what is psychology in speech writing process

The Power of Words - Unveiling the Psychology of Speech for Effective Communication and Influence

Updated on 23rd May, 2023

The Fascinating Field of Psychology of Speech

The study of human communication and the intricate interplay between speech and psychology has given rise to a captivating field known as the psychology of speech. This multidisciplinary area of research delves into how speech influences our thoughts, behaviors, and interactions with others. By examining the psychological aspects of speech, we can unravel the complexities of language, communication, and cognition.

The psychology of speech encompasses a wide range of subfields, including speech perception, production, comprehension, and language development. Through rigorous scientific inquiry and investigation, researchers in this field aim to unravel the mysteries behind how we perceive, produce, and understand speech.

One of the fundamental aspects studied in the psychology of speech is speech perception. This involves understanding how we process and interpret speech sounds, tones, and linguistic cues. Researchers explore how our brains analyze phonetic information, recognize patterns, and extract meaning from the sounds and rhythms of speech.

Speech production is another crucial area of inquiry within the psychology of speech. It focuses on the cognitive and physiological processes involved in planning, coordinating, and executing speech movements. Understanding how our thoughts are transformed into spoken words sheds light on the complex motor skills and neural mechanisms that underlie our ability to communicate orally.

Comprehension is an essential component of speech psychology, investigating how we derive meaning from the words and sentences we hear. It explores the role of linguistic structures, context, and cognitive processes in understanding spoken language. By deciphering the intricate workings of comprehension, researchers strive to uncover the mechanisms that allow us to extract and interpret meaning from spoken communication.

Language development is a fascinating aspect of the psychology of speech, focusing on how children acquire language skills and how language evolves throughout our lifespan. Researchers examine the cognitive, social, and environmental factors that influence language acquisition, such as the role of caregiver interactions and exposure to linguistic stimuli.

The knowledge and insights gained from the psychology of speech have practical applications in various domains. Effective communication is crucial in fields such as education, healthcare, business, and interpersonal relationships. By understanding the psychological underpinnings of speech, professionals can enhance their communication skills, tailor their messages to different audiences, and foster stronger connections.

The Role of Psychology of Speech in Public Speaking

Public speaking is a skill that many individuals strive to master. It involves effectively delivering a message to an audience, capturing their attention, and persuading or informing them. The psychology of speech plays a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of public speaking and can provide valuable insights for speakers aiming to engage and connect with their audience.

The psychology of speech sheds light on various aspects that contribute to effective public speaking. One key area of focus is nonverbal communication. Researchers explore how body language, facial expressions, gestures, and vocal tone impact the audience's perception and engagement. Understanding how to align verbal and nonverbal cues can enhance a speaker's ability to convey their message persuasively.

Speech psychology also emphasizes the importance of vocal delivery. The tone, pitch, volume, and pace of speech significantly influence the audience's perception of a speaker's credibility, confidence, and overall message. By understanding the psychology of speech, speakers can learn to modulate their voice, use pauses strategically, and emphasize key points effectively.

Moreover, the psychology of speech highlights the significance of audience analysis and adaptation. Speakers must consider the demographics, preferences, and needs of their audience to tailor their content and delivery style accordingly. Adapting to the audience's communication style, language, and cultural background can foster rapport and engagement.

Another crucial aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the management of anxiety and nervousness. Public speaking often elicits anxiety, which can impact a speaker's delivery and confidence. Understanding the psychological factors underlying these feelings can help speakers employ strategies to manage anxiety effectively, such as deep breathing exercises, positive self-talk, and visualization techniques.

Additionally, the psychology of speech recognizes the power of storytelling in public speaking. By integrating storytelling techniques, speakers can tap into the emotional and narrative elements that resonate with the audience. Understanding the cognitive processes and emotional responses triggered by storytelling can make a speech more memorable and impactful.

The Influence of Psychology of Speech in Effective Communication Skills

Effective communication skills are vital in various aspects of life, including personal relationships, professional settings, and social interactions. The psychology of speech offers valuable insights into understanding and enhancing communication skills, enabling individuals to convey their messages clearly, connect with others, and build meaningful relationships.

Speech psychology emphasizes the role of active listening in effective communication. By understanding how people interpret and process verbal and nonverbal cues, individuals can become more attentive listeners. Active listening involves focusing on the speaker, providing verbal and nonverbal feedback, and demonstrating empathy. Developing active listening skills enhances mutual understanding and strengthens communication bonds.

The psychology of speech also explores the power of effective questioning in communication. Asking relevant and open-ended questions can encourage dialogue, promote deeper understanding, and elicit valuable insights. By mastering the art of asking insightful questions, individuals can foster meaningful conversations and demonstrate genuine interest in others.

Nonverbal communication is another essential aspect studied in the psychology of speech. Body language, facial expressions, eye contact, and gestures can convey emotions, attitudes, and intentions. By becoming aware of these nonverbal cues, individuals can align their verbal and nonverbal communication to enhance clarity and avoid potential misinterpretations.

Understanding the psychology of speech also sheds light on the impact of emotional intelligence in effective communication. Emotional intelligence involves recognizing and managing one's own emotions while empathizing with the emotions of others. By developing emotional intelligence, individuals can navigate conflicts, respond appropriately to others' emotions, and cultivate healthier and more productive communication dynamics.

The psychology of speech also acknowledges the role of assertiveness in effective communication. Being assertive means expressing thoughts, needs, and boundaries in a respectful and confident manner. By developing assertiveness skills, individuals can communicate their perspectives effectively, establish clear boundaries, and engage in constructive problem-solving.

Moreover, speech psychology highlights the importance of adapting communication styles to different contexts and individuals. By understanding the psychology of speech in relation to diverse cultural backgrounds, personality traits, and communication preferences, individuals can adjust their communication approach to foster understanding and establish stronger connections.

The Psychology of Speech in Interpersonal Relationships

Interpersonal relationships play a vital role in our lives, shaping our well-being, happiness, and overall satisfaction. The psychology of speech offers valuable insights into how communication patterns, language use, and speech behaviors influence the dynamics and quality of interpersonal relationships.

One crucial aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the role of effective communication in building and maintaining healthy relationships. Clear and open communication fosters trust, understanding, and emotional connection between individuals. By understanding the principles of effective communication, such as active listening, assertiveness, and empathy, individuals can establish stronger and more fulfilling relationships.

The psychology of speech also delves into the impact of communication styles on relationship dynamics. Different communication styles, such as passive, aggressive, or passive-aggressive, can significantly influence how individuals interact and respond to one another. By recognizing and adapting communication styles, individuals can promote positive communication patterns and resolve conflicts constructively.

Language use and speech behaviors are additional areas of focus in the psychology of speech in interpersonal relationships. The choice of words, tone of voice, and nonverbal cues can affect how messages are received and interpreted by others. Developing awareness of these factors enables individuals to express themselves more effectively and avoid misunderstandings or miscommunications.

Speech psychology also explores the influence of emotional expression and validation in interpersonal relationships. The ability to express and validate emotions promotes a sense of closeness, understanding, and emotional support. Understanding the psychological impact of emotional expression can enhance emotional connection and strengthen relationships.

Conflict resolution is another crucial aspect studied in the psychology of speech. Effective conflict resolution techniques, such as active listening, perspective-taking, and constructive problem-solving, contribute to healthier and more resilient relationships. By understanding the psychological underpinnings of conflict and applying effective communication strategies, individuals can navigate disagreements and maintain positive relationship dynamics.

Additionally, the psychology of speech acknowledges the significance of nonverbal communication in interpersonal relationships. Body language, facial expressions, touch, and eye contact can convey trust, affection, and intimacy. Developing awareness of nonverbal cues can enhance the overall quality of interpersonal relationships.

The Psychology of Speech in Persuasive Communication

Persuasive communication is a skill that plays a significant role in various domains, including marketing, advertising, politics, and everyday interactions. The psychology of speech provides valuable insights into the principles and techniques that contribute to effective persuasive communication, enabling individuals to influence attitudes, behaviors, and decision-making.

One essential aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the art of framing. Framing involves presenting information in a way that influences how it is perceived and interpreted. By understanding the cognitive biases and heuristics that individuals rely on when processing information, persuasive communicators can strategically frame their messages to increase their persuasive impact.

Speech psychology also emphasizes the power of storytelling in persuasive communication. Stories tap into emotions, engage the audience, and make information more relatable and memorable. By incorporating compelling narratives into their messages, persuasive communicators can capture attention, evoke empathy, and ultimately influence beliefs and behaviors.

The psychology of speech also explores the role of credibility and social proof in persuasive communication. People are more likely to be persuaded by individuals they perceive as credible and by evidence that demonstrates consensus among others. By establishing credibility, providing expert opinions, and leveraging social proof, persuasive communicators can enhance their persuasive impact.

Understanding the psychology of speech also sheds light on the importance of audience analysis in persuasive communication. Persuasive messages need to be tailored to the values, needs, and beliefs of the target audience. By conducting thorough audience research and segmentation, communicators can customize their messages to resonate with specific groups and increase their persuasive influence.

The psychology of speech also acknowledges the role of emotion in persuasive communication. Emotions can evoke strong responses and motivate individuals to take action. Persuasive communicators strategically evoke emotions, such as fear, joy, or empathy, to influence attitudes and behaviors. By understanding the emotional triggers of the target audience, communicators can effectively appeal to their emotions and enhance persuasive outcomes.

Additionally, the psychology of speech recognizes the impact of language and rhetoric in persuasive communication. The choice of words, persuasive techniques, and rhetorical devices can significantly influence how messages are received and interpreted. By mastering rhetorical strategies, such as repetition, rhetorical questions, and appeals to logic or emotions, communicators can increase the persuasive power of their messages.

The Psychology of Speech in Effective Leadership Communication

Effective leadership communication is essential for inspiring and guiding teams, fostering collaboration, and achieving organizational goals. The psychology of speech provides valuable insights into the principles and strategies that contribute to effective leadership communication, enabling leaders to influence, motivate, and engage their followers.

One key aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the importance of clarity and conciseness in leadership communication. Leaders must convey their messages in a clear and straightforward manner to ensure understanding and minimize misinterpretation. By using concise language, avoiding jargon, and providing specific instructions, leaders can enhance their communication effectiveness.

Speech psychology also emphasizes the significance of active listening in effective leadership communication. Listening attentively to team members fosters trust, promotes open dialogue, and demonstrates respect. By practicing active listening, leaders can gain valuable insights, address concerns, and make team members feel heard and valued.

The psychology of speech also recognizes the importance of nonverbal communication in leadership communication. Leaders' body language, facial expressions, and gestures can influence how their messages are received and interpreted. By being aware of their nonverbal cues, leaders can align their verbal and nonverbal communication to enhance credibility, engagement, and connection with their team.

Understanding the psychology of speech also sheds light on the power of inspirational and motivational communication in leadership. Leaders who can inspire and motivate their team members create a sense of purpose, commitment, and enthusiasm. By using persuasive techniques, storytelling, and appeals to shared values, leaders can ignite passion and drive performance.

The psychology of speech also explores the impact of emotional intelligence in leadership communication. Leaders who can understand and manage their own emotions while empathizing with others create an atmosphere of trust and psychological safety. By demonstrating empathy, emotional awareness, and effective emotional expression, leaders can foster positive relationships and enhance team dynamics.

Furthermore, the psychology of speech recognizes the significance of adaptability in leadership communication. Leaders must adapt their communication style and approach based on the needs, preferences, and cultural backgrounds of their team members. By being flexible and accommodating, leaders can establish rapport, build stronger connections, and promote a positive and inclusive work environment.

The Psychology of Speech in Public Speaking and Presentation Skills

Public speaking and presentation skills are essential in various professional and personal settings, ranging from business presentations to educational seminars and social events. The psychology of speech provides valuable insights into the principles and techniques that contribute to effective public speaking and presentation skills, enabling individuals to engage, inform, and persuade their audience.

One crucial aspect explored in the psychology of speech is the significance of audience analysis in public speaking and presentations. Understanding the demographics, knowledge levels, and interests of the audience allows speakers to tailor their message to meet the audience's needs and capture their attention. By conducting thorough audience research and adapting their content and delivery style accordingly, speakers can enhance their impact.

Speech psychology also emphasizes the power of storytelling in public speaking and presentations. Stories have the ability to captivate audiences, evoke emotions, and make information more memorable. By incorporating relevant and engaging narratives into their speeches and presentations, speakers can create a deeper connection with their audience and increase their overall impact.

The psychology of speech also recognizes the importance of vocal delivery in public speaking. Tone, pitch, volume, and pace of speech can significantly influence how the audience perceives and engages with the message. By varying vocal delivery, using appropriate pauses, and emphasizing key points, speakers can effectively convey their ideas and maintain the audience's interest throughout the presentation.

Furthermore, the psychology of speech recognizes the importance of visual aids in supporting public speaking and presentations. Effective use of visual aids, such as slides, charts, and videos, can enhance audience understanding and retention of information. By using visually appealing and relevant visuals, speakers can reinforce their key points and engage the audience visually.

The psychology of speech also acknowledges the role of confidence and self-belief in public speaking. Confidence is contagious and can positively impact audience engagement and perception of the speaker. By practicing and preparing thoroughly, managing nervousness, and projecting self-assurance, speakers can deliver their message with conviction and authority.

The psychology of speech is a fascinating field that provides valuable insights into the intricacies of communication and its impact on various aspects of our lives. From understanding the psychology of speech in interpersonal relationships to persuasive communication, effective leadership, and public speaking, this discipline sheds light on the principles, strategies, and techniques that contribute to successful communication outcomes.

In the realm of interpersonal relationships, the psychology of speech reveals how effective communication, communication styles, language use, emotional expression, conflict resolution, and nonverbal communication influence relationship dynamics. By applying these principles, individuals can cultivate healthier, more satisfying relationships, fostering trust, understanding, and emotional connection.

When it comes to persuasive communication, the psychology of speech unravels the art of framing, storytelling, credibility, social proof, audience analysis, emotion, and rhetoric. By understanding these factors, communicators can tailor their messages to influence attitudes, behaviors, and decision-making, ultimately achieving their persuasive goals.

In the context of effective leadership, the psychology of speech highlights the importance of clarity, active listening, nonverbal communication, inspirational and motivational communication, emotional intelligence, and adaptability. Leaders who embody these qualities can effectively communicate, inspire, and engage their followers, driving organizational success.

Regarding public speaking and presentation skills, the psychology of speech emphasizes the significance of audience analysis, storytelling, vocal delivery, nonverbal communication, visual aids, and confidence. By mastering these elements, speakers can captivate audiences, convey their message with clarity, and leave a lasting impact.

In all these areas, the psychology of speech reveals that effective communication is not simply about the words spoken but also encompasses understanding the psychological nuances, considering the needs and preferences of the audience, and utilizing various techniques to engage, influence, and connect with others.

By studying the psychology of speech and applying its principles, individuals can enhance their communication skills, build stronger relationships, persuade effectively, lead with influence, and deliver impactful presentations. These insights enable us to navigate the complexities of human interaction, connect on a deeper level, and achieve our communication objectives.

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Psychologically speaking: your brain on writing

Remember when you were little and just learning how to write? Just writing your name was a huge accomplishment. Yet with practice, it became much easier. The brain is not a muscle; although, in some ways it develops like one. The more you use it in a specific way, the more able it is to perform the task. So what is the brain actually doing while you write? The following are a number of brain areas that work together to form ideas and get them down on paper.

Frontal Lobe

Hippocampus

Broca’s Area

Wernicke’s Area

Visual Cortex vs Speech Area

Caudate Nucleus

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This guide was created to take you along a step by step process to develop a speech. It is mainly focused on helping you brainstorm, identify, and define a topic to research.

This is a general guide, so it may vary from your classroom assignments. As always, refer to your professor and syllabus for your project requirements. 

Narrow Your Topic

Evaluate your topic, cite your sources.

Consider these questions:

• What subjects or ideas interest you?
• What kinds of life experience do you have?
• What kinds of issues have affected you or people you care about?
• Do you have a passion about an idea, a question, a subject? How can you explain or describe it such that others might be passionate about it as well?
• Does your subject have an edge? Does the topic have passionate supporters and opponents as well as being logical and reasonable? Is it debatable? Is it an unsolved problem?

A good practice is to make a list of ideas. As an example, here is an imaginary student’s list of ideas:

With the topics on your list, ask yourself these questions:

• Which topics are most worthy of your time?
• Why is your topic significant?
• Does it work with my assignment? (Is your speech informative, persuasive, etc.)

It is often beneficial (unless the topic is given or encouraged) to avoid heavily discussed topics. This helps to keep the speech interesting rather than giving an audience information they hear regularly.

Overused topics may include abortion, global warming, affirmative action, the death penalty, recycling, and sex and violence in the media. There is always a possibility to find an interesting angle or portion of the topic, but make sure you verify it with a professor first.

Let's take our student's list as an example. Our student might not want to write a speech on recycling, but maybe they have a a great way to reuse/remake something that is normally thrown out. This could work as a topic for a demonstration speech, though they would need to have the topic approved.

What are some other topics ideas from this list?

One way to develop these ideas is to make a concept map. Below is a sample of the student's concept map if they focused on knitting.

• Concept Mapping

Now this particular student enjoys mysteries and crime shows, because they like to figure out who the culprit is. The student needs to write an informative speech, and decides that they could inform others on how to solve mysteries.

Since it is a very large topic, the student decides to focus on helping people solve mysteries by informing them on how to tell if someone is lying .

After narrowing the topic, evaluate your speech to see if it is a good fit for your assignment.

