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500+ Sports Research Topics

Sports research topics cover a vast array of areas in the world of athletics, from the physical and psychological impacts of sport on athletes to the social and cultural implications of sports on society. Sports research can include studies on training techniques, nutrition, injury prevention, performance enhancement, and much more. It can also explore the societal impact of sports, such as the role of sports in shaping national identities, gender roles, and cultural values. As a result, the field of sports research provides a unique lens through which to understand the complex relationship between sports and society, and offers insights that can benefit athletes, coaches, and sports enthusiasts alike. In this post, we will explore some of the most fascinating and important sports research topics that are currently being investigated.

Sports Research Topics

Sports Research Topics are as follows:

• The psychological benefits of participating in team sports
• The impact of sports on academic achievement
• The role of sports in promoting physical health and fitness
• The impact of sports on mental health and well-being
• The benefits and drawbacks of early specialization in youth sports
• The relationship between sports and character development
• The role of sports in building social capital and community cohesion
• The impact of technology on sports training and performance
• The influence of gender on sports participation and achievement
• The impact of culture on sports participation and achievement
• The economics of professional sports: salaries, revenue, and team valuations
• The role of sports in promoting diversity and inclusion
• The impact of sports on political and social change
• The impact of sports sponsorship on consumer behavior
• The impact of doping in sports on athlete health and performance
• The role of nutrition in sports performance
• The impact of weather conditions on sports performance
• The influence of crowd behavior on sports performance and player behavior
• The impact of sports injuries on athlete health and career longevity
• The impact of sports on tourism and local economies
• The role of sports in promoting peace and conflict resolution
• The impact of globalization on sports and their respective cultures
• The impact of sports on national identity and patriotism
• The impact of sports media on fan behavior and athlete performance
• The impact of sports on the environment
• The influence of sports fans on team strategy and decision-making
• The impact of sports gambling on sports integrity and athlete health
• The impact of sports specialization on long-term athlete development
• The influence of sports referees and officials on game outcomes
• The role of technology in sports officiating and decision-making
• The impact of sports on youth development and socialization
• The role of sports in promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment
• The impact of sports on personal identity and self-esteem
• The role of sports in promoting physical literacy and lifelong physical activity
• The impact of fan behavior on athlete mental health and well-being
• The influence of sports broadcasters on fan behavior and attitudes
• The role of sports in promoting healthy competition and fair play
• The impact of sports participation on academic performance in children
• The influence of social media on athlete behavior and fan engagement
• The impact of sports on international diplomacy and political relations
• The influence of coach behavior on athlete mental health and performance
• The role of sports in promoting cultural understanding and awareness
• The impact of sports science on athlete training and performance
• The impact of youth sports on parent-child relationships
• The influence of sports team culture on athlete behavior and performance
• The role of sports in promoting environmental sustainability
• The impact of sports on social mobility and economic inequality
• The influence of sports on global health issues
• The impact of sports on regional and national identity
• The role of sports in promoting positive youth development and resilience.
• The impact of technology on sports performance
• The effects of altitude on ball flight in sports like golf and tennis
• The effects of sports on stress management
• The impact of COVID-19 on the sports industry
• The impact of technology on sports officiating and rule enforcement
• The role of sports in promoting cultural heritage and preservation
• The impact of sports on mental toughness and resilience among athletes
• The effects of different types of recovery interventions on sports injury rehabilitation
• The role of sports in promoting intergenerational connections and social capital
• The effects of different types of sports psychology interventions on team dynamics and performance in professional sports
• The role of sports in promoting peacebuilding and conflict resolution in divided societies
• The impact of sports on career development and job satisfaction among sports journalists
• The effects of different types of recovery interventions on injury prevention and performance in powerlifting
• The role of sports in promoting social innovation and entrepreneurship among youth
• The impact of sports on social identity and community building among refugees and immigrants
• The effects of different types of sports nutrition interventions on brain health and cognitive function in older adults
• The role of sports in promoting sustainable urban development and active transportation
• The impact of sports on social capital and political engagement among LGBTQ+ athletes
• The effects of different types of training interventions on injury prevention and recovery in equestrian sports.
• The impact of sports on body image and self-esteem among female athletes
• The effects of different types of sports equipment on performance and injury risk in extreme sports
• The role of sports in promoting cultural diplomacy and international relations
• The impact of sports on emotional regulation and mental health among adolescent athletes
• The effects of different types of nutrition interventions on injury prevention and recovery in team sports
• The role of sports in promoting civic engagement and political participation among athletes
• The impact of sports on cognitive development and academic achievement in early childhood
• The effects of different types of sports psychology interventions on sports performance and mental health
• The role of sports in promoting environmental education and sustainability in schools
• The impact of sports on career development and employability among retired athletes
• The effects of different types of mindfulness interventions on sports performance and well-being
• The role of sports in promoting intercultural dialogue and understanding
• The impact of sports on emotional intelligence and leadership development among coaches
• The effects of different types of sports supplements on performance and health outcomes
• The role of sports in promoting disaster risk reduction and resilience in coastal communities
• The impact of sports on social identity and group dynamics in fan communities
• The effects of different types of sports training on injury prevention and recovery in power sports
• The role of sports in promoting digital literacy and technological innovation in youth
• The impact of sports on social-emotional learning and character development in schools
• The effects of different types of nutrition interventions on sports performance and cognitive function in older adults
• The role of sports in promoting gender equity and empowerment in sports organizations
• The impact of sports on cultural identity and community building among Indigenous peoples
• The effects of different types of training interventions on injury prevention and recovery in para-athletes
• The role of sports in promoting global health and disease prevention
• The impact of sports on social support and mental health among parents of youth athletes
• The effects of different types of recovery interventions on sports performance and injury prevention in master athletes
• The role of sports in promoting community-based health education and behavior change
• The impact of sports on identity development and socialization among adolescent girls
• The effects of different types of sports nutrition interventions on gut microbiota and health outcomes
• The role of sports in promoting intercultural communication and language learning
• The impact of sports on psychological well-being and job satisfaction among sports officials
• The effects of different types of mindfulness interventions on injury prevention and recovery in endurance sports
• The role of sports in promoting sustainable tourism and economic development in rural areas
• The impact of sports on social integration and inclusion among individuals with disabilities
• The effects of different types of sports equipment on biomechanics and performance in precision sports
• The role of sports in promoting community resilience and disaster risk reduction in urban areas
• The impact of sports on social-emotional development and academic achievement among at-risk youth
• The effects of different types of sports nutrition interventions on immune function and health outcomes
• The role of sports in promoting social justice and human rights in sport governance
• The impact of sports on community development and social capital in post-conflict areas
• The effects of different types of resistance training on injury prevention and recovery in endurance athletes
• The role of sports in promoting intergenerational relationships and aging well-being
• The impact of sports on social support and mental health among retired athletes
• The role of sports in promoting civic activism and social change
• The impact of sports on sleep quality and quantity in professional athletes
• The effects of different types of stretching on recovery and injury prevention
• The role of sports in promoting environmental justice and sustainability
• The impact of sports on emotional intelligence and social skills among youth athletes
• The effects of different types of resistance training on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting peace and conflict resolution in divided societies
• The impact of sports on academic achievement and career success among athletes
• The effects of different types of endurance training on injury prevention and recovery
• The role of sports in promoting cultural diversity and inclusion
• The impact of sports on team cohesion and communication
• The effects of different types of dietary interventions on sports performance and recovery
• The role of sports in promoting mental health and well-being in marginalized communities
• The impact of sports on cognitive function and academic achievement in children
• The effects of different types of cooling interventions on sports performance and recovery
• The role of sports in promoting community resilience and disaster preparedness
• The impact of sports on social capital and social mobility in low-income communities
• The effects of different types of sports nutrition interventions on bone health and injury prevention
• The role of sports in promoting global citizenship and intercultural competence
• The impact of sports on personal and professional development among athletes
• The effects of different types of training programs on sports performance and injury prevention in older adults
• The role of sports in promoting human rights and social justice
• The impact of sports on decision-making and risk-taking behavior in adolescents
• The effects of different types of aerobic exercise on cognitive function and brain health
• The role of sports in promoting sustainable development and social innovation
• The impact of sports on social integration and belonging among refugees and immigrants
• The effects of different types of sports equipment on injury risk and performance
• The role of sports in promoting gender equality and empowerment in developing countries
• The impact of sports on academic engagement and achievement among middle school students
• The effects of different types of hydration interventions on sports performance and recovery
