essay on jain religion in gujarat language

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This is how Jains came to dominate Gujarat – grand temples, ascetic monks, spectacular rituals

Five sites in present-day gujarat and rajasthan came to be seen as the places where the five most popular jain tirthankaras obtained enlightenment..

T he historical Buddha would not have recognised the Buddhism being practised in northwest India in 100 CE, about 500 years after his death. The same also applies to the Jainism practised in western India in 1000 CE, almost one-and-a-half thousand years after the death of the historical Mahavira – a religion of temples and rituals, where  merchant princes commanded armies , and where idols of  tirthankaras  were lustrated with scented fluids. Once a religion of wandering ascetics with small lay communities, Jainism, by the medieval period, had become one of the great forces of western India. But how had this come to be?

Innovation and  c ontestation

“There can be no doubt,” writes Jainism scholar Paul Dundas in  The Jains   (2002, page 201), “that the image cult represents one of the major historical continuities in Jain civilisation.”

Of course, while many Jains today do not worship idols, they are mentioned in inscriptions from as early as the 1 st century BCE; to this day, some Jain communities conduct spectacular rituals such as the  mahamastakabhisheka .The Jain approach to  puja —the ritual where food and flowers are offered to a deity—is, however, somewhat different from that followed by Hinduism. As anthropologist Lawrence Babb notes in the edited volume  Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History  (1998), Jain  puja  is not strictly “giving to” a deity but rather “giving up”, “an opportunity for the layperson to engage for a discrete time in the renunciatory activity of the true ascetic.”

This is a small, but significant, difference. Early Jains seem to have grasped the growing importance of image veneration; by offering a focus on religious activity, images were potent conduits for building religious communities. A related development was temple worship, which allowed communities to worship, concentrate resources, and stake claims to political authority. From as early as the 4 th century CE, Jain monks in Gujarat were attaching themselves to temples (Dundas 2002, 136). Here they could interact directly with lay followers, involve themselves in rituals, and mobilise funds. This was controversial: According to Jain doctrines, monks were meant to wander from place to place without possessions. But shrewd monks were able to justify this; Dundas quotes  a prominent temple-dwelling monk as saying: “Eventually, the Jain religion will be destroyed. Asceticsby living in temples preserve them. There is scriptural authority for adopting an exception to a general rule to prevent the doctrine falling into abeyance.” (Dundas 2002, 137).

Jain temples gradually began to dot the Gujarati landscape. In  Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History   (2010), Indologist John E. Cort shows that five sites in present-day Gujarat and Rajasthan came to be seen as the places where the five most popular Jain  tirthankaras —Adinatha, Shantinatha, Neminatha, Parshvanatha, and Mahavira—had obtained enlightenment. Depictions of Ashtapada, the mountain on which the first  tirthankara  Adinatha was enlightened, also proliferated, with monks and intellectuals providing scriptural and mytho-historical justifications. By the 11 th century CE, the sites of Girnar and Mount Abu had become the sites of spectacular temples commissioned by merchant princes.

All these developments were not without backlash. By the 11 th  century, a fundamentalist strain of ascetics set out to return Jain monasticism to its renunciatory roots. They began to mount public attacks and debates on temple-dwelling monks who, we are told, did not cut very impressive figures: With their “garlands and fine clothes, with coiffured hair, teeth stained with betelnut, immodest expressions, sleek bodies and feet and hands painted with lac” (Dundas 2002, 137), they hardly suited the public image of venerable saints. In 1024, we are told that the reformer Jineshvara Suri defeated temple-dwelling monks in a court debate, pushing them into decline. But the lay community were by now convinced of the efficacy of temple worship. Jainism had already changed forever.

Also read: Jaiswals, Oswals, Shahs—Gujarat’s trading families once wielded more power than medieval courts

‘ Sarasvati with a  b eard ’ 

Perhaps the most important lay worshippers in medieval Gujarat were a pair of merchant brothers named Vastupala and Tejapala. Their activities reveal much about the character of Jainism at this time.

Originating in an aristocratic merchant family, they were born in Anahilavada (present-day Patan, Gujarat), writes historian VK Jain in  Trade and Traders in Western India AD 1000–1300   (1990). Anahilavada was the capital of the Chaulukya dynasty; the brothers rose to prominence in the service of the Vaghelas, vassals of the Chaulukyas. They seem to have fulfilled the roles of chief minister as well as “ mudra-vyapara ”, which involved the issuance of trade licences and permits. As governor of Khambat, Vastupala attacked, defeated and looted Said, a Muslim merchant in the employ of the kings of Southern Gujarat. (Jain 1990, 238). All of these activities were very financially rewarding; in 1233, Vastupala built a temple to the Ashtapada mountain at Girnar, believed to be the enlightenment site of the  tirthankara  Neminatha. He had already built a temple the previous year, to which he later added “two grand pavilions…one each for the merit of his two wives.” (Cort 2010, 130).

But that was just the tip of the iceberg. Inscriptions of the brothers appear all over Gujarat, associated with wells, tanks, alms-houses, rest-houses, and meditation spots. They are particularly focused on the aforementioned five sites of the  tirthankaras ’ enlightenment. The brothers also embarked on a programme of literary patronage, constructing libraries, commissioning religious texts, and even writing their own works. According to VK Jain (1990, page 244), the Jain library in Khambat possesses a manuscript actually copied out in Vastupala’s own hand; “it was because of his literary activities that Vastupala was known as ‘Sarasvati with a beard’ ( kūrcāla sarasvati )”. All of these were activities that any medieval Indian king might undertake; they even commissioned a Sanskrit eulogy , describing themselves  as “marking the earth everywhere with religious establishments, putting their foot on the neck of the Kali Age.” It is of extreme significance that the brothers did all of this in a very Jain imaginary, following the developments we’ve seen in the previous section.

Tejapala’s Neminatha temple at Mount Abu exemplifies all of this. This enormous structure, intricately carved in marble, reveals just how far Jainism had come since its origin. Smooth, polished bodies, similar to the iconography of a Hindu temple, adorn its pillars; sunlight shines through its delicately-perforated screens. Equipped with doctrinal innovations and patrons, Jainism had woven itself into the political culture of one of India’s greatest trading regions. Western India’s Jainism would avoid the terrible fate that was looming over South Indian Jainism—a topic to which we will return in future editions of  Thinking Medieval.

Anirudh Kanisetti is a public historian. He is the author of Lords of the Deccan, a new history of medieval South India, and hosts the Echoes of India and Yuddha podcasts. He tweets @AKanisetti.

This article is a part of the ‘Thinking Medieval’  series  that takes a deep dive into India’s medieval culture, politics, and history.

(Edited by Zoya Bhatti)

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Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India

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Jeffery D. Long, Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India, Journal of the American Academy of Religion , Volume 81, Issue 1, March 2013, Pages 284–287, https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfs098

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John Cort's Jains in the World— the product of some twenty years of fieldwork in the city of Patan in the state of Gujarat, India—is a welcome and vitally important contribution to the burgeoning literature in the field of Jain studies.

Prior to Padmanabh S. Jaini's, The Jaina Path of Purification (published in 1979), scholars of South Asian religions in search of good English-language sources on Jainism had to content ourselves with works from earlier generations of indological studies, such as Walther Schubring's The Doctrine of the Jainas (translated from the German in 1962), or primary source translations from the nineteenth century. Good English sources on Jain philosophy could be found, such as Nathmal Tatia's Studies in Jaina Philosophy (1951), Y. J. Padmarajiah's A Comparative Study of the Jaina Theories of Reality and Knowledge (1963), and Satkari Mookerjee's The Jaina Philosophy of Non-Absolutism (1978). These are all, however, quite specialized works, focused on particular aspects of Jain thought, and not general introductions to Jainism or to the Jain community as a whole. They tell the reader virtually nothing about lived Jain practice (nor, to be fair, is that their intent).

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6 facts about jains in india.

Jainism is one of the world’s oldest religions , originating in India at least 2,500 years ago. The spiritual goal of Jainism is to become liberated from the endless cycle of rebirth and to achieve an all-knowing state called moksha . This can be attained by living a nonviolent life, or ahimsa, with as little negative impact on other life forms as possible.   

The traditions of Jainism were largely carried forward by a succession of 24 tirthankaras, or teachers, most notably Vardhamana Mahavira, the last of the tirthankaras and likely a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Both Mahavira and Buddha emphasized the importance of self-discipline, meditation and ascetic life as the key to salvation. Their teachings often stood in contrast to those of Vedic priests of the time who emphasized ritual practices and their own role as intermediaries between humanity and the gods. 

Today, a sliver of India’s population (0.4%) identifies as Jain, making it the smallest of the country’s six major religious groups after Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism and Buddhism. Indians overall know very little about this ancient religion and its practices, according to a June 2021 Pew Research Center report based on a survey of nearly 30,000 Indians. Here are six facts about Jains in India, from the report.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to take a closer look at the Jain population in India. It is based on the June 2021 report “ Religion in India: Tolerance and Segregation ,” the Center’s most comprehensive, in-depth exploration of Indian public opinion to date. For this report, we completed  29,999 face-to-face interviews in 17 languages  with adults ages 18 and older living in 26 Indian states and three union territories. The sample included interviews with 22,975 Hindus, 3,336 Muslims, 1,782 Sikhs, 1,011 Christians, 719 Buddhists and 109 Jains. An additional 67 respondents belong to other religions or are religiously unaffiliated. Interviews for this nationally representative survey were conducted from Nov. 17, 2019, to March 23, 2020.

Respondents were selected using a probability-based sample design that would allow for robust analysis of all major religious groups in India, as well as all major regional zones. Six groups were targeted for oversampling as part of the survey design: Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and those living in the Northeast region. Data was weighted to account for the different probabilities of selection among respondents and to align with demographic benchmarks for the Indian adult population from the 2011 census.

Here are  the questions used  for this report, along with responses, and  its methodology .

Jains are concentrated in India’s West , largely in Maharashtra. Despite Jainism’s historic origins in India’s Eastern region , few Jains remain in the East. The changes in the regional concentration of Jains are believed to have started around 300 B.C.E. when Jains began migrating to the West , possibly in search of more favorable kingdoms. Today, 4% of the population of Mumbai – the capital of Maharashtra and the commercial and business center of India – identifies as Jain.

Jains are more highly educated and wealthier than Indians overall, and few identify as lower caste. Roughly a third (34%) of Jain adults have at least a college degree, compared with 9% of the general public, according to India’s 2011 census. Moreover, the vast majority of Jains fall into India’s top wealth quintiles , according to India’s National Family and Health Survey.

Wealth and education in India are inextricably linked with caste. Jains are the only religious group in India where a majority say they are members of a higher General Category caste . Most Indians (68%) are members of lower castes (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes or Other Backwards Classes), compared with 20% of Jains who identify with these communities.

Almost all Jains are vegetarian, in line with guidance to pursue ahimsa (not harming other life). Roughly nine-in-ten Indian Jains (92%) identify as vegetarian, and two-thirds of Jains (67%) go further by abstaining from root vegetables such as garlic and onion. Eating root vegetables is seen as a form of violence in Jain teachings because consuming the root of a plant destroys the plant in its entirety. These dietary practices extend outside the home; more than eight-in-ten Jain vegetarians also say they would not eat food in the home of a friend or neighbor who was non-vegetarian (84%) or in a restaurant that served non-vegetarian food (91%).

Jains feel they have a lot in common with Indian Hindus. Despite theological differences between Jain and Hindu teachings – for instance, Hinduism teaches that the universe was created, but Jainism does not – the two religions share many similarities in their teachings and practices. For example, both religions teach about karma, and roughly three-quarters of both Jains (75%) and Hindus (77%) say they believe in karma. (Karma is often understood as the idea that humans will eventually reap the benefits of their good deeds and pay the price for their bad deeds, often in their next life, though survey respondents were not offered a definition.)

Moreover, when asked whether Jains and Hindus in India have a lot in common or are very different, about two-thirds of Jains (66%) say that the two communities have a lot in common.

However, that feeling is not fully reciprocated. Just 19% of Hindus see a lot of commonality with Jains. One reason for this mismatch may be that Jains tend to know more about Hindus – who make up 81% of the Indian population – than vice versa. Three-in-ten Jains say they know “a great deal” about the Hindu religion and its practices, while just 3% of Hindus say they know a lot about Jainism.

Like many Indians, Jains tend to prefer living separately from other religious and caste groups. While nearly all Jains (92%) say they would be willing to accept a Hindu neighbor, significantly fewer say they would be willing to accept a Muslim (38%), Christian (46%), Sikh (55%) or Buddhist (58%) in the area where they live. Moreover, large majorities of Indian Jains say it is important to stop both women (82%) and men (81%) from marrying into other religious groups. And despite making up a small share of the national population, nearly three-quarters of Jains say that all or most of their close friends are also Jain (72%).

These attitudes are not uncommon in India – majorities of Hindus also oppose religious intermarriage – and may in part be tied to Jains’ particular demographic makeup. For example, while a majority of Jains identify as members of the higher General Category castes, Buddhists in India overwhelmingly identify as Dalits, or members of the lower Scheduled Castes. In fact, Jains are much more likely than other Indians to say that they would not accept a member of a Scheduled Caste as a neighbor (41% vs. 21% nationally). Moreover, large majorities of Jains say it is important to stop both women (79%) and men (74%) in their community from marrying into other castes.