• If it takes a while to explain your topic is either too complicated or too broad. Consider your time requirements and if you can adequately discuss the topic.
• Begin to focus on what you want to say and why. Part of this will already be dictated by the type of speech you are assigned. Making a concept map can help provide you with ideas.
• Who will hear the information? Will they have experience with the topic? What other factors will influence how they will interpret the information?
• You will want to use solid, scholarly information on the topic. General information might be easy to find, but you will need facts and research to back up your claims and information.

In our example the student’s evaluation would look like this:

Write out your research question or thesis statement. Underline words that you believe best represent the main ideas.

How can we determine if someone is lying to us?

Second, create a list of synonyms for each word you underlined and use these terms to search for resources.

Lying OR lie-spotting Face perception Body language. Deception.

You can add additional terms as you survey what is available:

Lying OR Deception AND workplace or business Friendship or workplace or business

As you gather resources be sure to evaluate the resources!

Check out the Searching Strategies for Websites and Databases for more tips. Check out the Evaluating Resources page to avoid choosing bad sources for your projects!

There are lots of reasons to provide references to the sources that you use.

Your audience may want to know how to investigate your topic further. By providing your resources you are helping others who are interested in the same topic.

You also need to credit the people who did the research you are using otherwise you will be claiming it is your own (even if unintentionally doing so). Plagiarism is a serious offense.

Here is a definition of plagiarism:

“Plagiarism is appropriating someone else's words or ideas without acknowledgment. To understand plagiarism we must consider two questions: (1) How is plagiarism like or unlike theft— (2) Why is plagiarism considered wrong; why should we acknowledge the originator of an idea.”

(Encyclopedia of Ethics. London: Routledge, 2001. Credo Reference. 17 April 2009 <http://www.credoreference.com/entry/7915618>.)

Just like in college writing, speeches should provide your audience with verbal cues to the information you have used: the SOURCE where you found your information. (This might be an interview, scholarly article, book, or website, etc.); the AUTHOR, when available, and the DATE when your source was published or accessed (for web sources and interviews).

Here are three ways to incorporate citations for your speech:

• Use quotation marks to attribute words of another person on your note cards. You can express quotations in your speech in several ways.
• Provide credit or citation such that the audience can trace back to the original source.
• Paraphrasing the main ideas WITH correct attribution.  A paraphrase will replace some of the words while keeping the main idea of the original work.

For more information on how to cite sources, see the “Citation” page in this guide.

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Rice Speechwriting

Beginners guide to what is a speech writing, what is a speech writing: a beginner’s guide, what is the purpose of speech writing.

The purpose of speech writing is to craft a compelling and effective speech that conveys a specific message or idea to an audience. It involves writing a script that is well-structured, engaging, and tailored to the speaker’s delivery style and the audience’s needs.

Have you ever been called upon to deliver a speech and didn’t know where to start? Or maybe you’re looking to improve your public speaking skills and wondering how speech writing can help. Whatever the case may be, this beginner’s guide on speech writing is just what you need. In this blog, we will cover everything from understanding the art of speech writing to key elements of an effective speech. We will also discuss techniques for engaging speech writing, the role of audience analysis in speech writing, time and length considerations, and how to practice and rehearse your speech. By the end of this article, you will have a clear understanding of how speech writing can improve your public speaking skills and make you feel confident when delivering your next big presentation.

Understanding the Art of Speech Writing

Crafting a speech involves melding spoken and written language. Tailoring the speech to the audience and occasion is crucial, as is captivating the audience and evoking emotion. Effective speeches utilize rhetorical devices, anecdotes, and a conversational tone. Structuring the speech with a compelling opener, clear points, and a strong conclusion is imperative. Additionally, employing persuasive language and maintaining simplicity are essential elements. The University of North Carolina’s writing center greatly emphasizes the importance of using these techniques.

The Importance of Speech Writing

Crafting a persuasive and impactful speech is essential for reaching your audience effectively. A well-crafted speech incorporates a central idea, main point, and a thesis statement to engage the audience. Whether it’s for a large audience or different ways of public speaking, good speech writing ensures that your message resonates with the audience. Incorporating engaging visual aids, an impactful introduction, and a strong start are key features of a compelling speech. Embracing these elements sets the stage for a successful speech delivery.

The Role of a Speech Writer

A speechwriter holds the responsibility of composing speeches for various occasions and specific points, employing a speechwriting process that includes audience analysis for both the United States and New York audiences. This written text is essential for delivering impactful and persuasive messages, often serving as a good start to a great speech. Utilizing NLP terms like ‘short sentences’ and ‘persuasion’ enhances the content’s quality and relevance.

Key Elements of Effective Speech Writing

Balancing shorter sentences with longer ones is essential for crafting an engaging speech. Including subordinate clauses and personal stories caters to the target audience and adds persuasion. The speechwriting process, including the thesis statement and a compelling introduction, ensures the content captures the audience’s attention. Effective speech writing involves research and the generation of new ideas. Toastmasters International and the Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill provide valuable resources for honing English and verbal skills.

Clarity and Purpose of the Speech

Achieving clarity, authenticity, and empathy defines a good speech. Whether to persuade, inform, or entertain, the purpose of a speech is crucial. It involves crafting persuasive content with rich vocabulary and clear repetition. Successful speechwriting demands a thorough understanding of the audience and a compelling introduction. Balancing short and long sentences is essential for holding the audience’s attention. This process is a fusion of linguistics, psychology, and rhetoric, making it an art form with a powerful impact.

Identifying Target Audience

Tailoring the speechwriting process hinges on identifying the target audience. Their attention is integral to the persuasive content, requiring adaptation of the speechwriting process. A speechwriter conducts audience analysis to capture the audience’s attention, employing new york audience analysis methods. Ensuring a good introduction and adapting the writing process for the target audience are key features of a great speech. Effective speechwriters prioritize the audience’s attention to craft compelling and persuasive speeches.

Structuring Your Speech

The speechwriting process relies on a well-defined structure, crucial to both the speech’s content and the writing process. It encompasses a compelling introduction, an informative body, and a strong conclusion. This process serves as a foundation for effective speeches, guiding the speaker through a series of reasons and a persuasive speechwriting definition. Furthermore, the structure, coupled with audience analysis, is integral to delivering a great speech that resonates with the intended listeners.

The Process of Writing a Speech

Crafting a speech involves composing the opening line, developing key points, and ensuring a strong start. Effective speech writing follows a structured approach, incorporating rhetorical questions and a compelling introduction. A speechwriter’s process includes formulating a thesis statement, leveraging rhetorical questions, and establishing a good start. This process entails careful consideration of the audience, persuasive language, and engaging content. The University of North Carolina’s writing center emphasizes the significance of persuasion, clarity, and concise sentences in speechwriting.

Starting with a Compelling Opener

A speechwriting process commences with a captivating opening line and a strong introduction, incorporating the right words and rhetorical questions. The opening line serves as both an introduction and a persuasive speech, laying the foundation for a great speechwriting definition. Additionally, the structure of the speechwriting process, along with audience analysis, plays a crucial role in crafting an effective opening. Considering these elements is imperative when aiming to start a speech with a compelling opener.

Developing the Body of the Speech

Crafting the body of a speech involves conveying the main points with persuasion and precision. It’s essential to outline the speechwriting process, ensuring a clear and impactful message. The body serves as a structured series of reasons, guiding the audience through the content. Through the use of short sentences and clear language, the body of the speech engages the audience, maintaining their attention. Crafting the body involves the art of persuasion, using the power of words to deliver a compelling message.

Crafting a Strong Conclusion

Crafting a strong conclusion involves reflecting the main points of the speech and summarizing key ideas, leaving the audience with a memorable statement. It’s the final chance to leave a lasting impression and challenge the audience to take action or consider new perspectives. A good conclusion can make the speech memorable and impactful, using persuasion and English language effectively to drive the desired response from the audience. Toastmasters International emphasizes the importance of a strong conclusion in speechwriting for maximum impact.

Techniques for Engaging Speech Writing

Engage the audience’s attention using rhetorical questions. Create a connection through anecdotes and personal stories. Emphasize key points with rhetorical devices to capture the audience’s attention. Maintain interest by varying sentence structure and length. Use visual aids to complement the spoken word and enhance understanding. Incorporate NLP terms such as “short sentences,” “writing center,” and “persuasion” to create engaging and informative speech writing.

Keeping the Content Engaging

Captivating the audience’s attention requires a conversational tone, alliteration, and repetition for effect. A strong introduction sets the tone, while emotional appeals evoke responses. Resonating with the target audience ensures engagement. Utilize short sentences, incorporate persuasion, and vary sentence structure to maintain interest. Infuse the speech with NLP terms like “writing center”, “University of North Carolina”, and “Toastmasters International” to enhance its appeal. Engaging content captivates the audience and compels them to listen attentively.

Maintaining Simplicity and Clarity

To ensure clarity and impact, express ideas in short sentences. Use a series of reasons and specific points to effectively convey the main idea. Enhance the speech with the right words for clarity and comprehension. Simplify complex concepts by incorporating anecdotes and personal stories. Subordinate clauses can provide structure and clarity in the speechwriting process.

The Power of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal cues, such as body language and gestures, can add emphasis to your spoken words, enhancing the overall impact of your speech. By incorporating visual aids and handouts, you can further augment the audience’s understanding and retention of key points. Utilizing a conversational tone and appropriate body language is crucial for establishing a genuine connection with your audience. Visual aids and gestures not only aid comprehension but also help in creating a lasting impression, captivat**ing** the audience with compelling visual elements.

The Role of Audience Analysis in Speech Writing

Tailoring a speech to the audience’s needs is paramount. Demographics like age, gender, and cultural background must be considered. Understanding the audience’s interests and affiliation is crucial for delivering a resonating speech. Content should be tailored to specific audience points of interest, engaging and speaking to their concerns.

Understanding Audience Demographics

Understanding the varied demographics of the audience, including age and cultural diversity, is crucial. Adapting the speech content to resonate with a diverse audience involves tailoring it to the different ways audience members process and interpret information. This adaptation ensures that the speech can effectively engage with the audience, no matter their background or age. Recognizing the importance of understanding audience demographics is key for effective audience analysis. By considering these factors, the speech can be tailored to meet the needs and preferences of the audience, resulting in a more impactful delivery.

Considering the Audience Size and Affiliation

When tailoring a speech, consider the audience size and affiliation to influence the tone and content effectively. Adapt the speech content and delivery to resonate with a large audience and different occasions, addressing the specific points of the target audience’s affiliation. By delivering a speech tailored to the audience’s size and specific points of affiliation, you can ensure that your message is received and understood by all.

Time and Length Considerations in Speech Writing

Choosing the appropriate time for your speech and determining its ideal length are crucial factors influenced by the purpose and audience demographics. Tailoring the speech’s content and structure for different occasions ensures relevance and impact. Adapting the speech to specific points and the audience’s demographics is key to its effectiveness. Understanding these time and length considerations allows for effective persuasion and engagement, catering to the audience’s diverse processing styles.

Choosing the Right Time for Your Speech

Selecting the optimal start and opening line is crucial for capturing the audience’s attention right from the beginning. It’s essential to consider the timing and the audience’s focus to deliver a compelling and persuasive speech. The right choice of opening line and attention to the audience set the tone for the speech, influencing the emotional response. A good introduction and opening line not only captivate the audience but also establish the desired tone for the speech.

Determining the Ideal Length of Your Speech

When deciding the ideal length of your speech, it’s crucial to tailor it to your specific points and purpose. Consider the attention span of your audience and the nature of the event. Engage in audience analysis to understand the right words and structure for your speech. Ensure that the length is appropriate for the occasion and target audience. By assessing these factors, you can structure your speech effectively and deliver it with confidence and persuasion.

How to Practice and Rehearse Your Speech

Incorporating rhetorical questions and anecdotes can deeply engage your audience, evoking an emotional response that resonates. Utilize visual aids, alliteration, and repetition to enhance your speech and captivate the audience’s attention. Effective speechwriting techniques are essential for crafting a compelling introduction and persuasive main points. By practicing a conversational tone and prioritizing clarity, you establish authenticity and empathy with your audience. Develop a structured series of reasons and a solid thesis statement to ensure your speech truly resonates.

Techniques for Effective Speech Rehearsal

When practicing your speech, aim for clarity and emphasis by using purposeful repetition and shorter sentences. Connect with your audience by infusing personal stories and quotations to make your speech more relatable. Maximize the impact of your written speech when spoken by practicing subordinate clauses and shorter sentences. Focus on clarity and authenticity, rehearsing your content with a good introduction and a persuasive central idea. Employ rhetorical devices and a conversational tone, ensuring the right vocabulary and grammar.

How Can Speech Writing Improve Your Public Speaking Skills?

Enhancing your public speaking skills is possible through speech writing. By emphasizing key points and a clear thesis, you can capture the audience’s attention. Developing a strong start and central idea helps deliver effective speeches. Utilize speechwriting techniques and rhetorical devices to structure engaging speeches that connect with the audience. Focus on authenticity, empathy, and a conversational tone to improve your public speaking skills.

In conclusion, speech writing is an art that requires careful consideration of various elements such as clarity, audience analysis, and engagement. By understanding the importance of speech writing and the role of a speech writer, you can craft effective speeches that leave a lasting impact on your audience. Remember to start with a compelling opener, develop a strong body, and end with a memorable conclusion. Engaging techniques, simplicity, and nonverbal communication are key to keeping your audience captivated. Additionally, analyzing your audience demographics and considering time and length considerations are vital for a successful speech. Lastly, practicing and rehearsing your speech will help improve your public speaking skills and ensure a confident delivery.

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The Psychology of Writing

A personal perspective: there's a basic human need to create meaning through symbols..

Posted April 29, 2023 | Reviewed by Vanessa Lancaster

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• Research in cognitive psychology has shown that creative acts such as writing are a staple of the human experience.
• Writing appears to be an attempt to make meaning out of symbols.
• For some, the effort to make meaning out of symbols can resemble compulsive behavior.

Why do some of us feel compelled to put words on paper or on screens? As a serial nonfiction author specializing in not particularly commercial American cultural history, I certainly do. I admittedly can’t stop writing, even though a big part of me would like to. However, as soon as I finish a book, I start another, sometimes even on the same day. With my uncontrollable urge to repeat the laborious, decidedly financially unrewarding book-writing process over and over, a therapist might suggest I show signs of compulsion.

I recognize there are far worse things to be compelled to do, but I cannot help but wonder what my daily craving to write is all about. Ronald T. Kellogg, at the time a cognitive psychologist at the University of Missouri-Rolla, provided the answer. His 1994 book The Psychology of Writing showed that humans have an innate desire to create meaning in symbolic form, whether through an artistic medium or speech. Those in the emergent field of composition research, which is part of cognitive psychology, have found that people formulate and express their thoughts with written text in order to make sense of abstract ideas. Writing is thus a defining feature of human cognition , Kellogg, now at Saint Louis University, argued, making me feel not so bad about my impulse to construct literature, much like how a beaver builds a dam.

Kellogg went further in his adroit analysis of the psychology of writing, revealing interesting insights into why scribblers like me spend their time alone in a room (or Starbucks) for hours at a time when they might be enjoying life. Writers “confront the challenge of creating coherent ideas in the private realm of thought and mapping those ideas into the public world of linguistic symbols,” he wrote, the process (which he was doing as he wrote those very words) an attempt to “create meaning for themselves and potentially for their readers.” Kellogg added that humans appear to be hard-wired to engage in such a process, making meaning “one of the most unique characteristics of our species.”

I can easily relate to such neurological decoding of the deep desire to translate vague concepts rattling around my brain into a nicely organized text package, complete with an attractive cover. I’ve more than achieved my initial goal to create a body of work that will be around after I am gone. When not writing a book, I’ve dashed off hundreds of articles or blog posts like this one, ensuring that I’ve strung millions of words together in a more or less coherent fashion over the years.

How did I get hooked on this annoying yet at the same time satisfying literary habit? I caught the writing bug after my dissertation was published, and I still enjoy seeing a tangible thing produced that I baked from scratch. Perhaps I write only to please myself, specifically to learn about a subject I’m interested in researching and then offer my own take on it. While hoping that readers respond favorably to my work, I never cater to the marketplace's interests, likely explaining why I’ve never had anything close to a bestseller.

I admit that it’s nice to say, when asked what I do, that I’m an author, as, for whatever reason, there is a certain social currency attached to the occupation. I know I’ll be done one day, having felt I’ve said all I had to say. But, until then, I’ll continue to stack my linguistic bricks on top of each other to manufacture sentences, paragraphs, and pages, too, as Kellogg suggested, to make some sense out of our chaotic world.

Kellogg, Ronald T. (1994). The Psychology of Writing . New York: Oxford University Press.

Lawrence R. Samuel, Ph.D. , is an American cultural historian who holds a Ph.D. in American Studies and was a Smithsonian Institution Fellow.

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• Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Sociocultural Theory 

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934, 1978) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly what has become known as sociocultural theory.

Vygotsky’s theory comprises concepts such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the zone of proximal development.

Vygotsky believed cognitive development is influenced by cultural and social factors. He emphasized the role of social interaction in the development of mental abilities e.g., speech and reasoning in children.

Vygotsky strongly believed that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning.”

Cognitive development is a socially mediated process in which children acquire cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is someone who has a higher level of ability or greater understanding than the learner regarding a particular task, process, or concept.

The MKO can be a teacher, parent, coach, or even a peer who provides guidance and modeling to enable the child to learn skills within their zone of proximal development (the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance).