• The role of sports in promoting community-based tourism and economic development
• The impact of sports on identity formation and self-concept among athletes
• The effects of different types of sports training on bone health and injury prevention in female athletes
• The role of sports in promoting environmental conservation and climate action
• The impact of sports on personal values and character development among athletes
• The effects of different types of sports nutrition interventions on cardiovascular health and performance
• The role of sports in promoting community-based disaster response and recovery
• The impact of sports on social support and well-being among LGBTQ+ athletes
• The effects of different types of recovery interventions on injury rehabilitation and return to play in professional athletes
• The role of sports in promoting social entrepreneurship and innovation
• The impact of sports on moral reasoning and ethical decision-making among athletes
• The effects of different types of training programs on cognitive function and academic achievement in children
• The role of sports in promoting social inclusion and equality in urban settings
• The impact of sports on social identity and collective action among fans
• The effects of different types of recovery interventions on sports performance and injury prevention in adolescent athletes
• The effects of different types of recovery modalities on injury prevention in sports
• The role of sports in promoting cultural diplomacy
• The impact of sports participation on academic achievement among college students
• The effects of different types of hydration strategies on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting social cohesion and community building
• The impact of sports on physical and cognitive aging
• The effects of different types of warm-down on sports performance and injury prevention
• The role of sports in promoting positive youth development
• The impact of sports on crime and delinquency among youth
• The effects of different types of endurance training on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting gender equity and empowerment
• The impact of sports on mental health among athletes
• The effects of different types of carbohydrate intake on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting international relations and diplomacy
• The impact of sports on body image and self-esteem among adolescents
• The effects of different types of sports drinks on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting environmental sustainability and conservation
• The impact of sports on cognitive function and brain health
• The effects of different types of sports psychology interventions on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting social justice and human rights
• The impact of sports on physical activity levels and sedentary behavior
• The effects of different types of pre-game nutrition on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting economic development and tourism
• The impact of sports on cultural and national identity
• The effects of different types of footwear on injury risk in sports
• The role of sports in promoting civic engagement and democracy
• The impact of sports on sleep quality and quantity
• The effects of different types of anaerobic training on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting intergenerational relationships and socialization
• The impact of sports on body composition and weight management
• The effects of different types of sports psychology interventions on injury prevention and recovery
• The role of sports in promoting peacebuilding and conflict resolution
• The impact of sports on self-efficacy and self-esteem among athletes
• The effects of different types of protein intake on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting health equity and reducing health disparities
• The impact of sports on social capital and community resilience
• The effects of different types of high-intensity interval training on sports performance
• The impact of sports on stress and stress-related disorders
• The effects of different types of dietary supplements on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting human development and well-being
• The impact of sports on emotional regulation and mental health
• The effects of different types of strength training on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting social innovation and entrepreneurship
• The impact of sports on social identity and belonging
• The effects of different types of cognitive training on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting disaster resilience and preparedness
• The impact of sports on academic engagement and achievement among high school students
• The effects of different types of stretching on injury prevention and sports performance.
• The effects of different types of training on athletic performance
• The effectiveness of different coaching styles in sports
• The role of nutrition in athletic performance
• The psychology of injury rehabilitation in sports
• The use of performance-enhancing drugs in sports
• The role of sports in promoting physical and mental health
• The impact of social media on sports marketing
• The effectiveness of sports marketing campaigns
• The effects of gender and ethnicity on sports participation and performance
• The impact of sports sponsorship on athlete performance
• The role of sports in promoting teamwork and leadership
• The effects of environmental conditions on sports performance
• The impact of sports on community development
• The psychology of winning and losing in sports
• The effects of sleep on sports performance
• The use of virtual reality in sports training
• The impact of sports injuries on athletes’ careers
• The effects of altitude on athletic performance
• The use of data analysis in sports performance assessment
• The role of sports in reducing stress and anxiety
• The impact of sports on academic performance
• The effects of different sports on cardiovascular health
• The use of cryotherapy in sports recovery
• The impact of social media on sports fans and fandom
• The effects of different types of footwear on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting physical activity among children and adolescents
• The effects of different types of stretching on sports performance
• The impact of sports on social and cultural values
• The effects of hydration on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting global understanding and diplomacy
• The effects of different types of surfaces on sports performance
• The impact of sports on economic development
• The impact of sports on mental toughness and resilience
• The effects of different types of recovery methods on sports performance
• The use of mindfulness in sports performance and injury recovery
• The impact of sports on environmental sustainability
• The effects of different types of warm-up on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting tourism and travel
• The impact of sports on crime reduction and community safety
• The effects of different types of sports equipment on performance
• The impact of sports on job creation and employment opportunities
• The effects of different types of physical activity on mental health
• The role of sports in promoting social mobility and equality
• The impact of sports on identity formation and socialization
• The effects of different types of pre-game rituals on sports performance.
• The role of sports in promoting healthy aging
• The impact of sports on conflict resolution among youth
• The effects of sports on job satisfaction and productivity
• The role of sports in promoting environmental conservation
• The impact of sports on language proficiency and communication skills
• The effects of sports on the development of social skills
• The role of sports in promoting peaceful coexistence and tolerance
• The impact of sports on community building and cohesion
• The effects of different types of sports on hand-eye coordination
• The impact of sports on personal growth and self-discovery
• The effects of sports on cultural competency
• The role of sports in promoting social and emotional learning
• The impact of sports on community health
• The effects of different types of sports on reaction time
• The role of sports in promoting social justice and equity
• The impact of sports on academic motivation and achievement
• The effects of sports on the development of grit and resilience
• The role of sports in promoting civic engagement and social responsibility.
• The impact of sports on tourism
• The role of sports in promoting physical activity
• The effects of playing sports on cognitive development
• The impact of sports on political identity
• The effects of sports on self-esteem and body image
• The role of sports in promoting teamwork and collaboration
• The effects of different coaching styles on athlete performance
• The impact of sports on national security
• The role of sports in promoting cultural exchange and diplomacy
• The effects of sports on language acquisition
• The impact of sports on family dynamics
• The role of sports in promoting conflict resolution
• The impact of sports on social mobility
• The effects of different types of training on injury prevention
• The role of sports in promoting global health
• The effects of sports on decision-making and risk-taking behavior
• The role of sports in promoting physical and mental well-being
• The impact of sports on social justice
• The effects of sports on academic achievement among at-risk youth
• The role of sports in promoting cultural heritage
• The impact of sports on personal identity
• The effects of sports on emotional intelligence and empathy
• The role of sports in promoting gender equality
• The impact of sports on identity formation
• The effects of different types of sports on balance and coordination
• The role of sports in promoting social capital
• The impact of sports on social integration and inclusion
• The effects of training at high altitudes on athletic performance
• The psychological factors that contribute to athlete burnout
• The relationship between sleep and athletic performance
• The effects of music on sports performance
• The effects of caffeine on sports performance
• The impact of climate on sports performance
• The use of supplements in sports performance
• The role of genetics in sports performance
• The effects of aging on sports performance
• The impact of sports injuries on athlete’s careers
• The relationship between sports and mental health
• The effects of gender on sports performance
• The impact of social media on sports
• The effects of sports fandom on mental health
• The use of technology in sports coaching
• The impact of team culture on sports performance
• The effects of sports specialization on athlete development
• The role of sports psychology in athlete performance
• The effects of plyometric training on athletic performance
• The impact of climate change on outdoor sports
• The effects of team dynamics on sports performance
• The impact of sports participation on academic achievement
• The effects of sports sponsorship on athlete performance
• The role of biomechanics in sports performance
• The effects of stretching on sports performance
• The impact of sports equipment on performance
• The effects of altitude training on endurance sports performance
• The effects of different types of training on sports performance
• The role of nutrition in injury prevention
• The effects of mental preparation on sports performance
• The effects of climate on indoor sports performance
• The role of sports in cultural identity
• The impact of sports participation on youth development
• The effects of strength training on sports performance
• The role of coaches in athlete development
• The impact of sports on national identity
• The effects of different playing surfaces on sports performance
• The role of recovery in sports performance
• The impact of sports on local economies
• The impact of sports on gender and racial equality
• The effects of team size on sports performance
• The role of sports in promoting social inclusion
• The effects of sports on personal development
• The impact of sports on conflict resolution
• The effects of sports on leadership development