Dietary preferences may also play a role in Jain attitudes about other groups; unlike Jains, most Muslims and Christians in India, for example, say they are not vegetarian.

Politically, Jains lean toward the country’s ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Seven-in-ten Jains say they feel closest to the BJP, while just 8% say they feel closest to the Indian National Congress (INC), the main opposition party. In fact, Jains are more likely than other religious communities in India, including Hindus, to feel political affinity with the BJP: Fewer than half of Hindus (44%) say they feel closest to the BJP, a party that some say promotes a Hindu nationalist agenda .

Jains’ political preference for the BJP may in part be tied to their views on religion and national identity, which in some ways reflect Hindu nationalist sentiments more akin to their Hindu compatriots than other minority communities in India. A significant share of Jains (44%) say being Hindu is very important to truly being Indian, as do a majority of Hindus (64%). Among other religious groups, far fewer people share this view, including just 21% of Sikhs. A slim majority of Jains (54%) also tie authentic Indian identity with speaking the Hindi language, one of the dozens of languages spoken in India. Among Hindus, these sentiments are closely associated with support for the BJP.

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About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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PRONUNCIATION: JINES LOCATION: India POPULATION: 4,225,043 (Census of India 2001) LANGUAGE: Language of the region in which they live RELIGION: Jainism RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 3: Hindus; People of India

INTRODUCTION

Jains are followers of Jainism, a South Asian religion that predates Christianity by over five centuries or more. The Jains derive their name from Jina (conqueror), or "one who conquers worldly passions." Although it has much in common with Hinduism, Jainism emerged during the 6th century BC as a reaction against the Hindu religion as practiced at the time. The geographical origins of Jainism lie in the Indian state of Bihar and southern Nepal, a region that also saw the emergence of Buddhism at about the same time. Unlike Buddhism, however, which has spread around the world, Jainism is an ethnic religion. Ethnic religions have little appeal outside their immediate cultures, and most remain localized in the lands of their birth. Jainism remains today a religion of India.

Over the centuries, the center of Jainism gradually shifted from eastern India, first to Mathura and Ujjain to the west, and then southwards. With the patronage of kings and ruling houses, Jainism firmly established itself throughout much of the Indian peninsula (Andhra, Tamil Nadu , Karnataka, and Maharashtra). For over a thousand years, it was the principal religion among the Kannada-speaking peoples of Mysore. Western areas such as Rajasthan and Gujarat also became strongholds of Jaina beliefs.

Jainism reached its greatest geographical extent, as well as its highest levels of scholarship and intellectual activity, in the period from roughly the AD. The impact of Jaina thinking and the Jain way of life was felt in all parts of the country at this time. Thereafter, the religion entered a period of decline, especially in the south. Jains gave ground before a strong Hindu revival movement in what are now Tamil Nadu , Andhra Pradesh , and parts of Karnataka, even facing persecution from Brahmans. But Jainism continued to make gains in the west. Kumarapala, King of Gujarat in the 12th century, is said to have established Jainism as the state religion and to have promoted Jaina values. The end of the 13th century, however, saw western India invaded by Muslim powers from the north. Gujarat was conquered by Ala-uddin Khalji around 1298, and Jainism, its followers persecuted and its temples destroyed by the Muslims, was never to regain its former prominence.

Jainism accounts for only 0.5% of India's total population (2001 Census of India). Mere numbers, however, reveal little of Jainism's influence on the philosophy, art, history, and culture of India.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

There are problems in determining the exact number of Jains in India today. The Census of India reports a population of c. 4.2 million people in 2001 and if that figure is accurate, the population of Jains in India is either declining or has been enumerated inaccurately. However, if Jains account for 0.05% of India's population, as reported by the Census, the numbers for 2008 would be around 6.5 million. Some estimates place the population at 10 million, which one suspects is too high. A realistic estimate of the current Jain population in India would be between around 5 million, assuming growth rates reflect the national average, or, at most, just less than 6 million people. Jains have a strong presence in Gujarat and Rajasthan and are also found in the northern region of Madhya Pradesh around Ujjain. Another area of high population concentration is the region of Mysore (the modern Karnataka State) that has historically been a Jain stronghold. The city of Bombay has a large Jain community, and Jains are found throughout much of the rest of Maharashtra State. It is interesting to note that today there are few Jains in eastern India, where Jainism had its beginnings.

During the last century, a number of Jains have migrated to East Africa, Great Britain , and the United States . They are mostly Gujarati in origin and are engaged in business and commercial ventures. Jains living in the West are often quite successful, and in many areas they have set up temples and associations to promote Jain culture.

There is no specific language associated with the Jain religion. Jains use the language and script of their region.

Jainism holds that the universe has existed through all eternity and will continue to exist forever. Thus, there is no need for a creator-god, or a creation myth. Indeed, in its original form Jainism had no gods and did not worship idols (in direct contrast to Hindu practices). The 24 Jain Tirthankaras ("fordmakers") were to be revered, but they were men, not gods. They had attained perfect knowledge, and their appearance in the world was tied to the moral and religious decay of the people and the need for a reawakening and revival of religious values.

Lacking gods, the Jains soon raised the Tirthankaras to deified status, and their literature describes the mythological lives of these saints (only two are known to be historical personages). Today, many Jains have even adopted gods from the Hindu pantheon, although they are ranked lower than the Tirthankaras. The Jaina world of myth and legend is perhaps best illustrated by a display in an imposing two-story hall behind the Jain temple (the Lal Mandir or "Red Temple") in Ajmer in Rajasthan. The hall shows scenes of the birth and death of Rishabdeva, the first Tirthankara. Included in this display, which takes up the entire hall, is the sacred city of Ayodhya, with its palaces and mansions for the nobles. The Tribeni, the sacred confluence of three rivers at Allahabad, is also shown, with the sacred banyan tree, and Rishabdeva in contemplation. Suspended from the ceiling are gods sailing the skies in brightly colored airships. This is, in fact, a huge model of the mythological world of the Jains.

The founder of Jainism is generally regarded to be Mahavira, who was born in Vaisali (in Basarh in northern Bihar) in the 6th century BC. Mahavira literally means "great victor" and is the name given by Jains to Vardhamana, the son of a ksatriya (warrior-caste) chieftain. Mahavira most likely lived from 599 to 527 BC, although some sources give 549–477 BC as his dates. The Jains claim that rather than being the founder of their religion, he was but the twenty-fourth in a line of prophets and teachers stretching back through time. There is historical evidence for the existence of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, who lived in the 8th century BC. Some Jain scholars even claim that Jainism was present in the Harappan civilization, a thousand years earlier (the swastika, a religious symbol of the Jains, is found in Harappan culture).

As his parents were followers of Parsvanatha, it seems certain that Mahavira was brought up in the Jain tradition. Even though he married and had a daughter, at the age of thirty he became an ascetic. He gave up his family, his high caste status, and all his worldly possessions, and for 12 years he wandered the countryside, naked, meditating, and searching for the truth. Mahavira was a contemporary of Buddha, who was born and lived in the same region, but as far as is known the two never met. At the age of 42, Mahavira achieved a state of perfect knowledge. One who attains this level is certain to achieve the state of ultimate perfection (moksa) upon death. Mahavira continued to travel through parts of what are now northern Bihar, West Bengal , and Uttar Pradesh , preaching his message. He died at the age of 72 in Pavapuri in Bihar.

In the years following its appearance, Jainism experienced the divisions that are so common in the history of any religion. One, dating to the very beginning of the 3rd century BC, continues to divide the Jain community today. During a 12-year famine, a prominent Jain teacher led a migration of Jains to southern India, eventually reaching the hills of Shravana Belgola in Mysore. This site remains a holy place for Jains today. On their return to their homeland, the migrants found that the monks they had left behind had abandoned the rule of nudity and other observances taught by Mahavira. They regarded this as heretical, and the subsequent dispute led to the division of the Jains into the Svetambara ("white-clad") and Digambara ("sky-clad") sects. The Svetambara sect are the descendants of those who remained behind during the great migration south and took to wearing clothes. They are found today mostly in northern India. The Digambara continue to go naked, although in practice only ascetics adhere strictly to the rule of nudity. The Digambaras, who are found mainly in South India, also hold that women can never achieve sainthood. They are not allowed to become nuns or even enter Digambara temples.

The central themes of Mahavira's teachings were truth, non-violence, and nonattachment to the material world. For the Jain, all living things (and even some inanimate objects) have an immortal soul (jiva) . This soul passes through a never-ending cycle of rebirths, acquiring a spiritual and even material presence because of the accumulation of karma . Karma is envisaged as a form of atomic matter that is attracted to the soul in this and past lives through desires and actions. To free the soul from this endless cycle of reincarnations, one has to eliminate existing karma by following an austere lifestyle. The accumulation of new karma can be avoided by nonattachment and lack of desires. Only then can the state of ultimate perfection be reached.

Nonviolence (ahimsa) is a means by which Jains can avoid the accumulation of karma. Technically, ahimsa means the "negation of the desire to injure any living thing," and the concept is found in Hinduism and Buddhism as well as in Jainism. But it is in Jainism that ahimsa has its greatest impact. The philosophy underpins almost all aspects of Jaina life and society. The first of 12 vows taken by the Jain layperson is that of ahimsa. This and the vows taken against falsehood, dishonesty, unchaste behavior, and covetousness form the code by which the Jain lives.

The "Five Great Vows" taken by Jaina ascetics, though similar to those of the laity, hold them to much stricter standards of behavior. For instance, even the accidental death of an insect caused by inhaling it is a sin. To prevent this, Jain monks (or nuns) wear a mask over their mouth and nose. They must not eat after dark in case they accidentally eat an insect. They should not travel after dark in case they tread on an insect they cannot see. When traveling, monks and nuns often sweep their path to avoid violating ahimsa. Hair is pulled out rather than cut, to avoid accidentally harming life. Jains are, of course, vegetarians, but the dietary restrictions on ascetics can extend beyond the eating of animal flesh. In Jaina belief, even plants have life and many vegetables are forbidden them as well. Though rare, strict adherence to ahimsa has led monks and nuns to suicide through starvation, an act that is seen as meritorious.

Jainism in its original form was a sect of wandering holy ascetics. It had no temples or idols. Today, however, Jains worship in temples that contain images of the Tirthankaras (in Digambara temples the idols are nude, while in Svetambara temples they are adorned with loincloths). Temple rituals are similar in form to those of the Hindus and include puja (worship), ritual bathing of the idols, anointing of the idols with colored powder, and the offering of special foods. Arati, or the ritual waving of lamps around the idols, is performed during evening worship. Unlike Hindus, Jains have no priestly caste to officiate at religious ceremonies, though some groups employ Brahmans (Hindu priests) for this purpose. One modern sect, the Sthanakavasis, continues the traditional Jain ideal of having no temples or idols.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Jainism is a religion with a strong element of asceticism and it is therefore not surprising that Jain festivals often lack the gaiety, color, and elaborate rituals characteristic of many Hindu celebrations. Jains observe their religious holy days with fasting, offerings of prayer, pilgrimages, and sober feasting.

Pajjusana, which is celebrated in August and closes the Jain year, is an important Jain festival. It is observed by fasting and meditation for a period of 8 to 10 days. On the last day, Jains ask forgiveness of all living things for any harm that they might have done them in thought, word, and deed. It is customary for Jains to seek forgiveness from neighbors and friends, for family elders to ask pardon from younger members, and for employers to seek the forgiveness of their workers. Alms and food are distributed to the poor, and Jain idols are taken through the streets in elaborately decorated rathas or processional carts.

Mahavira Jayanti celebrates the birth of Mahavira. Jains offer prayers at temples, worship the Tirthankaras, and make pilgrimages to sacred places. Images of Mahavira are carried through the streets in processions. The death of Mahavira is celebrated at Deva Divali, which falls soon after the Hindu Divali festival. One unusual ceremony is Jnana-Panchami, when all the Jain sacred texts are dusted, cleaned, and worshipped.

An aspect of Jain religious observances that is often undertaken to coincide with major festival days is pilgrimage to Jaina sacred sites. These include Vaisali (Mahavira's birthplace), the Hill of Parsvanatha in Bihar, Mt. Abu in Rajasthan, Girnar and Mt. Shatrunjaya in Gujarat, and the ancient Karnatak site at Shravana Belgola. At Shatrunjaya, with its temple-city built on top of a hill, the most meritorious pilgrimage involves climbing the thousands of steps to the summit, circling a temple, and descending again, 99 times. This takes about three months to complete. Every 15 years, a major ritual takes place at Shravana Belgola involving the anointing of the head of a statue of Gomatesvara, a Jain saint. The statue is over 17 m (57 ft) in height, or nearly as tall as a six-story building. Jains from all over the country make the journey to be present at the ceremony. Pilgrimages are not undertaken during the monsoon months, however, as the Jains believe that traveling might result in harm to the abundant insect life that flourishes during the rainy season.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Jains follow regional customs; thus, rituals associated with birth, marriage, and death vary around the country. There are broad similarities—for instance, Jains cremate their dead, and their death ceremonies in general follow Hindu patterns—but in detail their death rites differ from region to region. Similarly, in some areas no special ceremonies mark the attaining of adulthood, but in others boys undergo the sacred thread ritual as would a high-caste Hindu. Essentially, Jains in Gujarat follow Gujarati practices, those in Rajasthan follow Rajasthani customs, and so on.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Jains follow regional patterns in matters of interpersonal relations, greetings, and visiting customs. They are enjoined by their religion to be truthful and compassionate in social and business dealings, not to lie, and to live chaste, humble lives.

