research methods in psychology ib

Research Methods In Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Research methods in psychology are systematic procedures used to observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental processes. They include experiments, surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observations, ensuring data collection is objective and reliable to understand and explain psychological phenomena.

Hypotheses are statements about the prediction of the results, that can be verified or disproved by some investigation.

There are four types of hypotheses :

• Null Hypotheses (H0 ) – these predict that no difference will be found in the results between the conditions. Typically these are written ‘There will be no difference…’
• Alternative Hypotheses (Ha or H1) – these predict that there will be a significant difference in the results between the two conditions. This is also known as the experimental hypothesis.
• One-tailed (directional) hypotheses – these state the specific direction the researcher expects the results to move in, e.g. higher, lower, more, less. In a correlation study, the predicted direction of the correlation can be either positive or negative.
• Two-tailed (non-directional) hypotheses – these state that a difference will be found between the conditions of the independent variable but does not state the direction of a difference or relationship. Typically these are always written ‘There will be a difference ….’

All research has an alternative hypothesis (either a one-tailed or two-tailed) and a corresponding null hypothesis.

Once the research is conducted and results are found, psychologists must accept one hypothesis and reject the other. 

So, if a difference is found, the Psychologist would accept the alternative hypothesis and reject the null.  The opposite applies if no difference is found.

Sampling techniques

Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.

A sample is the participants you select from a target population (the group you are interested in) to make generalizations about.

Representative means the extent to which a sample mirrors a researcher’s target population and reflects its characteristics.

Generalisability means the extent to which their findings can be applied to the larger population of which their sample was a part.

• Volunteer sample : where participants pick themselves through newspaper adverts, noticeboards or online.
• Opportunity sampling : also known as convenience sampling , uses people who are available at the time the study is carried out and willing to take part. It is based on convenience.
• Random sampling : when every person in the target population has an equal chance of being selected. An example of random sampling would be picking names out of a hat.
• Systematic sampling : when a system is used to select participants. Picking every Nth person from all possible participants. N = the number of people in the research population / the number of people needed for the sample.
• Stratified sampling : when you identify the subgroups and select participants in proportion to their occurrences.
• Snowball sampling : when researchers find a few participants, and then ask them to find participants themselves and so on.
• Quota sampling : when researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits certain quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them being unemployed.

Experiments always have an independent and dependent variable .

• The independent variable is the one the experimenter manipulates (the thing that changes between the conditions the participants are placed into). It is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
• The dependent variable is the thing being measured, or the results of the experiment.

Operationalization of variables means making them measurable/quantifiable. We must use operationalization to ensure that variables are in a form that can be easily tested.

For instance, we can’t really measure ‘happiness’, but we can measure how many times a person smiles within a two-hour period. 

By operationalizing variables, we make it easy for someone else to replicate our research. Remember, this is important because we can check if our findings are reliable.

Extraneous variables are all variables which are not independent variable but could affect the results of the experiment.

It can be a natural characteristic of the participant, such as intelligence levels, gender, or age for example, or it could be a situational feature of the environment such as lighting or noise.

Demand characteristics are a type of extraneous variable that occurs if the participants work out the aims of the research study, they may begin to behave in a certain way.

For example, in Milgram’s research , critics argued that participants worked out that the shocks were not real and they administered them as they thought this was what was required of them. 

Extraneous variables must be controlled so that they do not affect (confound) the results.

Randomly allocating participants to their conditions or using a matched pairs experimental design can help to reduce participant variables. 

Situational variables are controlled by using standardized procedures, ensuring every participant in a given condition is treated in the same way

Experimental Design

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to each condition of the independent variable, such as a control or experimental group.

• Independent design ( between-groups design ): each participant is selected for only one group. With the independent design, the most common way of deciding which participants go into which group is by means of randomization. 
• Matched participants design : each participant is selected for only one group, but the participants in the two groups are matched for some relevant factor or factors (e.g. ability; sex; age).
• Repeated measures design ( within groups) : each participant appears in both groups, so that there are exactly the same participants in each group.
• The main problem with the repeated measures design is that there may well be order effects. Their experiences during the experiment may change the participants in various ways.
• They may perform better when they appear in the second group because they have gained useful information about the experiment or about the task. On the other hand, they may perform less well on the second occasion because of tiredness or boredom.
• Counterbalancing is the best way of preventing order effects from disrupting the findings of an experiment, and involves ensuring that each condition is equally likely to be used first and second by the participants.