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484 Sports Research Topics & Good Ideas

18 January 2024

last updated

Sports research paper topics encompass many interesting themes, each captivating in its own field. Some themes span from physical performance enhancement, delving into nutrition, training regimes, and physiological limits, to the mental aspects of sports psychology, focusing on motivation, team dynamics, and coping with pressure. Then, sociocultural implications are equally significant, examining gender equality, racial representation, and the societal impacts of sporting events. Another intriguing area is sports economics, discussing team franchise values, player salaries, and the economic effects of sports tourism. Finally, people have the domain of sports technology, exploring how advancements, like wearables, analytics, and virtual reality, are revolutionizing the field. The spectrum of sports research paper topics is vast and multidimensional, a reflection of the dynamic nature of sports itself.

Best Sports Research Topics

• Influence of Nutrition on Athletic Performance: An In-Depth Study
• Doping in Sports: The Persistent Moral Dilemma
• Roles of Sports Psychology in Enhancing Player Performance
• The Impact of Concussions on American Football
• Dissecting the Relationship Between Sports and Nationalism
• Effects of Technological Advancements on Modern Sports
• Unveiling the Economic Aspects of Major League Sports
• Gender Inequality in Professional Sports: A Comprehensive Analysis
• The Paradox of Violence in Contact Sports
• Performance Anxiety Among Young Athletes: Causes and Solutions
• The Role of Media in Shaping Sports Culture
• eSports Phenomenon: A Sociological Perspective
• Long-Term Health Consequences of High-Intensity Sports
• Underrepresentation of Minority Groups in Major Sports Leagues
• Benefits of Physical Activity for Children’s Mental Health
• Cultural Factors Influencing Popular Sports in Different Countries
• Steroids in Bodybuilding: Unveiling the Hidden Dangers
• Roles of Sports in Promoting Inclusive Societies
• Challenges and Successes in Women’s Professional Football
• Ethical Implications of Genetic Engineering in Sports
• Olympic Games: The Evolution of Modern Sportsmanship
• Economic Impact of Hosting Mega Sporting Events
• Extreme Sports and Risk-Taking Behavior: A Psychological Perspective
• Professional Athletes as Role Models: A Societal Impact Analysis
• Impacts of Climate Change on Outdoor Sports

Easy Sports Research Topics

• How Do Sports Influence Youth Development and Social Skills?
• Comparative Analysis of Training Techniques in Different Sports
• Rehabilitation Techniques in Sports Medicine: A Detailed Review
• Social Issues in Sports: Racism, Sexism, and Homophobia
• Evolution and Impact of Sports Marketing
• Exploring the Concept of ‘Home Advantage’ in Sports
• Impacts of Globalization on the Sports Industry
• Sports Law and Its Implications: A Comprehensive Review
• Fan Culture in Sports: The Influence on Players’ Performance
• Roles of Innovation in Sports Equipment Design
• Psychological Resilience in Elite Athletes: Unveiling the Secrets
• Sports Sponsorships: The Impact on Brand Awareness
• Understanding the Paralympic Movement: History and Evolution
• Emergence and Growth of Mixed Martial Arts: An Analysis
• Effects of Physical Training on Mental Well-Being
• Roles of Video Technology in Modern Sports Adjudication
• Importance of Good Sleep Habits for Athlete Performance
• Assessing the Sustainability of Major Sports Events
• Science Behind Hydration and Sports Performance
• Dealing With Injuries: Mental Health of Athletes
• Sports Careers: Beyond Being an Athlete

Interesting Sports Research Paper Topics

• Comparative Study of Traditional and Online Sports Betting
• Advent of Virtual Reality in Sports Training
• Stress Management Strategies for High-Performance Athletes
• Analysis of Leadership Styles in Sports Coaching
• Sociocultural Impact of Sports on Community Development
• The Future of Sports Broadcasting: Trends and Predictions
• Transformation of Public Perception Toward Female Athletes
• Examining the Role of Ethics in Sports Journalism
• Impacts of High Altitude Training on Athlete Performance
• Sports-Based Rehabilitation Programs for Incarcerated Individuals
• Examining the Phenomenon of Superstition in Sports
• Youth Sports Specialization: Risks and Benefits
• Comparative Study of Fan Loyalty in Different Sports
• Roles of Mental Imagery in Enhancing Athletic Performance
• Effects of Climate Conditions on Athlete Performance
• Impacts of Sports-Based Interventions in Conflict Resolution
• Aging Athletes and Longevity in Professional Sports
• The Impact of Family Support on Young Athletes
• Sports Tourism: Its Economic and Social Effects
• Cognitive Skills Development through Competitive Sports: A Study
• Emerging Trends in Sports Nutrition: A Health Perspective
• Roles of Strength and Conditioning in Injury Prevention
• The Influence of Music on Athletic Performance

Sports Research Topics on History

• Evolution of the Olympic Games: From Ancient Greece to Modern Era
• Impacts of World Wars on the Progression of Sports
• Rise of Women’s Participation in Competitive Sports: A Historical Perspective
• Transformation of Boxing: From Bare-Knuckle Bouts to Regulated Matches
• Analysis of the FIFA World Cup: Its Origins and Influences
• Pivotal Moments in the History of American Baseball
• The Socioeconomic Influences of Football’s Popularity in Europe
• Development and Evolution of Motor Racing Sports
• Cricket’s Journey: From the British Empire to Global Phenomenon
• Integration of Technology in Sports: A Retrospective Review
• Influential Figures in the Growth of Basketball: A Historical Analysis
• Cultural Shifts in Traditional Martial Arts: East Meets West
• Impacts of Racial Segregation on the History of American Sports
• Modernization of the Paralympic Games: Overcoming Adversity
• Expansion of the National Hockey League: A Century-Long Journey
• Golf’s Transformation: From Elitist Leisure Activity to Global Sport
• Rise of Extreme Sports in the Late 20th Century
• Influence of Rugby on Global Sports Culture
• Tennis: The Evolution of the Modern Game
• Historical Shifts in the Perception of Physical Fitness and Bodybuilding
• Roles of Professional Wrestling in Pop Culture: An Historical Overview
• Cycling’s Journey: From Basic Transportation to Competitive Sport