LIVING CONDITIONS

Jains, as a prosperous urban community, generally enjoy much higher standards of living and greater material comforts than the average Indian. They have access to all the amenities available in modern Indian towns and cities. They also have a strong tradition of involvement in charitable giving, supporting welfare organizations, educational institutions, and even homes and hospitals for animals (pinjrapols) .

FAMILY LIFE

Although it originated, in part, as a reaction against the Hindu caste system, modern Jainism has its own castes. They are social rather than religious divisions, however, and lack the hierarchy of the Hindu caste system, yet they are still important in matters of marriage. The Agrawala, Oswala, Srimali, Chaturtha, and Panchama are some of the more important Jain castes. Some castes such as the Oswala are divided into major endogamous groups such as Bisa and Dasa, and these are even further divided into exogamous clans or gotras, and over 500 subclans. In marriage patterns, family size, and family structure, Jain communities tend to follow regional patterns and practices.

Jains dress according to local customs and are hardly distinguishable from local peoples of similar social standing. However, they are still subject to the restrictions of the ahimsa philosophy. Jains do not wear furs, feathers, silk, or wool because the obtaining of these products causes harm to insects, animals, and birds. They are required to restrict the use of leather goods to a minimum, and to ensure that such leather they do use comes from animals that died a natural death and not from slaughtered animals. There are no restrictions on the wearing of ornaments, however. Given the Jains' involvement in the jewelry business, women usually wear quite spectacular gems and gold ornaments when dressed for formal occasions.

It is the custom of Digambara ("sky-clad") monks to go naked, while Jain monks and nuns often wear masks to prevent the accidental inhalation of insects and use brooms with which to sweep the road, so they do not tread on insects and thus accidentally do harm to living things.

As a consequence of the vow of ahimsa, Jains are strict vegetarians and avoid all animal flesh, eggs, and even certain types of root vegetables (e.g., potatoes, carrots, onions, and beetroots) and fruits. They are enjoined to drink strained water and are prohibited from using intoxicants and stimulants. Honey is not eaten because bees are killed when it is collected.

Fasting, though an ascetic practice, is also popular among the Jaina laity, especially women. It is undertaken as a vow rather than a penance and is a means of demonstrating one's piety and commitment to Jain ideals. It is common at the time of festivals, on full-moon days, and during the four-month rainy season.

Jains have a tradition of education and have schools (gurukuls) that provide both a religious and a secular education for Jains. Jains are also open to modern education and have achieved great prominence in areas of business and industry, finance, scholarship, and government service.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Mahavira preached his message in Ardhamagadhi, the language of the area of his birth (which was called Magadha). The Jain scriptures originally were written in this language so that the common people could have access to their sacred texts without the need for a class of priests or scholars to interpret them. Jain scriptures are called Sutras and the most important of these, the Kalpasutra, contains the life and teachings of Mahavira. Jain sacred texts have been written in other vernacular languages and also in Sanskrit, the classical language of North India. The Jains have some of the oldest libraries of ancient manuscripts in India. Jain writings have also enriched regional literary traditions such as those of Gujarat and Karnataka.

Architecture is another area where Jains have left their imprint on India. The past commercial success of the Jain merchant community in western India is reflected in the numerous havelis (mansions) and temples they constructed. The intricately carved white marble temples of Dilwara and Ranakpur in Rajasthan, the temple complex of Girnar, and the walled, temple-city atop Mt. Shatrunjaya are part of a Jain tradition of temple-building that goes back to the 11th century AD. The earliest surviving examples of a Jaina school of palm-leaf painting in western India also date to this time.

The Jains' commitment to ahimsa effectively bars them from activities that might result in injury or death to living creatures. Thus, occupations such as butcher, leatherworker, or flour-miller are prohibited. Pastoralism violates ahimsa, since it takes sustenance out of the mouth of calves. Agriculture is prohibited, because ploughing the land could result in harm to insects and other creatures living in the soil (although the Chaturthas of southern India are an agricultural community). Similarly, the operating of machinery could result in harm to insects and flying creatures, so manufacturing industries are avoided.

As a result of such occupational restrictions, Jains have devoted their energies to business, trade, and similar urban professions. They are typically an important and prosperous element in the "Bania," or business community, of any Indian city. They are mainly bankers, moneylenders, jewelers, traders, cloth-merchants, and, more recently, highly successful industrialists. They have entered the legal, medical, teaching, and engineering professions and also hold important positions in state and central governments.

There are no sports uniquely associated with the Jains.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

There are no forms of entertainment or recreation identified specifically with the Jain community.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Given their emphasis on commercial activities, the Jains are not engaged in folk arts and crafts .

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

The Jain community in Delhi, where there are almost 500,000 adherents to the religion, is currently agitating for minority status on par with the Buddhists, Christians, Sikhs, Muslims, and Parsis, listed as notified minority groups under the Delhi Minorities Commission Act, 1999. Members of the community say they want minority status primarily because they want to incorporate Jainism, the religion of the community, as a subject in Jain schools. The capital and its adjoining areas have eight Jain schools. They are not able teach Jainism to their children because most of the Jain schools in Delhi are partially funded by the government, which doesn't allow the teaching of any particular religion at schools unless it belongs to a minority community. Delhi is one of the few states in India where the Jain community has not been granted official minority status. According to Article 30 of the Indian Constitution, non-Hindu groups are entitled to certain benefits that Hindus are not. The most important of these is the exclusive right to run state funded educational institutions free of governmental interference. In light of this, many religious sects that are typically classified as Hindu have tried to obtain the non-Hindu status in order to be able to obtain state funding for their private institutions. "Hindu," as defined in the Constitution, originally included Jains, and there has been a debate in the Jain community as to whether or not to seek minority status.

As a relatively small, affluent, urban community, the Jains do not face the social and economic problems so typical of many groups in India. Rather, the problem—if it can be called a problem—is one of identity. As an offshoot of Hinduism, Jainism has retained many Hindu characteristics and Jains are often seen as just another caste of Hindus. Some observers argue that Jainism, as a small minority religion, is rapidly losing its separate identity. Others see in Jaina religion and society a distinctiveness that will ensure its continued survival. For the Jains, however, there is no question. Mahavira gave Jainism its current existence. Mahapadma, the next Tirthankara or ford-maker to come, will ensure that it lives forever.

GENDER ISSUES

Theoretically, in Mahavira's Jainism, there was no distinction of caste, color, creed, or sex. Thus, for some, Jainism is a religion of equality, but for others, a woman's very femaleness creates spiritual inequality. The Digambara Jain sect believes that women cannot achieve liberation without being reborn as men first. Digambara Jains hold this view because they believe that nakedness is an essential element of the road to liberation. Since women are not allowed to be naked in public they cannot achieve liberation directly and so are seen as second-class citizens. This ban on female nakedness is partly intended to protect both men and women: if women went around naked it would cause men to experience sexual desire and the desire produced would hinder the man's progress to liberation. Digambaras also believe that women are inherently himsic (which is best translated as harmful). This comes partly from a belief that menstrual blood kills micro-organisms living in the female body. The killing of the micro-organisms is said to show that a female body is less non-violent than a male body—although that idea doesn't have any scientific support and isn't found in modern Jain thinking.

Some Jain texts say that menstrual blood is a sign of impurity (this view is mirrored in Hinduism also), but the idea that women are spiritually impure because of menstruation is a rather odd basis for a Jain argument, since Jainism usually concerns itself with thinking, speaking, and acting rightly— there isn't any other area where Jainism says that involuntary bodily functions are a spiritual obstacle.

Another argument is that because a woman's nature is to care for children and other dependents, she will find it much more difficult to break free from these earthly attachments, and unless she does this, she cannot achieve liberation.

The Svetambaras have a different view of women, and indeed, there are famous nuns in both the Svetambara and Digambara traditions. Sadhvi, for instance, is a modern Svetambara nun well known for social reform and for her charitable works.

Jains exist in a specific social context, however, and, especially away from areas of Jain concentrations, have come to the influenced by local (usually Hindu) societies. When this author was talking to Jain families in the Brahmaputra River Valley of Assam, where Jains are few in number, they expressed the view that they were but another caste of Hinduism, whereas in Rajasthan and Gujarat, Jains saw their religion as quite distinct from Hinduism.

As one author observes, Jain women in India have legal and constitutional protection and that, whereas in the majority of Jain families in Uttar Pradesh the status of women used to be inferior to that of men, the impact of education, western culture, and the breakdown of the joint family have tended to loosen the stranglehold that "outmoded social mores" exerted over the freedom of Jain women. Literacy rates among Jain women at 90.6% are the highest of any religion, but female work participation (9.2%) is the is lowest of any group, suggesting that education is a means of attracting good husbands, and that the primary role of Jain women in society remains, in general, taking care of the home and their husbands, and raising male children.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dundas, Paul. The Jains . London and New York : Routledge, 1992.

Jain, Satish Kumar and Kamal Chand Sogani, ed. Perspectives in Jaina Philosophy and Culture . New Delhi : Ahimsa International, 1985.

Jaini, Padmanabh S. ed. Collected Papers on Jaina Studies . Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000.

———. The Jaina Path of Purification . Berkeley and Los Angeles : University of California Press, 1970.

Kumar, Rajjan. Different Aspects of Jainism . Delhi: Sunrise Publications, 2006.

Lodrick, Deryck O. " Ahimsa , Man and Animals: Aspect of Religion in the Cultural Landscape of Western India." In India: Cultural Patterns and Processes, edited by Allen G. Noble and Ashok K. Dutt. Westview Press: Boulder, Co., 1982.

Sangave, Vilas Adinath. Jaina Community: A Social Survey . Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1980.

—by D. O. Lodrick

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NEARBY TERMS

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Jain sculpture.

Jain Siddha Bahubali, Entwined with Forest Vines

Enthroned Jina, Probably Neminatha

Jain Svetambara Tirthankara in Meditation

Jain Digambara Tirthanhara Standing in Kayotsarga Meditation Posture

Svetambara Enthroned Jina, with Attendant Yaksha and Yakshi

Ten Elements for East Window of an Architectural Ensemble from a Jain Meeting Hall

John Guy Department of Asian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

January 2012

Jainism is the least well known of India’s traditional religions even though it has an ancestry that antedates Buddhism and rivals Hinduism in its claim to be India’s oldest continuously practiced faith. Its modern historical founder is Mahavira, a near contemporary of the Buddha Shakyamuni. Yet Mahavira is claimed as but the most recent of twenty-four tirthankaras, literally “ford-crossers” whose pure and indestructible souls ( jiva ) have journeyed from the realm of the phenomenal world ( samsara ) to a place of spiritual liberation ( moksha ), free of perpetual reincarnation. The Jain faith is based on the worship of these twenty-four liberated souls, venerated as the jinas, those perfected beings who have achieved victory over samsara and who serve as role models to guide the faithful on the proper path to liberation.

In devotional practice, Jainism mirrored more closely the rites and rituals of Hinduism than did Buddhism, though it remained wedded to the shared vision of a faith premised on moksha . The conceptual basis for the jina’s image is the pan-Indian ideal of the yogic ascetic ( 1992.131 ). This image informs many religious icons in early Indian art, and respect for the wandering meditative mendicant is the oldest stream running through religious practice in the subcontinent. This ancient practice, celebrated in the Vedas, equates the acquisition of superior knowledge ([spiritual] “wisdom”) with the pursuit of advanced forms of meditation, austerities, and a withdrawal from the material comforts of the life of a householder. Those who attain such a state are respected and revered.

For the Jains, meditation in a seated yogic posture was the predominant form assumed by the jinas. A secondary and uniquely Jain form, and undoubtedly also of great antiquity, is the standing posture of “body abandonment” ( kayotsarga ), in which the mendicant stands erect with his arms pendant but unsupported by the body. This physically exacting pose is the most extreme expression of Jainism’s central premise, the concept of ahimsa , “nonviolence” to all living creatures. To maintain complete immobility was to ensure no harm to any creature, however small.

The pantheon of deities worshipped in Jainism consists of a hierarchy descending from the twenty-four perfected beings to a galaxy of secondary gods and goddesses, the most important of whom is Indra (Shakra) in whose heaven the jinas reside, and Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge and learning. The nature-spirit deities, the yakshas (male) and yakshis (female), who peopled the early landscape of the subcontinent before the coming of the new religions, serve as protective presences and guardians. Most prominent among these are Dharanendra, the nagaraja  who protects Jina Parshvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara, and Ambika, the embodiment of maternity and fecundity. A vast cast of knowledge goddesses, vidyadevis , oversee the enactment of ritual, and an array of celestial musicians ( gandharvas ) and dancers ( apsaras ) celebrate the jinas in their heavens.

