any books? After all, he was supposed to be so intelligent and wise.
• Why are there blanks in place of people's names and places in Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice ?
• Was Othello a king? A prince? He's referred to as My Lord" but I'm not sure of his actual title."
• I need to download some pictures of Juliet. Where would I find these?
• Why does Odysseus decide to listen to the Sirens, in The Odyssey , by Homer?
• What does prose and poetry mean? What's the difference?
• In The Scarlet Letter, why is the scaffold important and how does it change over the course of the novel?
• Why does the legend of King Arthur hold such a powerful grip over us?
• Do you like to read books?
• What are the metrical features in poetry?
• What are the riddles that Gollum asked Bilbo in The Hobbit ?
• Can you tell me what these two quotes from Much Ado About Nothing mean?
• What is connotation, and how do you find it in a poem?
• What is a dramatic monologue?
• What is formal fallacy?
• In the movie Dead Poets Society, what are some themes and values that are relevant to Transcendentalism. What is Transcendentalism?
• Why didn't Mina Harker realize she was under Dracula's spell when she witnessed her friend fall prey to him, too? Wasn't it obvious?
• In The Three Musketeers by Dumas, Cardinal Richelieu is labeled as the villain. How could he be presented as a hero instead?
• In Romeo and Juliet , what are the different types of irony used? Um, what's irony?
• What is the main theme in Fahrenheit 451 ?
• In Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities , what fact in Book the Second: Chapters 1-6, confirms Darnay's release?
• Why is Invisible Man considered a bildungsroman?
• In A Doll's House , what risqué item does Nora reveal to Dr. Rank that eventually prompts him to disclose his own secret?
• What is a definition of short story?
• What percentage of people are considered geniuses?
• How do I write and publish my own novel?
• Do I use the past or present tense to answer this question: What is this poem about?" "
• A Closer Look at Internships
• Consider Working for a Nonprofit Organization
• Create a Top-Quality Cover Letter
• Deciding Whether to Go for Your MBA
• Dress the Part for a Job Interview
• Appropriate Attire: Defining Business Casual
• Famous Americans Who Started Out in the Military
• The Benefits of Joining a Professional Organization
• Five Job Interview Mistakes
• Getting Good References for Your Job Hunt
• Lying on Your Resume
• Make the Most of Days between Jobs
• Military Career Opportunity: Translators and Interpreters
• Network Your Way into a Job
• Prepare for a Job Interview
• Preparing for Job Interview Questions
• Putting Your English Degree to Work
• Putting Your Education Degree to Work
• Take Advantage of Job and Career Fairs
• Tips for a Better Resume
• Understand Negotiable Elements of a Job Offer
• Visit the College Career Office
• Write a Resume That Will Get Noticed
• Write a Thank You Note after an Interview
• Writing a Follow-Up Letter after Submitting Your Resume
• Your Military Career: Basics of Officer Candidate School
• Your Military Career: Requirements for Officer Candidate School
• Know What to Expect in Graduate School
• Paying for Graduate School
• Plan for Graduate Education
• Tackle the Graduate Record Exam (GRE)
• What Does School Accreditation Mean?
• Writing Essays for Your Business School Application
• Apply to Graduate School
• Basic Requirements for Grad School
• Choose a Graduate School
• Decide if Graduate School Is Right for You
• English Majors: Selecting a Graduate School or Program
• Getting Letters of Recommendation for Your Business School Application
• Graduate School Application: Tips, Advice, and Warnings
• Graduate School: Applying as a Returning Student
• How to Find a Mentor for Graduate School
• How to Prepare for Grad School as an Undergrad
• How Work Experience Affects Your MBA Application
• Master's Degree in Biology: Choosing a Grad School
• In what countries does Toyota produce and market cars?
• How would you use the PDSA cycle in your personal life?
• I am confused about adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing negative numbers.
• Who are some famous female mathematicians?
• Given the set of numbers [7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42], find a subset of these numbers that sums to 100.
• The speed limit on a certain part of the highway is 65 miles per hour. What is this in feet per minute?
• What is the sum of the angles of an octagon?
• In math, what does reciprocal mean?
• How many grams in an ounce?
• A number is 20 less than its square. Find all answers.
• How much is 1,000 thousands?
• How do I find the angles of an isosceles triangle whose two base angles are equal and whose third angle is 10 less than three times a base angle?
• Explain with words and an example how any number raised to the zero power is 1?
• If I had 550 coins in a machine worth $456.25, what would be the denomination of each coin?
• What three consecutive numbers add up to 417?
• How many 100,000,000s in 50 billion?
• Of 100 students asked if they like rock and roll or country music, 7 said they like neither, 90 said they like rock and roll, and 57 said they like country music. How many students like both?
• What's the formula to convert square feet into square meters?
• In math, what is the definition of order of operations?
• What's the difference between digital and analog?
• What is the square root of 523,457?
• What are all of the prime numbers?
• Our teacher told us to look for clues in math word problems. What did she mean?
• How do I figure out math word problems (without going crazy)?
• What good is geometry going to do me after I get out of school?
• I keep forgetting how to add fractions. Can you remind me?
• My teacher talks about the Greatest Common Factor. What's so great about it?
• Got any tips on finding percentages of a number?
• What does associative property mean when you’re talking about adding numbers?
• How do I use domain and range in functions?
• How do I change percents to decimals and fractions? How about decimals and fractions to percents?
• What should I do if my teacher wants me to solve an inequality on a number line?
• What is a fast and easy way to work word problems?
• How do you combine numbers and symbols in an algebraic equation?
• How do I go about rounding off a number?
• What is the First Derivative Test for Local Extrema?
• Can you describe a prism for me?
• How can I double-check my answers to math equations?
• How do you factor a binomial?
• I get the words mean , mode , median , and range mixed up in math. What do they all mean?
• How do you combine like terms in algebra?
• Can you make it easier for me to understand what makes a number a prime number?
• Explain probability to me (and how about some examples)?
• Solving story problems is, well, a problem for me. Can you help?
• What's inferential statistics all about?
• Finding percentages confuses me. Do you have any tips to make it simpler?
• What's a quadratic equation, and how do I solve one?
• How do you figure out probability?
• How do you add integers?
• How do you use factoring in quadratic equations?
• What are limits in calculus?
• I've looked everywhere to find the meaning of this word and I can't find it. What's the definition of tesseract ?
• In geometry, how do you get the perimeters of a square and a rectangle?
• What is the absolute value of a negative number?
• A rectangle swimming pool is 24m longer than it is wide and is surrounded by a deck 3m wide. Find the area of the pool if the area of the deck is 324m 2 . Where do I even start to solve this problem?
• How do you classify numbers, as in rational numbers, integers, whole numbers, natural numbers, and irrational numbers? I am mostly stuck on classifying fractions.
• How do you convert a fraction to a decimal or change a decimal to a fraction?
• I am trying to find all solutions to this algebra (factoring) problem, x 3 – 3x 2 – x + 3 = 0, and I keep getting the wrong answer. Please help!
• Sometimes when I'm doing my pre-calculus homework I need help on some of the problems. Do you know where I can find help on the weekends or whenever?
• How do you convert metric measurements?
• I'm curious about converting Celsius to Fahrenheit, or Fahrenheit to Celsius. How do I convert from one to the other?
• In basic math, the fraction bar shows division. So why does this equation show multiplication instead of division? 9/9 = 1 because 1 x 9 = 9.
• I'm taking geometry and I'm having problem with the angles and the degree. Is there a way you can help me out?
• The perimeter of a rectangle is 66m. The width is 9m less than the length. What is the length and width of the rectangle?
• How many dollars are in 5,000 pesos?
• How many ounces in a pound?
• I'm having a hard time remembering percent of change. All I have is P (percent) = amount of change over original amount. Is there a better way of understanding it?
• How do I figure out tangrams?
• What are quadrilaterals?
• What is the least common multiple of 8, 6, and 12?
• How do you convert decimals to fractions?
• How did the planet" Pluto get its name? I know it's named after the mythical god of the underworld, but why?"
• What is the difference between the earth's core and its crust?
• What does gender really mean?
• What does plum pudding have to do with physics?
• What is the functionalist perspective in sociology?
• What does pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis mean?
• Why aren't viruses considered living things?
• Why does your breathing rate increase when you exercise?
• Everyone says you shouldn't clean your ears with cotton swabs because you could break an eardrum. But if you do break your eardrum, will it grow back?
• What is a mole?
• How, and why, is body fat stored?
• Where on the body do you find ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
• Since she was only married for 72 days, does Kim Kardashian have to give back her wedding gifts?
• In the United States, how can you get buried at sea?
• What exactly is Salvia divinorum , and is it legal?
• What is the composition and volume of whole blood?
• Should I refer to a widow as Mrs., Miss, or Ms.?
• Is it possible to catch more than one cold at a time?
• Why does the Earth have more gravitational force than the moon or some other planet?
• Did humans evolve from monkeys or apes?
• What is the largest organ in the human body?
• How did we end up with both Fahrenheit and Celsius scales?
• What is absolute zero?
• What is cell theory?
• How come when humans flatulate, it smells bad?
• How do I convert mL into µL, and vice versa?
• What is the most abundant element in the earth's crust?
• Is global warming man-made?
• What exactly is wind? And why does it blow?
• This sounds really disgusting, but I'm curious: Can humans drink animal blood, or any other kind of blood?
• Why is space exploration important?
• How is photosynthesis essential to life on earth?
• What is the highest mountain in New Mexico?
• What's the difference between a psychiatrist and a psychologist?
• Who are the unbelievers" referred to in The Koran? What is it that they do not believe?"
• What is the difference between Sunnis and Shi'ites?
• What happens when you die?
• Why is it important to memorize where the 50 states are on a map?
• What kind of endangered species are there? Can you give me some examples, please?
• It's impossible to sneeze with your eyes open, so when you drive a car, is it against the law to sneeze?
• What are tectonic plates?
• I have boy trouble. I want to ask out my friend, but I am not sure he is going to say yes. Plus, he said he had a girlfriend when we talked during school. Plus, my parents don't want me to date.
• Why is the sky blue?
• Do you really shrink at the end of the day and then grow in the morning?
• What is the difference between matter" and "mass"?"
• What does "nature versus nurture" mean?
• What are closed contour lines?
• What is homeostasis ?
• What does the periodic table look like?
• Do you know anything about the law of conservation of energy? Is it really a law?
• I thought I knew what work means, but my physics teacher defines it differently. What's up with that?
• How do plants know when to drop their leaves?
• What's the surface of the moon like?
• How does the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom differentiate it from another atom?
• How do big rocks wear down over time?
• What does genetic recombination mean?
• How has DNA matching really made big difference in finding out who committed a crime?
• What's the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
• What is incomplete dominance?
• Can hydrocarbons be considered compounds?
• Can you explain what molar mass is?
• Aren't fungi really plants?
• What information is contained in a chemical equation?
• What are the endocrine and exocrine systems?
• How do electrical charges interact?
• Are there more than three kingdoms of life? I can never remember.
• What are the characteristics of electrically charged objects?
• How does anomie theory explain deviant behavior?
• Why would anybody think there might be life on another planet?
• What are chemical solutions?
• Do you know of any way to simplify the overall subject of biochemical genetics?
• Can a loud noise really shatter glass?
• How do magnetic fields work?
• Did Clarence Darrow really call an animal in to testify at the famous monkey trial?
• What role does the thyroid gland play in the human body?
• What did Mendel discover about heredity when he was playing around with plants?
• How many laws of motion did Newton come up with, and what are they?
• What in the world is constructive and destructive interference?
• How do viruses do their dirty work?
• What do bones do, except give us a skeletal structure?
• Do all viruses look alike?
• My teacher keeps talking about solubility. What does that mean, anyway?
• How do positive and negative reinforcement work?
• How does nondisjunction relate to birth defects?
• With all the germs in the world today, how come everybody's not sick all the time?
• What is thermal equilibrium?
• How are sound waves created?
• What do taste buds look like — up-close?
• How often does an eclipse happen?
• What is the chemical composition of saltwater?
• I was told to write a 15-sentence answer to this question: When in life do you learn to expect the unexpected? I don't really know of an answer. Can you help me figure it out?
• My school is having a blood drive and I am considering donating blood. Can you tell me more about the whole process and if it is painful?
• Where can I download music for free? And if I do, is it illegal?
• How do I convince my parents to give me ten bucks?