Psychology Sports Research Topics

• Psychological Impact of Injuries on Athletes: A Comprehensive Study
• Embracing Defeat: Mental Resilience in Professional Sport
• Roles of Sports Psychology in Enhancing Team Performance
• Influence of Mental Conditioning on Athletes’ Success Rates
• Gender Differences in Competitive Stress Responses
• Sports Psychology: Applications in Youth Development Programs
• Cognitive Processes Underlying Decision-Making in Team Sports
• Understanding the Psychological Preparation of Olympic Athletes
• Impacts of Spectator Behavior on Athlete Performance: An Exploration
• Motivational Strategies in Professional Sports Coaching
• Mindfulness and its Role in Athletes’ Stress Management
• Exploring Psychological Trauma in Retired Athletes
• Impacts of Psychological Interventions on Athletic Injury Recovery
• Psychological Factors Contributing to Athlete Burnout
• Roles of Self-efficacy in Athletic Performance: A Detailed Study
• Analysis of Personality Traits Among Successful Athletes
• Stressors in Elite Sports: An Examination of Coping Mechanisms
• Influence of Team Dynamics on Individual Performance in Sports
• Exploring the Psychology of Endurance Sports
• Impacts of Coach-Athlete Relationships on Athlete Psychology
• Mental Health in Sports: Stigma, Support, and Solutions

Research Paper Topics About Women in Sports

• Pioneering Female Athletes: A Historical Perspective
• Challenges and Opportunities in Women’s Professional Basketball
• Advancements in Women’s Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation
• Intersectionality of Gender, Race, and Culture in Women’s Sports
• Achieving Parity: An Analysis of Pay Inequality in Women’s Sports
• Evolution of Women’s Roles in the Olympics: 1896 to Present
• Impacts of Title IX on American Women’s Sports Participation
• Female Sports Representation in Media: Progress and Remaining Challenges
• Investigating Sociocultural Barriers to Women’s Sports Participation Worldwide
• Psychological Impacts of Competitive Stress on Female Athletes
• Understanding Body Image Issues Among Female Athletes
• Analysis of Leadership Roles: Women in Sports Management
• Biomechanical Differences Between Male and Female Athletes: Implications for Training
• Role Models and Mentoring in Women’s Sports: A Comparative Study
• Promoting Inclusion: The LGBTQ+ Community in Women’s Sports
• Influence of Female Athletes on Fashion and Lifestyle Trends
• Advancement in Equipment and Gear Designed Specifically for Female Athletes
• A Study on the Prevalence and Prevention of Eating Disorders in Women’s Sports
• Exploring the Notion of ‘Femininity’ in the Context of Women’s Sports
• Women’s Participation in Extreme and Non-Traditional Sports: A Growing Trend
• Effects of Maternity Leave Policies on Professional Female Athletes’ Careers
• Recognizing the Unsung Heroes: Contributions of Women in Sports Science

Sports Research Topics on Training

• Exploring the Impacts of High-Intensity Interval Training on Athletic Performance
• The Role of Strength Training in Injury Prevention for Athletes
• Effectiveness of Sport-Specific Training vs. Generic Training Programs
• Nutrition and Training: Understanding the Link in Athletic Performance
• Influence of Altitude Training on Endurance Sports Performance
• Mental Training and Its Effects on Sports Performance: A Comprehensive Review
• The Role of Cross Training in Enhancing Skills of Multi-Sport Athletes
• Periodization in Training: A Modern Approach for Optimizing Athlete Performance
• Sleep’s Impacts on Athletic Recovery and Performance
• Diving Into the Science of Flexibility Training for Athletes
• Understanding the Biochemical Responses to Resistance Training in Athletes
• The Importance of Balance Training in the Prevention of Sports Injuries
• Ergogenic Aids in Training: The Science and the Ethics
• How Does Overtraining Affect Athlete Performance and Health?
• The Role of Plyometric Training in Improving Power and Agility in Athletes
• Techniques for Mental Toughness Training: Impact on Athlete Success
• Roles of Core Training in Enhancing Athletic Performance
• Hydration Strategies in Training and Performance: A Critical Review
• Neurological Adaptations to Sports Training: A Deeper Dive
• Optimizing Interval Training for Enhanced Cardiovascular Fitness in Athletes

Research Paper Topics on Sports Science

• The Impact of High-Intensity Interval Training on Endurance Performance in Soccer Players
• Evaluating the Effects of Nutrition Interventions on Muscle Recovery in Weightlifters
• Investigating the Role of Biomechanics in Enhancing Golf Swing Performance
• Analyzing the Effects of Plyometric Training on Vertical Jump Height in Basketball Players
• Exploring the Relationship Between Sleep Quality and Athletic Performance in Elite Athletes
• Effects of Altitude Training on Oxygen Utilization in Distance Runners
• Examining the Impact of Sports Psychology Techniques on Mental Toughness in Tennis Players
• Investigating the Influence of Sports Supplements on Muscle Strength and Power in Rugby Players
• Analyzing the Effects of Heat Acclimatization on Performance and Thermoregulation in Marathon Runners
• Exploring the Role of Visual Perception and Reaction Time in Baseball Batting Performance
• Effects of Cold-Water Immersion on Muscle Recovery in Soccer Players
• Analyzing the Effects of Dynamic Stretching on Agility Performance in Football Players
• Exploring the Impact of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Stress and Performance in Athletes
• Analyzing the Relationship Between Vitamin D Levels and Muscular Strength in Athletes
• Exploring the Influence of Mental Imagery Techniques on Skill Acquisition in Divers
• Examining the Impact of Gender on Injury Patterns in Collegiate Soccer Players
• Investigating the Relationship Between Personality Traits and Motivation in Team Sports
• Analyzing the Effects of Music Tempo on Performance and Perceived Effort in Cyclists
• Exploring the Influence of Biofeedback Training on Heart Rate Variability in Swimmers
• The Impact of Recovery Strategies on Fatigue and Performance in Triathletes
• Investigating the Role of Genetic Factors in Athletic Performance and Injury Susceptibility

Sports Research Paper Topics on Exercise

• Comparative Analysis of Different Training Methods for Enhancing Strength and Power in Athletes
• Investigating the Relationship Between Sports Injuries and Exercise Techniques
• The Impact of Nutrition and Hydration on Endurance Training
• Exploring the Psychological Benefits of Regular Physical Exercise in Sports
• Evaluating the Role of Stretching Exercises in Injury Prevention for Athletes
• Analyzing the Effectiveness of CrossFit Training Programs in Enhancing Overall Fitness
• Investigating the Role of Physical Exercise in Enhancing Cognitive Function in Athletes
• The Relationship Between Sleep Quality and Athletic Performance in Sports
• Benefits of Plyometric Training in Enhancing Explosive Power for Athletes
• Evaluating the Influence of Sports Supplements on Muscle Recovery and Performance
• Analyzing the Impact of Exercise Intensity and Duration on Weight Loss in Sports
• Effects of Resistance Training on Bone Density and Injury Prevention in Athletes
• Investigating the Role of Yoga and Pilates in Improving Flexibility and Balance for Athletes
• Analyzing the Impact of Altitude Training on Endurance Performance in Athletes
• The Effects of Sport-Specific Training on Skill Acquisition and Performance Enhancement
• Examining the Influence of Gender on Athletic Performance in Different Sports
• Investigating the Effects of Sports Massage on Muscle Recovery and Performance
• Evaluating the Effects of Different Cooling Strategies on Exercise Performance and Recovery
• The Relationship Between Exercise and Aging: Implications for Sports Performance
• Analyzing the Effects of Heat Acclimation on Exercise Tolerance and Performance

Athletic Sports Research Topics

• The Power of Sports Psychology in Enhancing Athlete Performance
• Nutrition’s Impact on Athletic Endurance: A Comprehensive Study
• High-Intensity Interval Training: Boosting Athletic Performance
• Unraveling the Connection Between Sleep and Athletic Recovery
• Performance-Enhancing Drugs in Sports: Examining Efficacy
• Weather Conditions and Outdoor Sporting Events: Exploring the Relationship
• Cross-Training: Maximizing Athletic Abilities and Potential
• Age: Its Influence on Athletic Performance and Injury Risk
• Genetics and Athletic Performance: Unveiling the Link
• Gender’s Roles in Sports Performance and Participation: An Investigation
• Psychological Factors in Injury Rehabilitation: A Critical Analysis
• Virtual Reality in Athletic Training and Performance: An Innovative Approach
• Biomechanics: Enhancing Athletic Technique and Performance
• Sports Massage: An Effective Tool for Recovery and Performance
• Athlete Burnout: The Psychological Impact on Performance
• Mindfulness and Meditation: Enhancing Athlete Well-Being and Focus
• Altitude and Endurance Performance: An In-Depth Study
• Sports Analytics: Optimizing Performance through Data Analysis
• Coach-Athlete Relationships: Impact on Athletic Success
• Pre-Competition Rituals: Their Effectiveness in Enhancing Performance
• Strength and Conditioning Programs: Benefits for Athletes