This cast is somewhat limited when compared to mainstream Hinduism and has generated a similarly constricted repertoire of imagery, sculpted, painted, and woven. Within these conceptual constraints, however, Jain religious imagery tracks the mainstream stylistic and technical innovations of Indian art.

Jainism had an established place in the art of early India from the beginnings of the appearance of figurative religious imagery. At the outset of Jain image making, it may be assumed that male Jain mendicants renounced all material encumbrances, including clothing. From its origins in Bihar, eastern India, Jainism spread along the Gangetic basin and became an important presence at Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, the southern capital of the Kushans. Certainly the numerous sandstone sculptures of jinas from the early centuries A.D. found in this region are, without exception, naked. The total absence of garments distinguishes the jinas from the otherwise similar images of Buddhas, as does the prevalent use in this formative period of the shrivatsa  symbol on the chest, a lakshana (auspicious mark) denoting the jina’s status as a mahapurusha (“great man”). Similarly, the famous bronze Jina Rishabhantha of the third century A.D., from the Chausa hoard, Patna, is among the earliest known Jain bronzes and represents the jina standing naked in the kayotsarga posture of immobility, the predominant theme in early Jain metal imagery.

The oldest Jain image in the Museum’s collection also happens to be the earliest known representation of the subject in Jain art, that of Bahubali, a perfected being ( siddha ) who attained jina-like status in the Jain canon while never being claimed as a tirthankara ( 1987.142.339 ). This diminutive icon—only 11 centimeters high—is part of a tradition that inspired the largest rock-cut icon in the subcontinent, the 18-meter Bahubali at Shravana Belgola, in Karnataka, which is ritually lustrated in the Mahamastakabhisheka festival, celebrated on a twelve-year cycle, most recently in 2006.

The Deccan was the stronghold of the Digambara (“sky-clad,” i.e., naked) sect of Jainism, and further south, in Tamil country, Jainism prospered, attracting patronage from Pandyan and other rulers throughout the first millennium. Most images from that region depict jinas as fully committed renunciants, the “sky-clad.” A tirthankara standing in body-abandonment meditation typifies the style of the late first millennium ( 1995.423 ). The figure is austere in its plainness, completely lacking in “adornment” ( alamkara ), a virtue in Hindu sculpture but seen by Digambara Jains as counter to the vows of renunciation so core to advanced practitioners. The slightly attenuated arms are an allusion to the protracted observance of body-abandonment penance. The short hair curls are an anomaly, as they mimic the Buddhist convention (of the curls left after cutting off the hair with a sword) rather than the required Jain practice of plucking out one’s own hair. The extended earlobes share a common ancestry, denoting a personage who once wore heavy jewelry, implying that all jinas were of high birth. Images of tirthankaras standing in body-abandonment are among the most understated and beautiful of the period, and so successfully embody the essence of the doctrine of renunciation of the material world.

Jainism had progressively spread from its birthplace in Bihar westward to its future heartland in Gujarat and Rajasthan. One of the clearest demonstrations of the success of this transplanting of Jainism from eastern to western India is demonstrated by the so-called Akota hoard of Jain bronzes. Spanning from the late fifth to the tenth century, this large cache of sixty-eight copper-alloy images was secreted away for safety and lost from memory until its chance discovery prior to 1951 at the ancient city Ankottaka (present-day Akota) in Gujarat. This hoard provided the earliest coherent group of Jain icons of this period, chronicling the rise of Jainism in western India. The enthroned jina, probably Neminatha ( 2008.279 ), is clearly related to this “Akota school” and may be accepted as belonging to the same cultural milieu and style group.

Guy, John. “Jain Sculpture.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jais/hd_jais.htm (January 2012)

Further Reading

Shah, Umakant P. Jaina-rupa = Jaina Iconography , 3 vols. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1987.

Additional Essays by John Guy

• Guy, John. “ Arts of the Greater Himalayas: Kashmir, Tibet, and Nepal .” (May 2021)
• Guy, John. “ Jain Manuscript Painting .” (January 2012)

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Jainism’ Religion Research Paper

Introduction, foundation, basic beliefs, prayers and customs, spread and influence.

Jainism is an ancient faith put forward by a Jaina (Titze & Bruhn, 2008). A Jaina is not a specific immortal being or an incarnation of such supernatural being, but rather a normal human being who, through his or her strenuous endeavors, has managed to triumph over worldly passions. A Jaina is thus a normal human being who has outwitted internal forces and is therefore considered victorious.

It is purely of human origin with no signs of affiliation to supreme beings, having emanated from the mouth of a mortal individual, preferably a dignitary who has perfected the art of self-control. This religious movement originated in eastern India in ancient times, but precision on its timing is indeterminable. Speculations about its exact origin suggest that the movement could have begun during the pre-historic culture roughly beyond 5000 years ago (Shah, 1998).

The main principles of Jainism are founded on basic beliefs and tenets regarding self-control and the dignity associated with this victorious achievement or the Tirthankara. Those who achieve this and teach others on their struggles and efforts on achieving are known as Tirthankara, and thus, Jains believe that there have only been twenty-four such teachers. It is believed that the latest of these, refereed to as Mahavira or in English; a great Victor was born in India at around 600 B.C (Shah, 1998).

Subscribers of this religion also believe in a world that has no beginning nor an end in itself since they do not recognize a beginning or an end in them or the world. Jains believe in the cyclic nature of the universe, whereby the universe is considered to have only one cycle (Shah, 1998).

Cosmologically, they believe that the universe is independent of supernatural forces and is thus thought to be limitless in existence. They classify cycles as either progressive (Utsarpinis) or regressive (Avsarpini. During the former’s half cycle, there are associated with better conditions of happiness, age, body, region, and progress. During the latter, there is associated deterioration of these conditions from best to worst.

There is no believe in the supernatural being or mortal, and thus there is no specificity in this religion’s worship but rather worshipping of great Victors and Jaina. They also believe that to conquer the inner passions; one must detach from the material world and then exercise a peaceful lifestyle, full of discipline.

There is also basic believe on non-violence to all living things and therefore practice a strict balanced diet in avoidance of causing harm to other living things. This diet includes only vegetables and fruits to avoid harming animals and microbes (Thomas, 2010).

They also believe that the soul should completely be isolated from all matter for it to become a pure soul. Thomas (2010) argues that salvation of Jainism only happens in the complete segregation of the pure soul from matter which would be considered impure and thus prefer this condition where they believe that all the suffering which adhere to earthly personality all are dismissed. Their view of the universe is different from scientific views.

They conceive it as made up of two parts, which include the “occupied space, and the other is unoccupied space” (Shah, 1998). The former is thought to be in resemblance of man in shape and has got three distinct parts. These include the upper, the middle, and the lower part with each of them having support for specific worlds. The unoccupied space is thought to be made of space, and this space is what surrounds the occupied world.

The rest of the occupied worlds are made up of different world with steps of hells, which all count to seven, the middle space containing nothing and the upper space consisting of the heavens. Determination of final destination is dependent on purity graded on the harms done while living. A pure soul will climb all the stairs to heaven- the most top position, but an impure soul will get stuck at the seventh hell, which is the lowest position.

Non-violence is the major emphasis of Jainism communities. It extends to both the physical and mental aspects of humanity. They consider anger-destroyed pride, greed, and deceit as the greatest enemies of humankind. This principle is thought to aim at reducing the Karmas in an individual. They thus recommend its reduction through forgiveness, humility, and contentment in all aspects.

Jains consider Karma as someone made of material in nature, consisting of fine particles of matter which are inconceivable by human senses or any other measurement. Karma has been thus classified as either destructive karma or Non-destructive Karma. The former affects the nature of the soul, while the latter only affects the body in which the soul lives.

Shedding of past Karmas is referred to as Nirjara, which consist of different method which includes a passive method that involves the allowance of Karma to ripen in time and experience. Acquisition of a new Karma is assumed. Secondly, shedding can be done actively by accelerating the ripening process and thus making reductions of the effects under production by Karma (Glasenapp & Shrotri, 2006).

Jains have got strict customs and practices. They strongly consider vegetarianism as the purest practice of survival since they avoid harming living things. They consider roots of some plants as consisting of microbes which they fear harming and thus do not consume them and also filter water and other food stuffs in avoidance of this harming effects. Some sects of Jains eat before night fall. They also consider human life as the greatest form of life.

Their prayers and rituals are integrated into their daily lives. In upholding non-violence, they boil water in hours for later use and also spread grain for birds in the morning. Their mediation is based on equanimity usually done in the morning, day or noon and lasting for 48minutes and routine repetition of prayers usually about the good things.

Their worshipping sessions are done before the Jain idols by lamp-lighting in front of them. They bathe in the image symbolic of newborns, Antaraya Karma praying is considered to remove spiritual uplifting of Karmas. They also pay respect to merchants through prayers (Shah, 1998).

Their symbolism is based on the water the life of ocean birth. Chandan Puja symbolism believes in right knowledge while Ashkat Puja believes that they should not grow rice plants. Their festivals are celebrated on scripture, renunciation, repletion of holy hymns, and meditation. They include Navpadi Oli, which deals with austerities, Mahaparva based on enthusiasm and felicity. Bhai Beej is based on brotherhood and is considered a special day for this.

It is widely believed that Jainism may have influenced the emergence of Buddhism since Buddhists believe that Mahavira and Buddha were great contemporaries and during that time, Jainism as a religion was already too old that it had well-established faith and society in India. It’s believed to also have greatly influenced Hindu thinking.

As evident from some Hindu books, there is a beautiful association of Jainism through story telling about the great Jaina to have ever lived. They claim that in the history of Jainism, there had been no recorded wars under this religion (Pruthi, 2004).

With approximately twelve million followers, its influence is thought to have surpassed these numbers in India alone. Having extensively lived in this country for a long time, since ancient times, some states like Gujarat and Maharashtra have the highest number of populations. Punjab is also close in statistical proximity with the named states. Outside India, the influence of this religion is felt in different parts of the world.

For instance, in the US, the UK, and East Africa are the immediate regions that have felt the effect of Jainism. There are predicted large communities of Jainism within these countries, and the effect is still growing such that, there is an expectation of future growth in these regions. Even though there is no universality in the language of communication, Jains practice the same core values and beliefs and thus are the same all over the world despite the obvious demographical differences.

East Africa was the first destination of Jainism, whereby they constructed the first temple in Mombasa Kenya in the early 60s (Glasenapp & Shrotri, 2006). Spread to the west occurred in the 70s and 80s whereby the Gujarat community spread to the US and UK and subsequently built a temple in these new regions, gaining followership. In the Asian region, there are predicted small numbers of Jain communities, Singapore, Nepal, and Malaysia.

To make their faith and religion stronger, the Indian Jain community built up the largest Jain temples in the year 2010 which was aimed at strengthening their values transversely in Western Europe (Shah, 1998 ‘Jainism2’). This temple raised awareness of the religion in the Indian region and other regions around the world. There has also been a link to Yoga, a movement of pure mind, which is thought to have sprung up from Jainism.

From the discussion above, it is evident that Jainism is an ancient faith put forward by a Jaina, who is a normal human being that has defeated internal passions. Jainism is founded on self-control and the dignity associated with this victorious achievement. All their other beliefs are diverse but are all centered on the purity of the soul and avoidance of violence.

Jainism may have influenced the emergence of Buddhism since Buddhists believe that Mahavira and Buddha were great contemporaries. Despite its low population, its influence has rapidly spread and has been felt in different regions of the world, including East Africa, the United States, and the United Kingdom.

Glasenapp, H. V. & Shrotri, S. B. (2006). Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation . Motilal: Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

Pruthi, R. (2004). Jainism and Indian civilization. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.

Shah, N. (1998). Jainism2 . Portland: Sussex Academic Press.

Shah, N. (1998). Jainism: the world of conquerors, Volume 1 . Brighton: Sussex Academic Press.

Thomas, E. (2010). Jainism: the early faith of Asoka . Lexington: Forgotten Books.

Titze, K. & Bruhn, K. (2008). Jainism: a pictorial guide to the religion of non-violence , Motilal: Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

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IvyPanda . 2020. "Jainism' Religion." April 27, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/jainism-religion/.

1. IvyPanda . "Jainism' Religion." April 27, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/jainism-religion/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Jainism' Religion." April 27, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/jainism-religion/.

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Literature of Jain Religion

Jainism , an ancient Indian religion, boasts a rich literary tradition that spans languages and centuries. The sacred texts and other literary works of Jainism serve as a guiding light for its followers, offering profound insights into spiritual philosophy and ethical conduct.

Early Developments

Jain literature traces its roots to the teachings of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, around the 6th century BCE. The earliest Jain texts were orally transmitted and later compiled into written scriptures known as Agamas, forming the foundation of Jain canonical literature.

Originally, the sacred teachings in Jainism were passed down orally, forming a tradition where historical leaders like Mahavira played a crucial role. These teachings were initially compiled into twelve sections called Angas, believed to be organized by Gautama and other principal students of Mahavira, known as Gandhara. The twelfth section included fourteen Purvas, considered as the complete and precise explanation of various aspects of Jain learning, as per legend.