The interactions with more knowledgeable others significantly increase not only the quantity of information and the number of skills a child develops, but also affects the development of higher-order mental functions such as formal reasoning. Vygotsky argued that higher mental abilities could only develop through interaction with more advanced others.

According to Vygotsky, adults in society foster children’s cognitive development by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities. Adults convey to children how their culture interprets and responds to the world.

They show the meaning they attach to objects, events, and experiences. They provide the child with what to think (the knowledge) and how to think (the processes, the tools to think with).

Vygotsky’s theory encourages collaborative and cooperative learning between children and teachers or peers. Scaffolding and reciprocal teaching are effective educational strategies based on Vygotsky’s ideas.

Scaffolding involves the teacher providing support structures to help students master skills just beyond their current level. In reciprocal teaching, teachers and students take turns leading discussions using strategies like summarizing and clarifying. Both scaffolding and reciprocal teaching emphasize the shared construction of knowledge, in line with Vygotsky’s views.

Vygotsky highlighted the importance of language in cognitive development. Inner speech is used for mental reasoning, and external speech is used to converse with others.

Initially, these operations occur separately. Indeed, before age two, a child employs words socially; they possess no internal language.

Once thought and language merge, however, the social language is internalized and assists the child with their reasoning. Thus, the social environment is ingrained within the child’s learning.

Effects of Culture

Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes individuals’ active role in their cognitive development, highlighting the interplay between innate abilities, social interaction, and cultural tools.

Vygotsky posited that people aren’t passive recipients of knowledge but actively interact with their environment. This interaction forms the basis of cognitive development.

Infants are born with basic abilities for intellectual development, called “elementary mental functions.” These include attention, sensation, perception, and memory.

Through interaction within the sociocultural environment, elementary functions develop into more sophisticated “higher mental functions.”

Higher mental functions are advanced cognitive processes that develop through social interaction and cultural influences. They are distinct from the basic, innate elementary mental functions.

Unlike elementary functions (like basic attention or memory), higher functions are:

• Conscious awareness : The individual is aware of these processes.
• Voluntary control : They can be deliberately used and controlled.
• Mediated : They involve the use of cultural tools or signs (like language).
• Social in origin : They develop through social interaction.

Examples include language and communication, logical reasoning, problem-solving, planning, attention control, self-regulation, and metacognition.

Vygotsky posited that higher mental functions are not innate but develop through social interaction and the internalization of cultural tools.

Tools of Intellectual Adaptation

Cultural tools are methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize through social interactions with more knowledgeable members of society.

These tools, such as language, counting systems, mnemonic techniques, and art forms, shape the way individuals think, problem-solve, and interact with the world.

Tools of intellectual adaptation is Vygotsky’s term for methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize through social interactions with the more knowledgeable members of society.

Cultural tools, particularly language, influence the development of higher-order thinking skills.

Other tools include writing systems, number systems, mnemonic techniques, works of art, diagrams, maps, and drawings.

These tools are products of sociocultural evolution, passed down and transformed across generations.

Each culture provides its children with tools of intellectual adaptation that allow them to use basic mental functions more effectively.

These tools, along with social interaction, contribute to the development of higher mental functions through a process of internalization.

This historical and cultural embeddedness means that tools carry within them the accumulated knowledge and practices of a particular community.

For example, biological factors limit memory in young children. However, culture determines the type of memory strategy we develop.

For example, in Western culture, children learn note-taking to aid memory, but in pre-literate societies, other strategies must be developed, such as tying knots in a string to remember, carrying pebbles, or repeating the names of ancestors until large numbers can be repeated.

Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and, therefore, socio-culturally determined.

Therefore, intellectual adaptation tools vary from culture to culture – as in the memory example.

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or higher skill level than the learner in a particular task or concept.

As a result of shared dialogues with more knowledgeable others, which provide hints, instructions, and encouragement, the child can internalize the ‘how to do it’ part of the task as part of their inner or private speech. The child can use this later when they tackle a similar task independently.

Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Often, a child’s peers or an adult’s children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

What constitutes “more knowledgeable” can vary across cultures and contexts. In some situations, traditional knowledge held by elders might be most valued, while in others, cutting-edge technical skills of younger individuals might be more relevant.

For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze – a child or their parents?

In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. To support employees in their learning process, some companies are now using electronic performance support systems.

Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through learning. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.

The MKO is not a static position of superiority but a fluid role that shifts contextually in response to the learners’ evolving understanding and the dynamics of the learning environment.

As learners gain greater understanding, they can transition from being novices to assuming the role of MKO for their peers.

This highlights the collaborative and fluid nature of learning within the ZPD, where knowledge is co-constructed rather than simply transmitted from a more knowledgeable individual.

Abtahi (2016) suggests that tools themselves can function as “more knowledgeable others,” embodying cultural-historical knowledge that guides learners’ thinking and actions.

Abtahi uses the example of fraction strips guiding children’s understanding of fraction addition, even without direct instruction from an adult. This suggests that the design and affordances of tools can structure learning experiences, creating a zone of proximal development (ZPD) where learners, through their interactions with these tools, can achieve more than they could independently.

This idea is further supported by Puntambekar and Hübscher (2005), who discuss the use of curricula, software tools, and other resources as forms of scaffolding.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept of the more knowledgeable other relates to the second important principle of Vygotsky’s work, the zone of proximal development (ZPD).

The ZPD relates to the difference between what a child (or a novice) can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

Vygotsky (1978) views the zone of proximal development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should occur, enabling the child to develop skills they will later use independently, thus fostering higher mental functions.

The ZPD is not a static space but constantly shifts as the child learns and develops new skills. As a child’s competence grows, their zone of proximal development also expands to encompass new challenges.

Vygotsky emphasizes social interaction as crucial to learning, arguing that children develop more fully with support than alone. He defines the gap between actual and potential learning as the ZPD, asserting that collaboration with more knowledgeable others is essential to bridge this gap.

According to Vygotsky (1978), the child (or a novice) learns through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child.

Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) and then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their performance.

Social interaction, therefore, supports the child’s cognitive development in the ZPD, leading to a higher level of reasoning. 

Internalization of Knowledge

Internalization is a central concept in Vygotsky’s theory, bridging the gap between social interaction and individual cognitive development.

It’s the process by which external, socially mediated activities are transformed into internal mental processes, allowing individuals to acquire new knowledge and skills.

Vygotsky viewed higher mental functions, such as language, reasoning, and self-regulation, as originating in social interaction. He argued that these functions are not innate or biologically determined but acquired through participation in culturally meaningful activities with others.

Internalization within the ZPD isn’t a passive transfer of information but a dynamic process where learners actively participate and engage in meaning-making.

This active engagement ensures that learners don’t simply replicate the expert’s actions but develop a deeper understanding of the underlying principles and strategies.

For example, a child learning to solve a problem with a parent’s guidance doesn’t simply memorize the solution but actively constructs their understanding through dialogue and interaction .

This process, often termed scaffolding, underscores the importance of providing support that aligns with the learner’s current capabilities and gradually diminishes as the learner gains mastery.

Scaffolding

The ZPD has become synonymous with the term “scaffolding” in the literature. However, it is important to note that Vygotsky never used this term in his writing; it was introduced by Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976).

Scaffolding consists of activities provided by the educator or a more knowledgeable person to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

It’s the “how” of guided learning, the specific strategies and techniques used by a more knowledgeable other to bridge the gap between a learner’s current abilities and potential development.

This support can be provided in many different ways, such as modeling or asking questions, and is used across different subjects and age groups.

Scaffolding is a dynamic process that changes based on the student’s progress and the task at hand, so it will look different in different situations.

Contingency (or responsiveness) is paramount. This means the teacher continually assesses the learner’s understanding and calibrates their support accordingly.

Support is tapered off (i.e., withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again independently.

Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces, and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself, and offers encouragement when she does so.

As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. 

Evidence for Vygotsky and the ZPD

Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which furniture items should be placed in particular areas of a doll’s house.

Some children were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation before they attempted it alone (zone of proximal development) while others were allowed to work on this by themselves (Piaget’s discovery learning).

Freund found that those who had previously worked with their mother (ZPD) showed the greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task.

The conclusion is that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance than working alone (discovery learning).

Vygotsky and Language

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions for communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool for communicating with the outside world.

According to Vygotsky (1962), language plays two critical roles in cognitive development:

• Cultural transmission of knowledge : Language is the primary vehicle for passing down cultural knowledge, values, and practices across generations. This transmission occurs through formal instruction and informal interactions, shaping individuals’ understanding of the world and their place within it.
• Language becomes a powerful tool for intellectual adaptation : Language is not merely a tool for communication; it’s a tool for thinking. Language facilitates the development of higher mental functions like abstract thinking, planning, and problem-solving.

Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language:

• Social speech: The initial form of language serves as the primary means for children to engage with others, establish shared meanings, and participate in cultural activities (typical from age two).
• Private speech: Overt and audible speech directed to the self and serves an intellectual function (typical from age three).
• Inner speech: According to Vygotsky, private speech doesn’t simply disappear; it goes “underground,” transforming into silent inner speech (typical from age seven).

For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age.

At this point, speech and thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, and speech becomes representational.

As children develop mental representation, particularly the skill of language, they start to communicate with themselves in much the same way as they would communicate with others.

When this happens, children’s monologues are internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive development.

This internal dialogue allows individuals to mentally rehearse different viewpoints, contributing to more sophisticated social understanding and problem-solving abilities.

“Inner speech is not the interiour aspect of external speech – it is a function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external speech thought is embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure meanings.” (Vygotsky, 1962: p. 149)

Private Speech

Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance of private speech.

He considered private speech as the transition point between social and inner speech, the moment in development where language and thought unite to constitute verbal thinking.

Thus, in Vygotsky’s view, private speech was the earliest manifestation of inner speech. Indeed, private speech is more similar (in form and function) to inner speech than social speech.

Private speech is “typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech addressed to the self (not to others) for the purpose of self-regulation (rather than communication).” (Diaz, 1992, p.62)

Private speech is overt, audible, and observable, often seen in children who talk to themselves while problem-solving.

Conversely, inner speech is covert or hidden because it happens internally. It is the silent, internal dialogue that adults often engage in while thinking or problem-solving.

In contrast to Piaget’s (1959) notion of private speech representing a developmental dead-end, Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private speech as:

“A revolution in development which is triggered when preverbal thought and preintellectual language come together to create fundamentally new forms of mental functioning.” (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005: p. 1)

In addition to disagreeing on the functional significance of private speech, Vygotsky and Piaget also offered opposing views on the developmental course of private speech and the environmental circumstances in which it occurs most often (Berk & Garvin, 1984).

Functions of Private Speech

Through private speech, children collaborate with themselves in the same way a more knowledgeable other (e.g., adults) collaborates with them to achieve a given function.

Vygotsky sees “private speech” as a means for children to plan activities and strategies, aiding their development. Private speech is the use of language for self-regulation of behavior.

Private speech is not just aimless chatter; it serves a vital self-regulatory function. As children develop, they need to transition from relying on external guidance from adults to directing their own actions and thoughts.

Private speech emerges as a way for children to guide their own behavior, especially during challenging tasks. They are essentially verbalizing the thought process that will eventually become internalized as inner speech.

Berk (1986) provided empirical support for the notion of private speech. She found that most private speech exhibited by children serves to describe or guide the child’s actions.

Therefore, language accelerates thinking and understanding ( Jerome Bruner also views language this way). Vygotsky believed that children who engage in large amounts of private speech are more socially competent than children who do not use it extensively.

Vygotsky (1987) notes that private speech does not merely accompany a child’s activity but acts as a tool the developing child uses to facilitate cognitive processes, such as overcoming task obstacles, and enhancing imagination, thinking, and conscious awareness.

Children use private speech most often during intermediate difficulty tasks because they attempt to self-regulate by verbally planning and organizing their thoughts (Winsler et al., 2007).

Imagine a child working on a complex puzzle. They might say things like, “Where does this piece go? No, it doesn’t fit there. Maybe I should try turning it around.”

This self-directed talk helps them to:

• Focus attention : By verbalizing the problem and possible solutions, children are more likely to stay on task.
• Plan and sequence actions : Talking through the steps helps them organize their approach.
• Monitor progress : They can use their words to evaluate their success and make adjustments.

The frequency and content of private speech correlate with behavior or performance. For example, private speech appears functionally related to cognitive performance: It appears at times of difficulty with a task.

For example, tasks related to executive function (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005), problem-solving tasks (Behrend et al., 1992), and schoolwork in both language (Berk & Landau, 1993), and mathematics (Ostad & Sorensen, 2007).

There is also evidence (Behrend et al., 1992) that those children who displayed the characteristic whispering and lip movements associated with private speech when faced with a difficult task were generally more attentive and successful than their ‘quieter’ classmates.

Developmental Trajectory

Berk also discovered that children engaged in private speech more often when working alone on challenging tasks and when their teacher was not immediately available to help them.

Furthermore, Berk also found that private speech develops similarly in all children regardless of cultural background.

Vygotsky (1987) proposed that private speech is a product of an individual’s social environment. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that there exist high positive correlations between rates of social interaction and private speech in children.

Children raised in cognitively and linguistically stimulating environments (situations more frequently observed in higher socioeconomic status families) start using and internalizing private speech faster than children from less privileged backgrounds.

Indeed, children raised in environments characterized by low verbal and social exchanges exhibit delays in private speech development.

As children become more adept at a task, their private speech typically becomes quieter and less grammatically complete.

This process of internalization involves “syntactic and semantic abbreviation,” meaning children start using a sort of mental shorthand, reflecting their increasing mastery of the task and the underlying cognitive processes. Eventually, this abbreviated private speech transforms into silent inner speech.

Children’s use of private speech diminishes as they grow older and follows a curvilinear trend. This is due to changes in ontogenetic development whereby children can internalize language (through inner speech) to self-regulate their behavior (Vygotsky, 1987).

For example, research has shown that children’s private speech usually peaks at 3–4 years of age, decreases at 6–7, and gradually fades out to be mostly internalized by age 10 (Diaz, 1992).

Vygotsky proposed that private speech diminishes and disappears with age not because it becomes socialized, as Piaget suggested, but because it goes underground to constitute inner speech or verbal thought” (Frauenglass & Diaz, 1985).

Inner Speech

Inner speech develops from private speech. As Vygotsky (1987) proposed, private speech “goes underground” to become inner speech.

Inner speech is a silent, internal language of thought that we use to reason, plan, and regulate our behavior. Unlike private speech, which is outwardly audible self-talk, inner speech is a completely internal process.

Vygotsky viewed language as a “tool” that mediates between our thoughts and actions. In the context of inner speech, language provides the very structure and form for our internal dialogue. It’s how we represent ideas, construct arguments, and engage in mental problem-solving.

Our capacity for silent thought (inner speech) is not an innate ability but rather a developmental achievement that emerges from our social world.

• Our earliest experiences with language and dialogue shape the very structure of our internal thought processes.
• Language acts as a tool, a system of representation, that enables us to think and reason internally.
• We carry the patterns and structures of social dialogue into our private mental landscapes.

The quality and development of inner speech can vary significantly across individuals. Factors such as social experiences, cultural background, and even the presence of developmental differences can influence the way inner speech manifests and its role in cognitive functioning.

Characteristics 

• Social dialogue : Inner speech is not merely a solitary monologue but retains the dialogic structure of social interaction. This means that when we engage in inner speech, we are essentially conversing with ourselves, mentally rehearsing different viewpoints, considering alternatives, and working through problems using language as the primary tool.
• Abbreviated and telegraphic: Inner speech is typically highly condensed, lacking the full grammatical structure of spoken language. This is because, in our own minds, we don’t need to state every detail explicitly. We can rely on shared context and understanding implicit in our internal dialogue.
• Simultaneity of perspectives:   A key characteristic of mature inner speech is the ability to hold multiple perspectives simultaneously. Rather than a linear, back-and-forth exchange, inner speech can encompass a complex interplay of ideas, allowing for more nuanced and flexible thinking.
• Planning and problem solving: Inner speech is essential for planning future actions, considering potential consequences, and developing strategies for navigating challenges.
• Self-regulation and control: Inner speech facilitates self-regulation, as it allows us to inhibit impulsive behaviors, stay focused on goals, and manage our emotions and motivations.
• Social understanding: There is a link between inner speech and our capacity to understand others’ minds. Engaging in internal dialogue, mentally representing different perspectives, might lay the groundwork for making sense of others’ thoughts, feelings, and intentions.

Educational Implications

Vygotsky’s approach to child development is a form of social constructivism , based on the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social interactions.

Social constructivism posits that knowledge is constructed and learning occurs through social interactions within a cultural and historical context.

Vygotsky emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by constructing knowledge through social negotiation. He rejected the assumption made by Piaget that it was possible to separate learning from its social context.

Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels. First, through interaction with others, then integrated into the individual’s mental structure.

Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57)

Teaching styles grounded in constructivism represent a deliberate shift from traditional, didactic, memory-oriented transmission models (Cannella & Reiff, 1994) to a more student-centered approach.

Traditionally, schools have failed to foster environments where students actively participate in their own and their peers’ education. Vygotsky’s theory, however, calls for both the teacher and students to assume non-traditional roles as they engage in collaborative learning.

Rather than having a teacher impose their understanding onto students for future recitation, the teacher should co-create meaning with students in a manner that allows learners to take ownership (Hausfather, 1996).

For instance, a student and teacher might start a task with varying levels of expertise and understanding. As they adapt to each other’s perspective, the teacher must articulate their insights in a way that the student can comprehend, leading the student to a fuller understanding of the task or concept.