Sports Management Research Topics

• The Impact of Data Analytics on Sports Management
• Enhancing Fan Engagement Strategies for Sports Management
• Sustainable Practices in Sports Facility Management
• Leveraging Social Media for Sports Marketing and Management
• The Role of Sports Agents in Athlete Management
• Leadership in Sports Team Management
• Ethical Issues in Sports Management
• Effective Sponsorship Strategies in Sports Management
• Technology in Sports Event Management
• Enhancing Athlete Performance Through Sports Science Management
• Economic Impacts of Major Sporting Events on Local Communities
• Diversity and Inclusion in Sports Management
• Evolution of Sports Broadcasting and Its Impact on Management
• Challenges of Sports Facility Operations and Management
• Roles of Sports Psychology in Athlete Management
• Risk Management Strategies in Sports Organizations
• Sports Law and Regulations in Management Practices
• Branding and Merchandising in Sports Management
• Roles of Sports Medicine in Athlete Management
• Financial Management in Sports Organizations

Marketing Sports Research Topics

• The Impact of Social Media Marketing on Sports Sponsorships
• Evaluating Athlete Endorsements in Sports Marketing Effectiveness
• Analyzing the Role of Branding in Sports Merchandise Marketing
• Exploring Fan Engagement and Its Relationship With Sports Marketing Strategies
• Investigating the Influence of Sports Events on Local Economic Development
• Examining the Use of Influencer Marketing in the Sports Industry
• Assessing Sports Marketing Campaigns Targeting Gen Z Effectiveness
• Data Analytics in Sports Marketing and Fan Engagement
• Athlete Personalities and Their Impact on Sports Marketing Success
• Analyzing Sports Marketing Strategies’ Use of Gamification
• Fan Loyalty Programs’ Role in Sports Marketing
• Evaluating Sports Sponsorship Activation Strategies’ Effectiveness
• Investigating Sports Advertising Influence on Consumer Behavior
• Fan Communities’ Role in Sports Marketing and Brand Building
• Analyzing the Use of Virtual Reality for Enhanced Sports Marketing Experiences
• Examining Sports Celebrity Endorsements’ Influence on Consumer Buying Decisions
• eSports Impact on Traditional Sports Marketing Strategies
• Assessing Cause Marketing Effectiveness in the Sports Industry
• Augmented Reality in Enhancing Sports Marketing Engagement
• Analyzing Emotional Branding in Sports Marketing Campaigns
• Investigating Sports Betting’s Influence on Sports Marketing Strategies

Research Paper Topics on Sports Theory

• The Influence of Psychological Factors on Performance in Competitive Sports
• Motivation’s Role in Sports Performance: A Theoretical Perspective
• Personality Traits’ Impacts on Sports Success
• Analysis of Effective Sports Training Methods for Skill Acquisition
• Leadership Styles’ Effect on Team Performance in Sports
• The Application of Sports Psychology in Injury Rehabilitation
• Evaluating Sports Nutrition’s Impacts on Athlete Performance and Recovery
• Understanding Sports Biomechanics’ Role in Enhancing Athletic Performance
• Mental Imagery’s Effects on Sports Performance and Skill Execution
• Effects of Pre-Competition Rituals on Sports Performance
• Communication Between Coach and Athlete and Its Relationship With Team Cohesion
• The Impact of Sports Technology on Performance Enhancement
• Psychological Skills Training and Athletes’ Mental Toughness
• The Role of Sports Sociology in Shaping Sporting Cultures
• Sports Injuries and Psychological Well-Being: Exploring the Relationship
• Performance-Enhancing Drugs and Their Effects on Sports Performance
• Gender’s Roles in Sports Participation and Performance
• Environmental Factors and Their Influence on Sports Performance
• The Effect of Goal Setting on Athlete Motivation and Performance
• Sports Specialization and Long-Term Athletic Development

Research Paper Topics About Sports Sociology

• The Impact of Gender Roles on Sports Participation and Performance
• Media Influence on the Perception of Athletes and Sports Culture
• Social Class and Its Effects on Sports Opportunities and Success
• Racial Inequality in Professional Sports: Challenges and Progress
• The Role of Sports in Building Social Networks and Communities
• Sports and National Identity: Exploring the Connection
• Education and Sports: Examining the Benefits and Challenges
• The Role of Sports in Promoting Health and Well-Being in Society
• Sociology of Sports Fandom: Identity, Rituals, and Belonging
• Sports and Youth Development: Socialization and Empowerment
• Disability and Inclusivity in Sports: Breaking Barriers and Challenging Stereotypes
• Deviance in Sports: Examining the Relationship Between Rule-Breaking and Social Order
• Activism in Sports: Exploring Social Movements Within Athletic Contexts
• Commercialization of Sports: Impacts on Athletes, Fans, and Society
• Politics and Sports: Analyzing the Intersections and Controversies
• Influence of Sports on Body Image and Self-Esteem
• Sports and Aging: Promoting Healthy Aging and Social Engagement
• Construction of Heroes and Villains in Sports
• Sports and Religion: Exploring the Connections and Conflicts
• Sociology of Sports Injury: Understanding Recovery and Rehabilitation Processes
• Nationalism and Sports: Examining the Role of Sports in Shaping Patriotism

Nutrition Sports Research Topics

• The Impact of Protein Supplementation on Athletic Performance
• The Role of Carbohydrates in Post-Exercise Recovery
• Assessing the Effects of Hydration on Endurance Athletes
• Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Sports Performance
• Analyzing the Impact of Caffeine on Exercise Endurance
• Investigating the Effects of Antioxidants on Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress
• Evaluating the Influence of Vitamin D on Muscle Strength and Power
• Understanding the Importance of Electrolyte Balance in Sports Nutrition
• Exploring the Role of Pre-Workout Supplements in Enhancing Performance
• Analyzing the Effectiveness of High-Intensity Interval Training in Fat Loss and Muscle Gain
• The Relationship Between Nutrition and Bone Health in Athletes
• Examining the Use of Probiotics for Gut Health in Sports Performance
• Investigating the Impact of Plant-Based Diets on Athletic Performance
• The Role of Micronutrients in Immune Function for Athletes
• Evaluating the Effects of Dietary Fiber on Digestive Health in Athletes
• Analyzing the Benefits of Branched-Chain Amino Acids for Muscle Recovery
• Understanding the Impact of Iron Deficiency on Female Athletes
• The Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Strength and Power in Athletes
• Assessing the Role of Glycogen in Endurance Exercise Performance
• Exploring the Effects of Sports Drinks on Hydration and Performance