• How should I deal with being a perfectionist?
• How do I convince my little brother and sisters to stay out of my room?
• Can you eat a rooster?
• How do I work out a problem with a teacher who loses the assignments I turn in and then accuses me of not doing the homework?
• Could a Tyrannosaurus rex kill King Kong?
• How would you describe a rainbow to a person who has been blind their ENTIRE life and doesn't understand colors?
• Will a tattoo inhibit hair growth?
• When did gays come about?
• I was wondering if the tilt on the earth's axis is important to animal life on earth. Could you explain?
• What are the four types of tissue found in the human body?
• Is there any easy" way to understand the Krebs Cycle?"
• Why are prostaglandins sometimes called tissue hormones?
• What is cell death? And what is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis?
• How do I find the molar mass of the elements on the periodic table?
• What do the symbols on the Periodic Table mean? For example, Gold-Au, Silver-Ag, Lead-Pb, Potassium-K, Tin-Sn, Iron-Fe, and Mercury-Hg, where did these symbols come from?
• How is your mind connected to your dreams? Does this have anything to do with psychology?
• What are the three main functions of the skeletal system?
• What are the characteristics of a moneran, protist, and fungus?
• Why does a placebo work? And who does it work for?
• What are two properties of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids?
• What is lymph? Is it part of the circulatory system in our bodies?
• Can there be life on Mars?
• How much of the ozone layer is left?
• Is it possible for a marine mammal to be infected with rabies?
• What exactly does the RNA do?
• What is the sperm travel process?
• What is a bacterial colony?
• Dealing with the myth of Cinderella, written by the Grimm brothers, how could you analyze it in terms of archetypes that Carl Jung used?
• What exactly is blood clotting and what are the processes involved?
• What is the difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fission?
• Does a person have to have the same blood type as his or her brothers and sisters?
• My teacher said that eating poisonous mushrooms can make you sick or even kill you, but that they're not the only fungus that can. What is she talking about?
• What is the chemical equation for orange juice?
• What kind of structures are opposable toes?
• What is an oral groove?
• Dogs are spayed, but humans have hysterectomies. Isn't it all the same surgery?
• What does the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) do?
• What is the angle formed by a horizontal line and a line of sight to a point below?
• After I take the ASVAB, what is my obligation to the military?
• If I choose to take the computerized version of the GRE, will I be typing or writing my analytical and issue essays?
• Are there any MBA programs that don't require the GMAT?
• Can you use a calculator on the GMAT? What are you allowed to take in with you to the test?
• Should I keep taking the GMAT until I get a good score?
• How is the ASVAB scored?
• I canceled my GMAT score right after I took the test. Now I'm wondering if I did the right thing.
• What is the ASVAB AFQT?
• Where can I take the ASVAB?
• Is it better to guess on GMAT answers or would that count against me?
• How is my GMAT score used by grad schools?
• Is it true that the writing assessment sections of the GMAT are graded by a computer?
• What kinds of scores are reported on the GRE, and how long will it take for me to get my scores?
• What do I need to bring with me to the GRE testing center?
• How are GRE scores used?
• How do I learn stuff for in-class exams?
• How do I get ready for a math test?
• Can I take a calculator to my ACT exam?
• Do you have any tips for doing well on the AP Chemistry test?
• What can I expect in the math part of the SAT?
• How can I prepare for the SAT essay?
• What is the Critical Reasoning section of the SAT like?
• Is there a fun way to learn SAT vocabulary?
• What books should I read for the AP English Literature exam?
• How can I make sure I finish the AP essay question in time?
• Since I made the soccer team, I don't feel like I have enough time to study. Do you have any study tips so I can use my time better and make sure I don't get kicked off the team for my grades?
• I'm a huge procrastinator. How can I manage my time effectively to catch up on my assignments?
• What kind or amount of note-taking is optimal? I get lost while making a notation and miss other parts of the lecture.
• I study so hard for my tests that I know I know the material, but then I always panic and bomb. How can I reduce my test anxiety?
• I do really bad on quizzes. I'm okay with tests and homework, but I do horribly on quizzes. What can I do to prepare for quizzes?
• I've screwed up horribly this semester. I always say I'm going to change my habits, but I always end up getting lazy and doing something else. I want to succeed, but how can I get rid of my own laziness?
• If you have any music or audio notes playing on tape, CD, or whatever and you fall asleep, is it true that you'll have whatever was played memorized by the time you wake up?
• I have trouble understanding a book when I read. I try to read so that I can finish the book quickly but still understand what's going on. Could you give me a few tips on how to understand a book while reading at a quick pace?
• What is the best study method when trying to cram three chapters all at once?
• What if I have a really bad memory? When I read a page of a book, I can't go back and remember it.
• Why do some teachers say light a peppermint candle? I mean, I don't think it helps you concentrate.
• I really suck at taking multiple choice tests. Do you have any suggestions for not psyching myself out before a big test?
• Is there a WRONG way to study?
• Are the math questions on the GMAT extremely difficult and complex?
• Does it matter whether I take the SAT or ACT in my junior year or my senior year of high school?
• What does AP mean?
• How can I explain to my friend what I mean when I call him tedious ?
• Does the word privations has something to do with the government?
• What's the difference between goulash and galoshes?
• What exactly is a parallel structure?
• I have a bet on this: Learnt is a real word, right?
• Is a boor somebody who boos or somebody who bores?
• Somebody in my drama club used the word ostentation the other day. What does that mean, anyway?
• Define paraphrasing.
• What's another word that means the same thing as malevolence ?
• I find the same typo in a lot of books I read. Shouldn't connexion be connection ?
• What do you call a word that only ever appears as a plural?
• What s the difference between like and such as
• Can you show an easy way to remember when to use I" or "me" in a sentence? (And please skip the technical grammar rules.)"
• Should I say, “Can I have a banana?” or “May I have a banana?”
• Is the proper capitalization Atlantic ocean or Atlantic Ocean ?
• What does the word supercilious mean?
• Is grippe something that makes you sick?
• Does the word elucidation have something to do with drugs?
• How would you use fervid and fervent in a sentence?
• How can someone become a good writer?
• How do you cite CliffsNotes in APA, MLA, and CMS styles?
• What period in history does histrionics cover?
• People used to die from consumption. Does that mean they ate too much?
• What is the longest word in the English language?
• I'm learning English now, so I gave myself an English name — Vivi." However, an American told me that "Vivi" is not suitable for a name. There are some local reasons. So I want to know if "Vivi" really can't be used as a name."
• When writing a paper, what do I do to the title of a book? Do I underline it or italicize it?
• Please look at this sentence: Both Peter and John like soccer. Should it be: Both Peter and John likes soccer.
• What are the four genders of noun?
• What is it called when a word is the same both forward and backward?
• Do swans really sing when they die
• What does indignation mean?
• What is a pundit ?
• What is a cleft sentence
• What is the difference between narration and first person?
• Is it grammatically correct to say take some shots"?"
• My teacher thinks I plagiarized an essay; what should I tell him?
• Why do some authors use the word an before all words that start with an H? Is this form of writing correct?
• My school newspaper claimed that I am. is the shortest complete sentence in the English language. Isn't Go. a complete sentence?
• How did people make up the lb. abbreviation for pounds?
• Which is correct: "if I was" or "if I were"? And why?
• How would you use the word antecede in a sentence?
• Could you please explain the difference between affect and effect ?
• How do I write a good thesis statement?
• What do people mean when they talk about information in the public domain?
• What's the big deal about plagiarism, anyway?
• Is there a difference between envy and jealousy ?
• Can you define the words prostate and prostrate ?
• What does it mean to be threadbare ?
• Is there a difference between the words ignorant and stupid ?
• I used the word reoccur in a paper and my teacher said it should have been recur . Can you tell me the difference?
• What does it mean to be flabbergasted ?
• When should I write the word lose and when should I write loose ?
• What does ad infinitum mean? (From Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre )
• Do loath and loathe have different meanings?
• I got marked down on a paper for using the word irregardless . Why?
• What does it mean to be fastidious ? (From Dumas's The Count of Monte Cristo )
• Do stationary and stationery mean the same thing?
• How is the word among different than the word between ?
• What is a hierarchy ?
• What is the difference between tortuous and torturous ?
• Can you help me understand the difference between the words censor and censure ?
• I get farther and further confused. Can you help?
• I can t keep principal and principle clear Can you help
• My teacher lowered my grade on a paper because I described a scene as grizzly . I thought that was a word.
• Are the words gamut and gauntlet interchangeable?
• When do I write some time instead of sometime and sometimes ?
• Can you help me figure out when to use the word lay instead of lie ?
• Can you tell me when to use faze instead of phase ?
• What is the difference between avenge and revenge ?
• What is the difference between the words precede and proceed ?
• How do I fix a run-on sentence?
• How useful are automatic spell-checkers?
• Is it okay to begin a sentence with and ?
• When is it okay to use sentence fragments?
• What is future perfect tense?
• Is it okay to split infinitives?
• Why do people often confuse than and then in writing?
• When do I use commas with clauses?
• How do I decide which type of pronoun to use when I have multiple pronouns?
• What types of words or phrases should I avoid in my writing?
• What is parallel structure in writing?
• When should I use apostrophe-S?
• What is a clause?
• I have to write an essay, and I'm having a hard time getting started. Do you have any tips?
• How can I make the most out of my first draft?
• What should I avoid when writing the conclusion of a research paper?
• Are can and may interchangeable?
• What is passive voice?
• What does it mean to be quixotic ?
• What are linking verbs?
• What does it mean to use redundant adverbs?
• How do I organize a comparison essay?
• How do I decide between who and whom ?
• How do you use possessives in front of gerunds?
• Can I end a sentence with a preposition?
• How do I decide on the scope of my essay?
• What are participles?
• What's the difference between will and shall ?
• Which adjectives can't be modified with more and most ?
• What are indirect objects?
• Should I use his , his or her , or their ?
• What's the difference between farther and further ?
• What is a storyboard?
• What exactly is a theme of a story, and how can I recognize it?
• Why is English class called English in school? English is a language, so I don't think it should be a class. Please help me understand.
• What is tone exactly and how do you find it in stories?
• Where do you start when writing a character analysis?
• What is a dynamic character? What is a static character? How are they different?
• What's the difference between description and narration?
• I don't get onomatopoeias! It's as hard to spell as it is to understand!
• What is a gothic tale?
• What is the author's style" of a book?"
• What is a one-word sentence called?
• What word class would the word Novembery fit in to?
• My instructor wrote on my paper to be careful about using passive voice. What does that mean?
• Is it grammatically correct to say, She went missing"? What is the rule?"
• I need information on the social roles of language. How are individuals judged based on their use of language?
• What is the origin of the word promotion ?
• What's a preposition?
• What are some examples of homographic terms?
• I have to write an essay for my AP world history class and my teacher said to use direct comparison, but I'm confused on what he means by that. Please Help!
• I'm reading The Scarlet Letter in my Honors AP English class and my teacher wants us to do a 5 paragraph essay. What's the best way to start the introduction?
• What are some examples of transitions that I can use in my writing assignment?
• What does APA stand for?
• In typing a term paper, what is the proper spacing after a period? I think I've read that one space is now acceptable.
• What is meant by argue your own thesis?
• How do I write an introductory paragraph and a concluding paragraph?
• What are easy ways to identify figurative language?
• When writing a persuasive essay, what words can take place of being verbs," such as is, are, has, be, were, and was? My teacher crossed all of those out of my paper? What words should I use to replace those?"
• I have to write a dialogue that might take place between the speakers of The World Is Not a Pleasant Place to Be" and "Where Have You Gone." What exactly is a dialogue?"
• What is the literary device of writing exactly as a character speaks, even if words are misspelled and the grammar is non-standard?
• What are the types of tones/attitudes in writing?
• What are the first-person, second-person, and third-person points of view? Which is used for formal essays?
• What is a good sentence for the word plinth ?
• What are footnotes and endnotes? How do I start off a title page?
• Why can't you be rude or sarcastic in your thesis statement?
• How do you write a paper, when the topic is yourself? How do you research that kind of thing?
• What would a raging river be like?