The student can then internalize the task’s operational aspect (“how to do it”) into their inner speech or private dialogue. Vygotsky referred to this reciprocal understanding and adjustment process as intersubjectivity.

Because Vygotsky asserts that cognitive change occurs within the zone of proximal development, instruction would be designed to reach a developmental level just above the student’s current developmental level.

Vygotsky proclaims, “learning which is oriented toward developmental levels that have already been reached is ineffective from the viewpoint of the child’s overall development. It does not aim for a new stage of the developmental process but rather lags behind this process” (Vygotsky, 1978).

Appropriation is necessary for cognitive development within the zone of proximal development. Individuals participating in peer collaboration or guided teacher instruction must share the same focus to access the zone of proximal development.

“Joint attention and shared problem solving is needed to create a process of cognitive, social, and emotional interchange” (Hausfather,1996).

Furthermore, it is essential that the partners be on different developmental levels and the higher-level partner be aware of the lower’s level. If this does not occur or one partner dominates, the interaction is less successful (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather, 1996).

Vygotsky’s theories also feed into the current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.

Scaffolding and reciprocal teaching are effective strategies to access the zone of proximal development.

Reciprocal Teaching

A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky’s theory is “reciprocal teaching,” used to improve students” ability to learn from text.

In this method, teachers and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher’s role in the process is reduced over time.

Reciprocal teaching allows for the creation of a dialogue between students and teachers. This two-way communication becomes an instructional strategy by encouraging students to go beyond answering questions and engage in the discourse (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather, 1996).

A study conducted by Brown and Palincsar (1989) demonstrated the Vygotskian approach with reciprocal teaching methods in their successful program to teach reading strategies.

The teacher and students alternated turns leading small group discussions on a reading. After modeling four reading strategies, students began to assume the teaching role.

The results showed significant gains over other instructional strategies (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather,1996).

Cognitively guided instruction is another strategy to implement Vygotsky’s theory. This strategy involves the teacher and students exploring math problems and then sharing their problem-solving strategies in an open dialogue (Hausfather,1996).

Based on Vygotsky’s theory, the physical classroom would provide clustered desks or tables and workspace for peer instruction, collaboration, and small-group instruction. Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.

Like the environment, the instructional design of the material to be learned would be structured to promote and encourage student interaction and collaboration. Thus the classroom becomes a community of learning.

Also, Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development on learners is relevant to instructional concepts such as “scaffolding” and “apprenticeship,” in which a teacher or more advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work on it successfully.

A teacher’s role is to identify each individual’s current level of development and provide them with opportunities to cross their ZPD.

A crucial element in this process is the use of what later became known as scaffolding; the way in which the teacher provides students with frameworks and experiences which encourage them to extend their existing schemata and incorporate new skills, competencies, and understandings.

Scaffolding describes the conditions that support the child’s learning, to move from what they already know to new knowledge and abilities.

Scaffolding requires the teacher to allow students to extend their current skills and knowledge.

During scaffolding, the support offered by an adult (or more knowledgeable other) gradually decreases as the child becomes more skilled in the task.

As the adult withdraws their help, the child assumes more of the strategic planning and eventually gains competence to master similar problems without a teacher’s aid or a more knowledgeable peer.

It is important to note that this is more than simply instruction; learning experiences must be presented in such a way as to actively challenge existing mental structures and provide frameworks for learning.

Five ways in which an adult can “scaffold” a child’s learning:

• Engaging the child’s interest
• Maintaining the child’s interest in the task e.g., avoiding distraction and providing clear instructions on how to start the task.
• Keeping the child’s frustration under control e.g., by supportive interactions, adapting instructions according to where the child is struggling.
• Emphasizing the important features of the task
• Demonstrating the task: showing the child how to do the task in simple, clear steps.

As the child progresses through the ZPD, the necessary scaffolding level declines from 5 to 1.

The teacher must engage students’ interests, simplify tasks to be manageable, and motivate students to pursue the instructional goal.

In addition, the teacher must look for discrepancies between students” efforts and the solution, control for frustration and risk, and model an idealized version of the act (Hausfather, 1996).

Challenges to Traditional Teaching Methods

Vygotsky’s social development theory challenges traditional teaching methods. Historically, schools have been organized around recitation teaching.

The teacher disseminates knowledge to be memorized by the students, who in turn recite the information to the teacher (Hausfather,1996).

However, the studies described above offer empirical evidence that learning based on the social development theory facilitates cognitive development over other instructional strategies.

The structure of our schools does not reflect the rapid changes our society is experiencing. The introduction and integration of computer technology in society has tremendously increased the opportunities for social interaction.

Therefore, the social context for learning is transforming as well. Whereas collaboration and peer instruction were once only possible in shared physical space, learning relationships can now be formed from distances through cyberspace.

Computer technology is a cultural tool that students can use to meditate and internalize their learning. Recent research suggests changing the learning contexts with technology is a powerful learning activity (Crawford, 1996).

If schools continue to resist structural change, students will be ill-prepared for the world they will live.

Critical Evaluation

Vygotsky’s work has not received the same level of intense scrutiny that Piaget’s has, partly due to the time-consuming process of translating Vygotsky’s work from Russian.

Also, Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective does not provide as many specific hypotheses to test as Piaget’s theory, making refutation difficult.

Risk of Overemphasizing Environmental Influence

Vygotsky overemphasized socio-cultural factors at the expense of biological influences on cognitive development.

Vygotsky prioritized the role of cultural tools and social interaction in shaping mental processes, but paid insufficient attention to innate cognitive abilities and developmental processes that unfold more independently of social influence.

This imbalance in focus potentially led Vygotsky to underestimate the impact of elementary mental functions (arising from the natural line) on the development of higher mental functions (shaped by cultural tools). 

Vygotsky’s theory cannot explain why cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational stage ) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a product of a biological process of maturation.

Lack of Attention to Emotional Development

The theory is criticized for focusing primarily on cognitive development while neglecting the emotional and social-emotional aspects of development.

Modern developmental psychology recognizes that cognitive and emotional development are deeply intertwined. Critics argue that Vygotsky’s theory doesn’t adequately address how emotions influence cognitive processes and vice versa.

• While Vygotsky emphasized the social nature of learning, he didn’t extensively explore how children develop emotional intelligence or learn to regulate their emotions through social interactions.
• The concept of ZPD focuses on cognitive tasks, but critics argue it should also consider emotional challenges and how supportive relationships help children develop emotional competencies.
• The process of internalization in Vygotsky’s theory focuses on cognitive processes, but critics argue it should also consider how children internalize emotional coping strategies and understanding.

Vague Explanation of Internalization

People take in (internalize) dialogues and guidance they’ve received from others who are more knowledgeable. This internalized information is then used to guide their own actions and thinking.

While Vygotsky considered internalization a cornerstone of his theory, he did not fully articulate the specific mechanisms by which this process occurs. 

This concept is important because it describes how social interactions and cultural contexts contribute to individual cognitive development.

The idea is that higher mental functions first exist in the social realm (between people) before becoming internalized and part of an individual’s cognitive processes.

Eurocentric Bias

Vygotsky saw cultural development like a ladder, with European culture at the top. This view implies some cultures are “better” than others.

Vygotsky’s tendency to view cultural development as a linear hierarchy (often positioning European culture at the apex) can lead to:

• An oversimplification of cultural differences
• An underappreciation of the unique strengths and values of diverse cultural perspectives

A more nuanced approach, recognizing the heterogeneity of cultural tools and the situated nature of cognitive development, would better reflect the complexity of cultural influences on human thought and behavior.

Collaborative ZPD

Collaborative ZPD challenges traditional interpretations of ZPD that focus on the asymmetry between a more knowledgeable individual and a less knowledgeable learner.

Instead, a collaborative ZPD emphasizes the symmetrical nature of learning within peer interactions, where knowledge is co-constructed through mutual contributions and challenges, even among individuals with comparable expertise.

Collaborative ZPD represents a shift from viewing learning as an individual endeavor to recognizing it as a social practice (Tudge, 1992).

The most significant aspect of the ZPD is not the individual benefits gained by participants but the emergence of “a new form of collective consciousness,” highlighting how the interaction creates something new that transcends the contributions of any single individual.

Teachers need to go beyond simply placing students in groups and instead create conditions that foster genuine collaboration, characterized by:

• Transactive discussion, where students clarify, elaborate, justify, and critique their own and each other’s reasoning.
• Opportunities for students to challenge each other’s thinking, prompting metacognitive awareness and deeper engagement with the content.

Vygotsky vs. Piaget

Unlike Piaget’s notion that children’s cognitive development must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argued, “learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function” (1978, p. 90). 

In other words, social learning precedes (i.e., come before) development.

Vygotsky’s theory differs from that of Piaget in several important ways:

Vygotsky places more emphasis on how culture affects cognitive development.

Unlike Piaget, who emphasized universal cognitive change (i.e., all children would go through the same sequence of cognitive development regardless of their cultural experiences), Vygotsky leads us to expect variable development depending on cultural diversity. 

This contradicts Piaget’s view of universal stages of development (Vygotsky does not refer to stages like Piaget does).

Hence, Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures.

Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development.

• Vygotsky states the importance of cultural and social context for learning. Cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partners co-construct knowledge. In contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge.

The importance of scaffolding and language may differ for all cultures. Rogoff (1990) emphasizes the importance of observation and practice in pre-industrial societies (e.g., learning to use a canoe among Micronesian Islanders).

Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development.

According to Piaget , language depends on thought for its development (i.e., thought comes before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech).

In Piaget’s theory, egocentric (or private) speech gradually disappears as children develop truly social speech, in which they monitor and adapt what they say to others.

Vygotsky disagreed with this view, arguing that as language helps children to think about and control their behavior, it is an important foundation for complex cognitive skills.

As children age, this self-directed speech becomes silent (or private) speech, referring to the inner dialogues we have with ourselves as we plan and carry out activities.

For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.

According to Vygotsky, adults are an important source of cognitive development.

Adults transmit their culture’s tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize.

In contrast, Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers, as peer interaction promotes social perspective-taking.

Abtahi, Y. (2018). Pupils, tools and the Zone of Proximal Development.  Research in Mathematics Education ,  20 (1), 1-13.

Behrend, D.A., Rosengren, K.S., & Perlmutter, M. (1992). The relation between private speech and parental interactive style. In R.M. Diaz & L.E. Berk (Eds.), Private speech: From social interaction to self-regulation (pp. 85–100) . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Berk, L. E. (1986). Relationship of elementary school children’s private speech to behavioral accompaniment to task, attention, and task performance. Developmental Psychology, 22(5) , 671.

Berk, L. E. (1994). Vygotsky’s theory: The importance of make-believe play. Young Children, 50 (1), 30-39.

Berk, L. & Garvin, R. (1984). Development of private speech among low-income Appalachian children. Developmental Psychology, 20(2) , 271-286.

Berk, L. E., & Landau, S. (1993). Private speech of learning-disabled and normally achieving children in classroom academic and laboratory contexts. Child Development, 64 , 556–571.

Cannella, G. S., & Reiff, J. C. (1994). Individual constructivist teacher education: Teachers as empowered learners . Teacher education quarterly , 27-38.

Crawford, K. (1996) Vygotskian approaches to human development in the information era. Educational Studies in Mathematics, (31) ,43-62.

Cho, B.-Y., & Lee, H.-J. (2020). Exploring the use of scaffolding strategies in a virtual learning environment: A sociocultural perspective. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 58 (3), 523-545.

Diaz, R. M., & Berk, L. E. (1992). Private speech: From social interaction to self-regulation. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Driscoll, M. P. (1994). Psychology of Learning for Instruction . Needham, Ma: Allyn && Bacon.

Eun, B. (2010). From learning to development: A sociocultural approach to instruction. Cambridge Journal of Education, 40 (4), 401-418.

Frauenglass, M. & Diaz, R. (1985). Self-regulatory functions of children’s private speech: A critical analysis of recent challenges to Vygotsky’s theory. Developmental Psychology, 21(2) , 357-364.

Fernyhough, C., & Fradley, E. (2005). Private speech on an executive task: Relations with task difficulty and task performance . Cognitive Development, 20 , 103–120.

Freund, L. S. (1990). Maternal regulation of children’s problem-solving behavior and its impact on children’s performance . Child Development, 61 , 113-126.

Hausfather, S. J. (1996). Vygotsky and Schooling: Creating a Social Contest for learning. Action in Teacher Education, (18) ,1-10.

Gredler, M. E., & Shields, C. C. (2004). Does no one read Vygotsky’s words? Commentary on Glassman. Educational Researcher, 33 (2), 21-25.

Ostad, S. A., & Sorensen, P. M. (2007). Private speech and strategy-use patterns: Bidirectional comparisons of children with and without mathematical difficulties in a developmental perspective. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40 , 2–14.

Piaget, J. (1959). The language and thought of the child (Vol. 5) . Psychology Press.

Puntambekar, S., & Hubscher, R. (2005). Tools for scaffolding students in a complex learning environment: What have we gained and what have we missed?.  Educational psychologist ,  40 (1), 1-12.

Rogoff, B. (1990).  Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context . Oxford university press.

Saettler, P. (1990). The Evolution of American Educational Technology . Egnlewood, Co: Libraries Unlimited.

Schaffer, R. (1996) . Social development. Oxford: Blackwell.

Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2009). Conceptualising progression in the pedagogy of play and sustained shared thinking in early childhood education: A Vygotskian perspective. Educational and Child Psychology , 26(2), 77-89.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. In R.W. Rieber & A.S. Carton (Eds.), The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky, Volume 1: Problems of general psychology (pp. 39–285) . New York: Plenum Press. (Original work published 1934.)

Wertsch, J. V., & Tulviste, P. (1992). L. S. Vygotsky and contemporary developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 28 (4), 548-557.

Wertsch, J. V., Sohmer, R. (1995). Vygotsky on learning and development. Human Development, (38), 332-37.

Winsler, A., Abar, B., Feder, M. A., Schunn, C. D., & Rubio, D. A. (2007). Private speech and executive functioning among high-functioning children with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37 , 1617-1635.

Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving.  Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry , 17, 89−100.

Further Reading

What is vygotsky’s theory.

Vygotsky believed that cognitive development was founded on social interaction. According to Vygotsky, much of what children acquire in their understanding of the world is the product of collaboration.

How is Vygotsky’s theory applied in teaching and learning?

Vygotsky’s theory has profound implications for classroom learning. Teachers guide, support, and encourage children, yet also help them to develop problem-solving strategies that can be generalized to other situations.

Children learn best not when they are isolated, but when they interact with others, particularly more knowledgeable others who can provide the guidance and encouragement to master new skills.

What was Vygotsky’s best know concept?

Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist best known for his sociocultural theory. He constructed the idea of a zone of proximal development ,  which are those tasks which are too difficult for a child to solve alone but s/he can accomplish with the help of adults or more skilled peers.

Vygotsky has developed a sociocultural approach to cognitive development. He developed his theories at around the same time as  Jean Piaget  was starting to develop his ideas (1920’s and 30″s), but he died at the age of 38, and so his theories are incomplete – although some of his writings are still being translated from Russian.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky could be described as a  constructivist , in that he was interested in knowledge acquisition as a cumulative event – with new experiences and understandings incorporated into existing cognitive frameworks.

However, while Piaget’s theory is structural (arguing that physiological stages govern development), Vygotsky denies the existence of any guiding framework independent of culture and context.

No single principle (such as Piaget’s equilibration) can account for development. Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social and cultural context within which it is embedded. Higher mental processes in the individual have their origin in social processes.

What is Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory?

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is often referred to as the Sociocultural Theory.

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory posits that social interaction is fundamental to cognitive development. Vygotsky emphasized the influence of cultural and social contexts on learning, claiming that knowledge is constructed through social collaboration.

His most known concept, the Zone of Proximal Development, refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.

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Psychology is based on the study of human behaviors. As a social science, experimental psychology uses empirical inquiry to help understand human behavior. According to Thrass and Sanford (2000), psychology writing has three elements: describing, explaining, and understanding concepts from a standpoint of empirical investigation.

Discipline-specific writing, such as writing done in psychology, can be similar to other types of writing you have done in the use of the writing process, writing techniques, and in locating and integrating sources. However, the field of psychology also has its own rules and expectations for writing; not everything that you have learned in about writing in the past works for the field of psychology.

Writing in psychology includes the following principles:

• Using plain language : Psychology writing is formal scientific writing that is plain and straightforward. Literary devices such as metaphors, alliteration, or anecdotes are not appropriate for writing in psychology.
• Conciseness and clarity of language : The field of psychology stresses clear, concise prose. You should be able to make connections between empirical evidence, theories, and conclusions. See our OWL handout on conciseness for more information.
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Most major writing assignments in psychology courses consists of one of the following two types.