Sports Research Topics on Medicine

• The Impact of Sports-Related Concussions on Brain Health: An In-Depth Analysis
• Evaluating the Efficacy of Performance-Enhancing Drugs in Sports Medicine
• The Role of Sports Medicine in Preventing and Treating Musculoskeletal Injuries
• Exploring the Effects of Exercise on Mental Health and Well-Being in Athletes
• Enhancing Performance through Sports Nutrition: A Comprehensive Review
• Examining the Relationship Between Sports Participation and Cardiovascular Health
• The Role of Sports Medicine in Managing and Preventing Chronic Diseases
• Analyzing the Impact of Sports Medicine on Female Athletes’ Health and Performance
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Rehabilitation Programs in Sports Medicine
• The Use of Biomechanics in Sports Medicine: Advancements and Applications
• Investigating the Benefits of Sports Massage Therapy in Injury Recovery and Performance Enhancement
• Assessing the Role of Sports Medicine in Preventing and Managing Overuse Injuries
• Understanding the Role of Sports Medicine in Enhancing Respiratory Health in Athletes
• Examining the Impact of Exercise on Metabolic Disorders and Obesity
• The Use of Sports Medicine in Optimizing Performance for Elite Athletes
• Exploring the Role of Sports Medicine in Youth Sports: Injury Prevention and Health Promotion
• Investigating the Effectiveness of Cryotherapy in Sports Medicine
• Analyzing the Impact of Sports Medicine on Psychological Factors in Athletes
• The Role of Sports Medicine in Managing and Preventing Exercise-Induced Asthma
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Sports Medicine Programs in Enhancing Flexibility and Mobility
• Understanding the Benefits and Risks of Sports Supplements in Athletes

Sports Research Topics About Injuries

• Exploring Gender Disparities in ACL Injuries Among Collegiate Soccer Players
• Assessing Preventive Measures to Reduce Baseball Pitching-Related Injuries
• Comprehensive Evaluation of Basketball Injuries and Rehabilitation Techniques
• Long-Term Consequences of Head Injuries in Youth Ice Hockey: An Investigation
• Tennis Elbow among Professional Players: Prevalence and Causes
• Effectiveness of Protective Equipment in Minimizing Combat Sports Injuries
• Psychological Rehabilitation of Athletes Following Sports-Related Injuries: An Analysis
• Roles of Nutrition in Promoting Healing and Recovery From Sports Injuries
• Incidence of Ankle Sprains in High School Basketball Players: A Study
• Overtraining and Musculoskeletal Injuries in Marathon Runners: Analyzing the Relationship
• Impacts of Environmental Factors on Heat-Related Illnesses in Outdoor Sports
• Rehabilitation Programs for Shoulder Injuries in Baseball Pitchers: Evaluating Efficacy
• Mechanisms and Risk Factors of Hamstring Injuries in Soccer Players: An Investigation
• Artificial Turf and Knee Injuries in Football: Examining the Relationship
• Psychological Effects of Season-Ending Injuries on Professional Athletes: Analysis and Implications
• Prevalence and Prevention of Volleyball-Related Ankle Injuries: A Comprehensive Study
• Biomechanics and ACL Tears in Female Athletes: Assessing the Risk
• Effectiveness of Sport-Specific Conditioning Programs in Reducing Injuries: An Evaluation
• Equipment Design and Head Injuries in Snowboarding: Analyzing the Relationship
• Physiotherapy in Treating Tennis-Related Shoulder Injuries: Evaluating Efficacy

Sports Research Topics on Doping

• Impacts of Performance-Enhancing Drugs on Athletic Performance
• Ethics of Doping in Professional Sports
• Long-Term Health Effects of Doping on Athletes
• Effectiveness of Anti-Doping Policies in Sports
• Roles of Drug Testing in Preventing Doping in Athletics
• Psychological Factors Driving Athletes to Dope
• Use of Designer Drugs in Sports
• Influence of Doping on Gender Equality in Athletics
• Economic Implications of Doping in Professional Sports
• Relationship Between Doping and Sports Sponsorship
• Impacts of Doping Scandals on Athletes’ Legacies
• Roles of Athlete Education in Preventing Doping
• Influence of Social Media on Doping Culture in Sports
• Use of Doping in Amateur and Youth Sports
• Roles of Coaches and Trainers in Encouraging or Discouraging Doping
• Effectiveness of Doping Detection Methods in Sports
• Influence of Peer Pressure on Doping Practices
• Roles of Sports Organizations in Combating Doping
• Relationship Between Doping and Sports Injuries
• Impacts of Doping on Fair Play and Sporting Integrity
• Use of Gene Doping in Enhancing Athletic Performance

Argumentative Sports Research Topics

• Impacts of Performance-Enhancing Drugs on Athletes’ Long-Term Health
• Ethics of Using Genetic Engineering in Enhancing Athletic Abilities
• Inequality in Prize Money Distribution in Male and Female Sports
• The True Cost of Hosting the Olympic Games: An Economic Analysis
• Should eSports Be Recognized as Legitimate Competitive Sports?
• Dangers of Early Specialization in Youth Sports: A Comprehensive Review
• How Does Media Coverage Affect Female Athletes’ Perception?
• Analyzing the Effect of Mental Health on Athletic Performance
• Collegiate Athletes and Compensation: Should They Be Paid?
• Evolution of Technology in Sports: Boon or Bane?
• The Role of Race and Racism in Professional Sports
• The Influence of Role Models in Sports on Youth Development
• Exploring the Connection Between Sports Participation and Academic Achievement
• Violence in Sports: Societal Implications and Solutions
• Effects of Sponsorship on Athletes’ Performance and Branding
• Importance of Fair Play in Sports: A Philosophical Perspective
• Understanding the Impact of Climate Change on Outdoor Sports
• Professional Athletes’ Wages: Justified or Overrated?
• Doping Controls in Sports: Are Current Methods Effective?
• Roles of Sports in Promoting Social Inclusion and Unity
• Impacts of Sports-Related Concussions on Cognitive Functioning
• Perspectives on Body Image Issues Among Female Athletes

Sports Research Paper Topics About Running

• Enhancing Long-Distance Running Performance Through Endurance Training
• Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training on Sprint Performance in Runners
• Psychological Factors Influencing Marathon Running Performance
• Nutrition and Hydration: Key Factors in Running Performance
• Age and Running Performance: A Comparative Analysis of Masters Athletes
• Strength Training: Improving Running Efficiency
• Altitude Training and Its Impact on Endurance Running Performance
• Genetics: A Determining Factor in Running Ability and Performance
• The Influence of Running Surfaces on Injury Risk and Performance
• Power Development in Runners: The Role of Plyometric Training
• Warm-Up and Cool-Down Protocols: Impact on Running Performance
• Psychological Strategies of Elite Runners: Performance Enhancement Techniques
• Sleep, Recovery, and Running Performance: Exploring the Connection
• Footwear Technology: Effects on Running Performance and Injury Prevention
• Cross-Training: Enhancing Running Performance Through Variation
• Anaerobic Capacity in Runners: Effects of Interval Training
• Running Economy and Performance: An Analysis of Distance Runners
• Stretching and Flexibility Training: Influence on Running Performance
• Physiological Adaptations in Long-Term Endurance Running Training
• Fatigue and Overtraining in Runners: Contributing Factors

Water Sports Research Topics

• The Impact of Water Sports on Physical Fitness and Health
• Exploring the Economic Benefits of Water Sports Tourism
• Environmental Conservation in Water Sports: Practices and Challenges
• Investigating the Psychological Benefits of Water Sports
• The Role of Gender in Water Sports Participation and Performance
• Exploring the History and Evolution of Water Sports
• Analyzing the Safety Measures in Water Sports Activities
• The Influence of Technology on Water Sports Performance
• Assessing the Social and Cultural Impacts of Water Sports Events
• Understanding the Physiology of Water Sports Athletes
• Investigating the Role of Nutrition in Enhancing Water Sports Performance
• Exploring the Role of Coaching in Water Sports Training
• The Effect of Water Sports on Cognitive Function and Mental Well-Being
• Analyzing the Economic Viability of Water Sports Facilities
• Investigating the Environmental Effects of Water Sports Equipment and Gear
• The Impact of Water Sports on Coastal Ecosystems and Marine Life
• Understanding the Psychological Challenges Faced by Water Sports Athletes
• Exploring the Influence of Water Sports on Youth Development
• Assessing the Role of Media in Promoting Water Sports
• Analyzing the Cultural Significance of Traditional Water Sports
• The Influence of Weather Conditions on Water Sports Activities