Acharya Bhadrabahu, who lived between 367 – 298 BCE, was the final knower of the full Jain agamas. During the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, he served as the head of the Jain community. The agamas were collected based on the collective memory of ascetics in the first council of Pataliputra, led by Sthulibhadra around 463–367 BCE, following the Svetambara tradition. The council compiled eleven Angas, and the remnants of fourteen purvas were recorded in a 12th Anga.

However, the Digambara order held a different belief, rejecting these scriptures. They considered Acharya Bhutabali from the 1st Century CE as the last ascetic with partial knowledge of the ancient canon. According to the Digambaras, the Purvas and the original Agamas of Gautama were lost during the crises and famine of the Mauryan period.

List of 12 Angas of Jainism

Jain literature – agamas.

These are sacred writings believed to contain the teachings of the Jain tirthankaras. The Gandharas, who were immediate pupils of Mahavira, are said to have compiled these texts. Svetambaras consider these writings extremely important. A council of Svetambara sect monks at Vallabhi in Gujarat is said to have re-compiled the current Angas in the mid-5th century AD. However, the Digambara sect believes that the original teachings were lost long ago and does not consider the Agamas written in Vallabhi as authoritative.

The Agamas consist of 46 writings, including Twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Prakirnakas, four Mulasutras, six Chedasutras, and two Chulika Sutras. These texts were written in Ardha-Magadhi, a Prakrit language. The Angas impart teachings emphasizing respect for all forms of life, strict vegetarianism, asceticism, compassion, and nonviolence. There are a total of 12 Angas, each with specific themes.

Some notable Agamas include the Acharanga Sutra, the oldest agama, which addresses the conduct and behavior of monastic life and Lord Mahavira’s penance. The Sutrakritanga delves into the code of conduct for Jain monks and metaphysics. The Sthananga Sutra, Samavayanga Sutra, and Vyakhya Prajnapti or Bhagavati Sūtra cover discussions on the essence of Jainism, astronomy, mathematics, and more.

The Digambaras accord canonical status to the Karmaprabhrita (discussion on Karma) or Shatkhandagama and the Kashayaprabhrita. The Acharanga Sutra is the first of the twelve Anga Agamas and was the initial scripture studied by Jain monks. It addresses aspects of monastic life and Lord Mahavira’s penance. Linguistically, it is considered the oldest agama, written in Ardha Magadhi Prakrit.

Bhadrabahu, a tutor of Chandragupta Maurya, wrote the Kalpa Sutra. This scripture includes biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, particularly Parshvanath and Mahavira, along with Mahavira’s Nirvana. Given Bhadrabahu’s association with Chandragupta Maurya, it is presumed to have been written during the Mauryan period

Jain Literature – Non‑agama

Non-agam literature consists of commentaries and explanations of Agam literature, along with separate works created by ascetics and intellectuals. These writings are found in various languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.

Bhadrabahu is recognized for writing three sacred books in Jainism and Niryuktis, which are brief commentaries on the original 12 sacred books. There are conflicting accounts about Bhadrabahu’s whereabouts during a famine – some suggest he escaped to Nepal, while others believe he stayed in Mysore.

The Bhadrabahu Samhita was employed to gain a better understanding of Jaina jurisprudence. The study’s aim is to shed light on women’s rights in the ancient Jain era, determining whether they have been accurately represented in public perception or if arbitrary conclusions and uninformed misinterpretations have created a distorted view.

Other Literary works

Acharya Kundkund explains Jain philosophy in his works Samayasara and Niyamasara. Samanta Bhadra, in the second century AD, composed Ratna Karanda Sravakachara (Life of a Jaina Householder) and Aptamimansa.

Ilango Adigal’s Silappadikaram, written in the second century AD, is a moralistic discourse and considered one of the best epics in Tamil literature. It narrates the story of Kannagi seeking revenge on the Pandyan Dynasty after a miscarriage of justice at the Pandyan court.

Tirutakkatevar’s Civaka Cintamani is another Tamil epic, while the ancient Tamil text Nalatiyar was written by Jain monks. Umasvati’s Tattvartha-sutra, from the first and second centuries AD, is a significant Sanskrit work covering logic, epistemology, ethics, and astronomy.

Jinasena, a Digambara monk from the eighth and ninth centuries, wrote the Maha Purana and the Harivamsa Purana. He was a pupil of another renowned Jain monk, Virasena.

In the sixth century AD, Jain author Haribhadra Suri wrote in Sanskrit. Additionally, Hemachandra Suri, a famous scholar from the 12th century, wrote grammars in both Sanskrit and Prakrit.

Significance of Jain religion

Jain literature is believed to have played a role in developing various Indian languages. Jaina literary works can be found in Sanskrit, Marathi, Gujarati, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Rajasthani, Marwari, and Hindi. Kannada literature, for example, emerged from Jaina writings.

Subhas Chandra wrote the Pandava Purana, while Jinasena authored the Harivamsapurana. Ardhakathanaka by Banarsidas is considered the first autobiography in Braj Bhasha, seen as a precursor to Hindi. Apabhramsa, an ancient language, was used for writing several Jaina literary works, including Kahas and grammar. It is considered the ancestor of various Gangetic plains Indian languages.

Shauraseni, containing early Jaina literature, contributed to shaping languages like Gujarati and Marwari. From the 9th to the 12th centuries, Jain monks extensively wrote in Kannada.

Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna, well-known Jain authors, are considered the three jewels of Kannada literature. However, after the 12th and 13th centuries, as Hinduism resurged and Lingayats rose in Karnataka, Jainism’s popularity declined, leading to a decrease in literary production.

In conclusion, Jain literature stands as a testament to the profound spiritual heritage of Jainism. From the early developments rooted in the teachings of Lord Mahavira to the diverse array of Agamas and non-Agama works, Jain literature encapsulates the essence of this ancient faith. Its influence extends beyond the Jain community, leaving an indelible mark on the broader cultural and philosophical landscape of India.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What are jain agamas.

Jain Agamas are the primary canonical scriptures of Jainism, believed to have been directly spoken by Lord Mahavira. They form the foundational texts for understanding Jain philosophy and practice.

How is Jain literature classified?

Jain literature is classified into Agama and non-Agama categories. Agamas include canonical scriptures like Angas and Upangas, while non-Agama works encompass narrative compositions, commentaries, and poetic expressions.

What is the significance of Prabandhas in Jain literature?

Prabandhas are narrative compositions that vividly depict the lives of Tirthankaras. The “Kalpasutra” is a notable Prabandha, offering insights into the life of Lord Mahavira.

How has Jain literature influenced Indian culture?

Jain literature, with its emphasis on non-violence and ethical principles, has influenced not only Jain followers but also contributed to broader Indian cultural and intellectual traditions.

Who are some prominent Jain poets mentioned in the article?

Shubhachandra and Jinaprabha Suri are mentioned as revered Jain poets who have contributed significantly to Jain literature, crafting verses and poems that convey spiritual teachings and philosophical insights.

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Article: Sacred writings

Unlike monotheistic traditions, the Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jains do not have a unique holy book that characterises their faith. Instead they have a body of holy writings or scriptures . In India, they share this feature with the Buddhists. Hindus are in a similar position, even though they have the Vedas , which can be considered the ultimate source of teaching.

The Jina A 'victor' in Sanskrit, a <strong>Jina</strong> is an enlightened human being who has triumphed over karma and teaches the way to achieve liberation. A synonym for <strong>Tīrthaṃkara</strong>, which means 'ford-maker' or one who has founded a community after reaching omniscience through asceticism. The most famous 24 – Ṛṣabha to Mahāvīra – were born in the Bharata-kṣetra of the middle world, but more are found in other continents. There have been Jinas in the past and there will be some in the future. " >Jinas , especially the 24th, Mahāvīra , are the ultimate source of teaching for all Jains. All sects agree that this teaching was first transmitted orally. All are also aware that in the course of time this teaching changed, with some parts altered through faulty memorisation or simply lost. They dispute, however, which parts have survived and which have survived in amended form. This is why Śvetāmbaras and Digambaras do not agree about which scriptures are authoritative.

The Śvetāmbaras have a canon of 32 or 45 Āgamas , made up of several types of scripture . Believing that all the original Āgamas have been lost for centuries, the Digambaras have a different canon . They hold that two texts preserve parts of the Pūrva s or original teachings of the Jinas. These and other early texts make up their scriptures.

Both sects agree on only a single scripture. The Tattvārtha-sūtra contains the main doctrines of the Jain faith , though the two main sects have slightly different versions and composition dates.

Knowledge of what is now in written form is essential to being a good Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain . It is included in the second type of knowledge in Jain epistemology – śruta-jñāna – ‘knowledge of what has been heard’. In the often fervent debates about the importance of this knowledge in spiritual development, one powerful view says that scriptural knowledge is not enough by itself.

Although scriptural knowledge is very important, access to holy texts has frequently been restricted. In some sects particular scriptures are still limited to certain groups, such as male mendicants. Lay access to holy writings has usually been under the guidance of mendicants and often has not been direct and unmediated. Printing and editing the scriptures are thus relatively recent activities.

Whether they have access to the textual material through which the Jinas’ teaching came to be handed down or not, all Jains are aware of the existence of their holy writings. These writings are the basis of their ritual and religious life and are venerated in various ways. The most striking examples are individual Śvetāmbara and Digambara festivals in which holy texts form the centrepieces.

Terms and classifications

Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain holy texts Image by Malaiya © CC BY-SA 3.0

The word ‘ canon ’ for the Jain holy writings is increasingly felt to be inadequate, for it implies an unchanging body of texts sanctioned by a central authority. Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jains commonly use the words siddhānta and āgama , which are pan-Indian terms. The former term conveys the idea of validity and authority, and is perhaps more common among Digambaras . The latter term means ‘what has come down to us’ or tradition.

Other terms used in Prakrit are ‘open teaching of Monk A man who has taken a public vow to withdraw from ordinary life to formally enter religious life and advance spiritually. Frequently, monks perform physical austerities or undergo physical hardships in order to progress spiritually. " >monks ’ – niggantha-pāvayaṇa – or ‘basket of the chief disciples ’ – gaṇi -pi ḍaga . These are both in the singular and refer to the primary sources of the teaching as something global.

To a large extent, the concepts of siddhānta and āgama denote fluid groupings that are open to change. For practical purposes, various categories of the scriptures have taken shape over time and have been populated with specific texts. Whereas some categories are fairly fixed, others can be extended or reduced. The number of items in each group may play a role in sectarian identity because some may be rejected as apocryphal.

The terms āgama and siddhānta may also be understood as even broader groupings, covering any text with a Jain author that teaches some aspect of the tradition – whether commentary , hymn , story or treatise. These forms are all regarded as media meant to ‘awaken’ the ‘somnolent sūtras ’ (Dundas 1996).

Therefore classifications of Jain scriptures may use various criteria. Different classifications may thus be compatible.

Each of the items in both classes contains a number of texts that may be either fixed or varying, according to the criteria adopted.

The Śvetāmbara canon comprises either 32 or 45 texts, depending on the Sect An organised group of believers in a religion, often distinguished from other groups within the same religious faith who have differences of doctrine or practice. " >sect .

Chief disciples – the gaṇadharas

Indrabhūti Gautama preaches Image by British Library © CC0 1.0 (Creative Commons Public Domain)

‘A Jina A 'victor' in Sanskrit, a <strong>Jina</strong> is an enlightened human being who has triumphed over karma and teaches the way to achieve liberation. A synonym for <strong>Tīrthaṃkara</strong>, which means 'ford-maker' or one who has founded a community after reaching omniscience through asceticism. The most famous 24 – Ṛṣabha to Mahāvīra – were born in the Bharata-kṣetra of the middle world, but more are found in other continents. There have been Jinas in the past and there will be some in the future. " >Jina utters the meaning, the chief disciples put together the text skilfully’. This oft-quoted statement from the Āvaśayaka- niryukti , an early Śvetāmbara commentary , describes the process of teaching and the respective roles of the Jina and his chief disciples.

The chief disciples – gaṇadhara s – are the closest followers of a Jina, who have taken mendicant vows in his presence and form the core of his fourfold community . Mahāvīra , for instance, has 11, who are said to be converted brahmins . They are the only ones who can understand the Jina’s meaning from the various lectures and discussions he leads over time. They shape it so it can be passed on to others, resulting in the 14 Pūrvas and the 12 Aṅgas .

The differences in Śvetāmbara and Digambara understanding of the ‘divine sound ’ may influence the role of the chief disciples. It could be more important among the Digambaras since the gaṇadharas have to translate into words a sound that does not correspond to any specific language.

The chief disciples attain final liberation without further rebirth and cannot continue their activities as monastic leaders or teachers after they have reached omniscience – kevala-jñāna . Thus they must ensure that they transmit the Jina ’s teachings while still ordinary Monk A man who has taken a public vow to withdraw from ordinary life to formally enter religious life and advance spiritually. Frequently, monks perform physical austerities or undergo physical hardships in order to progress spiritually. " >monks .