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• Prof. John D. E. Gabrieli

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• Study outline for K&R Chapter 6 (PDF)
• [Stangor] Chapter 9, “Intelligence and Language”

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View Full Video Lecture 12: Language View by Chapter Language Basics: Sounds We Hear and Distinguish From Sound to Meaning: Syntax, Semantics, and Comprehension Problems with Language: Aphasia and the Neural Basis of Speech Language Acquisition: Infants, Bilingualism, and the Case of Genie Video Resources Removed Clips Lecture Slides (PDF - 1.7MB)

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• Language is a system of communication and representation that is governed by systematic rules. The rules of can be studied at multiple levels. For each of the following terms, identify the features of language they describe:

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• Syntax: The description of how words are organized into phrases and sentences. Often called the “grammar” of a language.
• Semantics: The description of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.
• Phonology: The description of the sounds of a language and how they are put together to make words.
• Language is a powerful system because of the principle of discrete infinity, which means that a small number of basic units can be combined in an unlimited number of ways to represent and communicate ideas.
• What is the smallest unit of meaning in language called? Give an example of how these can be combined.
• What is the smallest contrastive unit of sound in language called? Give an example of one of these from English. Give an example of one of these from a foreign language you might have heard, but which is not present in English.
• Morpheme. For example: Un + believe + able = unbelievable
• Phoneme. For example: /k/ as in “cat” in English. In other languages but not English, e.g., the trilled “r” in Spanish, the clicks in Bantu, the trilled “r” in French, the hard “h” in Hebrew.
• It is remarkable that babies learn language so fast and so effectively, even though no one ever explicitly teaches them the rules of their language. Describe two facts you have learned about how babies learn language.

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• Girls learn more words earlier than boys.
• Babies begin to lose the ability to discriminate foreign language speech sounds by 9-12 months.
• Children might use words wrong in overextensions (e.g. calling all animals “doggie”) or underextensions (refusing to call any other dog besides the family pet a “doggie”).

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The Psychology of Writing

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The human ability to render meaning through symbolic media such as art, dance, music, and speech defines, in many ways, the uniqueness of our species. One symbolic medium in particular--written expression--has aroused increasing interest among researchers across disciplines, in areas as diverse as the humanities, education, and the social sciences because it offers a fascinating window into the processes underlying the creation and enunciation of symbolic representation. In The Psychology of Writing, cognitive psychologist Ronald T. Kellogg reviews and integrates the fast-growing, multidisciplinary field of composition research, a field that seeks to understand how people formulate and express their thoughts with the symbols of written text. By examining the production of written text, the book fills a large gap in cognitive psychology, which until now has focused on speech production, comprehension, and reading, while virtually ignoring how people write. Throughout, the author masterfully examines the many critical factors that come together during the writing process--including writer personality, work schedules, method of composing, and knowledge. In providing an important new theoretical framework that enables readers from a wide range of backgrounds to navigate the extensive composition literature, the author drives home the profound significance of meaning-making as a defining feature of human cognition. Kellogg not only draws from the work of leading composition scholars, but quotes insights into the writing process proffered by some of the most gifted practitioners of the writing craft--including E.M. Forster, John Updike, and Samuel Johnson. Engaging and lively, The Psychology of Writing is the perfect introduction to the subject for students, researchers, journalists, and interested general readers.

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Writing in Psychology

The goal of scientific writing is effective communication, communication of abstract propositions, logical arguments, empirical observations, experimental results, and their interrelations and interactions.  Clear organization, as well as lucid and precise writing, are very important conditions for such communication.  This guide is designed to help you produce clear and well written papers, no matter what the topic or format.

To achieve clarity, good writing must be precise in it use of words, free of ambiguity, orderly in its presentation of ideas, economical in expression, smooth in flow, and considerate of the reader.

Strive to choose words which convey the intended meaning. Qualifiers are often a source of imprecision. Expressions such as “quite a large part,” “practically all,” “very few,” and the like are interpreted differently by different readers or in different contexts. They weaken statements, especially those dealing with empirical observations.

Do not use words incorrectly (when you mean think do not write feel), and avoid coined terms (use concept not conceptum).

Avoiding ambiguity. The referent for each term should be so apparent that the reader will not have to search over prior material. Ambiguity is avoided by indicating the referent every time you use this, that, these, and those (e.g., this test and that trial). Also, make certain that the first sentence of a paragraph is comprehensible by itself; do not depend on a vague reference to earlier statements.

Economy of expression.   Strive for clear, economical expression. Avoid overly sophisticated terms, as well as overly complex sentences.

Smoothness of expression.  Do not introduce a topic abruptly. If the reader is likely to ask “How does this fit in?” more transition is necessary. Similarly, do not abandon an argument suddenly. If a reader feels “left hanging,” the discussion needs a concluding statement.

Sudden shifts in tense should be avoided. Do not move capriciously between past and present tense within the same paragraph or successive paragraphs. Past tense is usually appropriate for a literature review (Smith reported) or the experimental design or procedure (the animals were injected), inasmuch as it is an historical account. Using present tense suggests a dialogue between the author and reader and should be used where that situation is appropriate. Future tense is rarely appropriate.

Verbs must agree with their subjects, and pronouns with the nouns to which they refer. This simple rule is usually not troublesome except with plural words of Latin or Greek origin that end in a. For example, data, criteria, and phenomena are plural.

Consideration of the reader

In scientific writing, devices that attract attention to words, sounds or other embellishments, instead of ideas, are inappropriate. Heavy alliteration, accidental rhyming, poetic expression, and clichés are suspect. They are unsuitable in scientific writing because they lead the reader, who is looking for information, away from the theme of the paper. Metaphors are sometimes helpful, but use them sparingly. Avoid mixed metaphors. Literal and figurative usage mix badly; for example, “During the interview, the client sat with her head in her hands and her eyes on the floor.”

Absolute insistence on the third person and the passive voice (“it is thought” or “it is suggested”) has been a strong tradition in scientific writing. It is now thought that this results in a deadly, pompous style known as “scientificese,” and is no longer seen as essential to the preservation of objectivity. However, despite a slight relaxation of these rules, the use of the passive voice and the third person is still the norm in most scientific writing. See the section below for additional information on person and voice.

Avoiding Sexism

Sexism can spring from subtle errors in research design, inaccurate interpretation, or imprecise word choices. An investigator may unintentionally introduce bias into the research design, for example, by using stimulus materials and measures that suggest to one sex or the other what responses are “appropriate.” Or, in interpretation, an investigator may make unwarranted generalizations about both men and women from data about one sex. Imprecise word choices, which occur frequently in journal writing, may be interpreted as biased, discriminatory, or demeaning even if they are not intended to be.

Problems of designation.   When you refer to a person or persons, choose words that are accurate, clear, and free from bias. For example, the use of “man” as a generic noun can be ambiguous and may convey an implicit message that women are of secondary importance. You can choose nouns, pronouns, and adjectives to eliminate, or at least to minimize, the possibility of ambiguity in sex role identity. Problems of designation are divided into two subcategories: ambiguity of referent, when it is unclear whether the author means one sex or both, and stereotyping, when the author conveys unsupported or biased connotations about sex roles and identity.

Problems of evaluation.   Scientific writing, as an extension of science, should be free of implied or irrelevant evaluation of the sexes. Difficulties may derive from the use of clichés, such as “man and wife,” which is non-parallel and implies differences in status and lifestyle (husband and wife” are parallel, or “man and woman”). Problems of evaluation, like problems of designation, are divided into ambiguity of referent and stereotyping.

Avoiding sexist language.  The task of changing language may seem awkward at first. Nevertheless, careful attention to meaning and practice in rephrasing will overcome any initial difficulty. The result of such effort is accurate, unbiased communication. For example, instead of “Much has been written about the effect that a child’s position among his siblings has on his intellectual development”, you might say, “Much has been written about the relationship between sibling position and intellectual development in children.”

Avoiding Ethnic Bias

Like language that may be interpreted as sexist, language that may be construed as ethnically biased can be classified into problems of designation and problems of evaluation.

Problems of designation.   Styles and preferences for nouns referring to ethnic groups change over time. In some cases, even members of a group disagree about the preferred name at a specific time. Ascertain the most acceptable current terms and use them.

Problems of evaluation.   The majority of instances of implied irrelevant evaluation seem to occur when the writer uses one group (usually the writer’s own group) as the standard against which others are assessed. Unfortunately, the basis for negative comparisons is usually established during the planning of the research, for example, by the choice of empirical measures.

At the writing stage, avoid language that suggests evaluation. An example of implied evaluation is found in the phrase “culturally deprived” when it is used to describe a single group rather than to compare two or more groups. Using the term to describe one group of participants implies that one culture is a universally accepted standard against which others are judged. As a test of implied evaluation, substitute another group (e.g., your own) for the group being discussed.  If you are offended by the revised statement, there is probably bias in the original statement.

Types of Papers in Psychology

Writing papers in psychology is much like writing papers in any other discipline. Nevertheless, in psychology, there are a number of different types of papers which may be required. As always, it is best to consult with your instructor, or carefully read the syllabus, to know what is expected of you in any particular course. The following provides a brief description of the types of papers which may be assigned.

Report . In a report, a student is expected to accurately and concisely convey the arguments contained in the book or article read. There is no interpretation in most reports. Instead, the goal is to summarize what the author has said.

Review . In a review, one analyzes a work written by someone else. Generally, the thesis of the paper is either agreement or disagreement with the position taken by the author. The opening paragraph provides a brief synopsis of the book or article ending with a thesis statement which states your evaluation. The body of the paper then presents the arguments and associated evidence justifying your viewpoint.

Critical Analysis . A critical analysis is known by a number of different names. It is sometimes called a literature review, a policy paper, or even simply a term paper. In a critical analysis, the point of the paper is to integrate a number of works by different people relevant to a specific topic or issue. In many ways, it combines and extends the type of writing contained in reports and reviews. Like a report you must accurately present the positions of others and like a critical analysis your evaluation of that body of research and/or theory is critical. A critical analysis usually begins with an opening paragraph which presents the problem or topic in general terms. The opening should lead the reader to a clear thesis statement which is often the final sentence in the opening paragraph. The thesis statement should indicate what you intend to show in the paper. Thus, the thesis should take a position. The body of the paper then presents the arguments you will use to justify your thesis. What is important is that you use research/theory to justify your position. You must interpret the research/theory rather than simply report it. Interpretation means that you must explain how a particular finding or method is relevant to your thesis statement. Everything contained in a critical analysis should help you justify your thesis.

Research Proposal . Some courses require research proposals. Since the format for the proposal may depend on the course for which it is written, it is important to ask the instructor for any special instructions. In the absence of special instructions/requirements, the following should apply.

A research proposal has two basic sections. The introduction has as its basic goal the presentation and justification of a testable hypothesis. The opening paragraph of a research proposal generally identifies a problem and indicates the independent variables of the proposed study. The final paragraph of a research proposal usually provides a brief narrative description of the proposed research and ends with a statement of the hypotheses to be tested. Given that you now have a general sense of where to begin (the opening) and where you want to end (the hypotheses), the trick is figure out how to get there from here. The purpose of the body of the paper is to justify the hypotheses through a careful analysis of the available research and theory. Thus, the body of the paper must review the research relevant to the independent variables in your proposal. Again, interpretation of the research rather than simply reporting is the goal. You must state what the research means for the hypotheses you are trying to develop. A research proposal is successful if a reader can easily understand how your interpretation of the research/theory led you to the specific hypotheses presented.

The second section, titled methods, describes the way you are planning to test the hypotheses. It is frequently sub-divided into sections titled, subjects, design, and procedure. Individual instructors may ask for additional sections. Check to see that you are following the instructor’s recommendations.

Lab Report . A lab report usually contains the same sections as a research proposal with the addition of a results section which contains the data and a discussion which addresses the implications of the data for the hypotheses which prompted the study. Instructors generally have a format for lab reports. Check with the instructor for the format to use in that course.

Writing the Paper

Choosing a topic . If your professor has given you a list of suggested topics, of course, take those suggestions seriously. Often, however, you are asked to choose a topic on your own. One way to do this is to step back from your day-to-day immersion in the course and take a broad view of the course content, the breadth of the topics covered, their meaning to you, and their application to your experience, or to “real world” situations that interest you. Examining your textbook from this perspective, skimming its table of contents, index, and chapter subheadings (especially those chapters you haven’t read yet), can be very helpful, and should help you decide on a topic that will sustain your interest and enthusiasm. It is also helpful at this stage to look for a topic that, perhaps from class lectures or your text, you know generates controversy or interesting questions, or leaves you room to participate in problem solving.

Once you have some preliminary ideas, read what is readily available on the topic in your text or the library. Talk to other students and with your professor. Remember that the professor can be a major resource and should be approached early in the process to help you clarify your choice. However, do not expect your professor to welcome a visit which begins with, “I can’t think of anything to write a paper on.” Professors much prefer directing your thinking to doing it for you!

It is important to select a topic which is appropriate in terms of its level of difficulty. A topic which is too broad will lead to a superficial paper without an adequate focus. A topic which is too narrow will make it difficult for you to find enough relevant material, or what you discover may be too complex for you. What is appropriate will also depend upon the level of your course. Some examples will illustrate this problem.

Too Broad:  Emotional disturbances schizophrenia

Too narrow:  Habit disorder in children speech problems in childhood schizophrenia

Better:  Behavioral models of causal factors in emotional disturbances schizophrenia

One test of the appropriateness of your topic will be the amount of relevant material you can find in the library. If you find too little, the topic may be too narrow; if you feel overwhelmed by the amount available, it may be too broad.

Searching the literature . Establish early the level of sophistication you expect to achieve with the topic you have chosen. If you are really interested in, or expect to achieve, state of the art knowledge in the area, you will need to start early and search the literature systematically. Frequently, professors set criteria for the minimum number of books, journals, or magazines cited. Bear in mind that asking questions such as: “How many references do I need?”, or “How long should my paper be?”, is comparable to asking, “How long is a piece of string?” Teachers give answers only to insure adequate work and to avoid having many unnecessarily long papers. The amount of information available and its relevance to the goals of your paper will more appropriately determine the length of your reference list.

Refer to the section of this manual that deals with the library to get some hints on how to proceed. Start with a preliminary look at the subject catalog for book holdings and check recent issues of the indexes and abstracts most likely to cover your topic to see if there is at least some literature available. You may find that the library’s findings must be supplemented by inter-library loans. This should cause no major difficulty if you allow sufficient time for materials to be located and sent.

Reading and organizing. As you read the literature concerning your topic, proceed by systematically taking notes; be sure to record what you feel is important. It is easy to get absorbed in the reading and to move on to other materials without pausing to take notes. However, every good writer needs to accumulate notes carefully before attempting to write a paper. It is very helpful to write notes on index cards so they may be reordered at a later date. Substantive notes summarizing a study or article can be written in the form they might be used in your paper. For instance, after reading a 10 page research report in a journal, your note could summarize the key points in a paragraph that begins:

Throckmorton and Doe (1979) tested the effect of humor on reducing pre-exam anxiety by showing videotapes of early Candid Camera TV shows during breakfast in a large dining hall on the campus of a small Midwestern liberal arts college. The subjects, 215 juniors and seniors, reported ….

By consistently taking the time to do this with material that has a high probability of being included in your paper, your literature review will largely be done when you sit down to write the paper. One word of caution is in order, however. Some detail oriented students get trapped by their note taking. They report finding it hard to screen their reading for importance or relevance and consequently write down everything they read. Some also find it hard to focus their reading and study in one area only; they end up with enough material for several papers instead of one. All of your reading and note taking need to be guided by an ever evolving game plan and goal for the paper.

After you have decided on a topic, collected the relevant research, and taken notes, you have to think about writing the paper. The following are some points to consider as you begin to write.

The Audience . Before you begin to write, ask yourself, “For whom am I writing this paper?” Your answer to this question will determine the amount of detail included in the paper and the amount of sophistication of the writing. For example, think about how you would present any topic to your younger brother or sister who is in elementary school, a fellow student, a senior psychology major, your professor, or the major researcher on your topic. Obviously, if you wrote for the major researcher, your younger brother or sister would not have a clue about what you are writing about. Similarly, if you wrote for your younger brother or sister, the major researcher would be insulted. It is important that you do not write in such a way that the reader is either insulted or confused. Unless your instructor tells you otherwise, assume that your audience is another student who is familiar with the basic concepts and ideas in psychology that you are covering. In other words, a fellow student in the course should be able read your paper, understand what you are arguing, and accurately report back to you what you have written.

The Opening Paragraph . The opening paragraph introduces the reader to the problem or issue to be addressed in the paper, it limits what the paper will cover, and it provides a central thesis for the paper. Edit out those vague, general throw away sentences often found in an opening paragraph. The following are examples of those sentences:

Since humans are social beings, we are all affected by people around us. B. F. Skinner, a famous psychologist who teaches at Harvard and invented the Skinner box which is used to study operant conditioning, is a controversial figure in psychology.

The opening paragraph should make the reader want to read the paper which follows. It should grab someone’s attention and identify quickly and clearly what the paper is about. If you are addressing a problem, note why the problem is important. If you are analyzing some variables, let the reader know what variables will be considered in the paper. Most importantly, the opening paragraph should lead to and end with a clear, concise thesis statement.

The Thesis Statement . The thesis statement tells the reader what your paper is all about. It takes a position. It tells the reader what you plan to show in the paper. Writing a paper can be compared to taking a trip. Knowing where you want to end up is like having a clear thesis statement. You can organize your arguments to lead the reader to your conclusion. Not having a clear thesis statement is like not knowing where you want to end up. Almost any piece of information is relevant and your paper is confused. The following are some examples of vague thesis statements:

Men and women differ in the influence strategies they use. This paper explores the differences between behavioral and cognitive therapies.

The intergroup contact hypothesis can be used to reduce prejudice other than racial prejudice.

Compare the thesis statements above with those below. Can you see why the statements below are clearer and more focused?

Discrimination against women will continue as long as women use indirect power while men exercise direct power. Cognitive therapies are superior to behavioral therapies because they consider both behavior and the client’s thought processes.