If we wish to compare two groups with respect to a given independent variable, it is essential to make sure that the two groups do not differ in any other important way. 

Experimental Methods

All experimental methods involve an iv (independent variable) and dv (dependent variable)..

• Field experiments are conducted in the everyday (natural) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the IV, but in a real-life setting. It may be possible to control extraneous variables, though such control is more difficult than in a lab experiment.
• Natural experiments are when a naturally occurring IV is investigated that isn’t deliberately manipulated, it exists anyway. Participants are not randomly allocated, and the natural event may only occur rarely.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. It uses information from a range of sources, such as from the person concerned and also from their family and friends.

Many techniques may be used such as interviews, psychological tests, observations and experiments. Case studies are generally longitudinal: in other words, they follow the individual or group over an extended period of time. 

Case studies are widely used in psychology and among the best-known ones carried out were by Sigmund Freud . He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

Case studies provide rich qualitative data and have high levels of ecological validity. However, it is difficult to generalize from individual cases as each one has unique characteristics.

Correlational Studies

Correlation means association; it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related. One of the variables can be regarded as the predictor variable with the other one as the outcome variable.

Correlational studies typically involve obtaining two different measures from a group of participants, and then assessing the degree of association between the measures. 

The predictor variable can be seen as occurring before the outcome variable in some sense. It is called the predictor variable, because it forms the basis for predicting the value of the outcome variable.

Relationships between variables can be displayed on a graph or as a numerical score called a correlation coefficient.

• If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other, then this is known as a positive correlation .
• If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other, then this is known as a negative correlation .
• A zero correlation occurs when there is no relationship between variables.

After looking at the scattergraph, if we want to be sure that a significant relationship does exist between the two variables, a statistical test of correlation can be conducted, such as Spearman’s rho.

The test will give us a score, called a correlation coefficient . This is a value between 0 and 1, and the closer to 1 the score is, the stronger the relationship between the variables. This value can be both positive e.g. 0.63, or negative -0.63.

A correlation between variables, however, does not automatically mean that the change in one variable is the cause of the change in the values of the other variable. A correlation only shows if there is a relationship between variables.

Correlation does not always prove causation, as a third variable may be involved. 

Interview Methods

Interviews are commonly divided into two types: structured and unstructured.

A fixed, predetermined set of questions is put to every participant in the same order and in the same way. 

Responses are recorded on a questionnaire, and the researcher presets the order and wording of questions, and sometimes the range of alternative answers.

The interviewer stays within their role and maintains social distance from the interviewee.

There are no set questions, and the participant can raise whatever topics he/she feels are relevant and ask them in their own way. Questions are posed about participants’ answers to the subject

Unstructured interviews are most useful in qualitative research to analyze attitudes and values.

Though they rarely provide a valid basis for generalization, their main advantage is that they enable the researcher to probe social actors’ subjective point of view. 

Questionnaire Method

Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out face to face, by telephone, or post.

The choice of questions is important because of the need to avoid bias or ambiguity in the questions, ‘leading’ the respondent or causing offense.

• Open questions are designed to encourage a full, meaningful answer using the subject’s own knowledge and feelings. They provide insights into feelings, opinions, and understanding. Example: “How do you feel about that situation?”
• Closed questions can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or specific information, limiting the depth of response. They are useful for gathering specific facts or confirming details. Example: “Do you feel anxious in crowds?”

Its other practical advantages are that it is cheaper than face-to-face interviews and can be used to contact many respondents scattered over a wide area relatively quickly.

Observations

There are different types of observation methods :

• Covert observation is where the researcher doesn’t tell the participants they are being observed until after the study is complete. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular observation method.
• Overt observation is where a researcher tells the participants they are being observed and what they are being observed for.
• Controlled : behavior is observed under controlled laboratory conditions (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll study).
• Natural : Here, spontaneous behavior is recorded in a natural setting.
• Participant : Here, the observer has direct contact with the group of people they are observing. The researcher becomes a member of the group they are researching.  
• Non-participant (aka “fly on the wall): The researcher does not have direct contact with the people being observed. The observation of participants’ behavior is from a distance

Pilot Study

A pilot  study is a small scale preliminary study conducted in order to evaluate the feasibility of the key s teps in a future, full-scale project.