Soccer Sports Research Topics

• Soccer Tactics Evolution: Analyzing the Impact of Formations on Team Performance
• Influence of Home Field Advantage in Soccer: A Statistical Analysis
• Roles of Mental Training in Enhancing Soccer Performance: A Case Study of Professional Players
• Player Positioning and Goal-Scoring Efficiency in Soccer: An Analytical Study
• Effectiveness of Different Training Methods for Developing Soccer Skills
• Impacts of Playing Surface on Soccer Performance and Injury Rates: A Comparative Study
• Psychological Factors Affecting Penalty Shootout Performance in Soccer: An Analysis
• Nutrition and Diet: Enhancing Soccer Players’ Performance and Recovery
• Relationship Between Soccer Team Diversity and Success: A Case Study of Professional Leagues
• Impacts of Weather Conditions on Soccer Matches: A Comparative Analysis
• Influence of Managerial Styles on Team Performance in Soccer: Exploring the Link
• Technology’s Role in Enhancing Soccer Fan Engagement and Experience: An Overview
• Economic Impacts of Major Soccer Events on Host Countries: Analyzing the Effects
• Impact of Player Transfers on Team Performance in Professional Soccer: An Investigation
• Relationship Between Soccer and National Identity: A Comparative Study
• Soccer-Specific Physical Conditioning Programs: Effectiveness in Injury Prevention
• Role of Soccer Academies in Player Development: A Comparative Analysis
• Effectiveness of Video Analysis in Improving Soccer Tactics and Strategy: A Study
• Impacts of Fan Behavior on Soccer Match Atmosphere and Player Performance: An Examination
• Influence of Soccer Broadcasts on Fan Engagement and Support: Analyzing the Effects

Extreme Sports Research Topics

• Exploration: Psychological Benefits of Extreme Sports
• Analysis: Impact of Extreme Sports on Physical Fitness
• Examining the Role of Risk-Taking in Extreme Sports
• Investigating the Evolution of Equipment in Extreme Sports
• Understanding the Sociocultural Significance of Extreme Sports
• Exploring the Environmental Impact of Extreme Sports
• Assessing the Role of Technology in Extreme Sports
• Analyzing Economic Aspects of the Extreme Sports Industry
• Investigating the Relationship Between Gender and Extreme Sports Participation
• Examining the Influence of Extreme Sports on Youth Culture
• Role of Media in Promoting Extreme Sports
• Analyzing the Impact of Sponsorship in Extreme Sports
• Physiology of Athletes in Extreme Sports
• Understanding Roles of Fear and Adrenaline in Extreme Sports
• Examining the Role of Extreme Sports in Overcoming Personal Challenges
• Investigating the Impact of Extreme Sports on Mental Well-Being
• Analyzing Cultural Appropriation in Extreme Sports
• Exploring the Relationship between Extreme Sports and Natural Landscapes
• Examining Safety Measures and Risk Management in Extreme Sports
• Investigating the Impact of Extreme Sports on Tourism
• Exploring Ethics of Extreme Sports

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Sports Research Topics Ideas: Inspiring Questions

June 16, 2023

Sports always attract public attention and interest, which is why they make for fascinating subjects of research. Whether you’re studying sports psychology, marketing, or sociology, or any other related field, there’s no shortage of topics to investigate. However, it can be challenging to come up with creative and inspiring research topics that will stand out from the rest. In this article, we’ll explore some sports research topics ideas to help you get started on your next research project.

Sport Research: What It Comprises

Unfortunately, many people think sports are not a serious subject in school. They only see it as a way to have fun and relax. However, there is more to sports than meets the eye. Sports are a discipline that requires great strength, endurance, and determination.

Sports research may be defined as the process of examining the different aspects of sports, comprising their history, rules and regulations, techniques used by various players, and other related issues. It can also be referred to as sport or athletics studies, usually conducted by experts in this field.

Researchers are interested in all aspects of sports such as:

• Participation and performance
• Sport for health and well-being
• Sport as a business
• Sporting cultures
• Sporting events and their organization

How to Choose a Topic for Your Sports Study?

Sports research is a wide and varied field. There are many different sports and activities that can be studied, and there are many different topics within each sport studied.

What makes a good sports research topic? Is there a formula for choosing the right one? Or should it just be something that you are passionate about? How do you know if youths selected topic is going to be interesting to others?

Let’s take a look at some of the factors that go into choosing the right topic:

• Is it something that interests you?
• Do you have access to information about it?
• Can you find people who will talk to you about it?
• Is it connected with the current situation?

Research Topics in Sports Theory

• The impact of different factors on athletes
• Investigating athlete personality traits and team dynamics in competitive games
• The effectiveness of coaching strategies for optimizing athlete productivity
• The role of physical conditioning and nutrition in preventing injuries during games
• A comparison of sports policies and practices in various countries
• The intersection of race, gender, and sports
• Understanding the role of motivation for athlete productivity
• Technology and sports performance interconnection
• Investigating the role of sports in promoting social inclusion and community progress
• Examining the ethics of sports competition: a critical analysis of controversies and dilemmas
• The use of sports as a tool for conflict resolution and peace building
• Investigating the impact of sponsorship on team dynamics, and fan engagement
• The role of sports in promoting health and wellbeing
• Thel effects of doping during games
• Investigating the role of sports in promoting environmental sustainability
• The role of media in shaping sports discourse and public perception
• Examining the role of sports in promoting cultural heritage and identity
• Sports tourism in local economies and communities
• A critical analysis of the philosophy of sports
• Examining the meaning and purpose of sports from various theoretical perspectives

Sports Nutrition Topics

• Does nutrition affect performance?
• Dietary supplements and sportsmen`s health
• Macronutrients applying for optimizing sports results
• Investigating the effects of hydration on performance
• The effects of carbohydrate and fat intake on exercise metabolism
• Analyzing different diets for sportsmen
• The impact of timing of nutrient intake on sports performance
• The effectiveness of various nutritional interventions in improving sports achievements
• Examining the impact of micronutrient status on athlete’s performance
• Nutrition for preventing and managing sports-related traumas
• Analyzing the effects of nutritional interventions on bone health in sportsmen
• The impact of caffeine on sports performance and exercise metabolism
• Examining the role of probiotics in sports nutrition
• The effects of nutritional interventions on immune function in athletes
• The impact of nutrition on recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage
• Analyzing the effects of carbohydrate and protein co-ingestion on muscle glycogen resynthesis
• The role of omega-3 fatty acids in sports nutrition
• The impact of nutrition on cognitive function and mood in sportsmen
• Examining the effects of nutrition on gut health in athletes
• The influence of individualized nutrition interventions on sports and health outcomes

Inspiring Research Topics in Athletics

• The Impact of Mental Training on Performance in Track and Field Athletes
• The effects of altitude training on endurance running performance
• Investigating the role of genetics in athletic performance
• Analyzing the biomechanics of a successful high jump: a case study
• Nutritional strategies for optimizing athletic performance in long distance runners
• Investigating the effects of different warm-up protocols on athletic performance in sprinters
• Examining the psychological factors involved in overcoming performance slumps in athletics
• Investigating the physiological and biomechanical demands of pole vaulting
• The effects of plyometric training on vertical jump performance in track and field athletes
• Analyzing the impact of footwear on the performance of long jump athletes