Use of the intergroup contact hypothesis can reduce prejudice against handicapped people

When you have a clear, focused thesis, you know what you have to show in the paper. In the first example, you would have to show how gender differences in power lead to discrimination. In the second, you would have to show why altering the client’s thinking is more important than just changing inappropriate behavior. In the third, you would have to show how the intergroup contact hypothesis can be used to reduce prejudice against the handicapped.

Remember that an interesting opening paragraph and a clear thesis statement is important regardless of the type of paper you are writing. The body of the paper may differ, however, as a function of paper type. In a report, the body of the paper conveys the basic ideas contained in the book or article you read. In a review, the body of the paper presents the reasons, and supporting evidence, for why you agree or disagree with the article or book. In a literature review, the body of the paper presents the arguments or points you are trying to make, interpreting the research/theory to provide support for those arguments. In a research proposal, the body of the paper interprets the research/theory to show why the hypothesis is legitimate.

Outlining your paper before you begin is always a good idea. It helps you organize your ideas and more importantly prevents you from leaving something out. Some outline and other simply write and then edit. If you can teach yourself to use outlines effectively, do so. It will save you time in the long run. If you cannot outline, allow yourself extra time for editing. Nevertheless, always realize that editing will be required.

Writing the First Draft

Some worry so much about every word that they become paralyzed and unable to write. Allow yourself the luxury of putting words down on paper the first time without worrying about whether they are absolutely correct. Our advice to procrastinators and worriers is to write first, edit second, and save the worrying for the outcome of the next national election. You can always edit yesterday’s awkward writing, but only if you wrote the first draft yesterday.

Editing and Rewriting.  With a first draft in the computer, the hard part is over. Now you can concentrate on refining what you said without the worry of what to say. You now want to edit for content, style, and organization. Have you said everything you wanted to say? Are all the sections consistent with the outline? Does some material need to be moved to another section, or should you revise the outline? Are you writing clearly? Have you used consistent style throughout and adhered to the proper guidelines for quotations, headings, referencing others’ work, and so forth?

The number of drafts necessary for a really “good” piece of writing depends on an individual’s ability and experience, as well as his or her criteria for good. While students rarely allow sufficient time for many drafts, professional writers often do four or more drafts and then turn their work over to a copy editor for polishing. Like any highly refined technique, good writing is the result of practice.

When you have done one or more rewrites of your paper, consider these two suggestions before preparing a final copy for your professor. First, let someone else read your paper for style, flow, and clarity. Of course, your paper must remain only your work, but there is no reason why you can’t make use of your friend’s evaluation of your style.

Style and Technical Considerations

The paragraph. The basic unit of writing is the paragraph. Rarely can a sentence stand alone. When you introduce an idea, it should be developed. In some ways a paragraph is like a mini-paper in that it starts with a central concept, develops that concept, and summarizes it. A good paragraph has two characteristics. First, it is unified: each sentence within a paragraph contributes to the same basic concept. You will usually state the concept in a topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. Second, the sentences in a paragraph should flow naturally. That is, the ideas presented in each sentence should relate to those contained in the sentences before and after.

Transitional devices.  One key to making your paper flow is to use transitional words or devices. Transitional words are helpful in tying one sentence to another and connecting different ideas within the same paragraph or paper. Common kinds of transitional devices include pronouns (e.g., “Lewin was a father of social psychology. He also …”), repeating words or phrases (e.g., “Werner proposed the orthogenic theory of development. Many current developmental theorists have a foundation in Werner’s work.”), and using synonyms or closely related works (e.g., “Cats are a favorite laboratory animal for the study of sleep. As we all know, felines like to sleep.”).

Transitional words can be used in many other ways. You probably already use transitional devices to make comparisons, provide examples, or enumerate. Table 1 provides some examples of transitional phrases and their functions.

Table 1. Examples of Transitional Phrases and Their Functions.

Make comparisons:  Similarly/however/in contrast/on the other hand but/likewise/yet/nevertheless

Augment your point:  In addition/also/too/and/furthermore

Enumerate:  First/second/next/finally/last

Give examples:  For example/to illustrate

Reach conclusions: As a result/as a consequence/therefore/thus

Summarize:  In summary/in short/to summarize

The first sentence of each paragraph may contain a transitional expression relating it to the preceding paragraph. If the new paragraph continues the theme of the preceding paragraph, use a transition like “in addition,” or “furthermore.” If you intend to introduce a new concept or wish to contrast, use “on the other hand” or “in contrast.” Use “in conclusion” or “to summarize” if you are summarizing or reaching a conclusion.

Supporting statements.  A key to writing clearly is being specific. Avoid using broad generalizations unless you follow them with concrete examples. Document or validate your point with data. If you state, “The intelligence scores of mothers and their children are strongly related.” support this statement with research findings or theory. For example, “In a study of 2,500 17 year-olds, Hollister (1983) found the strongest predictor of IQ was the mother’s IQ.”

The proper tense.  Choosing the correct tense in which to write your psychology paper can be confusing. The basic rule is to avoid the future tense. Most of your paper should be written in the past tense. The reason is that most of what you are describing has already been done. That is, the literature you cite has already been written, and the studies have already been conducted. As a general rule, discussions of prior research, descriptions of procedure, or statements of results, are in the past tense. For example:

Literature review:  Mitchell’s study found (not finds) …

Procedure:  The subjects were (not are) …

Results:  Mean scores were (not are) …

While most of your paper will be written in the past tense, certain statements may be in the present tense. A rule of thumb is to use the present tense in a scientific paper for statements which have continuing or general applicability. Therefore, definitions or statements from a well-defined theory should be stated in the present tense. For example:

Definition:  Drever defines …; in this experiment pain is …

Theory:  The orthogenetic theory states that …; Freud says …

Hypothesis:  Memory was not expected to correlate with motivation.

Results:  Mitchell demonstrated (past tense when referring to a particular study) that person nodes are used (present tense   when referring to general findings) …

References to tables or figures: Table 1 shows …

Correct person and voice.  In addition to tense, verbs can show voice and person. The active voice implies action by the subject (“The butler committed the crime.”), while the passive voice indicates something is happening to the actor (“The crime was committed by the butler.”). Traditionally, scientific papers have been written in the third person and the passive voice, i.e., “The researcher administered the survey.” The purpose of this writing style is to de-emphasize the personal nature of the report. The procedures and data are to stand on their own. However, this often results in clumsy prose that is difficult or boring to read. In term papers it is usually better to use the active voice. “Jones found …” rather than “It was found by Jones …” The use of the first person, “I,” should be reserved for those situations where the writer is clearly expressing his or her own views. Avoid the use of “we.”

Agreement of subject and verb.  The most common grammatical errors concern subject verb agreement. Singular and plural forms of a verb are sometimes incorrectly matched with a subject noun or pronoun. Every sentence must have both a subject and a verb. The subject is that part of the sentence that performs. For example, “Mark is an industrial psychologist.” In the case of a passive sentence, the subject receives the action of the verbs (e.g., “The shot was given to Smedley.”). The verb expresses action or a state of being. For example, “Mabel ran in the Boston Marathon.” or “The rats were psychotic.”

Correct singular and plural forms.  Many psychology students get confused about the singular and plural forms of certain scientific terms. The following list should be helpful.

Table 2. Singular and Plural Forms for a Number of Words

Singular                                 Plural

criterion                                  criteria

phenomenon                         phenomena

apparatus                               apparatus or apparatuses

stimulus                                 stimuli

analysis                                 analyses

datum                                     data

appendix                                appendixes or appendices

Avoiding sexist language.  You may have learned to write using the generic words he, him, his, man, and mankind to refer to people in general. In addition, you may have habits that either subtly or blatantly support sex role stereotypes. Until recently such sexist usage was not questioned. However, we encourage you to adopt a nonsexist alternative. Since 1977, the American Psychological Association has encouraged writing styles that support egalitarian attitudes and assumptions about people and sex roles. Below are some tips on writing in an appropriate, nonsexist manner.

1. Don’t use the words “girls” or “boys” unless you are speaking specifically about children; use “women” and “men” instead.

2. Substitute “person” for “man” and “people” for “men” unless you are talking specifically about males.

3. Use the plural when you are referring to a class of people. For example, “Students prefer their classes …,” rather than “A student prefers his classes…” The use of plurals will help you avoid the generic male pronoun.

4. Don’t designate gender unless it’s relevant. For example, use “minister” rather than “woman minister.”

5. Remember to use current job titles, instead of previous sexist ones. Examples of appropriate titles include: police officer, flight attendant, postal worker, secretary (not office girl).

Grammar and style.  Avoid the use of long involved sentences, inverted phrases, etc., which can lead to confusion. Simple, direct declarative sentences are usually the best. The style of psychology papers may seem dry but it is intended to be clear and consistent. Avoid emotionally loaded words (e.g., drastically significant, desperately needed). An evaluation need not have moral implications; an author may be incorrect without the results being unwarranted, bad, etc.

Titles and headings.  Except for very short papers (two or three pages) your paper should have a title page . Center the title about midway down the title page. Under the title, center your name. In the lower right hand corner of the page, include the number and name of the course for which the paper is being prepared, the date it is submitted, and your pledge. Remember to type of word “pledge” and sign your name.

The next page begins the body of your paper. Center your title in uppercase and lowercase letters about two inches below the top of the page (do not underline). In the upper right hand corner of this and the following pages should be a page number. Make this page one. Page numbering and headers, as they are called, can be done automatically with PC-Write.

Effective use of headings helps the writer to organize a paper effectively and the reader to better understand a paper’s content. Therefore, we encourage you to make appropriate use of headings as a means of organizing your paper. You can see how headings and titles are used in the paper in Appendix A.

Three levels of headings are sufficient for most student papers. They are illustrated below:

Usually the material which follows the title on the second page is introductory. The purpose of such material is presumed by a reader and no heading such as “Introduction” is used. The first time you use a heading will be for a section later in the body of the paper.

Items in a series.  Sometimes it is very helpful to organize material using a list. When this appears within a paragraph or sentence, items should be noted alphabetically: (a) first item, (b) second item, and so on.

Another type of list is one made up of a series of conclusions or steps in some procedure which need to be entered on separate lines for emphasis. Each item is treated as a separate paragraph. These should be indented and listed as follows:

1. Item number one. The first line of each item should be indented. Additional material continues on subsequent lines.

2. Item number two.

3. Item number three and so forth.

Numbers in the text. The use of numbers in psychology is somewhat different from other styles of writing. In psychology it is important to ensure precision and clarity with the statistics often included in a paper.

A rule of thumb for using numbers in your paper is that all numbers 10 and above should be expressed in Arabic figures, and all numbers below 10 should be expressed in words. There are, however, some important exceptions. For example, a sentence should never begin with an Arabic number. The table which follows summarizes the use of numbers in the text of a paper. Table 3.  Use of Numbers in Text.

Express as Numbers                                                 Express as Words

Numbers 10 and above                                          Numbers less than 10

Ages and dates                                                        Common fractions (two thirds of the U.S. population)

Groups of numbers with some above and some below 10

Percentages and percentiles                             Numbers that begin a sentence

Ratios                                                                         Precise measures or quantities (Fifty-four percent of the group)

Scores                                                                        Usual expressions (Fourth of July)

Statistical functions                                              Street numbers in addresses

Sums of money

Abbreviations.  Abbreviations are used in a paper when they will help make a reader’s task easier, but it is possible to overuse abbreviations. When in doubt, avoid an abbreviation. Certain terms and titles have meaning to almost everyone familiar with the field. For example, MMPI can be used as a clear substitute for Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and almost any reader would comprehend the use of IQ instead of Intelligence Quotient. These abbreviations make the task of reading simpler.

References.  One of the most important tasks in the preparation of papers is the proper citation of references. This may seem a little confusing since most students are used to thinking of bibliographies. There are some important differences between the two. A reference section includes only those literature items that are actually cited in the paper. A bibliography will include items that served as background material but which were not explicitly cited (also, see the Citation Guidelines page for more information on referencing).

References in the text.  When you discuss almost anything that is not original with you, such as a book, journal article, or even a lecture, it must have a reference. Psychology papers use the name/date method of noting such citations, not footnotes.

For every statement that you have adapted from another source, there should be both a name or names and a publication date included in the body of the paper. There are a three basic ways in which a reference can be cited. First, the sentence containing the material can begin with the author and date:

Jones (1983) was one of the first researchers to study carefully the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches.

Second, the above style could be changed to the following:

In 1983 Jones first began to study carefully the annual spring …

Third, the author’s name and the date of publication may be placed in parentheses at the conclusion of the statement:

One recent study examined the annual spring migration of college students to southern beaches (Jones, 1983).

The reference may be linked with a single sentence or even a paragraph, but the material to which you are referring should be clear from the way you have entered the citation. If you refer to one article or book several times in the same paragraph, or on the same page, you need only use the date once, unless the reader would be confused by such things as other references with the same author which have different dates. The best rule to follow in this case is common sense. Always ask yourself, will the reader easily understand the source of the material referenced?

Multiple authors.  There are instances when you use references with several authors, or several references which address the same material. Some of the ways in which this can be handled are illustrated below:

Several early studies (Good & John, 1955; James & Stevens, 1962) collected data on student sleeping habits.

Note that the ampersand (&) is used between authors’ names when they are enclosed in parentheses, and a semicolon separates different references. Also note that the references are listed alphabetically and in order of publication.

Sometimes you will use a reference in your paper with more than two authors. The first time you cite such a reference in your paper, list all of the authors:

Perhaps the most comprehensive study of “walkman” listening behavior was done by Johnson, Jones, and James (1982).

If you cite the same study again, you may omit the names of all but the first author and substitute “et al.” for the other authors:

One of the most interesting conclusions of Johnson et al. (1962) …

Secondary sources.  You may find it necessary to cite a reference from a secondary source. For example, you might find a pertinent article discussed in your textbook but discover that the study is unavailable in the library. This is most likely to occur with older articles or articles from foreign journals. While you should be careful this doesn’t occur too often in a paper, it is usually acceptable to use such a reference in the text. However, it should be followed by the notation in parentheses such as:

Pavlov (cited in Hilgard & Bower, 1966) was the first to study …

Since you have read about Pavlov in Hilgard and Bower , only the secondary source is listed in the reference section at the end of the paper.

Quotations.  You may wish to include quotations to emphasize important points in your paper. Brief quotations can be marked with quotation marks and included as a part of the text. Quotations longer than one sentence or 40 words should be set in an indented block without quotation marks, as illustrated below. Whenever you use a quotation, it should be referenced in the same way as other material, with the important addition of the page number(s) on which the original appeared.

An important issue is raised by Walker (1978) who indicates “the unusual habit of compulsive and repetitive running back and forth in confined space while attempting to force a large ball through a metal hoop high above the ground” (p. 363) requires more careful study by behavioral scientists.  Miller (1973) has also studied these behaviors and draws the following conclusion:

It is clear that the individuals who engage in this activity are often above average in height and lanky in physical build. This common characteristic adds credibility to the hypothesis that the compulsion to engage in such behavior is biologically based. (p. 18)

In looking at these samples, note that the page numbers follow the quotation marks, or, in the case of the longer block quote, follows the period at the end of the quote. It would also have been possible to arrange the material so that the author’s name, the date of the reference and the page number follow the quote in parentheses.

One author dismissed the conjecture about basketball as “a case of behavioral scientists failing to see ‘the forest through the trees’” (Doe, 1982, p. 343).

Web-Based References.  APA has recently updated the format for citing material taken from the World Wide Web.  A summary of the format rules for web material can be found at:  https://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html

Reference Lists.  At the conclusion of your paper should be a list of all the references cited in the text. Only references which have actually been used in preparation of the paper should be included here. You must be sure that there is consistency between the citation in the text and the reference list.

The style we are describing is consistent with the American Psychological Association style. The two major types of references are those taken from journals (technical, professional magazines) and those from books. The examples below should cover most of the more common types of references. If you have questions about how to present an unusual source of material, check with your professor. And note that the first line of a reference is flush with the left margin but subsequent lines are indented.

Murray, R., & Jones, J. (1982). Mating behavior of squirrels on the capitol mall. Journal of Squirrel Psychology, 2 , 123-128.

Jackson, J. K., Jackson, K. J., & Jackson, J. J. (1952). The effects of birth order on career selection (2nd ed.). Green Bay, WI: Green Bay Press.

Bindrim, P. (1980, July). Group therapy: Protecting privacy. PsychologyToday , pp. 24, 27-28.

Zuzman, J. (1975). Recognition and management of psychiatric emergencies. In H. L. P. Resnik & H. L. Ruben (Eds.), Emergency psychiatric care (pp. 35-59). Bowie, MD: Charles Press.

Kopolow, L. E., Brands, A. B., Burton, J. L., & Ochberg, F. (1975). Litigation and mental health services (National Institute of Mental Health, DHEW Publication No. ADM 76-261). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

NSF commission looks at science education. (1983, May). APA Monitor , p.34.

The first reference is a standard journal article. Note carefully the punctuation and capitalization. The 2 is the volume number of the journal.

The next reference is a book. Note that only the first letter of the first word is capitalized. The book was published in Green Bay, WI by Green Bay Press.

Professional journals have continuous page numbering. That is, page numbering continues from one issue to the next for an entire year. When this system is used, it is not necessary to include the month of publication as part of the date. However, most popular magazines begin each issue with page 1. In this situation, it is necessary to include the month as part of the date. See example three above.

There are a number of special situations that require special reference formats. The fourth example above is a situation where several authors have contributed chapters to a book. Zuzman is the author of a chapter in a book edited by Resnik and Ruben.

The final two examples are a government publication and a news article without an author. The final item would be noted as NSF (1983) in the body of the paper.