A pilot study is an initial run-through of the procedures to be used in an investigation; it involves selecting a few people and trying out the study on them. It is possible to save time, and in some cases, money, by identifying any flaws in the procedures designed by the researcher.

A pilot study can help the researcher spot any ambiguities (i.e. unusual things) or confusion in the information given to participants or problems with the task devised.

Sometimes the task is too hard, and the researcher may get a floor effect, because none of the participants can score at all or can complete the task – all performances are low.

The opposite effect is a ceiling effect, when the task is so easy that all achieve virtually full marks or top performances and are “hitting the ceiling”.

Research Design

In cross-sectional research , a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time

Sometimes, we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

In cohort studies , the participants must share a common factor or characteristic such as age, demographic, or occupation. A cohort study is a type of longitudinal study in which researchers monitor and observe a chosen population over an extended period.

Triangulation means using more than one research method to improve the study’s validity.

Reliability

Reliability is a measure of consistency, if a particular measurement is repeated and the same result is obtained then it is described as being reliable.

• Test-retest reliability :  assessing the same person on two different occasions which shows the extent to which the test produces the same answers.
• Inter-observer reliability : the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers.

Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis is a systematic review that involves identifying an aim and then searching for research studies that have addressed similar aims/hypotheses.

This is done by looking through various databases, and then decisions are made about what studies are to be included/excluded.

Strengths: Increases the conclusions’ validity as they’re based on a wider range.

Weaknesses: Research designs in studies can vary, so they are not truly comparable.

Peer Review

A researcher submits an article to a journal. The choice of the journal may be determined by the journal’s audience or prestige.

The journal selects two or more appropriate experts (psychologists working in a similar field) to peer review the article without payment. The peer reviewers assess: the methods and designs used, originality of the findings, the validity of the original research findings and its content, structure and language.

Feedback from the reviewer determines whether the article is accepted. The article may be: Accepted as it is, accepted with revisions, sent back to the author to revise and re-submit or rejected without the possibility of submission.

The editor makes the final decision whether to accept or reject the research report based on the reviewers comments/ recommendations.

Peer review is important because it prevent faulty data from entering the public domain, it provides a way of checking the validity of findings and the quality of the methodology and is used to assess the research rating of university departments.

Peer reviews may be an ideal, whereas in practice there are lots of problems. For example, it slows publication down and may prevent unusual, new work being published. Some reviewers might use it as an opportunity to prevent competing researchers from publishing work.

Some people doubt whether peer review can really prevent the publication of fraudulent research.

The advent of the internet means that a lot of research and academic comment is being published without official peer reviews than before, though systems are evolving on the internet where everyone really has a chance to offer their opinions and police the quality of research.

Types of Data

• Quantitative data is numerical data e.g. reaction time or number of mistakes. It represents how much or how long, how many there are of something. A tally of behavioral categories and closed questions in a questionnaire collect quantitative data.
• Qualitative data is virtually any type of information that can be observed and recorded that is not numerical in nature and can be in the form of written or verbal communication. Open questions in questionnaires and accounts from observational studies collect qualitative data.
• Primary data is first-hand data collected for the purpose of the investigation.
• Secondary data is information that has been collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research e.g. taken from journals, books or articles.

Validity means how well a piece of research actually measures what it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to represent.

Validity is whether the observed effect is genuine and represents what is actually out there in the world.

• Concurrent validity is the extent to which a psychological measure relates to an existing similar measure and obtains close results. For example, a new intelligence test compared to an established test.
• Face validity : does the test measure what it’s supposed to measure ‘on the face of it’. This is done by ‘eyeballing’ the measuring or by passing it to an expert to check.
• Ecological validit y is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other settings / real life.
• Temporal validity is the extent to which findings from a research study can be generalized to other historical times.