The idea that you shouldn't begin a sentence with a conjunction is one of those "rules" that really isn't — along with some others you've probably heard, like "never split an infinitive" and "don't end a sentence with a preposition." Your writing won't be automatically bad if you break these "rules," and the greatest writers of English have been breaking them for ages. For example,

• From Herman Melville's Moby-Dick: "Despairing of him, therefore, I determined to go to bed and to sleep; and no doubt, before a great while, he would follow me. But previous to turning in, I took my heavy bearskin jacket, and threw it over him, as it promised to be a very cold night . . ."
• From R.L. Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: "In this character, it was frequently his fortune to be the last reputable acquaintance and the last good influence in the lives of down-going men. And to such as these, so long as they came about his chambers, he never marked a shade of change in his demeanour."
• From Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter: "Not seldom she [Pearl] would laugh anew, and louder than before, like a thing incapable and unintelligent of human sorrow. Or — but this more rarely happened — she would be convulsed with rage of grief and sob out her love for her mother in broken words, and seem intent on proving that she had a heart by breaking it."

But before you go off with sentence-initial conjunctions, consider your audience. If you're writing a paper for your English class, your main audience is your teacher or professor. If he or she lives and dies by the prescriptions and proscriptions of a favorite writing guide, you'd better stick to the injunctions in that book if you want a good grade.

It's a fact in the publishing world, and especially in nonfiction, that hired authors are often expected to write according to a house style guide created by someone else. These style guides can dictate anything from whether to hyphenate underachiever to whether to treat data as singular or plural to, yes, whether or not you can begin a sentence with a conjunction. Regardless of your own style leanings, you're expected to follow the dictates of that style guide. And so it can be in school.