References are listed alphabetically by author, or in order of publication if there are several items by the same author. Where there is more than one author, all single author references by an author come first. Then the listing proceeds alphabetically by second author, then third author, etc.

References are typed in the following way. The first line of each reference begins at the left-hand margin of the paper. The following lines are indented five spaces, making it easy for the reader to quickly locate a reference by the author’s name.

Grading Standards

Although professors use varying grading standards, most can tell you what an “A” paper should be like. The following grading standards are meant to be general guidelines only.

An “A” paper has a clear point that the average reader could express in one sentence if asked to do so. This point is substantiated, developed, or discussed with evidence or examples or detail that is concrete, vivid, and logically arranged. The sentences in the “A” paper invite re-reading because they are interesting. The “A” paper is excellent for this level of instruction.

A “B” paper also has a clear point with pertinent concrete detail used to support or explain that point. It too shows above-average usage and control of punctuation, but sentence patterns and length may not indicate the writing competence of the “A” paper. Diction may be not quite as precise. It too may invite re-reading.

A “C” paper makes a fairly clear point but may include occasional irrelevant information or misplaced ideas. It won’t have the clear organization of the “A” or “B” papers. Nor will sentences be as varied. Minor usage errors (such as pronoun references and noun agreement) and some punctuation errors may occur, and words may be used inaccurately on occasion. The “C” paper is average work for this level of instruction.

The “D” and “F” papers are difficult to process because of the “static” at the sentence level and foggy meaning due to uncontrolled diction and sentence structure. Words may be used inaccurately so frequently as to confuse readers. Ideas are difficult to get at because of uncontrolled sentences. Such papers are exhausting to the reader and invite only masochists to re-read them.

Plagiarism and the Honor Code

Using an idea, phrase, sentence, paragraph, etc., from someone else, whether a published writer or friend, (unless given credit in the text via a reference), is plagiarizing. Both direct quotes and paraphrased material must be credited by referencing. Paraphrasing means thinking through a point made by another person and restating it in your own words. It does not mean taking a phrase or sentence from another person and substituting a synonym here and there.   For more details see the document on proper citations .

Presenting Results

While experimental and library projects often require different writing styles and rules, there are many commonalities including scholarly work, clarity of expression, adherence to format, and appearance. The following applies to both experimental and library project papers.

Preliminary Pages (in order of appearance).  Title and signature pages. Note that the title of the paper (in capital letters) and your name are centered in the upper part of the page. The purpose of the paper is indicated at the bottom of the page. (Example of Title Page ; Example of Signature Page .)

The signature page indicates that the advisor and the second reader have approved the final draft of the project. The title and your name appear on this page using the same format as that used in the title page. Along the lower left hand margin of the signature page there should be places for both your advisor and the second reader to sign the comp after the orals.

Acknowledgments page.  An acknowledgments page is optional. However, it is customary to acknowledge those individuals who have provided significant assistance in the preparation of the project. Likely candidates include persons who helped prepare stimulus materials, persons who helped type the manuscript (if they were not paid), advisors who provided conceptual assistance, etc. If you decide to include an acknowledgments page, the word ACKNOWLEDGMENTS should be centered and typed in capital letters at the top of the page.

Table of contents (required). TABLE OF CONTENTS should be centered and typed in capital letters at the top of the page. All headings and subheadings in the paper should be included in the table of contents.

List of tables.  If your comp includes tables, a LIST OF TABLES page should be added. This page lists the titles of the tables and the pages on which they may be found. As with the table of contents, the title is centered and typed in capital letters.

List of figures .  The same rules used for a list of tables page would be used for a LIST OF FIGURES if figures are included in the comp.

Abstract (required).  An abstract is a synopsis of the comp. If your paper is reporting an experiment, the abstract should include a statement of the problem, type of subjects used, independent and dependent variables, the major findings, conclusions, and implications. For an experiment, abstracts are generally 100 to 150 words. Abstracts for library comprehensives are 75 to 100 words. Include the topic, thesis, sources used (e.g., published literature), conclusions, and implications. Abstracts should be succinct, accurate, and provide an informative overview of the project. Abstracts are typed in a one-paragraph double-spaced block (no indentation at the beginning). Center the word ABSTRACT at the top of the page in capital letters.

Numbering Preliminary Pages.  All the pages to this point (excepting the title and signature pages ) should be numbered using lower case Roman numerals, e.g., i, ii, etc. The page numbers should be placed on the upper right hand corner of the page.

Requirements of Style

The most basic requirement of style is adherence to the elementary rules of grammar and good usage. Following are some explicit suggestions about the use of tense, person, voice and number which are relevant in scientific writing.

Tense . Scientific reports are written in a combination of present and past tense. The literature cited has already been written, the study’s procedure has been carried out, and the results have been obtained, therefore these are written in the past tense (“the subjects performed”). Conclusions, on the other hand, are written in the present tense (“the data indicate”). This draws the reader into a “current” conversation with the writer.

Certain other statements are often written in the present tense. A useful rule is that the present tense indicates statements which have a continuing or general applicability. Definitions, statements from a well-defined theory, and hypotheses are stated in the present tense.

Illustrations:

Definition: “Webster defines …”

“In this study, a discrepancy is defined as …”

Theory: “The Gestalt theory holds that …”

Hypothesis: “It is hypothesized that intelligence is (not, “will be”) positively correlated with …”

Results: “Jones established (past tense, particular study) that auditory stimuli are (present tense, general findings) most effective …”

Person and voice .  Scientific communications are usually written in the third person, which often troubles inexperienced writers. There are occasions when the use of the first person is permissible (or even preferable).

The passive voice is used extensively, especially in describing procedures. Do not, however, let the passive voice lead to into clumsy, involved expression. Problems of person and voice are illustrated by these examples:

Bad : “We classified the subject’s responses…” (“We” is faulty, unless it refers to two or more defined persons. Never use “we” as a substitute for “I”.)

Better : “The investigator classified the subject’s responses…” (The statement tells who classified the responses, but without self-consciousness. Third-person references to “the experimenter” or “the investigator” are usual and acceptable. References to “the author” or “the writer” are generally avoided as self-conscious, except in theoretical arguments.)

Bad : “The classification of the subjects’ responses was carried out by dividing them …” (Clumsy use of passive voice. The writing is self-conscious, emphasizing the process of classifying.)

Better : “The subjects’ responses were divided…” (Better use of passive voice. The focus is on the research, not on the researcher.)

Headings .  In psychology it is appropriate to use two or three levels of headings positioned in this way:

The three headings would look like this in a manuscript:

If the paper requires four levels of headings, subordinate the three levels above by introducing another centered heading using upper and lower case letters and omitting the underlining.

Abbreviations .  Use abbreviations: (a) if the reader is more familiar with the abbreviation than with the complete form (LSD or ESP); (b) if the use of the abbreviation is conventional (IQ or REM), or (c) if considerable space can be saved and cumbersome repetition avoided.

Because the acronyms that psychologists employ in their daily writing may not be familiar to students or readers in other disciplines or locales, acronyms and abbreviations should be explained. A term to be abbreviated must, on its first appearance be spelled out completely and immediately followed by its abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafter, the abbreviation is used.

“Studies of simple reaction time (RT) to a visual target have found a strong negative relationship between RT and luminance.”

Note that no periods are used with these abbreviations

Statistics.  To present a statistic in the text, give the symbol, degrees of freedom, value, and probability level. In addition, give the mean, standard deviation, or other descriptive statistic to clarify the nature of the effect.

“As predicted, the first-grade girls reported a significantly greater liking for school ( M = 4.63) than did first-grade boys ( M = 1.38), t (22) = 2.62, p < .01.”

“The mean score for the long retention interval was 1.38, and the mean score for the short retention interval was 28.90. The analysis of variance indicated a significant retention interval effect, F (1, 34) = 123.07, p <.01.”

With chi-square, report degrees of freedom and sample size in parentheses:

X 2 (4, N = 90) = 10.51, p < .05

In scientific writing the word significant is only used when a statistical relationship at a specified level of confidence has been demonstrated. With the exception of Greek letters, underline or italisize all letters used as statistical symbols. This is true wherever they appear (text, tables, and figures).

MFdfrNSDtpnz

Numbers .  Use words to express numbers in the following cases:

(a) the numbers zero through nine, (b) any number, above or below 10, that begins a sentence.

Use numerals to express the following cases:

(a) number 10 or greater,

(b) any numbers above or below 10 that are:

(1) units of measurement or time “5-mg pellets for 3 days”

(2) ages “was 6 years old”

(3) times and dates “8:30 a.m. on May 6, 1972”

(4) percentages “a total of 6%”

(5) arithmetic manipulations “multiplied by 3”

(6) ratios “4:1”

(7) fractional or decimal quantities “on a 2 1/2-year old”

(8) scores and points on a scale “on a 7-point scale”

(9) actual numbers “the numerals 1-6”

(10) page numbers “on page 2”

(11) a series of four or more “1,3,5, and 7”

(12) numbers grouped for comparison within a sentence or a series of related sentences if any one of the numbers is 10 or above “of the 40 trails, 6 were practice trials” related sentences

Tables .  An informative table supplements–it does not duplicate–the text. In the text, refer to every table and its data. In the text tell the reader what to look for in the table, discussing the table’s highlights. If you discuss every item on the table in text, the table is unnecessary.

Tables must be intelligible without reference to the text. Explain all abbreviations (except such standard statistical abbreviations as M, SD, and df). In the text, refer to tables by their numbers:

…  as shown in Table 8, the responses …

… children with pretraining (see Table 8) …

Do not write “the table above/below” or “the table on page 32.”

When preparing tables, all number should be reported using the same number of decimal places. For example, instead of 3.4, 2.56, and 1, you should report 3.40, 2.56, 1.00.

Table numbers . Number all tables in the text with Arabic numerals in the order in which the tables are first mentioned in the paper. Identify tables of the appendix with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g., Table A-1 is the first table of Appendix A, Table C-2 is the second table of Appendix C).

Table titles . Give every table a brief but clear and explanatory title. The title should be left justified and either underlined or in italics.

Examples . Samples of well-prepared tables are provided in the Appendix. Examine them carefully. Pay special attention to Table 3, an example of an ANOVA table. Note that the table includes columns for df and F but none for SS or MS. MS error is given in parentheses. See your comp advisor for additional help in preparing correct tables.

Figures.  A well-prepared figure can convey the qualitative aspects of data, such as comparisons, relationships, and structural or pictorial concepts, more efficiently than can text or tables.

Standards for figures . The standards for good figures are simplicity, clarity, and continuity. A good figure

* augments rather than duplicates the text * conveys only essential facts * is easy to read, with elements (type, lines, labels, etc.) * is large enough to be read with ease * is easy to understand–its purpose is readily apparent

Types of figures . Graphs show relationships–comparisons and distributions–in a set of data. There are four major types of figures, line graphs, bar graphs, scatter graphs, and photographs.

1. Line graphs are used to show the relation between two quantitative variables. They are most often used to show continuous change or when the shape of the curve or curves is important.

2. Bar graphs or histograms are simple, adaptable, and telegraphic. They are used when the independent variable is categorical (e.g., as with different experimental conditions).

3. Scatter graphs consist of single dots plotted on a line graph; the dots are not joined by lines. A cluster of dots along a diagonal indicates a correlation.

4. Photographs have excellent eye appeal. They should be of professional quality and should be prepared with a background that produces the greatest contrast.

Many of the design and execution problems involved in producing figures are reduced with the use of the computer. See Figures and Tables for details.

Placement of Figures and Tables . Until recently figures and tables were placed on separate pages in a manuscript. The new convention is that figures and tables may be incorporated directly into the body of a paper, if that is convenient. A figure or a table should appear after the first reference to it. That is, a statement such as, “see Figure 1” should appear before the figure is placed in the paper. If figures or tables are on separate pages, number these pages just as you do all pages in the paper. You may also wish to look at the Figures and Tables page for more details.

Typing Instructions & Finishing Touches

Regardless of whether your comp is a library project or an empirical study, there are some rules of appearance which reflect professional interest and concern for your work. The appearance of your paper has an effect on how it is received. A neat, clean manuscript indicates that the writer cared about the paper.

Senior projects should be typed on white paper and double spaced, using 1 inch margins on top, bottom, left and right side.  The Psychology Department requires preparation of the original plus two copies of your comprehensive project. The original is placed in the library, one copy is retained by the first reader, and the second copy is kept by the student. As a courtesy, ask the second reader if he or she would like to keep a copy of the comp. In most cases, the second reader will not wish a copy. However, if the second reader is particularly interested in the topic or the presentation, a copy may be desired. The Psychology Department will pay for one copy of the paper. If additional copies are needed for the second reader, for an outside agency that provided participants, etc., the Department will pay for these copies as well.

All the copies of the paper should be submitted in hard cover, three hole red binders available from the Bookstore. In the final orals, there may be recommendations for rewriting a section of the paper or for correcting typographical errors. All such changes must be made and the corrected copies of the paper returned to the first reader within one week of the oral presentation.

Ordering and Numbering Pages .  Pages are ordered in the following manner: preliminary pages, the body of the paper including tables and figures, references, and appendices. All preliminary pages (except the title and signature pages) are numbered using lower case Roman numerals. All other pages are numbered in the upper right hand corner of the page.

Length.  There is no department policy on the length of a senior project. Length depends on the topic, the available literature, and a number of other factors. Make certain that your paper covers the topic and that you can defend its length. Consultation with both the first and second reader is advisable when determining the length of a paper.

Word Processing .  A single copy of the paper should be produced on a letter quality printer with other copies being made at the College Print Shop.

In addition to word processing, the college has other software that may be useful to the comp writer. These include spelling checkers, grammar checkers, and software to help organize and outline a paper.

Proofreading .  Carefully proofread the final copy of the comp before you turn it in. In the process of copying the comp, pages may be missed or be placed out of order. Be especially careful if someone has helped you type the paper. The typists may have made minor changes or errors which are difficult to catch, even if you have used a spelling checker.

Manuscript Checklist .  The most common oversights in manuscript preparation are listed below. Pay special attention to these items before submitting your comp.

________ Is the manuscript double-spaced with the exception of long quotations? Has the entire paper been proofread?

________ Have you provided an abstract of appropriate length?

________ Have you checked for appropriate placement of headings?

Mathematics and Statistics

________ Have you underlined all letters used as statistical symbols?

________ Are journal titles in the reference list spelled out fully?

________ Are all references cited in the body of the paper included in the reference list?

________ Is every item in the reference list cited in the body of the paper?

________ Have you included page numbers for quotations in the body of the paper?

________ Have you included page numbers in citations when the material which is  paraphrased is from a book?

Tables and Figures

________ Do all tables and figures meet specifications for complete title, adequate  headings, etc.?

The final copy of your paper should not be printed until after your orals. It is most likely that you will be asked to make changes in the manuscript. Put these preliminary copies in binders or envelopes for each reader. After the orals, make any changes that you have been asked to make, print a final copy, and have this duplicated, and then signed by the members of your committee. The project is not considered complete until all these steps have been taken.

The Final Copy of the Paper

Project feedback .  An important element of the senior project oral examination is the feedback that is provided to the student on his or her performance. Students will be advised at the end of the oral as to whether their project is acceptable or not, i.e., did the student pass or not. In addition, specific comments will be made regarding both the oral and the written presentations.  However, the actual grade on the comp will not be available at this time.  The Psychology 600 grade will be included on the grade report provided by the Registrar at the end of the semester.

As part of these comments, students may be asked to make minor revisions to their paper. These revisions will be limited to the correction of spelling errors, changing small technical details, etc. Since making these changes is considered part of the original effort, the project will be graded assuming that the changes will be made. However, a student who fails to complete the corrections as required may have his or her grade lowered accordingly.

Grading the senior project .  At the end of the final orals, the student is asked to leave the room for a few minutes while the faculty discuss the student’s performance. Although the criteria for each letter grade differ somewhat among faculty, just as they do for any course, the department has agreed upon a set of factors which will influence that final grade. These criteria differ slightly for laboratory and library projects.

Laboratory research.  The following items are used to judge performance of a laboratory project.

a) Quality of the research idea or hypothesis. (Including originality, utility, uniqueness, etc.)

b) Conduct of the research. (A qualitative evaluation of how well the student conducted the project, including diligence, adherence to methodology, etc.)

c) Quality of the paper.

Introduction . (Is the problem clearly specified: Are the hypotheses clear? Does the paper logically lead to the hypothesis? Is the relevant research reviewed?)

Method . (Could a reader replicate the research given the information provided in this section? Are subheadings used correctly?)

Results . (Are the results presented in a clear logical manner? Are appropriate statistical tests employed? Are all significance levels stated clearly and accurately?)

Discussion . (Do the results of the study support the discussion? Are all results mentioned in the results section discussed? Are implications and/or applications of the study clearly stated?)

Format and Mechanics. (Do the tables and figures supplement rather than substitute for the text? Are tables and figures clearly and accurately presented?)

(Are preliminary pages included? Are all cited studies referenced? Are references presented correctly? Are appendices included when necessary? Are appendices presented clearly?)

d) Final conference. (Does the student understand what he or she has done? Can he or she explain the methods and procedures in a clear and logical manner? Does the student understand the relationship between this project and the wider research area or theory involved?)

Remember that these criteria are designed to indicate the range of items that are considered in assigning a grade. The weight given to each factor will vary from instructor to instructor.