Features of Science

• Paradigm – A set of shared assumptions and agreed methods within a scientific discipline.
• Paradigm shift – The result of the scientific revolution: a significant change in the dominant unifying theory within a scientific discipline.
• Objectivity – When all sources of personal bias are minimised so not to distort or influence the research process.
• Empirical method – Scientific approaches that are based on the gathering of evidence through direct observation and experience.
• Replicability – The extent to which scientific procedures and findings can be repeated by other researchers.
• Falsifiability – The principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it admits the possibility of being proved untrue.

Statistical Testing

A significant result is one where there is a low probability that chance factors were responsible for any observed difference, correlation, or association in the variables tested.

If our test is significant, we can reject our null hypothesis and accept our alternative hypothesis.

If our test is not significant, we can accept our null hypothesis and reject our alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a statement of no effect.

In Psychology, we use p < 0.05 (as it strikes a balance between making a type I and II error) but p < 0.01 is used in tests that could cause harm like introducing a new drug.

A type I error is when the null hypothesis is rejected when it should have been accepted (happens when a lenient significance level is used, an error of optimism).

A type II error is when the null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected (happens when a stringent significance level is used, an error of pessimism).

Ethical Issues

• Informed consent is when participants are able to make an informed judgment about whether to take part. It causes them to guess the aims of the study and change their behavior.
• To deal with it, we can gain presumptive consent or ask them to formally indicate their agreement to participate but it may invalidate the purpose of the study and it is not guaranteed that the participants would understand.
• Deception should only be used when it is approved by an ethics committee, as it involves deliberately misleading or withholding information. Participants should be fully debriefed after the study but debriefing can’t turn the clock back.
• All participants should be informed at the beginning that they have the right to withdraw if they ever feel distressed or uncomfortable.
• It causes bias as the ones that stayed are obedient and some may not withdraw as they may have been given incentives or feel like they’re spoiling the study. Researchers can offer the right to withdraw data after participation.
• Participants should all have protection from harm . The researcher should avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life and they should stop the study if any harm is suspected. However, the harm may not be apparent at the time of the study.
• Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information. The researchers should not record any names but use numbers or false names though it may not be possible as it is sometimes possible to work out who the researchers were.

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• December 31, 2022

Your Ultimate Guide for Acing IB Psychology Paper 3 (HL only)

Written By Rashi S.

Before beginning, feel free to check out how to tackle IB Psychology Paper 1 and Paper 2 if you have not yet and/or are interested!

Paper 3 (P3) is only for HL students, focusing on the research methods in psychology. It consists of 3 parts, all of which must be answered (no choice of questions). A research scenario is presented and students answer questions related to the methods and conclusions of it.

Question (Q) 1 consists of 3 parts, all of which must be answered for a total of 3 marks each, 9 marks in total.

  1. (a) Identify the research method used and outline two characteristics of the method.

I do not recommend using bullet points for this question; nevertheless, ensure that your answer is clear for the examiner. Generally, the IB requires that the number of maximum marks you can gain on a question is the number of points that you need to make. In this case, you need to make three points as the question is worth three marks; one mark for identifying the correct research method and two marks for stating its two correct characteristics. Additionally, I would recommend mentioning an additional point to the two points that you are already made, to ensure that you maximize the number of marks you earn (i.e. in case the point you make is not on the mark scheme or a point made is ambiguous).

• The research method used is semi-structured interviews. Some characteristics of it are that the interviewer pre-determines topics or themes to explore. Moreover, it contains both open-ended and close-ended questions; whilst the former allows the respondents to elaborate, the latter invites brief and precise answers. Lastly, semi-structured interviews are informal and conversational, facilitating a rapport between the interviewer and the interviewee.

(b) Describe the sampling method used in the study.

The strategy to employ for tackling this question is the same as the one used in 1(a). This question requires that you correctly identify the sampling method used in the study (1 mark), and state two correct characteristics of the sampling method (2 marks). I do not recommend using bullet points for this question as well and recommend mentioning an additional point to the two points that you have already made.

• The sampling method used is purposive sampling. Participants are chosen because they possess characteristics salient to the research study, in this case, those who have some experience with taking drugs. Participants are recruited through advertising in places where those with the selected criteria can be found. In this case, in school magazines, for instance. Finally, purposive sampling may include snowball sampling.