However, most teachers understand that great writing doesn't come from strict adherence to grammatical rules any more than great cooking comes from strictly following a recipe. In short, unless you know that your teacher truly believes that a sentence should never begin with a conjunction, it should be okay to do so.

Write with Jean

Learn writing secrets from a pro.

Crafting Better Sentences: Use “Although” Carefully

Although is a marvelous word that – alas – even professional writers sometimes use incorrectly. Train your writing radar to keep a mental lookout for although , and follow these simple rules:

1. Never put a comma after although .

Beware of writing something like this:

I decided to accept the job offer. Although, I had some doubts about the company’s stability.  INCORRECT

Here’s the correct version:

I decided to accept the job offer although I had some doubts about the company’s stability.  CORRECT

You could also write it this way:

I decided to accept the job offer. However, I had some doubts about the company’s stability.   CORRECT

2. Always attach an although idea to a complete sentence. Anything that starts with although is an extra idea. It can’t stand alone: You have to attach it to a complete sentence. (Think of a garage – nice to have, but you need a house to go with it.)

Although I had some doubts about the company’s stability. I decided to accept the job offer.  INCORRECT

A lthough I had some doubts about the company’s stability, I decided to accept the job offer.   CORRECT

3. Yes, you can start a sentence with although ! If you start a sentence with an although idea, end the idea with a comma, and follow it with a real sentence.

Suppose you wrote “Although the hurricane was headed our way.” This is an extra idea that can’t end with a period. What to do?

Your first choice is to end it with a comma and add a real sentence. (Think garage + house, as I mentioned earlier.) Here’s what you might have when you’re finished:

Although the hurricane was headed our way last night, early this morning it turned north and missed Florida completely.  CORRECT

Another choice would be to put your extra idea at the back of a real sentence. In that case you wouldn’t use a comma. Here’s the result:

Early this morning the hurricane turned north and missed Florida completely although it was headed our way last night.  CORRECT

4. Sometimes you can fix an although mistake just by substituting however . Nothing fancy is required: Just use a period and a capital letter.

Here’s a sentence that needs fixing (never put a comma after although , and never leave an although idea hanging out there by itself).

Gloria has been madly in love with Chuck ever since he showed up in her algebra class. Although, he’s not interested in her at all.   INCORRECT

Substitute however , and you’re done! Take a look:

Gloria has been madly in love with Chuck ever since he showed up in her algebra class. However, he’s not interested in her at all.   CORRECT

And that’s all there is to it! Those four simple rules will help you use although with confidence – an important skill for any serious writer.

Jean Reynolds, Ph.D., is a longtime English professor and Shaw scholar who has published eleven books. Her most recent book is What Your English Teacher Didn’t Tell You: Everything You Need to Know about Showcasing Yourself through Your Writing (Maple Leaf Press).

76 thoughts on “ Crafting Better Sentences: Use “Although” Carefully ”

Cultures around the world are different however, there are many similarities as well.

Is this sentence written correctly? Some of my peers say “yes”, some say “no”.

The sentence is incorrect. You can’t join two sentences with a comma unless you use a FANBOYS word (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Here are two ways to correct it: Cultures around the world are different. However, there are many similarities as well. Cultures around the world are different; however, there are many similarities as well.

Can i start an essay with although? Example: Although you said to explore other colleges, university of Michigan in Dearborn has a lot to offer.

You certainly can. The only words that don’t work well at the beginning of a sentence are “like” and “which” (unless you’re asking a question). “Like” is fine in a sentence like this: “Like many Floridians, I think about preparing for bad weather during every hurricane season.” The problem is that many people write fragments starting with “like”: “Like many women who attended college in the 1960s.” Another point: I would have said “the University of Michigan,” adding “the” and capitalizing “University,” since it’s part of the name of the institution.

Is this sentence correct? ‘Although the boys trained very hard, they could not win because the opposing team was very strong.’

Yes, your sentence is correct!

ballroomdancer My teacher taught me to just use “yet” no other FANBOYS words. When we were learning the use of “Although”

It looks like part of your message is missing. Can you tell me more about the point you’re making?

Is the below sentence correct? I never used ‘although’ with an adjective and now I saw it in a book. ‘Although inexperienced, individuals with the willingness to learn will make a difference in the foreseeable future.’

Technically speaking it’s correct – but it’s awkward. Incidentally, I notice you’re using inverted commas, ‘like this,’ instead of double quotation marks, “like this.” Are you British? The inverted commas are unusual.

Although he accepted to tutor grand children of Rama, but, took no favors for his personal ends.instead desired the welfare of his people.

This sentence needs some corrections. Here are the two most important ones: Don’t use “although” and “but” in the same sentence. And never put a comma after “but.” Here’s a suggested revision: Although he agreed to tutor Rama’s grandchildren, he took no favors. He desired the welfare of his people.

Although he agreed to tutor Rama’s grandchildren, he took no favors, as he desired the welfare of his people. is it correct?

Yes, it is! But “as he desired the welfare of his people” sounds formal to my American ears. It would sound more natural to say “because he desired the welfare of his people.” Better yet: because he was committed to helping his people.

according to Cambridge dictionary, i found comma is used before the word although. ” She walked home by herself, although she knew that it was dangerous.” could you explain about this case?

You have sharp eyes! The comma is correct. If you read the sentence aloud, you’ll hear your voice change when you start reading “although she knew that it was dangerous.” Your voice will drop a little and then go up at the end. I call this Comma Rule 3. (Grammarians call it an “interrupter.”) You lower your voice when a sentence has extra information. To learn more, go to this link: https://wp.me/PU98s-1v . You can also search for “Comma Rule 3” in the search box on the home page.

Although the lesser cornstalk borer is widely distributed, control of them is necessary only in the South. Is it correct?

Technically there’s an agreement error. “The lesser cornstalk borer” is one critter, so “control of it” would be better than “control of them.” I came up with this revision: “Although the lesser cornstalk borer is very common, control is necessary only in the South.”

Hey there! “Although she was in Florida yet she didn’t meet him.” Does this sentence need any error correction?

You need two changes. Delete “yet.” And you need a comma (Comma Rule 1). “Although she was in Florida” is an extra idea. Your real sentence is “she didn’t meet him.” Here’s the corrected sentence: “Although she was in Florida, she didn’t meet him.”

It’s an excellent and very helpful website:)

Thank you so much! I’m so glad the website is helpful.

Re your rule 1 (Never put a comma after although.): I offer, “I decided to accept the job offer although, despite the owner’s assurances, I had some doubts about the company’s stability.

PS—I really enjoy your website. Thank you.

You’re right, and I thought about interrupters when I constructed this post! When I created this blog, I decided – based on years of teaching – not to discuss exceptions when I introduced a rule. Some readers feel intimidated and confused when they think they have to deal with exceptions. Anyone who knows how to construct an elegant sentnce like yours probably wouldn’t even read the post about “although.” Thanks so much for the feedback – I’m glad you’re enjoying my blog!

Yesterday, a coworker told me that I should not start sentences with “although” in formal writing (such as a published letter at work or a paper for grad school). This coworker is not a grammarian, but he claims that two English professors at our university had told him on separate occasions to change sentences so that they do not begin with “although.” I regularly use “although” to start a dependent clause, and I always follow it with an independent clause. For example, I would write, “Although Rosicky could claim paternal dominance, he humbly cleans Polly’s kitchen.”

After reading your post and the comments, I believe that I can use “although” to start sentences in formal writing. Am I correct?

You’re absolutely right – and your professors are wrong. There is not (and never has been) any rule against it – or any rule about starting sentences with and, but, because, and so on. I used to tell my college students that I’d give them $100 in cash if they could find those rules in any reputable grammar book, old or new. Despite frantic searches, nobody ever collected the money! Good for you thinking critically about this question.

Thanks for your response! My professors have never reduced my grade for starting a sentence with “although.” I assume my coworker must have been using “although” instead of “however,” as you explained in your post. I appreciate your help!

Glad I was helpful! 🙂

Although teens hold positive views of different faith groups and religious diversity in Australia yet opinion shifts when it comes to how religion impacts their lives and the lives of others.

mam, i was doing some questions , then I came across this .It was given as a correct option, and one thing to be noticed they have deliberately removed comma from this and have also given explanation :you can use comma or yet I didn’t get the explanation so , could you plz tell me what kind of structure is this

I would REQUIRE the comma after Australia. I would omit “yet.” I don’t think it’s a good idea to use although and yet in the same sentence this way.

Although I don’t have any questions, I do want to let tell you how helpful this is. Thank you very much.

I’m grinning! Great comment, Elizabeth – thanks so much!

You’re welcome! I just spotted the mistake I DID make. Why didn’t I check myself before submitting?! It’s quite embarrassing, considering the situation. Keep up your good work. Thanks again. Elizabeth

This is hilarious, Elizabeth – I didn’t notice any mistake until I read your second comment. The human brain is a funny organ! I’m often aghast when I go back and reread my WritewithJean posts. No matter how carefully I proofread them – over and over! – many times I find a mistake after I hit “submit.” Well, it keeps us humble!