Library research . The following items are used to judge performance of a library project.

b) Conduct of the research. (A qualitative evaluation of how well the student conducted the project, including diligence, willingness to seek assistance, discussion of the project with the advisors during the formation of the project and its completion.)

Introduction . (Is the problem clearly specified? Will the reader understand the scope of the problem from the introduction?)

Organization . (Are the chapters of the paper organized logically? Does the organization of the chapters lead the reader to the writer’s conclusions? Within a chapter are arguments organized logically?)

Justification . (Are statements justified in terms of relevant research and/or theory? Are studies interpreted correctly? Cited appropriately?)

Conclusions . (Are the conclusions supported by the cited data? Are the conclusions linked to the available research and/or theory or merely stated? Implications and applications of the project noted and justified?)

Format and Mechanics . (Are necessary preliminary pages included? Are all cited studies referenced? Are references presented correctly? Are appendices included when appropriate? Are appendices presented clearly and correctly?)

d) Final conference (Comp Oral). (Does the student understand what he/she has done? Can he/she explain the methods and procedures in a clear and logical manner? Does the student understand the relationship between this project and the wider research area or theory being investigated?)

e) After you have completed all your revisions, you are ready to go to the print shop for your final copies. You need to have one copy for each of your readers, spiral bound. The library copy is to be submitted online through the Digital Asset Management site. You will also need to submit the Permissions Form to the library.

What inner speech is, and why philosophy is waking up to it

María Zambrano Postdoctoral Fellow, Universitat de Barcelona

Disclosure statement

Daniel Gregory's María Zambrano Postdoctoral Fellowship is funded by the European Commission's Next Generation EU package, via the Spanish Ministry of Universities. He is also a member of the Inner Speech in Action: New Perspectives research project, which receives funding from the Spanish State Research Agency and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (grant number PID2020-115052GA-Ioo).

Universitat de Barcelona provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation ES.

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It is quite rare for philosophers to start investigating a new area, and a lot of the questions they explore have been around since ancient times. However, there is something they have only begun to look at closely in the last 15 years or so, which sits at the intersection of psychology and philosophy: inner speech.

Also known as the internal monologue, inner speech is the voice we hear in our minds when thinking or reading. Surprisingly, empirical research has found that not everyone has this inner voice , though the majority of us do.

Science and psychology have given it plenty of attention. We have known for over a century that the inner voice – especially when reading text – is accompanied by tiny movements of the larynx , showing a clear link between “internal” and “external” speech.

Philosophers have occasionally thought about inner speech before. The well known behaviourist Gilbert Ryle saw it as playing a key role in what philosophers call “self knowledge”. We learn about others by listening to what they say, and in his seminal 1949 book, The Concept of Mind , Ryle suggested that we are able to do the same to ourselves by “eavesdropping” on our own inner speech.

The phenomenon has made an appearance in other philosophical contexts, but it has not, until recently, been a topic of sustained attention in the field. Philosophers are now realising that psychology can only explain it up to a point: there are certain aspects of inner speech that can only be addressed by distinctively theoretical thinking.

Psychology vs philosophy

Inner speech has received a lot more attention from psychologists than philosophers over the years. Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky was a very influential figure on the subject.

Vygotsky noted – as we have all undoubtedly seen – that children of a certain age often speak to themselves aloud, but that they gradually stop as they grow older. He suggested that inner speech develops as this practice fades. According to Vygotsky, inner speech is simply external speech that has been internalised.

Many philosophers agree, but some see the phenomenon differently, as there are not, as far as we know, any other activities that we can perform both internally and externally. Some philosophers have thought that inner speech might not actually be speech but a mental representation of it.

Ray Jackendoff , for example, has suggested that we are imagining what speech sounds like when we produce inner speech, but doing so in a way which imitates how we would express ourselves if we were speaking aloud. We are not actually speaking, but simulating speech.

This is purely theoretical reasoning, but it does not aim to challenge or disprove psychological approaches. On the contrary, it enriches empirical research by adding a valuable new perspective.

Talking to ourselves?

One question we can answer, at least partly, is why we produce inner speech, even though no one else can hear it. There are a number of benefits.

Putting our thoughts into words can help to clarify our thoughts, and make them more precise. Sometimes we can only work out our true thoughts by saying them aloud. We often speak to others – or perhaps write our ideas down – to try and solve a problem or deal with emotions. Producing inner speech helps us to develop our own thoughts in a similar way.

There may be other benefits too. Making an existing thought or belief conscious by expressing it internally can help to advance a process of reasoning, even on everyday matters. “If I’m home by 6:30, I can cook dinner by 7:30,” you might say in inner speech. But this prompts the further thought, “Oh, but the game starts at 7. I’d better get takeaway instead.”

These answers, however, still leave a question open: are we actually talking to ourselves in the same way we talk to others? Or are we just talking?

Controlling the voice in your head

Another area with room for philosophical thinking is the question of whether producing inner speech is an action, or something that just happens.

When we physically speak aloud, it is typically an action: we can choose to do it, or not do it. The same cannot be said for inner speech, which is often unprompted, or even intrusive and undesired.

It can actually be hard to silence our internal monologue, and doing it at will is all but impossible. See for yourself, right now: concentrate on trying to think of nothing and stop producing inner speech. You will probably, paradoxically, find yourself producing more, and further efforts will only make it harder. Conditions such as stress , anxiety or depression also have proven psychological links to inner speech.

We can decide to produce a particular piece of inner speech – to “say” a word in our minds – but it often seems to happen without us doing anything at all.

What is an action?

In my research , I have argued that producing inner speech is almost never an action, though the question of what makes something an action is itself a topic of philosophical debate.

One prominent theory holds that actions are things that we can try to do, or that require effort. Producing inner speech often requires no effort, and as we have seen, we even struggle to stop it. This seems to indicate that it isn’t something we try to do, but that it just “happens”.

Other theories of action yield a similar result: inner speech almost never fits the definition.

A huge amount of philosophical work has been done on the subject of conscious experience in general. However, philosophers have not always paid attention to specific mental phenomena. Inner speech is a unique kind of conscious experience, which seems to involve a typically external activity – speaking – taking place in the mind. Investigating it will undoubtedly lead us down fascinating paths in years to come.

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My Speech Class

Public Speaking Tips & Speech Topics

41 Psychology Speech Topic Ideas

Jim Peterson has over 20 years experience on speech writing. He wrote over 300 free speech topic ideas and how-to guides for any kind of public speaking and speech writing assignments at My Speech Class.

• Hierarchy of human needs theory of Abraham Maslow. The series of levels in that process are good main points: the physiological, safety, belonging, esteem and self-actualisation needs.
• Why do so many people find adolescence so difficult? Life circumstances perhaps make you feel like you are riding in a roller coaster due to the speedily physical and emotional changes. Mention the causes and the ways to cure. Psychology speech topics to help and advice other persons.
• How do you remember what you know? In other words describe the way your brain works for short-term and long-term memories. Molecular and chemical actions and reactions can be part of your informative conversation.
• Artificial Intelligence technologies. E.g. computer systems performing like humans (robotica), problem solving and knowledge management with reasoning based on past cases and data.
• Strong stimuli that cause changes in temporary behavior. E.g. Pills, money, food, sugar. In that case it is an good idea to speak about energy drinks and their short-term effectiveness – do not forget to mention the dangers …
• Jung’s theory about our ego, personal unconscious and collective unconscious. Psychoanalyst Carl Jung discovered that neurosis is based on tensions between our psyche and attitudes.
• What exactly is Emotional Intelligence? And why is it more important than IQ-ratings nowadays. How to measure EI with what personality tests?
• That brings me to the next psychology speech topics: the dangers of personality tests.
• Psychological persuasion techniques in speeches. E.g. body language, understanding audience’s motivations, trance and hypnosis.
• Marketing and selling techniques based on psychological effects. E.g. attractive stimulating colorful packaging, or influencing behavior of consumers while shopping in malls.
• Meditation helps to focus and calm down the mind. E.g. Teach your public to focus on breathing, revive each movement of an activity in slow motion, or the walking meditation.
• The reasons against and for becoming a behaviorist. Behaviorism is the methodological study of how the scientifically method of psychology.
• Sigmund Freud and his ideas. With a little bit of fantasy you can alter and convert these example themes into attractive psychology speech topics: our defense mechanisms, hypnosis and catharsis, psychosexual stages of development.
• Biological causes of a depression. E.g. biological and genetic, environmental, and emotional factors.
• When your boss is a woman. What happens to men? And to women?
• The first signs of anxiety disorders. E.g. sleeping and concentration problems, edgy and irritable feelings.
• How psychotherapy by trained professionals helps people to recover.
• How to improve your nonverbal communication skills and communicate effectively. Study someone’s incongruent body signs, vary your tone of voice, keep eye contact while talking informally of formally with a person.
• Always talk after traumatic events. Children, firefighter, police officers, medics in conflict zones.
• The number one phobia on earth is fear of public speaking – and not fear of dying. That I think is a very catchy psychological topic …

And a few more topics you can develop yourself:

• Dangers of personality tests.
• How to set and achieve unrealistic goals.
• Sigmund Freud Theory.
• The Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.
• Three ways to measure Emotional Intelligence.
• Why public speaking is the number one phobia on the planet.
• Animated violence does influence the attitude of young people.
• Becoming a millionaire will not make you happy.
• Being a pacifist is equal to being naive.
• Change doesn’t equal progress.
• Everyone is afraid to speak in public.
• Ideas have effect and consequence on lives.
• Mental attitude affects the healing process.
• Philanthropy is the fundament of curiosity.
• Praise in public and criticize or punish in private.
• Sometimes it is okay to lie.
• The importance of asking yourself why you stand for something.
• The only answer to cruelty is kindness.
• The trauma of shooting incidents last a lifetime.
• To grab people’s attention on stage, keep a close eye on their attitude and social backgrounds.
• Torture as an interrogation technique is never acceptable.

207 Value Speech Topics – Get The Facts

66 Military Speech Topics [Persuasive, Informative]

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Speaking And Writing Compared

Spoken and written language both have as their central function the communication of information about people and the world, and so it is common-sensical to assume that there are important similarities between speaking and writing. On the other hand, children and adults often find writing much harder than speaking, suggesting there are major differences between the productions of spoken and written language. Speaking and writing will now be compared.

Similarities

The view that speaking and writing are similar receives some support if we compare the theoretical approach to speech production of Dell et al. (1997) with the theory of writing proposed by Hayes and Flower (1986). In both theories, it is assumed there is an initial attempt to decide on the overall meaning that is to be communicated. At this stage, the actual words to be spoken or written are not considered. This is followed by the production of language, which often proceeds on a clause-by-clause basis.

Gould (1978) compared dictated and written business letters. Even those highly practised at dictation rarely dictated more than 35% faster than they wrote. This is noteworthy, given that people can speak five or six times faster than they can write. Gould (1980) divided the time taken to dictate and to write letters into various component times. His participants were videotaped while composing letters, and the generating, reviewing, accessing, editing, and planning times were calculated. Planning, which was assumed to occur during pauses not obviously devoted to other processes, accounted for more of the total time than any other process. Planning time represented about two-thirds of the total composition time for both dictated and written letters, and this explains why dictation was only slightly faster than writing.

Gould (1978) compared the quality of letter writing across three different response modes: writing; dictating; and speaking. Those who wrote very good letters also tended to dictate and to speak very good letters. The quality of letter writing is determined mainly by internal planning processes, and these processes are essentially the same regardless of the type of response. In addition, the knowledge that someone possesses (e.g., vocabulary; specific knowledge of the topic) is available for use whether that person is writing, speaking, or dictating. However, some of the findings may be specific to business letters. The absence of visual feedback with dictation might be a real disadvantage when composing essays or longer pieces of writing.

Differences

How do speaking and writing differ? Spoken language makes use of prosody (rhythm, intonation, and so on) to convey meaning and grammatical information, and gesture is also used for emphasis. In contrast, writers have to rely heavily on punctuation to supply the information provided by prosody in spoken language. Writers also make much more use than speakers of words or phrases signalling what is coming next (e.g., but; on the other hand). This helps to compensate for the lack of prosody in written language. Four of the most obvious differences between speaking and writing are as follows:

• Speakers typically know precisely who is receiving their message.

• Speakers generally receive moment-by-moment feedback from the listener or listeners (e.g., expressions of bewilderment).

• Speakers generally have much less time than writers to plan their language production.

• "Writing is in essence a more conscious process than speaking. spontaneous discourse is usually spoken, self-monitored discourse is usually written" (Halliday, 1987, pp. 67-69).

As a result, spoken language is generally fairly informal and simple in structure, with information often being communicated rapidly. In contrast, written language is more formal and complex in structure. Writers need to write clearly because they do not receive immediate feedback, and this slows down the communication rate.

Cognitive neuropsychologists have found that some brain-damaged patients have writing skills that are largely intact in spite of an almost total inability to speak and a lack of inner speech. Others can speak fluently, but find writing very difficult. In addition, there are other patients whose patterns of errors in speaking and in writing differ so much that it is hard to believe that a single system could underlie both language activities. However, these findings do not mean that the higher-level processes involved in language production (e.g., planning; use of knowledge) differ between speaking and writing.

Continue reading here: Theoretical Approaches To Reasoning

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Readers' Questions

What are the similarities and differences between writing and speaking?

Similarities between writing and speaking: 1. Both involve communication: Both writing and speaking are mediums used for expressing ideas, thoughts, and messages to others. 2. Use of language: Both writing and speaking rely on the use of language to convey meaning and communicate effectively. They both require a strong understanding of grammar, vocabulary, and sentence structure. 3. Purpose: Both writing and speaking serve similar purposes, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, or engage an audience. 4. Organization: Both writing and speaking require the information to be organized in a logical manner, with clear introduction, body, and conclusion. Differences between writing and speaking: Presence of audience: Speaking involves direct interaction with an audience, while writing often requires the writer to imagine the reader. Speaking allows for immediate feedback and adjustments, while writing lacks real-time interaction. Medium: Speaking occurs in real-time, where communication is delivered through auditory and nonverbal cues, whereas writing is a visual medium that is read and interpreted at the reader's own pace. Permanence: Written messages are usually permanent, allowing the reader to revisit and refer back to the content at any time. Speaking, on the other hand, is transient, and once uttered, the words cannot be retracted or modified. Level of formality: Writing tends to be more formal due to its nature of being planned, structured, and often edited. Speaking, on the other hand, allows for more informal and spontaneous expression, with the use of slang, colloquialisms, or conversational language. Nonverbal cues: Speaking involves various nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions, gestures, and tone of voice, which can enhance or alter the meaning of the message. In writing, nonverbal cues are absent, and the message relies solely on the written words.

How would the process differ between language production and writing?

Language production involves using the spoken word to produce language—such as talking out loud or using vocal sounds—while writing involves using a writing instrument, such as a pen or pencil, to communicate through written words. The process of language production relies on the speaker's use of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation to communicate, while writing requires the writer to physically produce written words that reflect the intended message. Additionally, language production can include gestures and non-verbal communication, while writing is composed only of written words.

What are the similarities of speaking and writing?

There are several similarities between speaking and writing: Communication: Both speaking and writing serve as means of communication to convey thoughts, ideas, and information to others. Language: Both rely on the use of a specific language and its rules, vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. Expression: Both provide a platform for self-expression and the ability to express personal opinions, emotions, and experiences. Purpose: Both speaking and writing can have various purposes such as informing, persuading, entertaining, or expressing oneself. Audience: Both require the consideration of the target audience to effectively convey the message and ensure understanding. Content organization: Both speaking and writing involve organizing thoughts and ideas in a structured and coherent manner to convey a clear message. Use of tone: Both speaking and writing can utilize different tones such as formal, informal, persuasive, or informative to cater to the context and audience. Use of non-verbal cues: While writing lacks non-verbal cues like body language and facial expressions, it can still incorporate elements such as punctuation, formatting, and the choice of words to convey similar messages. Revision and editing: Both speaking and writing often require revising and editing to improve clarity, coherence, and effectiveness of the message. Influence: Both speaking and writing have the potential to influence and impact others' opinions, perceptions, and actions.

What is the similarties between writing and speaking discource?

Both writing and speaking discourse involve conveying ideas in an organized and coherent way. Both rely on effective communication and the use of language to make an argument or point. Both also require the writer or speaker to be knowledgeable about their topic and to have an understanding of their audience. Additionally, both writing and speaking discourse require careful use of grammar and syntax to ensure clarity.

What is speaking in cognitive psychology?

Speaking in cognitive psychology refers to how people process language, including how they interpret, store, and recall language. This includes things like how quickly a person can understand and remember words, how well they can detect and understand syntax and grammar, and how they use language to think and communicate. It also includes how they use language to remember things, recognize patterns, and make decisions.

Speech Understanding as a Psychological Process

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• William D. Marslen-Wilson 2  

Part of the book series: NATO Advanced Study Institutes Series ((ASIC,volume 59))

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An overview of recent psychological research into speech understanding is presented, with an emphasis on spoken word-recognition processes. Human speech understanding is shown to be interactive in character, with speech being understood as it is heard by optimally efficient processing procedures. The flow of analyses through the system is assumed to be controlled by the processing principles of bottom-up priority and of obligatory processing.

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Extracting Language Content from Speech Sounds: The Information Theoretic Approach

Long-standing problems in speech perception dissolve within an information-theoretic perspective

Looking Back and Looking Further Forward

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Marslen-Wilson, W.D. (1980). Speech Understanding as a Psychological Process. In: Simon, J.C. (eds) Spoken Language Generation and Understanding. NATO Advanced Study Institutes Series, vol 59. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-9091-3_2

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