(c) Suggest an alternative or additional research method giving one reason for your choice.

For this question, I recommend suggesting an additional research method instead of an alternative one. This is because it is suggesting an additional research method is easier to justify instead of arguing for using an alternative method.

• An additional research method is to utilize a quantitative survey, in which objective questions are used to gain insights from respondents. Subsequently, interviews can be conducted with some randomly selected participants to gain deeper insight into their cultural identity. The survey would enable the researchers to design questions to elicit the required data. Moreover, it can be quantified to make comparisons and enables larger samples size compared to only 19 participants, as in the study.

N.B. Connect your answer to the stimulus material presented when you can.

  Q2 on the exam can be on any ONE of the two prompts (no choice) for a total of 6 marks.

  1. Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical considerations could be applied.

• You are required to write about six different ethical considerations (because question = 6 marks maximum)
• The question is divided into two parts: first, students need to write about the three ethical considerations that were taken in the study, and second, you must explain three additional ethical considerations that can be accounted for. Although the question mentions “ if further ethical considerations could be applied,” it is, in fact, not asking that. Instead, think of it as “ how further ethical considerations could be applied”
• Thus, this requires you to explain three additional ethical considerations which were not mentioned/taken in the stimulus material.
• Informed consent or parental consent (if the participant is a minor)
• Confidentiality
• Right to withdraw before the study, during the study, or after the study
• Any use of concealment or deception is justified
• Approval from an ethics review board
• Coercion (is there any pressure to participate?)

  2.Describe the ethical considerations in reporting the results and explain additional ethical considerations that could be taken into         account when applying the findings of the study.

• This question is different from the first one in that it specifically asks students to refer to ethical considerations that could be taken into account when applying the findings of the study and not general additional ethical considerations.
• Your answer can refer to any of the following:
• Anonymity/pseudo anonymization: involves removing names or using fake names respectively for the publication of results
• Right to withdraw
• Informed consent/parental consent: informing people how their data will be used
• Debriefing: informing people how the results will be reported/published

N.B. Connect your answer to the stimulus material presented, at least once.

  Q3 on the exam is on any ONE of the three prompts (no choice) for a total of 9 marks.

However, before discussing the questions and how to answer them, it is salient to note that the top most markband for P3 Q3 mentions the following:

• 7 – 9: The question is understood and answered in a focused and effective manner with an accurate argument that addresses the requirements of the question. The response contains accurate references to approaches to research with regard to the question, describing their strengths and limitations. The response makes effective use of the stimulus material.

From my research, there seems to be ambiguity regarding how exactly to earn the 9 points in Q3 and it is not as clear-cut as it is for the previous questions.  Therefore, from a quality answer key from Pamoja online IB psychology, I mention the principle characteristics of two answers for two prompts and direct you to a sample answer for the third one:

    1.Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible.

• Begin by defining “credibility”
• Moreover, you can discuss the internal validity, member checking, peer debriefing, and triangulation. Provide a definition for each of this concept before discussing it and relating it to the stimulus material.

    2.Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias.

• Start by defining “bias”
• Moreover, you can discuss sampling bias, researcher bias, participant bias, and triagulation. Similar to above, provide a definition for each of this concept before discussing it and relating it to the stimulus material.

        3.Discuss the possibility of generalizing/transfering the findings of the study. The relevant term, generalizing or transferability is used in exams depending on whether the question relates to a quantitative or qualitative study.

• When I was in the IB DP, Dixon’s IB psychology website and youtube videos were of huge help; hence, I suggest utilizing this resource. Scroll to the bottom of this blog to see an example answer for this question.

Time yourself

P3 is one hour. Thus, I recommended using 10 mins for Q1, 20 mins for Q2, and 25 mins for Q3, leaving the last 5 mins to proofread.

Related Posts:

Your Ultimate Guide for Acing IB Psychology Paper 1 | IB | ++tutors (plusplustutors.com)

Your Ultimate Guide for Acing IB Psychology Paper 2 | IB | ++tutors (plusplustutors.com)

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Research methodsThis section of the site focuses on how psychologists carry out their research. This includes both quantitative methods (experiments, surveys, correlations) and qualitative research (questionnaires, interviews, observations, and case studies).The goal of this introductory unit is to learn the language of psychology and begin the development of a “critical thinking toolbox” which you will use throughout...