Hello if I constructed a sentence that requires a comma in grammar rule 3 but I decide to ommit it will my sentence be wrong? I am asking this as I find it complicated to primary school children who learn English as a second language. Anxiously waiting for your technical reply

Can you give me a sample sentence? The sentence you described will probably have a comma error.

She walked home by herself, although she knew that it was dangerous.

However I thank you so much for a quick response.

My question is, if I missed the comma, would my construction be purely grammatically wrong?

Are you talking about grammar or usage?

Commas often have nothing to do with grammar. They’re a usage issue. So I’d say that you’d probably have a usage error. But that’s not necessarily true. Some commas are optional.

In the sentence you gave me, a usage stickler would say that the comma after “herself” is wrong. But I would use it because there’s a voice change after “herself.”

A usage stickler would say that the comma after “herself” is wrong. But I would go ahead and use it because there’s a voice change after “herself.”

Hello, is this sentence correct. Though it doesn’t follow the rule that Although should be followed by a clause, it feels totally correct. if so, could you explain to me why? Is there elision here?

Thanks in advance! Antonella

I’ve seen your comment : Is the below sentence correct? I never used ‘although’ with an adjective and now I saw it in a book. ‘Although inexperienced, individuals with the willingness to learn will make a difference in the foreseeable future.’

Avatar ballroomdancerPost author February 19, 2017 at 6:54 am Technically speaking it’s correct – but it’s awkward. Incidentally, I notice you’re using inverted commas, ‘like this,’ instead of double quotation marks, “like this.” Are you British? The inverted commas are unusual.

Yes, the sentence is correct! Don’t be intimidated by all the grammar gobbledygook – you don’t need it. You can download a short, jargon-free handout that explains commas at this link: bit.ly/EasyCommas Thanks for writing! Jean

Hi, your posts are of great assistance to us. Thanks! I’d like to know what is the correct verb conjugation in this sentence: V1: Although Ankara be the capital of Turkey, Istanbul is more crowded than Ankara. V2: Although Ankara Is the capital of Turkey, Istanbul is more crowded than Ankara.

There’s no verb conjugation here. I think you’re asking which verb is correct: be or is. The correct verb is is . Version 2 is the right one. I’m glad you’re finding my posts helpful! Thanks for the feedback.

Hello ballroomdancer,

I’m getting confused with conflicting rules on various sites. I was wondering if you’d be able to help me, especially as your explanations are incredibly clear.

When using subordinating conjunctions, I believe the rule is not to use a comma if the subordinate (dependent) clause is at the end. For example, ‘I broke my leg when I was seven.’ However, if you place the subordinate clause at the start (extra idea), then you use a comma. For instance, ‘When I was seven, I broke my leg.’ I believe this is what you’ve called ‘comma rule one.’ I’m hoping that I’m correct so far?

I’ve read about how conjunctions that show a contrast (such as although, even though, whereas) ALWAYS have a comma when they are used to introduce the extra idea at the end. Therefore, the following sentence, based on this rule, would have a missing comma: I am not enjoying working from home although I am enjoying the lie-ins. Apparently, the correct come usage would be the following: I am not enjoying working from home, although I am enjoying the lie-ins.

I think you’ve referred to this as a voice changer. However, this article seems to imply that you don’t always have to use them before words such as although.

I hope that I ahve made sense. I am sorry for the essay! I’m just not sure if I am right to believe that whenever a subordinate clause is at the end a comma is not needed before it.

Please help! Thank you in advance!

Hello, Charles! What an interesting question. You’re a terrific writer! The answer is that the comma is optional. This is a question that bothered me a lot when I first started teaching. You can do the sentence both ways. I am not enjoying working from home, although I am enjoying the lie-ins. CORRECT I am not enjoying working from home although I am enjoying the lie-ins. CORRECT Your example is usually a Comma Rule 1 sentence (as you said). But Comma Rule 3 could also apply: use a comma when you change your voice. The only comment I can add is that the comma is optional. I don’t agree with anyone who says you have to use it. I hope this helps! Jean

It truly does help! Thank you SO much! Also, I apologise for the two typos in the previous post. Thank you- not only for your helpful articles but also for your speedy and helpful response. I look forward to future posts. I have subscribed. 🙂 Take care and have a lovely evening, Charles

I never noticed the typos! I’m so pleased I was helpful, Charles. Thanks for the feedback. I’ve been working hard on a book, and posts have slowed down. I’ll be posting fresh material soon. It’s always lovely to hear from a visitor to my blog! Jean

Hello. I haven’t found any valid resources on the net that could explain whether it was possible to use “although” with future (will, shall..) or not For example: Although I won’t come to the lesson, i will do the homework. Will be looking forward to your response, thank you!

Hi, Timur! You can use any words you want with although . The tense doesn’t matter. “Although the restaurants will be closed, we’ll find a place to eat.” That’s a fine sentence. I’m wondering if you’re learning English as a foreign language. Your English is excellent. Trust what you know! Stop worrying about grammar rules.

Hello! I have just read your answer. I thought that it would take much longer to get a response, thus i forgot about this website. Anyway I’m very much glad and thankful to you. As about English, I learnt it as foreign language. Moreover, I have been teaching English in Uzbekistan for 3 years already. Good luck in your future achievements, cheers!

It’s good to hear from you again, Timur! Thanks for the good wishes. I’m sure you’re a great English teacher!

kenza woerks hard at the office although she finds time to help her son with his homework

1. Although it was a short duration cooking course yet I have learnt a number of dishes in the classes. 2 Although it was a short duration cooking course, I have learnt a number of dishes in the classes. 3 I have learnt a number of dishes in the classes, although, it was a short duration cooking course.

Could you please tell me which is correct or I can say what are the errors in all the three sentences? I am learning English so excuse me for my sentence making ability. I would also like to know about correct use of THEREFORE. Have you written about it on this website. By the way, Love your content. thank you ( hugs emojis)

Only #2 is correct. Some tips: Don’t use “yet” in an although sentence. (#1) Don’t put a comma after although . (#3) If the although idea is at the back, don’t use a comma. (#3) Here’s the correct sentence: I have learnt a number of dishes in the classes although it was a short course.

Another tip: just use “short.” You don’t need duration . Thank you for the feedback! I’m so pleased that you’re enjoying my website.

Would it be grammatically correct or incorrect to put a comma after the word ‘and’ when using although?

And, although it’s cloudy today, I know that the blue skies are coming soon.

Yes, it’s correct! “Although it’s cloudy today” is an interrupter. The first comma takes your voice down; the second comma brings it back up. You can hear those commas if you read your sentence aloud.

Learn more about interrupters at this link (Comma Rule 3).

Yes, your punctuation is correct.

Could we use the although in the middle of the sentences

Yes, you can. It will be a Comma Rule 3 sentence: use commas to lower and raise your voice. The rain, although it was very welcome, spoiled our plans for a picnic on the beach.

My teacher assigned us to write a paragraph where we need to put an ISC, intro subordinate clause, and in my paragraph, I have chosen the word “although”. My teacher says that in order for it to be grammatically correct, I’d need a subject and a verb in that clause. Would the sentence “Although the cost of living in Finland is high, Finland provides a high income to compensate.” be correct? If not, how can I add a subject and a verb to it, or any other thing to improve.

Your sentence is correct. Well done! Your subject is “the cost of living,” and your verb is “is.”

Thank you for such a great post. I have a question regarding the placement of noun and pronoun in an “although ” sentence :

1) Although Jane was late , she still sent to school 2) Although she was late, Jane still went to school

Should the noun be with the independent clause ? Or both or acceptable?

Appreciate your clarifications.

My answer would depend on what came before the sentence. If readers already know her name is “Jane,” I might not repeat it. But if I’ve used “she” several times, I might want to switch back to “Jane.” For example: Jane’s alarm didn’t go off this morning. Although she was late, she still went to school. But here’s a different version: Jane’s alarm didn’t go off this morning. It was 7:45 when she finally woke up, and she knew she’d miss part of her first class. Although she was late, Jane still went to school.

Is it possible to start a sentence with ‘Although’ in between an introductory paragraph of an academic essay? Kindly confirm whether the below example is correct or not? Globalization has become an integral part of the rising debate in the contemporary world. Although such topics will never yield a consensual agreement, a dialogue on globalization can lead to thought-provoking discussions.

You can start ANY sentence, ANY time, with ANY word you want. Any word in the English language can be used to start a sentence. You will never find a rule against starting a sentence with “although” (or “but,” or “and,” or “because,” or any other word) in a reputable grammar book. Your question puzzles me. The article you read (“Crafting Better Sentences: Use ‘Although’ Carefully”) specifically says you can start sentences with “although.” Here’s what I said in the article: 2. Always attach an although idea to a complete sentence. Anything that starts with although is an extra idea. It can’t stand alone: You have to attach it to a complete sentence. (Think of a garage – nice to have, but you need a house to go with it.)