Chain of oral transmission

Jambū-svāmin and his eight wives Image by Wellcome Trust Library © Wellcome Library, London

In theory only the Jina A 'victor' in Sanskrit, a <strong>Jina</strong> is an enlightened human being who has triumphed over karma and teaches the way to achieve liberation. A synonym for <strong>Tīrthaṃkara</strong>, which means 'ford-maker' or one who has founded a community after reaching omniscience through asceticism. The most famous 24 – Ṛṣabha to Mahāvīra – were born in the Bharata-kṣetra of the middle world, but more are found in other continents. There have been Jinas in the past and there will be some in the future. " >Jinas and their chief disciples are involved in passing on teachings orally. Each of the Jinas has direct disciples, but nothing much is known about their exact role in transmission. Precise evidence is available only for the 24th Jina, Mahāvīra .

Mahāvīra’s first chief disciple was Indrabhūti Gautama . But he attained omniscience on the day Mahāvīra died, which is commemorated in Dīvālī . Then the leader and preacher was Sudharman, who attained omniscience 12 years after Mahāvīra’s death. He was thus in a position to preach and lead Mahāvīra’s community during this 12-year period.

Sudharman taught his disciple , Jambū, as the introduction to many Aṅgas shows. When Sudharman died, at the age of 100, the first generation of Mahāvīra’s disciples was extinct. Jambū was the first ‘ elder ’ – sthavira . He became the leader of the monastic community and the chief teacher for eight years. When he attained omniscience and final liberation in the 64th year after Mahāvīra’s death, he was the last person to be liberated in this time cycle .

Jambū’s successors continued to transmit Mahāvīra ’s message by memorising it, with their followers doing the same. The first ‘ elders ’ who followed Jambū were:

• Śayyambhava, around 429 BCE
• Yaśobhadra
• Bhadrabāhu in the 4th century BCE, who was the last to master the 14 Pūrvas
• Sthūlabhadra.

More elders are traditional, with the full list forming the topic of the second part of the Kalpa-sūtra , the ‘ Sthavirāvalī ’ or ‘String of Elders ‘. This list is also found at the opening of another work in the Śvetāmbara canon , the Nandī-sūtra . Legends about the main elders are knitted together in Hemacandra’s Pariśiṣṭa-parvan – Lives of the Elders – written in the 12th century (Fynes 1998).

Crises and losses

Bhadrabāhu’s sacred footprints Image by Ilya Mauter © CC BY-SA 2.5

Legendary accounts show that a major crisis occurred around 300 BCE in the area of eastern India where the Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain community had originated and was strong. A 12-year famine in the Magadha region proved disastrous. The accounts explain why the Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras have such different canons of holy writings. Dating from much later than the events they describe, the traditional stories suppose that the split between the two sects had already taken place. In fact, at the time of the famine, these two groups are emerging as separate factions.

According to Digambara sources, Bhadrabāhu led a fraction of the monastic community to the south, to today’s Karnatak , to escape the effects of the long famine. The Emperor Candragupta was also part of the group. Both Bhadrabāhu and Candragupta are thought to have fasted unto death in Shravana Belgola . Some 12 years later Bhadrabāhu’s followers went back to Pāṭaliputra, modern-day Patna and the capital of the ancient kingdom of Magadha. There they discovered that Sthūlabhadra had organised a recitation of the holy writings , which produced an official revised edition or recension. The returned monks disagreed with the recension. The northerners had also given up practising nudity while the community had been split up. The group that refused to accept these two innovations are those who were later called Digambaras.

Śvetāmbara  sources say that Bhadrabāhu did not go south but went to Nepal. Organising a recitation of the sacred texts in Pāṭaliputra, Sthūlabhadra asked Bhadrabāhu to recite the Pūrvas , which only he knew.

Both sects agree that Bhadrabāhu was the last person to memorise the whole of the 14 texts. After he died they both hold that only part of the Pūrvas was still known, until, finally, they became extinct. They disagree, however, on when exactly he died. Digambaras believe he died 175 years after the traditional date of Mahāvīra’s death, around 352 BCE. The Śvetāmbara Sect An organised group of believers in a religion, often distinguished from other groups within the same religious faith who have differences of doctrine or practice. " >sect holds that he died 162 years after Mahāvīra , which is 348 BCE.

Śvetāmbara canon

The elder Sthūlabhadra Image by Wellcome Trust Library © Wellcome Library, London

This part of the story does not concern the Digambaras . Since they denied the authenticity of the first recitation at Pāṭaliputra, they view later ones in the same light. These councils produced what is known as the Śvetāmbara canon , which dates back to the 5th century.

The elders and teachers recognised that natural disasters or other crises threatened the preservation of the tradition. They made successive attempts to collect whatever was available during official recitations – vācanās – or ‘councils’.

Sthūlabhadra presided over the first council, which strengthened the growing divisions between the two groups that would later be known as the major Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain   sects . It took place in Pāṭaliputra ‘160 years after Mahāvīra ’s death’, which would correspond to 367 BCE. At that time, the Pūrvas and the 12th Aṅga , the Dŗṣṭi-vāda , were already lost.

The next recitations took place in the 4th century CE <b>Common Era</b><br> The period of time starting with the year when Jesus Christ was traditionally believed to have been born. Using CE is a more secular way of dating events in a multinational, multi-religious world. " >CE , though it is possible that the texts had begun to be written down earlier. The second recitation was held at Mathurā in modern-day Uttar Pradesh, under the supervision of Skandila- sūri . A concurrent council took place at Valabhī , in Gujarat , led by Nāgārjuna. These two recitations were apparently irreconcilable. Scattered traces of the readings adopted by the ‘Nāgārjunīyas’ are preserved in the surviving  Śvetāmbara scriptures but no more than that.

The final redaction of the Śvetāmbara canon was achieved during a council at Valabhī in the 5th century. According to tradition, the religious teacher Devarddhigaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa organised the council ‘980 or 993 years’ after Mahāvīra’s death, which is 453 or 466 CE. All the accounts of the episode are much later but it appears that council attendees agreed to write down everything that remained to avoid more losses than had already occurred.

• Digambara canon

What the Digambaras view as authoritative reflections of the early teachings are works that they believe were put into writing in the 2nd century CE . They are the Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama and the Kaṣāya-prābhŗta . They are fragments of the Pūrvas , which were all that the oral tradition had saved by that time.

Beyond boundaries – the Tattvārtha-sūtra

Because Digambaras and Śvetāmbara have different canons , it is important to underline the unique place of another Jain holy writing – the Tattvārtha-sūtra .

This is the only text accepted as an essential scripture by all Jain sects . There are disagreements about the date it was written and differences in the Digambara and Śvetāmbara versions of the text.

However, the Tattvārtha-sūtra sums up key beliefs of Jainism and its authority remains strong. Commentaries reflect these sectarian differences but also emphasise the place of the scripture at the heart of the Jain tradition. This is the reason the Tattvārtha- sūtra was selected to represent Jainism in the Sacred Literature Series, which organises the publication of key texts in different faiths. It was translated into English under the title That Which Is .

Initially, the language of the Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jain scriptures was an issue – it was Prakrit against Sanskrit . But in later phases various languages came to coexist and have been used in different contexts in India, where multi-linguism has always been widespread.

Palm-leaf manuscript Image by Nalini Balbir © Nalini Balbir

Both the Digambara and the Śvetāmbara Āgamas are written in Prakrit, not Sanskrit. This is considered to have been a deliberate choice. In Mahāvīra ’s time Sanskrit was the language of the sacred texts of the brahmin s and appears to have been reserved for an ‘elite’. As Mahāvīra ’s teaching was ‘open’ to all – an idea that the term pavayaṇa might convey – it was written in the most widely understood language.

The Śvetāmbara Āgamas in the strict sense of the term are written in the variety of Prakrit known as Ardhamāgadhī , with a mixture of another form of Prakrit called Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī. The former is associated with the region of eastern India, where Mahāvīra preached , and the latter with western India. Jain Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term 'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common. " >Jains migrated west later, and western India is where the final redaction of the scriptures took place, at Valabhī in Gujarat . Somebody who understands one of the two can also understand the other. The differences are grammatical. The degree of blend depends on the texts. Those which are considered ‘early’, such as the Ācārānga-sūtra , are more Ardhamāgadhī.

Early commentaries on the Śvetāmbara canon were also written in Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit , such as:

• the verse niryuktis and bhāṣyas , in the first centuries CE <b>Common Era</b><br> The period of time starting with the year when Jesus Christ was traditionally believed to have been born. Using CE is a more secular way of dating events in a multinational, multi-religious world. " >CE
• the prose cūrṇis in the 6th to 7th centuries CE.

In their first phase the Digambara Āgamas are written in the variety of Prakrit known as Jaina Śaurasenī . Again, this is not altogether a distinct language. The differences from other Prakrits mainly relate to phonetics.

Digambaras also used a later form of Prakrit known as Apabhraṃśa , which is the language of some poetical treatises and narratives.

Pañca-pāṭha style of manuscript commentary Image by British Library © The British Library Board

In around the 5th century CE Jain writers began to use Sanskrit for certain scriptures . Though these texts were not believed to represent the earliest tradition, they have the status of quasi- canonical works, because Sanskrit was felt to be the language of knowledge and intellectual debate. The best-known example is the Tattvārtha-sūtra .

Most commentaries on the scriptures among both Śvetāmbaras and Digambaras were written in Sanskrit. It has remained a trans-regional language of culture.

Full details

Some features of the annual Digambara festival of knowledge – Śruta-pañcamī – are demonstrated in this YouTube video, such as the worship ritual and the procession of holy texts. Temple rites include the ritual anointment of freestanding metal plaques representing holy texts and idols, accompanied by jangling percussion. The main part of the ritual shown in this video centres around the worship of the śruta-skandha-yantra , a plaque made of brass in the form of a tree, which represents the kinds of scriptures Digambaras recognise. Carried in procession, the sacred books are garlanded with flowers and flanked by attendants using fly-whisks, which indicate the princely status of the artefacts, while devotees kneel before a naked monk and touch his feet. The Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama , the main authoritative source of Digambara teachings, is the book worshipped here.

This three-part YouTube video records the festival at Mudalur, Tamil Nadu in India, held over 28th and 29th May 2009. This is the first part and you can watch the second part at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M-I9AYjIcAc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5S2bcehoy-U

The procession of holy texts in the annual Digambara festival of knowledge – Śruta-pañcamī – is the main subject of this YouTube video. As the centre of festivities, the sacred books are decorated with flower garlands. They are placed on a model elephant, protected from the sun by a canopy and fanned with fly-whisks, all symbols of royalty. The Jain flag is waved in front. Lay Jains, many dressed in orange – the colour of spirituality in India – take part in the noisy procession. Some carry the metal sculptures of the 12 dreams of a Jina’s birth. A nude monk, holding his peacock-feather broom, and white-clad nuns also participate. The procession ends with a display of holy books, the reflection of which is ritually anointed, and a rite of worship in which the auspicious symbol of the svastika can be clearly seen.

This three-part YouTube video records the festival at Mudalur, Tamil Nadu in India, held over 28th and 29th May 2009. This is the second part and you can watch the last part at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zR21K-vcp5U

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M-I9AYjIcAc

This YouTube video follows the end of the first day’s events of the annual Digambara festival of knowledge – Śruta-pañcamī . First, a rite of worship before a brightly coloured rangoli – a design of coloured powder or rice symbolising joy and welcome – is performed. The lay community files past the rangoli and metal sculpture representing knowledge while monks and lay people chant a Sanskrit hymn. This song praises knowledge, omniscience, the scriptures and the goddess Sarasvatī , who embodies knowledge. Behind the rangoli piles of holy books can be seen, which have been carried in procession through the village as guides to knowledge. After the fire ritual, an inititation ceremony – dīkṣā – of a new monk, featuring keśa-loca   – ‘pulling out of the hair’ – takes place before the crowd. Afterwards, they move trays of fire in circles – āratī – offering pūja or worship to the new mendicant. An anointing ceremony – abhiṣeka – of the māna-stambha pillar found in front of Jain temples follows, with a final procession past the symbols of knowledge.

This three-part YouTube video records the festival at Mudalur, Tamil Nadu in India, held over 28th and 29th May 2009. This is the final part and you can watch the first part at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5S2bcehoy-U

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zR21K-vcp5U

Attributed to LaPlante, an engraving entitled 'Religious Service of the Jains, Bombay', published in the Illustrated London News in 1875. A monk is shown sitting in the lotus position with a bookstand to his right. The lay Jains sit on the floor to hear his sermon.

From the collection of Professor Frances W. Pritchett of Columbia University in New York.

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1000_1099/jaintemples/jainlife/iln1875max.jpg

The Jain eLibrary provides PDFs or other files of Jain texts to download for non-commercial purposes. Scriptures, commentaries, dictionaries, articles, magazines and books on all aspects of Jainism are available in many languages, including English and modern Indian languages. Most sects are represented and both ancient and contemporary works are included.

Only registered users who have signed into the site can download material. To register, you must provide a valid email address, a password and some personal details.