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Example Essay: Research methods (case studies) in the biological approach

Travis Dixon April 6, 2021 Biological Psychology , Research Methodology , Revision and Exam Preparation

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More example exam answers with examiner comments available from our online store .

Essays on research methods and ethical considerations are the hardest to write in IB Psychology exams. Here is an example essay on the use of case studies in the biological approach. Notice how the essay has a good balance between explaining the method (central argument), using studies (supporting evidence) and explaining limitations (counter-arguments). 

Read More: 

• Example Essay: Technological Techniques
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Travis Dixon is an IB Psychology teacher, author, workshop leader, examiner and IA moderator.

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The biological level of analysis

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The cognitive level of analysis

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The sociocultural level of analysis

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Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis.

Introduction.

• State what you are doing in the essay 
• This essay will attempt to offer a balanced review of how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis (BLA). 
• Define the biological level of analysis 
• The biological level of analysis (BLA) states that all cognitions, emotions and behaviours have a physiological basis. 
• Outline what is a research method? / What is the purpose of research methods in Psychology? 
• Researchers need to have a method for collecting and analysing data.
• There are many different/various methods researchers and psychologists use to conduct their studies.
• Research methods are ways that researchers use and manipulate to conduct their studies. 
• State the main research methods used in psychological research 
• There are 6 main research methods used in psychology, which consists of the following: 
• Experiments 
• Case Studies 
• Observational Studies 
• Interviews 
• Surveys/Questionnaires 
• Correlational Studies 
• Introduce the concept of triangulation 
• Sometimes in research, researchers incorporate the use of 2 or more research methods of investigation to explore the same aspect, as using 2 or more may be more suitable and effective in finding out the necessary aims of the researcher.
• It also increases credibility.
• There are 4 main types of triangulation: 
• Researcher 
• Theoretical 
• Methodological
• State, make the examiner aware of the biases involved in psychological research
• In psychological research, certain biases are present, which may affect or influence the findings of the experiment, sometimes in a positive way, but mostly in a negative light/nature.
• There are two major types of biases, which are:
• Researcher bias - The researcher/s sees what they are looking for, in which the expectations of the researcher consciously or unconsciously affect the findings of the study. 
• Observer bias - The participant/s act differently or accordingly due to the consciousness of being observed by people (researchers), which may influence the nature of the study.
• State (introduce) the research methods used at the BLA 
• In biological psychology/in terms of a biological basis, symptoms and disorders arise from physiological processes, such as hormones, neurotransmitters and the brain, which cannot be directly observed.
• These theories are tested using research methods such as experiments and case studies. 
• At the BLA the main research methods used are experiments and case studies. 
• These will be further analysed in the body of the essay, looking at studies and how and why these research methods are used 

EXPERIMENTS

• Define what an experiment is? 
• What is the purpose of an experiment? 
• Experiments are used to determine the cause and effect relationship between two variables (independent (IV) and dependent (DV) variables).
• Outline how experiments are used
• Researchers manipulate the independent variable (IV) and measure the dependent variable (DV)
• Attempt to control as many extraneous variables as possible to provide controlled conditions (laboratory experiments)
• Experiments are considered a quantitative research method, however qualitative data may be collected as well
• Types of experimental settings 
• There are three different types of experiments, which include a laboratory experiment, a natural (QUASI) experiment and a field experiment.
• Outline why experiments are used 
• It is considered/perceived to be the most scientific research method 
• Determines cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)
• Outline experiments used in the BLA
• Raine (1997)
• Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972) 
• Berthold (1849)

Study 1: Raine et al (1997)

• How does it reflect an experiment? 
• IV: Whether participants were controls or prisoners who pleaded not guilty for reasons of insanity (NGRI’s)
• DV: Brain activity
• Experimental Type: QUASI/natural because the IV was naturally occurring 
• Why was an experiment used? 
• Allowed a cause and effect relationship to be developed and recognised 
• Cause: Brain abnormality 
• Effect: Aggressive behaviour 
• Cause effect relationship would not be able to be found using other research methods (e.g. survey/questionnaire, observation) 