Although I had some doubts about the company’s stability, I decided to accept the job offer.  CORRECT

3. Yes, you can start a sentence with although! If you start a sentence with an although idea, end the idea with a comma, and follow it with a real sentence.

It sounds like someone gave you some bad information! Don’t believe everything you hear. You can check a good grammar book to see what the REAL rules are.

Thanks a lot for your well-explained clarification and quick response.

You’re welcome!

Although the virtual meeting and texting communication are getting more dominating, I believe face to face communication will still be considered as important and necessary as in the past.

Is this sentence correct? Do I have to keep the two topics in the subordinate clause and the main clause SAME to make it more logical to be understood? Thank you so much for your time and knowledge. I appreciate it.

Hi, Danni! Your grammar is excellent. You used “although” correctly, and your clauses are logical. Some changes are necessary to make the sentence more readable and natural. I would get rid of “the” in front of “virtual meeting,” for example. Here’s my version: Despite the popularity of virtual meetings and texting, we need to keep providing opportunities for face-to-face communication.

I’m newly subscribed because your site is wonderful. How generous of you to guide so many through grammatical and syntactic rough waters!

I am proofing a proofreader. 😉 I would love for you to confirm that this “Although” sentence is incorrect, if indeed it is:

I think this was intended to inspire us to find better ways of delivering new products to the market. Although the only advice they could offer at the time was to keep the end-user at the center of the design process.

Thank you very much!

The although sentence indeed is incorrect. Any idea that starts with although is an extra idea. It needs to be attached to a sentence.

Here’s a correct version of the sentence:

I think this was intended to inspire us to find better ways of delivering new products to the market, although the only advice they could offer at the time was to keep the end-user at the center of the design process.

The comma after market is optional. The sentence is so long that I think it needs a break. I would not write a sentence this long. I would break it into two sentences:

I think this was intended to inspire us to find better ways of delivering new products to the market. But the only advice they could offer at the time was to keep the end-user at the center of the design process.

Ideas have more impact if they have their own sentence. I always try to avoid overpacking a sentence.

Pingback: Is It Bad To Start An Essay With Throughout History? – Fallsgardencafe

Great post! If we are to join two sentences using although, how do I know which of them is the extra idea that should come directly after ‘although’?

See if you can tell the difference between these two examples, Essam: Although I like ice cream. I like ice cream. The one starting with “although” is the extra idea. Read it aloud, and you can tell it’s not a sentence. It makes you expect something else. That’s how you know it’s not a real sentence. Now try this: “I want to buy a new car although I can’t afford one right now.” “although I can’t afford one right now” is the extra idea. (It starts with although.) If you said, “I can’t afford one right now,” it would be a real sentence. I hope this helps!

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The Editor’s Manual

Free learning resource on English grammar, punctuation, usage, and style.

• Conjunctions

Can “And” or “But” Start a Sentence?

It’s grammatically fine to start a sentence with and , but , or any other coordinating conjunction. Do this when you want to emphasize the connection between two sentences.

• Diagnostic tests are now chargeable. Local hospitals have lost their funding. Community programs are ending. And the mobile app used to track appointments no longer works.
• The government is under pressure to provide fuel subsidies and tax breaks to businesses. But public health is as important as the price of fuel.
• You can pay by credit/debit card, e-wallet, prepaid card, or wire transfer. Or you can simply send us cash in an envelope.

In creative writing, the pause indicated by a period before and or but can lead up to a twist or a punch line and make a sentence more forceful and urgent.

• Louis writes; Susan writes; Neville writes; Jinny writes; even Bernard has now begun to write. But I cannot write. I see only figures. The others are handing in their answers, one by one. Now it is my turn. But I have no answer. — Virginia Woolf, The Waves (1931)
• The past is whatever the records and the memories agree upon. And since the Party is in full control of all records, . . . the past is whatever the Party chooses to make it. — George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)

Don’t overuse conjunctions: not every sentence needs to start with and or but . And always make sure to use the right conjunction for the job.

And or but at start of sentence

It’s grammatically fine to start a sentence with and , but , or any other coordinating conjunction like or , yet , and so . Such words emphasize the connection between one sentence and another.

• Lulu wakes up at five in the morning. She goes to school. She has a part-time job. And she volunteers at her local animal shelter.
• This used to be a busy street full of shops and restaurants buzzing from morning to night. But the businesses are all now shuttered and silent.
• Scientists have now established that cats are intelligent beings. They understand words. They can read facial expressions. And they can teleport to parallel dimensions. But they still cannot resist the urge to poke their heads into a vase.

Coordinating conjunctions like and and but connect words, phrases , clauses , or sentences of equal status.

• earth and sky
• yellow lemons or green oranges
• Maya wants to go for a walk, but the city is under lockdown.

When a coordinating conjunction connects two sentences , it appears at the start of a sentence.

• What Maya needed was to go for a walk in the park. But the city was under lockdown, and all she could do was look out the window.

A conjunction like and or but can also effectively link the first sentence of a paragraph to the last one of a previous paragraph.

Starting a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is a useful way to highlight the link between sentences. In this article, we discuss when it is appropriate to start a sentence with a conjunction like and or but , and what to keep in mind to use these conjunctions correctly.

Use words like and , but , and so at the start of a sentence only if you want to emphasize them.

• I could cook a healthy meal, eat it, wash the dishes, and then work out. Or I could just stay in bed.
• It was an expensive restaurant, the kind where you dine rather than eat. We dutifully dined on six courses, accepting all the server’s suggestions. And then we realized we had no money.
• Farley drove at 70 mph all the way to the station, ignoring furious drivers, angry pedestrians, and startled pigeons. But he still missed his train.
• One morning Maya woke up to the realization that there were other ways to live. So she did the sensible thing and packed her bags for Fiji.

The period before the conjunction denotes a pause, which makes the next sentence more forceful. In creative writing, this can help create drama within a narrative. Compare this with sentences where the conjunction appears in the middle rather than at the start. Using a comma instead of a period warns the reader that there’s more to come, gently introducing the next thought, taking away the element of surprise.

• I could cook a healthy meal, eat it, wash the dishes, and then work out, or I could just stay in bed.
• We dutifully dined on six courses, accepting all the server’s suggestions, and then realized we had no money.
• Farley drove at 70 mph all the way to the station, ignoring furious drivers, angry pedestrians, and startled pigeons, but he still missed his train.
• One morning Maya woke up to the realization that there were other ways to live, so she did the sensible thing and packed her bags for Fiji.

Not all sentences need to start with a conjunction. A coordinating conjunction (like and , but , so , and nor ) is usually perfectly fine appearing within a sentence.

• Poor: It wasn’t raining. But Poco carried an umbrella along to the park. The information that someone carried an umbrella to a park is not impactful enough to deserve a sentence-initial but . Better: It wasn’t raining, but Poco carried an umbrella along to the park.

But if what you’re saying does deserve a sentence-final pause before it is said, use a period and then the conjunction.

• When you’re sad, you are asked to remind yourself of all the millions of people less fortunate than you. But why would that make you feel better?

Such usage can lend a dramatic tone to text. This is why and and but are not often used to start sentences in academic and other formal writing.

In academic and business writing, which requires a more objective and less dramatic tone, writers are advised to avoid starting sentences with coordinating conjunctions like and and so . In a thesis or a statement of purpose, for example, most editors will replace a coordinating conjunction at the start of a sentence with transition words like however , furthermore , therefore , and nevertheless , also called conjunctive adverbs. (A conjunctive adverb connects two clauses or sentences, much like a conjunction.)

• Less formal: Our study did not yield conclusive results. But we believe our paper should be published since it includes data collected from a wide range of sources. More formal: Our study did not yield conclusive results. Nevertheless , we believe our paper should be published since it includes data collected from a wide range of sources.

Choice of conjunction

It’s fine to start a sentence with a conjunction like and or but , but make sure you use the right one for the job. Every conjunction expresses a specific logical relation. Check that the conjunction you use at the start of a sentence links back meaningfully to the previous sentence.

• Incorrect: We did everything we could to save the tree. And it was too late: the roots were already dead. Correct: We did everything we could to save the tree. But it was too late: the roots were already dead.
• Incorrect: Anita gave up on the algorithm altogether. She tried not to even think about it. But then one morning, the answer just came to her. Correct: Anita gave up on the algorithm altogether. She tried not to even think about it. And then one morning, the answer just came to her.
• Incorrect: We all know that people lie. So when we read something in a news article or a blog, we think that since it has been written down, it must be true. Correct: We all know that people lie. Yet when we read something in a news article or a blog, we think that since it has been written down, it must be true.