You will need to have Adobe Acrobat Reader on your computer to open PDF files.

https://jainelibrary.org

Based in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, the Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology is a national centre affiliated to the National Mission for Manuscripts. With a library of manuscripts, it has a specific section for manuscript preservation and cataloguing. In addition to holding seminars for researchers into Śvetāmbara Jainism, the L. D. Institute publishes books and the  Sambodhi  journal in English, Hindi and Gujarati. The L. D. Museum, on the same site, holds an important collection of Jain artefacts – statues, manuscripts, the N. C. Mehta Collection of paintings and a gallery of monastic equipment that belonged to Muni Puṇyavijaya.

http://www.ldmuseum.co.in/

Based around the pilgrimage site of Mahaviralaya – a temple dedicated to Mahāvīra, the last Jina – Mahavir Aradhana Kendra is a manuscript library and research institute, which publishes academic books, chiefly on Śvetāmbara Jainism. There is also a museum that includes the monastic equipment used by Gacchādhipati Ācārya Śrī Kailāsaāgara-sūrīśvara Mahārāj.

http://kobatirth.org/default.aspx

The Parshvanath Vidyashram Research Institute focuses on research into Śvetāmbara Jainism. Based in Varanasi, in Uttar Pradesh, it has a manuscript library and publishes books and the Śramaṇ journal in Hindi and English.

http://parshwanathvidyapeeth.org/

The Bhogilal Leherchand Institute of Indology in New Delhi focuses on scholarly research into Śvetāmbara Jainism. With a library of manuscripts for research, it organises academic seminars and publishes scholarly books.

http://blinstitute.org/

• a Abhinandana
• a Abhiṣeka
• a Ācāra
• a Ācārāṅga-sūtra
• a Ācārya
• a Achalbhrata
• a Aḍhāī-dvīpa
• a Adho-loka
• a Adhyayana
• a Advaita Vedānta
• a Āgama
• a Aghātīya
• a Aghātīya-karman
• a Agnibhuti
• a Āhāra
• a Ahiṃsā
• a Ahimsa Day
• a Ajīva
• a Ākāśa
• a Akbar the Great
• a Akṣaya-tṛtīyā
• a Alauddin Khalji
• a Albert Einstein
• a Ālocanā
• a Aloka-ākāśa
• a Amāri
• a Ambikā or Kūṣmāṇḍinī
• a Anagāra
• a Anarthadaṇḍa
• a Anaśana
• a Anekānta-vāda
• a Aṅga
• a Aniconism
• a Anojjā
• a Antarāla
• a Antarāya-karma
• a Aṇu
• a Aṇu-vrata
• a Anukampā
• a Anuprekṣā
• a Anusvāra
• a Apabhraṃśa
• a Aparigraha
• a Ārambha
• a Ārambhaja
• a Āratī
• a Ardhamāgadhī Prākrit
• a Arhaṃ
• a Arśana-āvaraṇīya-karma
• a Ārta-dhyāna
• a Āryikā
• a Āryikā Jñānamati
• a Āśātanā
• a Āścarya
• a Asceticism
• a Aspiration
• a Āsrava
• a Aṣṭa-maṅgala
• a Aṣṭāpada
• a Astikāya
• a Astrolabe
• a Aticāra
• a Atiśayakṣetra
• a Atithisaṃvibhāgavrata
• a Ātma-vāda
• a Ātman
• a Auṃ
• a Aurangzeb
• a Auspicious
• a Austerity
• a Avadhāna
• a Avadhi-jñāna
• a Āvaraṇī-yakarman
• a Avasarpiṇī
• a Avatāra
• a Avidyā
• a Āyāga-paṭa
• a Āyambil
• a Āyu-karma
• a Āyurveda
• b Bāhubali
• b Bālāvabodha
• b Bhadrankarvijay
• b Bhagavant
• b Bhaktāmara-stotra
• b Bhāṣā
• b Bhāṣya
• b Bhaṭṭāraka
• b Bhāva
• b Bhāva-pūjā
• b Bhāvanā
• b Bhavana-vāsin
• b Bhavyatva
• b Bhoga-bhūmi
• b Bhogopabhoga
• b Bollywood
• b Brahmā
• b Brahma-deva
• b Brahmacārī
• b Brāhmaṇa
• b Braj Bhāṣā
• b Bright fortnight
• b British Raj
• b Buddhi-sagar
• c Caityavāsin
• c Cakravartin
• c Cakreśvarī
• c Cāmara
• c Candanā
• c Candragupta
• c Candraprabha
• c Cāritra
• c Cāritramohanīya-karman
• c Carũrī
• c Caturvidha-saṅgha
• c Caturviṃśati-stava
• c Cāturyāma
• c Chadmastha
• c Cheda-sūtra
• c Christian
• c Christianity
• c Commentary
• c Confession
• c Congregation
• c Consecration
• c Cosmology
• c Cremation
• c Cūrṇi
• d Dādā-guru
• d Dāna
• d Daṇḍa
• d Dark fortnight
• d Darśana
• d Darśanamohanī-yakarman
• d Daśa-lakṣaṇa-parvan
• d Delhi Sultanate
• d Derāsar
• d Deśāvakāśika-vrata
• d Detachment
• d Devanāgarī
• d Devānandā
• d Devarddhi-gani
• d Dhanuṣ
• d Dhāra
• d Dharma-dhyāna
• d Dharma-sāgara
• d Dharmastikaya
• d Dhātakīkhaṇḍa
• d Dhyāna
• d Dig-vrata
• d Digambara
• d Dīkṣā
• d Dīvālī
• d Divya-dhvani
• d Doṣa
• d Dravya-pūjā
• d Duṣamā
• d Duṣamā-duṣamā
• d Duṣamā-suṣamā
• d Dveṣa
• d Dvīpa
• e East India Company
• e Eightfold Path
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• f Farmān
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• f Four Noble Truths
• g Gaṇa
• g Gaṇadhara
• g Ganadharavada
• g Gaṇeśa
• g Gaṇin
• g Garbha-gṛha
• g Garuḍa
• g Ghātī-yakarman
• g Ghātīya
• g Ghaznavid
• g Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
• g Gotra-karma
• g Gujarāt
• g Guṇa
• g Guṇa-sthāna
• g Guṇa-vrata
• g Guruṇī
• h Hagiography
• h Haṃsa
• h Haribhadra
• h Hariṇaigameṣin
• h Hiṃsā
• h Hīravijaya
• h Horoscope
• h Hrīṃ
• i Iconoclasm
• i Iconography
• i Indian Independence
• i Indrabhūti Gautama
• i Initiation
• i Intercession
• i Invocation
• i Islamicate
• i Iṣṭadevatā
• i Īśvara
• j Jaina Devanāgarī
• j Jaina Śaurasenī
• j Jaina-dharma
• j Jainaśāsana
• j Jaisalmer
• j Jamāli
• j Jambū-dvīpa
• j James Burgess
• j Janma-kalyāṇa
• j Jarā
• j Jāti
• j Jina-āgama
• j Jina-bhavana
• j Jina-bimba
• j Jina-mātā
• j Jinacandra-sūri
• j Jinadatta
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• j Jñāna
• j Jñāna-āvaraṇīya-karma
• j Jñāna-āvarṇiya
• j Jñānsundar
• j Jyotiṣka
• k Kāla
• k Kālakācārya-kathā
• k Kālidāsa
• k Kalpa-sūtra
• k Kalpa-vṛkṣa
• k Kalyāṇaka
• k Kalyanvijay
• k Kamaṇḍalu
• k Kamaṭha
• k Karma-bhūmi
• k Karma-grantha
• k Karma-prakṛti
• k Karma-vāda
• k Karnataka
• k Kaṣāya
• k Kathā
• k Kāvya
• k Kāya
• k Kāyotsarga
• k Keśa-loca
• k Kevala-jñāna
• k Kharatara-gaccha
• k Knowledge
• k Kriyā
• k Kriyā-vāda
• k Kṛṣṇa
• k Kṣamā-śramaṇa
• k Kṣapakaśreṇi
• k Kṣatriya
• k Kṣullaka
• k Kundakunda
• l Lāñchana
• l Lands of Action
• l Laukāntika
• l Lavaṇa-samudra
• l Leśyā
• l Liṅga
• l Linguistics
• l Loka-ākāśa
• l Loka-puruṣa
• l Loka-vāda
• l Lotus lake
• m Madhya-loka
• m Mahā-videha
• m Mahā-vrata
• m Mahābhārata
• m Mahāmastakābhiṣeka
• m Māhārāṣṭra
• m Māhārāṣṭrī Prākrit
• m Mahattarā Yākinī
• m Mahāvīr Jayantī
• m Mahāvīra
• m Makāra
• m Makkhali Gośāla
• m Māna-stambha
• m Manaḥ-paryāya-jñāna
• m Maṇḍala
• m Maṇḍapa
• m Maṅgala
• m Manuṣya-loka
• m Marāṭhī
• m Mārgaṇā
• m Marudevī
• m Maṭha
• m Mati-jñāna
• m Mauryaputra
• m Mendicant lineage
• m Mithyādṛṣṭi
• m Mohandas Gandhi
• m Mohanīya-karma
• m Mokṣa
• m Monastic order
• m Monasticism
• m Monotheism
• m Mount Meru
• m Mount Sammeta
• m Mṛgāvatī
• m Muhammad bin Tughlaq
• m Muhpattī
• m Mūla-sūtra
• m Mūlaguṇa
• m Mumbaī
• m Munisuvrata
• m Murad Bakhsh
• m Mūrti-pūjaka
• m Mysticism
• n Nābhi
• n Nāga-kal
• n Nāgapurīya Tapā-gaccha
• n Nāgarī
• n Nāma-karma
• n Namaskāra-mantra
• n Nandīśvara-dvīpa
• n Nandivardhana
• n Nandyāvarta
• n Nāraka
• n Nāraki
• n Nasalisation
• n Nātha
• n Navrātrī
• n Naya-vāda
• n Nidāna
• n niggaṃthāṇa vā 2
• n niggaṃtho vā 2
• n Nikṣepa
• n Nirgrantha
• n Nirjarā
• n Nirvāṇa
• n Niṣidhi
• n No-kaṣāya
• o Ocean of milk
• o Omniscience
• o Ordination
• p Padmaprabha
• p Padmāsana
• p Padmāvatī
• p Pādukā
• p Palanquin
• p Pañca-muṣṭi
• p Pāṇḍava
• p Paṇḍit
• p Pandit Dalsukh D. Malvania
• p Pandit Sukhlalji
• p Pāṇipātra
• p Pāpa
• p Paramātman
• p Parameṣṭhin
• p Pāraṇā
• p Parigraha
• p Pariṇāma
• p Parīṣaha
• p Parokṣa
• p Pārśva
• p Pārśvanātha
• p Paryāya
• p Paryuṣaṇ
• p Paṭa
• p Pātra
• p Philology
• p Picchikā
• p Pilgrimage
• p Poṣadha
• p Possession
• p Pothī
• p Pradakṣiṇā
• p Pradeśa
• p Prākāra
• p Prakīrṇaka-sūtra
• p Prākrit
• p Pramāda
• p Pramukhā
• p Prati-vāsudeva
• p Pratikramaṇa
• p Pratimā
• p Pratiṣṭhā
• p Pratyākhyāna
• p Pratyakṣa
• p Pravacana
• p Prāyaścitta
• p Pre-modern
• p Predestination
• p Protestant
• p Provenance
• p Pūjā
• p Pujārī
• p Pukharavara-dvīpa
• p Puṇya
• p Pūrva
• p Puṣkara-dvīpa
• p Puṣpadanta
• q Qur’an
• r Rāga
• r Rāhu
• r Rainy season
• r Rajasthan
• r Rajasthani
• r Rājimatī
• r Rajoharaṇa
• r Rāma
• r Rāmāyaṇa
• r Rās-garbā
• r Rathanemi
• r Ratna-traya
• r Rātri-bhojana
• r Raudra-dhyāna
• r Renunciation
• r Retroflex
• r Revatī
• % Ṛg-veda
• % Ṛṣabha
• % Ṛṣabhanātha
• s Saciyā Mātā
• s Sādhu
• s Sādhvī
• s Sāgāra
• s Śaivaism
• s Śaka-saṃvat
• s Sallekhanā
• s Śalya
• s Samacatuṣṭha
• s Samādhimaraṇa
• s Samaṇi
• s Sāmarambha
• s Samavasaraṇa
• s Sāmāyika
• s Saṃbhava
• s Saṃjñā
• s Saṃkalpaja
• s Saṃsāra
• s Samudghāta
• s Saṃvara
• s Saṃvega
• s Samyak-cāritra
• s Samyak-darśana
• s Samyak-jñāna
• s Samyaktva
• s Saṃyama
• s Sanctuary
• s Sandalwood
• s Saṇgha
• s Śānti
• s Sapta-bhaṅgi-naya
• s Sārambha
• s Sarasvatī
• s Sarvajña
• s Sāsan-devi
• s Śāsana-devatā
• s Śāstra
• % Ṣaṭ-jīvanikāya
• s Satī
• s Satīmātā
• s Scripture
• s Secularism
• s Śenāī
• s Śeṣavatī
• s Sevā
• s Seven fields of donation
• s Shah Jahan
• s Shantidas Jhaveri
• s Siddha-śilā
• s Siddhacakra or Navadevatā
• s Siddhānta
• s Siddhārtha
• s Śikṣā-vrata
• s Śīla
• s Śītala
• s Śiva
• s Somanatha
• s Śraddhā
• s Śramaṇa
• s Śrāvaka
• s Śrāvakācāra
• s Śrāvikā
• s Śreyāṃsa
• s Śrī
• s Śrīvatsa
• s Śruta-jñāna
• s Śruta-pañcamī
• s Sthānaka-vāsin
• s Sthāpanācārya
• s Sthāvara
• s Strīmukti
• s Stūpa
• s Subcontinent
• s Sudarshana
• s Śuddhi
• s Śūdra
• s Śukla-dhyāna
• s Sulasā
• s Sundarśrī
• s Supārśva
• s Sūri
• s Suṣamā
• s Suṣamā-duṣamā
• s Suṣamā-suṣamā
• s Sūtra
• s Suyam me ausam! Tenam bhagavaya evamakkhayam
• s Svādhyāya
• s Svāhā
• s Śvetāmbara
• s Śvetāmbara Terāpanthin
• s Śvetāmbaras
• s Syād-vāda
• t Tapā-gaccha
• t Tāraṇ Svāmī Panth
• t Tattvārtha-sūtra
• t Temple-city
• t The Enlightenment
• t Three worlds
• % Ṭīkā
• t Tīrtha
• t Tīrthaṃkaranāma-karman
• t Tīrthankara
• t Transliteration
• t Trasa-nāḍī
• t Triśalā
• t Triṣaṣṭi-śalākā-puruṣa-caritra
• u Universal History
• u Upādhyāya
• u Upāṅga
• u Upaniṣads
• u Upāsaka
• u Upāśraya
• u Ūrdhva-loka
• u Utsarpiṇī
• u Uttarādhyayana-sūtra
• v Vāhana
• v Vaimānika
• v Vairāgya
• v Vaiṣṇava
• v Vaiśramaṇa
• v Vaiśya
• v Valabhī
• v Vanaspatikāya
• v Vaṇik
• v Varṇa
• v Vāsudeva
• v Vāsupūjya
• v Vayubhūti
• v Vedanīya-karma
• v Vegetarianism
• v Vernacular
• v Vidyā
• v Vidyā-devī
• v Vihāra
• v Vijñapti-patra
• v Vikrama-saṃvat
• v Vikṛti
• v Vipāka
• v Virji Vora
• v Virodhaja
• v Vīrya
• v Viṣṇu
• v Vītarāga
• y Yakṣa
• y Yakṣī
• y Yaśoda
• y Yaśovijaya
• y Yātrā
• y Yoginī