Study 2: Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972) 

• IV: Whether rats were placed in an enriched or deprived environment
• DV: Weight of the rats? brains, showing the amount of brain plasticity that occurred in the rats.
• Experimental Type: Laboratory experiment because the study was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated 
• Why was an experiment used 
• Cause: Environment (enriched or deprived) 
• Effect: Amount of brain plasticity 

Berthold (1849) 

• IV: Whether or not roosters' testes were replaced (returned)
• DV: The rooster’s Behaviour
• Experimental Type: Laboratory experiment because it was conducted in a laboratory setting and the IV was manipulated 
• Cause: Amount of testosterone being secreted 
• Effect: masculine behaviour 

CASE STUDIES  

• Introduce the next research method (case studies) and relate it within the context
• Like experiments, another key research method used frequently in the BLA is a case study. 
• Outline how case studies are used
• In-depth study of an individual or small group
• Because of this, case studies obtain information that may not be identifiable by using other research methods
• Case studies are considered a qualitative research method, however quantitative data may be collected as well
• They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as interviews and observations
• The conclusions are more valid than what may be gained from any of these research methods individually
• Outline why case studies are used 
• To obtain enriched data
• To study unusual psychological phenomena
• Stimulates new research into an unusual phenomena
• To study a particular variable that cannot be produced in a laboratory. For example, due to ethical or financial restrictions.
• To obtain other information they may not be able to get from other methods. 
• Outline why case studies are not used - limitations 
• Researchers may develop more personal relationships with participants 
• may result in subjective data or different behaviour of participants and researchers
• Results of case studies are affected by the researcher's interpretations
• may be subjective and influenced by the researcher's beliefs, values, and opinions
• May cost a lot of time, effort & money due to the amount of data and time of a case study 
• Cannot be replicated
• Lacks population validity - extent to which findings can be generalised to the whole population
• Small participant sample 
• Especially if study investigates a unique phenomenon 
• Outline case studies used in the BLA 
• Money - "David Reimer" (1974) 
• Harlow - "Phineas Gage" (1848) 
• Broca - "Tan" (1861) 

Study 1: Money - "David Reimer" (1974) 

• How does it reflect a case study? 
• In-depth study of twins Brian & Bruce, in particular, Bruce whose name was later on changed to Brenda. 
• Why was a case study used? 
• To study the unusual phenomena of a boy who was turned into a female
• To study a boy whose penis was burnt off, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory
• To study how (according to Money), biological sex or gender did not have to correspond to psychological sex (gender), and therefore children could be raised successfully in whatever sex was assigned to them.
• In depth information would not be able to be collected by using other research methods (e.g. experiment, survey etc.). 

Study 2: Harlow - Phineas Gage (1848) 

• In-depth study of Phineas Gage 
• To study the unusual phenomena of a man who experienced dramatic personality changes after brain damage
• To study a man who suffered from an iron rod through his head, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory
• In depth information would not be able to be collected by using other research methods (e.g. experiment, survey etc.).

Study 3: Broca - "Tan" (1861)

• How was a case study used? 
• In-depth study of an individual - "Tan" 
• To study the unusual phenomena of a man who had impaired language such that he could only say "tan"
• To study a man who had impaired language, which would not be able to be produced ethically in a laboratory 
• By using a case study on Tan, over time, researchers found out more about the brain’s ability, in relation to localization of function.
• In depth information would not be able to be obtained using other research methods (e.g. experiment, survey etc.). 

Conclusion 

• Research methods are methods used for collecting and analysing data. 
• The type of research method used is dependent on the aim. 
• At the BLA, the two main research methods used are experiments and case studies. 
• Experiments
• To determine a cause-effect relationship between two variables (IV & DV)
• Whereby an IV and DV may be manipulated.
• Likewise, advantages and disadvantages of experiments depends on the type of experiment being conducted
• There are three types: laboratory, field and natural/quasi experiments.
• Case studies
• In depth study of an individual or a small group; thus being able to collect enriched and detailed data.
• Studies unusual psychological phenomena.
• Considered to be a qualitative research method, but quantitative data may also be collected. They involve the use of a combination of several research methods such as interviews and observations, which can aid in finding significant and relevant information in the study.