As you can see, words like and , but , and so are susceptible to misuse. When you start a sentence with a conjunction, check that your choice of word is correct.

Don’t use but if no contrast is implied.

• Incorrect: Farley set up the experiment and went to bed. But by morning, all the cells were dead. Some information is missing here. Don’t use but unless the contrast is clear. Correct: Farley set up the experiment exactly as he was supposed to. But by morning, all the cells were dead.

Overuse and misuse

Don’t use a conjunction like and or but between two sentences unless you need to emphasize the link between them. Sentences logically presented one after another are automatically connected in the reader’s mind. Starting a sentence with a conjunction makes this connection more urgent and forceful.

• Incorrect: Maya has always wanted to travel. And she has dreamed of nothing else since she was young. But something kept getting in the way. So sometimes it was a job; other times, family. And she just never found the time to do the things she wanted. So she thought her life had slipped away from her. But then one morning, she woke up and realized it’s never too late. So she has booked herself a one-way ticket for a holiday in Fiji. And she has no specific plans, no itinerary, and no idea where she’ll go from there. But she can’t wait to find out.
• Correct: Maya has always wanted to travel. She has dreamed of nothing else since she was young, but something kept getting in the way. Sometimes it was a job; other times, family. She just never found the time to do the things she wanted. She thought her life had slipped away from her. Then one morning, she woke up and realized it’s never too late. She has booked herself a one-way ticket for a holiday in Fiji. She has no specific plans, no itinerary, and no idea where she’ll go from there. But she can’t wait to find out.

Teachers discourage students from using coordinating conjunctions at the start of a sentence because such words are easily overused or misused. But you don’t have to avoid starting sentences with and or but ; just make sure to use a conjunction only when it’s needed.

• I would watch this movie a hundred times over. And then I’d watch it once more.
• The campaign’s PR machinery swung into gear: discrediting journalists, uploading propaganda, writing articles, trolling posts on social media. But the cat was out of the bag, and no amount of pretending there was no cat would put it back in.

Don’t place a comma after a conjunction (unless before a parenthetical element).

• Incorrect: I wanted to tell him how much he meant to me. But , the time for words had passed. Correct: I wanted to tell him how much he meant to me. But the time for words had passed.

Examples from literature

Writers start sentences with conjunctions like and and but when they want to clearly show the link with the previous sentence or add an element of drama, surprise, or urgency to their prose.

• All through it, I have known myself to be quite undeserving. And yet I have had the weakness, and have still the weakness, to wish you to know with what a sudden mastery you kindled me, heap of ashes that I am, into fire. — Charles Dickens , A Tale of Two Cities (1859)
• The flower bloomed and faded. The sun rose and sank. The lover loved and went. And what the poets said in rhyme, the young translated into practice. — Virginia Woolf , Orlando (1928)
• He had a word, too. Love, he called it. But I had been used to words for a long time. — William Faulkner , As I Lay Dying (1930)
• Literature and history, these two great branches of human learning, records of human behaviour, human thought, are less and less valued by the young, and by educators, too. Yet from them one may learn how to be a citizen and a human being. — Doris Lessing , Prisons We Choose to Live Inside (1986)
• Don’t misunderstand me. I am not scoffing at goodness, which is far more difficult to explain than evil, and far more complicated. But sometimes it’s hard to put up with. — Margaret Atwood , The Blind Assassin (2000)
• Some kinds of order were too vast for a human to know. But below the chaos of a single human life, you could trust that a cosmic breve was sounding. — Kate Grenville , The Lieutenant (2008)

In academic and other formal usage as well, starting sentences with and and but is an acceptable way to link ideas. Here are a couple of examples from an editorial in Nature .

• REACT-1, a long-running random-testing study, will lose its government funding at the end of this month. And ZOE, a mobile app that residents can use to log their COVID-19 symptoms, has lost its public funding, too.
• Of course, national budgets are being stretched thin. . . . But scaling back virus surveillance at this time is short-sighted. — “This is no time to stop tracking COVID-19,” Nature (March 23, 2022)

Other conjunctions at start of sentence

Other conjunctions like because and since can also be used to start a sentence. While and , but , and or are coordinating conjunctions, because , since , although , whereas , etc. are subordinating conjunctions , which make one clause dependent on another for meaning. A sentence might start with because , for example, so that the main clause can gain end focus in the sentence.

• Because you asked me to, I added more sugar.
• Although cucumbers are used as vegetables, they are botanically fruit.
• Since you are already here, why don’t you talk to her yourself?

Share this article

It’s perfectly fine to start a sentence with and , but , or any other conjunction.

And fits better than but at the start of the second sentence, since no contrast is implied.

A comma isn’t needed after a coordinating conjunction like but .

It’s fine to start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, but be careful not to overuse words like and and but .

In academic writing, aim for an objective rather than a forceful or dramatic tone.

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• Writing Tips

Grammar Tips: Can I Start a Sentence with the Word “But”?

3-minute read

• 28th February 2022

Coordinating conjunctions , such as “but,” are generally used to join two parts of a sentence together. But is it ever acceptable to start a sentence with the word “but”? Read on to find out more!

What the Traditionalists Say

You may have had it drummed into you for years that you cannot begin a sentence with “but.” This rule is a particular favorite of schoolteachers and is thought to prevent the overuse of the word, which is common in children’s speech. For instance:

✘ We went to the library to pick up our textbook. But it wasn’t available, so we looked online. But we couldn’t find it online either…

However, look at this example from Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick :

“Despairing of him, therefore, I determined to go to bed and to sleep; and no doubt, before a great while, he would follow me. But previous to turning in, I took my heavy bear-skin jacket…”

No one could accuse Melville of writing sloppy English. So why does he use sentences that begin with a coordinating conjunction?

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Melville’s Moby-Dick is considered to be one of America’s greatest novels.

(Photo: flickr.com )

When Is It Okay to Start a Sentence with “But”?

The truth is, there is no hard and fast rule against starting a sentence with “but”—as long as the sentence is formed correctly. Since this word is intended to connect two thoughts together, it’s important that your sentence contains a main clause . That means it should include a subject and a verb and can stand on its own. 

You should also consider the audience for your writing. Although it may be perfectly acceptable to start a sentence with “but” in informal writing, such as in social media content and blog posts, it’s best avoided if you want to achieve a formal tone. For data-driven documents, such as case studies and text books, try using alternative expressions like “however” or “nevertheless.” One caveat: when writing literature or poetry, “but” can be used at the beginning of a sentence to achieve dramatic effect (see the Moby-Dick example).

Be Aware of Style Guides!

When weighing up whether to use “but” at the beginning of a sentence, check to see if you need to adhere to a particular style guide . Style guides are used in the publishing world to set standards for grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Your style guide may specify that sentences shouldn’t begin with a coordinating conjunction. But if not (see what I did there?), the use of “but” at the beginning of a sentence is never truly off limits.

Expert Proofreading

Finally, if you are in any doubt at all about your use of English, why not get your writing proofread? Submit a free trial document today!

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What to Know About the Trial Donald Trump Faces in Manhattan

Prosecutors accused Mr. Trump of falsifying business records to cover up a sex scandal. It is the first criminal trial of a former president.

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By Ben Protess ,  Kate Christobek and Jonah E. Bromwich

Donald J. Trump is now on trial in Manhattan — the first former U.S. president to be criminally prosecuted.

Opening arguments in the trial are set for Monday, following a week of jury selection that whittled hundreds of prospective jurors to a panel of seven men and five women. The trial, which is expected to last about six weeks, will oscillate between salacious testimony on sex scandals and granular detail about corporate documents.

Mr. Trump faces 34 felony counts of falsifying business records in the first degree, all tied to the former president’s role in a hush-money payment to a porn star, Stormy Daniels.

But that payoff is not the only such deal that prosecutors plan to highlight. The prosecutors, from the Manhattan district attorney’s office, have accused Mr. Trump of orchestrating a broader scheme to influence the 2016 presidential election by directing his allies to purchase damaging stories about him to keep them under wraps.

It is the first of Mr. Trump’s four criminal cases to go to trial — and it could be the only one to do so before Election Day.

Mr. Trump, who is again the presumptive Republican nominee for president, has denied all wrongdoing. He also assailed the district attorney, Alvin L. Bragg, for bringing the charges, accusing him of carrying out a politically motivated witch hunt. And he has attacked the judge, Juan M. Merchan.

Here are answers to some key questions about the trial.

Will the trial be televised?

No. There will be no audio or video broadcast of the trial available, though cameras will be stationed in the hallway outside the courtroom to capture Mr. Trump’s remarks going in and out of the trial.

Court will generally be in session every weekday except Wednesdays, from 9:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m.

What is Mr. Trump accused of?