• Śvetāmbara Mūrti-pūjaka
• Mendicant orders

The British Library Board Or. 13741 Mānatunga perhaps 18th to 19th centuries

Victoria and Albert Museum IS 83-1963 unknown 15th century

Wellcome Trust Library Gamma 3 unknown 1503

• The JAIN UNIVERSE ONLINE

Essay on Jainism in India

Jainism has great antiquity. According to the Jains their religion originated in the remotest ages. They believed that Mahavira, the last Tirthankara was preceded by twenty-three other prophets.

Mahavira was the twenty-fourth one. The historicity of the first twenty-two Tirthankaras starting from Rishabhnath to Neminath is doubtful. They are all shadowy figures wrapped up in mythology.

The twenty-third Tirthankar Parsvanath seems to be a historical personage. He was the son of king Asvasena of Benares who had abandoned the royal life to be a sage. His teachings gave a formal shape to Jainism.

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The twenty-fourth Tirtliankara of Jainism, Mahavir, followed his predecessor Parsvanath after 250 years. But he definitely placed the religion on a firm footing. He improved upon an already existing faith and made it very widespread and influential. His message endeared him to the heart of the people.

Main Tenets of Jainism:

Many religious movements have contributed their different hues to the multi-coloured canvas of ancient Indian culture. Among those religious and philosophical streams Jainism occupies a prominent position for its rational approach.

The main tenets of Jainism are as follows:

Panchayama Dharma:

Vardhaman Mahavir accepted the four doctrines of Parsvanath, the 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism.

1. Non-injury to living beings

2. Speaking the truth

3. Non-possession of property

4. Not stealing.

To these four principles Mahavira added a fifth one, namely, celibacy. By following these five doctrines one can attain eternal bliss or Self-realization. Out of the five doctrines Ahimsa or non-injury is the most important one. Mahavir emphasised the need of Ahimsa in every walk of human life. To develop the practice of non-violence one should try to give up thoughts of worldly attachment.

The practice of the above five principles or Panchayama dharma depended to a great extent on a pure and spiritual life. So to make life more sanctified Mahavir prescribed ways to observe three qualities which are better known as Triratna or three jewels of Jainism.

1. Right faith.

2. Right knowledge.

3. Right conduct.

Practice of these three qualities purifies the heart. The practitioner becomes conscious of irrelevant worldly attachment.

Dual Existence:

The Jain philosophy centres round the philosophy of dual existence of soul and matter. In other words human personality comprised of material and spiritual matter. Material things will perish. But spiritual things are eternal. These two things in a way cover the entire existence in the form of Jiva or conscious and the Ajiva or unconscious.

The Jiva corresponds to soul which itself is imperceptible, but its presence can be felt by the qualities of a material body. The Ajiva corresponds to matter whose essential characteristic is that of lack of consciousness.

The link between Jiva and Ajiva is the doctrine of Karma. It is the Karma or action which decides the future of the soul, if man does not perform the right Karma in his life time, then he will face an unending cycle of rebirth. But through severe austerity and self-mortification one can reduce the influence of bondage and move towards liberation.

The entire universe functions through interaction of living souls (Jiva) and five categories of non-living (Ajiva) entities such as:

1. Akasha (Space)

2. Dharma (Principle of Motion)

3. Adharma (Principle of Rest)

4. Kala (Time)

5. Pudgala (Matter)

The ultimate aim of the Jains is to achieve Nirvana or Salvation. According to Jain ideology, a layman cannot attain Nirvana. To attain Nirvana or salvation of the body one must abandon all wordily attachments, even one’s own clothing; observing fasts, ascetic discipline and self-notification. Thus by severe austerity final liberation or Nirvana will come. Hence monastic life is essential for salvation.

Stress on Morality:

Though the Jains didn’t, deny the existence of God they simply ignored Him. The world for Jains is not created, maintained or destroyed by God but functions through a universal or eternal law. Further, Jainism stresses the principle of equality.

To popularize this concept once Lord Mahavira had declined the offer of a rich man of Vaisali and had taken the meals prepared by a prostitute. Thus caste system, authority of the Vedas and Vedic rituals were set aside by the Jains. In addition, to make human life more disciplined and regulated Jainism recommends the rejection of thirteen sins in the life of its followers.

The Thirteen:

The Thirteen sins are:

1. Violence

5. Masturbation

6. Jealousy

7. Stealing

9. Intoxicating drinks

10. Covetousness

12. Levying charges

13. Speaking ill of others

Thus Jainism is more a moral code than a religion in modern sense of the term. It affords an example of one of the most reformed rationalized religious faiths. In the 6th century B.C. it had protested against the existing religious structure and brought into existence a comprehensive ideology including Indian religion, philosophy and culture. For this spirit of accommodation Jainism has still survived in India today whereas Buddhism had to look for its shelter elsewhere.

Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture:

Jainism like its twin sister Buddhism received royal patronage and the spread of Jainism in different parts of the country seems to have taken place for quite some time. It took its deep roots in the soil of India through several ages. Even in the 21st century Jainism has stood firm in the religious firmament of India. A religion with such remote antiquity and rich heritage had its natural influence on the culture of the sub-continent of India. Jainism has enriched the cultural tradition of India in many respects.

Language and Literature:

Jainism has played a very important role in the linguistic development of the country. Jain community was smaller in size but bigger was its contributions in the field of literature. Prior to the advent of Jainism, Sanskrit was the medium of expression Even during the same period the Buddhists preferred Pali language.

The Jains deviated from this norm. They preferred the regional languages for better understanding among the common people. Thus they utilized the prevailing languages of different places for religious propaganda and sacred literature. In this way they gave an impetus to the development of Prakrit language. Even they gave a literary shape to some of the regional languages for the first time.

Mahavir himself preached his teachings in a mixed dialect called Ardha-Mugadhi so that people speaking Magcidhi and Sauraseni languages could understand him properly. In the initial phase these two languages were very popular. Later on Jain literature was composed in Prakrit language.

Of late a rich treasure of literature produced by the Jains has come to limelight. It is known as Apabhramsa literature which forms a link between the classical languages like Sanskrit and Prakrit on the one hand and modern regional languages on the other. Even in early Kannada and Tamil literature we find traces of Jain influence. Further the Jain texts of twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, Agama and Kalpasutra were written in Sanskrit. Thus Jainism indirectly helped the growth of literature of different types in Indian languages.

Art and Architecture:

Jainism has played a greater role in the development of artistic tradition of the country. It is true that the Jains did not believe in the existence of God. But at the same time it created a galaxy of deified men who were spiritually great. To pay reverence to these souls Jains all over the country erected several stupas. These stupas created in the honour of their saints are valuable gems of Indian architecture.

The accessories of stone railings, the decorated gateways, stone-umbrellas, elaborate carved pillars and numerous statues of the stupas evoke the appreciation of the observer for their artistic charm even today. Early specimens of Jain stupas are found at Mathura whereas Bundelkhand is full of Jain images of 11th and 12th century A.D.

The huge statue of Bahubalin, known as Gomatesvara at Shravanbelgola (120 ft. height) is a marvel by itself. The stone carvings of Kliandagiri and Udaygiri in Orissa give the impression of symbol-worship. The Jain Ashtamangala or eight auspicious signs such as a Swastik, a mirror, an urn, a cane seat shaped like an hour-glass, two fishes, a flower garland and a manuscript carved on the pedestal bear Jain artistic taste.

The Jains also built cave temples in rocks. The Jain cave temples at Udaygiri and Ellora and the Dilwara temple of Mount Abu are beautiful specimens of Jain architecture and sculpture. Junagadh, Junar, Osmanabad are other places where Jain art is preserved. The numerous Jain places of pilgrimage such as the Parsvanath Hills, Pavapuri, Rajgir, Girnar and Palitana possess temples and other architectural monuments of different ages.

The Jain images include a long list of Indian divinities such as Sri-Lakshmi, Dikpalas, Kubera, Navagraha, Saraswati etc. In the Jain temples the images of Saraswati are not rare. Even one special Jain festival called Jnana-Pancliami or Sruta Panchami is celebrated by the Jains in the honour of goddess Saraswati.

Non-Violence:

Jainism influenced the Indian life style to a great extent. Its basic tenet of Ahimsa or non-violence has firmly been established as a rule of life.

In the words of A.N.Upadhye:

“Jain literature includes myths, fairy-tales, proverbs, popular stories, model behaviour, patterns and moral exhortations, all of which unanimously denounce cruelty to living beings. All these have done much to discourage animal sacrifice. Most of the Indian religions have casually preached ahimsa. But nowhere except in Jainism is the basic creed so systematically worked out to pervade the entire moral code.”

Even in the twentieth century colonial India the apostle of non-violence Mahatma Gandhi, who gave a new lease of life to this principle, was greatly influenced by Jainism rather than any other Indian creed. Jainism and Buddhism have been foremost in upholding the doctrine of ahimsa and Jainism has held firm to its original ideology more closely than that of Buddhism. Thus in a way in the Indian cultural field the most important contribution of Jainism is the concept of ahimsa.

In the words of A.N. Upadhye:

“Numerous traces of Jain influence on Indian life can be detected. The worship of idols in a refined form, the building of temples, the founding of charitable lodges for men and animals, the preservation of rich libraries and manuscripts and the distribution of food and other necessities to the poor— these are some of the outstanding features of Jain society and to a large extent they have been imitated by other Indian religious groups.”

As a community the Jains have been strict vegetarians and wherever they are found in large numbers they have influenced the social circle around them. To lead a life with minimum necessity, to bear no ill will towards anyone, to take recourse to fasting for self-purification, to undertake long tours on foot, to make contact with the people are routine affairs in a Jain’s life. These various aspects of Jain routine have had deep impacts on Indian culture.

Rise of Trading Community:

In the beginning Jainism was very popular among the traders and businessmen. The mercantile community was attracted by the rigorous asceticism and religious life of the Jains and adopted Jain way of life. Being bounded by a sense of fraternity they formed business guilds for smooth conduct of business. These wealthy merchants patronized Jainism to a great extent.

With the increasing social recognition and status, the rich merchants came closer to the ruling class. Jain laymen now began to play an important part in the political activities. This happened specially in Rajasthan during the Mughal period. Even during the time of English East India Company, Jain business families like the Jagatseths and the Singhis acted as state bankers and naturally wielded great influence in the society.

Jainism is still a living faith in some parts of India. The number of its followers is more than two million. But its contribution to India’s cultural heritage is far more significant than its numerical strength. The tradition of art in India, enrichment and preservation of Indian literature and cultivation of both Aryan and Dravidian languages in a way show Jain influences which are really praiseworthy. The religious instincts of the Jains have also lasting impressions on Indian life style.

Conclusion:

To conclude with the words of Prof. Radhakrishnan:

When the storm of persecution swept over the land, Jainism simply took refuge in Hinduism which opened its capacious bosom to receive it and to the conquerors it seemed an indistinguishable part of the great system.

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