The charges trace back to a $130,000 hush-money payment that Mr. Trump’s fixer, Michael D. Cohen, made to Ms. Daniels in the final days of the 2016 campaign. The payment, which Mr. Cohen said he had made at Mr. Trump’s direction, suppressed her story of a sexual liaison that she said she had with Mr. Trump.

Paying hush money is not always illegal.

The Donald Trump Indictment, Annotated

The indictment unveiled on Tuesday centers on a hush-money deal with a porn star, but a related document alleges a broader scheme to protect Donald J. Trump’s 2016 campaign.

But while serving as the commander in chief, Mr. Trump reimbursed Mr. Cohen, and the way he did so constituted fraud, prosecutors say.

In internal records, Mr. Trump’s company classified the repayment to Mr. Cohen as legal expenses, citing a retainer agreement. Yet there were no such expenses, the prosecutors say, and the retainer agreement was fictional too.

Those records underpin the 34 counts of falsifying business records: 11 counts involve the checks, 11 center on monthly invoices Mr. Cohen submitted to the company, and 12 involve entries in the general ledger for Mr. Trump’s trust.

Why did prosecutors cite other hush-money payments?

Mr. Bragg’s office linked Mr. Trump to three hush-money deals. While Mr. Trump is indicted only in connection with the business records related to Ms. Daniels, the prosecutors most likely mentioned the other deals to begin the work of proving that Mr. Trump intended to conceal a second crime.

In addition to the indictment, the prosecutors filed a so-called statement of facts that referenced the other payoffs.

That document, common in complex white-collar cases, provides something of a road map for what the prosecutors could reveal at trial. And based on evidence presented to the grand jury, the document details the two hush-money deals involving The National Enquirer, which has longstanding ties to Mr. Trump.

The first involved the tabloid’s payment of $30,000 to a former Trump Tower doorman who claimed to know that Mr. Trump had fathered a child out of wedlock. The publication later determined that the claim was untrue.

The National Enquirer also made a payment to Karen McDougal, Playboy’s Playmate of the Year in 1998, who wanted to sell her story of an affair with Mr. Trump during the 2016 campaign. She reached a $150,000 agreement with the tabloid, which bought the rights to her story to suppress it — a practice known as “catch and kill.”

The deals suggest that the payment to Ms. Daniels was not an isolated incident but rather part of a broader strategy to influence the 2016 election.

Why is it a felony to falsify records?

Falsifying business records in New York State can be a misdemeanor. But it can be elevated to a felony if prosecutors prove that the records were falsified to conceal another crime.

In this case, there are three potential additional crimes that Mr. Bragg has accused Mr. Trump of concealing: a federal campaign finance violation, a state election-law crime and tax fraud.

The campaign crimes, prosecutors say, involve the hush-money payoffs to Ms. Daniels and Ms. McDougal. The payments, they argue, were illegal donations to Mr. Trump’s campaign.

The potential tax fraud stems from the way in which Mr. Cohen was reimbursed for his payment to Ms. Daniels.

Do prosecutors need to convict Mr. Trump of the other crimes?

No. Prosecutors do not have to charge Mr. Trump with any secondary crime or prove that he committed it.

They still must show, however, that there was intent to “commit or conceal” a second crime.

What do we know about the jury?

Because of concerns about the privacy and safety of the jury, the judge restricted the release of identifying information. The panel includes seven men and five women from neighborhoods around the city. Some are middle-aged, and some are young.

Six alternates were also selected and will listen to the testimony in case one of the seated jurors drops out.

The jury was drawn from a pool of residents of Manhattan, where Mr. Trump is deeply unpopular, and during jury selection, dozens of prospective jurors were excused because they said they could not be impartial in deciding a case involving the polarizing former president. Several others were dismissed because of critical social media posts about Mr. Trump.

But the 18 New Yorkers who were selected each pledged to be impartial and decide the case based on the facts. And two of them, during the jury selection process, expressed some affection for the former president.

Who will the witnesses be?

Mr. Cohen is expected to be a crucial witness for the prosecution. His testimony could take days.

Mr. Bragg’s prosecutors are also expected to call David Pecker, the former publisher of the National Enquirer, as well as Hope Hicks, a former campaign and White House aide to Mr. Trump, to shed light on the tumultuous period surrounding the hush-money payments.

Ms. Daniels and Ms. McDougal could be witnesses as well.

Who Are Key Players in the Trump Manhattan Criminal Trial?

The first criminal trial of former President Donald J. Trump is underway. Take a closer look at central figures related to the case.

What will the defense do?

The defense will most likely try to paint Mr. Cohen as a Trump-hating liar, noting that he and the former president had a falling-out years ago. Mr. Trump’s lawyers are expected to emphasize that Mr. Cohen pleaded guilty to a variety of federal crimes in 2018 — including for his role in the hush-money payment.

Much of Mr. Cohen’s testimony is expected to be corroborated by other witnesses, but he might be the only one who can directly tie Mr. Trump to the false business records, a potential weakness of the case that Mr. Trump’s lawyers could seek to exploit.

Whether Mr. Trump’s lawyers will call any witnesses is unclear, but Mr. Trump has said he plans to take the stand in his own defense.

Will Trump attend the trial?

Nothing is ever certain with Mr. Trump, but he is currently expected to attend much of the trial, and he attended each day during jury selection. To be absent, he would need to seek a waiver from the judge. Mr. Trump has already indicated a potential conflict — his youngest son’s high school graduation in May — though it is unclear whether the judge will pause the trial that day or excuse him from attending.

When Mr. Trump is there, it will create a host of security and logistical issues around the Lower Manhattan courthouse. In addition to the U.S. Secret Service protecting Mr. Trump, there will be a heavy police presence outside the building, as protesters and counterprotesters could fill the streets.

Who is the judge?

Justice Merchan is a veteran judge known as a no-nonsense, drama-averse jurist. This case is already testing his patience.

Since the Manhattan district attorney charged Mr. Trump last year, the former president has used campaign emails, social media and repetitive legal filings to attack the judge’s integrity and family. Recently, the former president demanded for a second time that Justice Merchan step aside , citing his daughter’s position at a Democratic consulting firm that worked for the 2020 Biden campaign.

The judge, who denied that request on Monday, has also issued a gag order to protect prosecutors, witnesses and his own family from Mr. Trump’s vitriol. And yet the former president has continued to post articles with pictures of the justice’s daughter.

During the trial, Justice Merchan will be in charge of keeping order in the courtroom and ruling on objections made by prosecutors and Mr. Trump’s lawyers. The jury will ultimately decide whether Mr. Trump is guilty.

What is the maximum sentence if Mr. Trump is convicted?

The charges against Mr. Trump are all Class E felonies, the lowest category of felonies in New York. Each count carries a maximum prison sentence of four years. Justice Merchan has made it clear that he takes white-collar crime seriously and could throw Mr. Trump behind bars. It’s likely, however, that Justice Merchan would impose a concurrent sentence — under which Mr. Trump would serve all prison time simultaneously — if the former president were convicted of more than one count.

And nothing in the law requires Justice Merchan to imprison Mr. Trump if he’s convicted by a jury. The judge could instead sentence him to probation.

Can Trump appeal?

Yes, if he is convicted, Mr. Trump will appeal, a process that could take months or longer.

Mr. Trump could first take the case to the Appellate Division in Manhattan, and, ultimately seek review from the state’s highest court, the Court of Appeals in Albany. In other words, any appeal is unlikely to be resolved before Election Day. And he would most likely remain free at least until it is resolved.

Ben Protess is an investigative reporter at The Times, writing about public corruption. He has been covering the various criminal investigations into former President Trump and his allies. More about Ben Protess

Kate Christobek is a reporter covering the civil and criminal cases against former president Donald J. Trump for The Times. More about Kate Christobek

Jonah E. Bromwich covers criminal justice in New York, with a focus on the Manhattan district attorney’s office and state criminal courts in Manhattan. More about Jonah E. Bromwich

Our Coverage of the Trump Hush-Money Trial

News and Analysis

Donald Trump’s criminal trial in Manhattan took a startling turn when two jurors were abruptly excused , demonstrating the challenge of picking citizens to determine the fate of a former president.

Prosecutors argued in court that with a steady stream of social media posts, Trump had violated the gag order  imposed on him seven times, urging the judge overseeing the trial to hold him in contempt.

Our reporter joined “The Daily” to explain what happened during the opening days  of the trial against Donald Trump.

More on Trump’s Legal Troubles

Key Inquiries: Trump faces several investigations  at both the state and the federal levels, into matters related to his business and political careers.

Case Tracker:  Keep track of the developments in the criminal cases  involving the former president.

What if Trump Is Convicted?: Will any of the proceedings hinder Trump’s presidential campaign? Here is what we know, and what we don’t know .

Trump on Trial Newsletter: Sign up here  to get the latest news and analysis  on the cases in New York, Florida, Georgia and Washington, D.C.