Football Research Topics 

• The impact of tactical innovations on football performance
• Investigating the effects of home advantage on footballers’ productivity
• The influence of physical and technical attributes on football performance
• Analyzing the effects of playing surface on injury rates
• Investigating the relationship between psychological factors and footballers’ results
• The impact of football on physical and mental health outcomes
• Examining the effects of different training methodologies on football performance
• The influence of VAR on football performance and decision-making
• The role of leadership in football team playing
• Analyzing the effects of football fan behavior on players’ mental health and well-being
• Investigating the relationship between team cohesion and footballers productivity
• The impact of football sponsorship on team performance and behavior
• Examining the effects of nutritional interventions on footballers’ success
• Investigating the impact of social media on football performance and behavior
• The role of match officials in decision-making
• The effects of fatigue on football performance
• The impact of football academies on player development
• The influence of playing style on football games
• Examining the impact of football on community development and social change
• Investigating the effects of football on cognitive function and brain health in retired players

Tennis Research Topics

• The impact of racquet technology on tennis
• The effects of psychological factors on tennis performance
• Physical fitness and tennis: A comparative study of male and female players.
• The role of nutrition in optimizing tennis performance
• The effects of different playing surfaces on tennis injury rates
• Analyzing the effects of pre-match routines on tennis performance
• Investigating the impact of equipment customization on tennis playing
• Examining the effects of match format on tennis behavior
• The role of coach-player relationships in tennis playing
• Investigating the impact of playing style on tennis performance
• The effects of fatigue on tennis players’ productivity
• Injuries and tennis: A longitudinal study of professional players.
• The influence of altitude on tennis performance
• Examining the impact of video analysis on tennis performance
• The role of sleep in tennis recovery
• The impact of tennis on bone health and risk of osteoporosis
• Analyzing the effects of grip style on tennis playing
• Investigating the impact of player behavior on tennis spectator experience
• The effects of gender on tennis performance
• The role of parent-child relationships in tennis perfomance

Research Topics in Sports Injury 

• Rehabilitation interventions and sports injury recovery: A systematic review
• Investigating the prevalence and risk factors of ACL injuries in football players
• The impact of concussion on athlete health and performance
• The effects of psychological factors on sports injury occurrence and recovery
• The effectiveness of injury prevention programs in reducing injury rates in sports
• Analyzing the impact of footwear on sports injury rates and prevention
• Physical conditioning and sports injury prevention and recovery: A case study of rugby
• The effects of gender on sports injury occurrence and recovery
• Examining the impact of weather conditions on sports injury
• Nutrition for sports injury prevention and recovery
• The impact of training load on sports injury occurrence and recovery
• Investigating the effects of different warm-up protocols on sports injury prevention and performance
• The influence of sports specialization on injury occurrence and recovery
• Analyzing the effects of playing surface on sports injury rates and prevention
• Investigating the impact of sports rules and regulations on injury occurrence and prevention
• The role of sports officials in injury occurrence and prevention
• The effectiveness of physical therapy interventions on sports injury recovery
• The effects of sleep on sports injury occurrence and recovery
• Analyzing the influence of biomechanical factors on sports injury occurrence and recovery
• Investigating the impact of sports injury on athletes’ psychological well-being and mental health

Sports Doping Research Topics 

• The prevalence and motivations of doping in professional sports
• Analyzing the effectiveness of anti-doping policies and regulations in preventing doping in sports
• The effects of different doping substances on sports performance
• The role of genetics in doping susceptibility and detection
• The impact of social and cultural factors on doping in sports
• Analyzing the effects of doping on athletes’ health and well-being
• Investigating the impact of doping on the integrity and fairness of sports competitions
• Examining the effectiveness of doping detection methods and technologies
• Sports organizations for preventing and detecting doping in sports
• The effects of doping on athletes’ mental health and well-being
• The influence of media coverage on doping in sports
• The role of supplements and sports nutrition in doping
• Doping and athletes’ post-career health and well-being
• Examining the impact of national policies and cultural differences on doping in sports
• Education and prevention programs in preventing doping in sports
• Analyzing the impact of doping on athletes’ career trajectories and success
• Investigating the effectiveness of rehabilitation and treatment programs for athletes who have used doping substances
• Doping and athletes’ relationships with their coaches and teammates
• The influence of new doping substances and technologies on sports doping
• The ethics and philosophical implications of doping in sports

Sports research is an important part of any sport. It can help you to understand the game better, learn new skills, and improve the performance. This type of study is also important for those who want to pursue a career in the sports industry.

If you are an athlete or coach who is looking to conduct research, we have the perfect solution for you! Custom Writing professional staff will take care of all of the details, so that you can focus on doing what you do best — playing and coaching.

We are ready to write any type of academic document for you according to your instructions and requirements. We offer affordable prices for all types of papers! We guarantee that you will receive top-quality work delivered on time! If you have any questions feel free to contact us via email or live chat service anytime 24/7!

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140 Exciting Sports Research Topics You Can Investigate

Physical activities have taken deep root in the young generation. As a result, more and more students decide to study sport as a subject to learn all peculiarities in this field.

How to Make a Choice of Sports Topics for Research Paper

Sports subject has a wide range of topics to write about, and that’s why it might be challenging enough to pick up the specific one. Stick to the following flow to get the right issue for your paper.

• Make the list of sports related research paper topics you are interested in.
• Don’t pick up a topic that requires long-lasting and in-depth study. You can lose focus and go the wrong way.
• Make sure your topics meet the assignment requirements.
• Conduct initial research to find out how broad or narrow this topic is.
• Consult with your academic advisor to get to know if the issue has any limits. He could advise you to narrow your scope or suggest some good ways to conduct your research in the right direction.
• Make up your research questions and ensure that your questions are answerable.
• Make a research plan.

How to Structure Your Paper in Sports?

Most non-expert students make mistakes by writing a research paper without adhering to the structure and setting a clear goal. Each research work should have a clear structure, making it understand and follow the main point better.

• Introduction. The opening part explains why you have chosen this topic about sport.
• Methods and Materials. In this section, you present what ways you used to fill the knowledge gaps.
• Results. State objective outcomes and provide supportive data and statistics.
• Discussion. This part interprets your results and answers the questions to fill your gaps in knowledge.
• Conclusions. Bring all you mentioned above in your paper together and report what goals you have achieved by researching the current issue.

140 Interesting Sports Research Paper Topics to Draft an Academic Report

Sports management paper topics.

• Risk Management in Doing Professional Sports
• Leadership Approaches in Coaching
• Ethics in Sports
• The Role of Gender in Sports
• How to Avoid Violence in Sports?
• Coaching as a Male Occupation
• Women in Coaching
• Safety Issues in Sports
• How to Prevent Steroids in Sports?
• The Development of the Olympic Games
• Ways to Manage Risks in Ice Hockey
• Golf Industry and Its Development Today

These topics cover the basic questions in managing a sports career. Do you want to figure out the current sports issues like coaching, arguing about genders, and high risks? The list of controversial sports topics makes you investigate the subject you’re interested in.

Exciting Sports Science Research Topics

• Doping Influence on Athletes’ Brains
• What Is Neuroplasticity?
• The Influence of Biological Age on Sports Achievements
• Why Monitor Fatigue
• Hydration Testing in Sports
• Relative Age Effect
• How to Develop Agility in Young Athletes
• Sleep and Its Impact on Competition Outcomes
• How Infographics Can Improve Coaching Skills
• Tech Ways to Fight Doping in Sports
• Innovative Ways to Train Power
• Stamina Development in Young Football Players

Science is moving forward with seven-league steps, and sports is not outside this process. If you are willing to know all the scientific innovations in sports, it’s high time to compose a sports science paper.

Sports Schools Topics to Write About

• Top 5 Sports Schools to Study
• How to Enroll in a Sport School
• Pros and Cons of Sports School
• History of Cranbrook School
• Outstanding Graduates of Sun Valley Community School
• What to Choose: Sports School vs. State College
• How Do Sports Schools Instil the Importance of Sports for Teenagers?
• How to Choose the Best Sports School?
• Discipline or High Grades: Values of Sports Colleges
• Must-Have Sports Facilities for Every College Gym
• Sports Institutions Build Character
• Successful Athletes as Teacher in Sports Colleges
• What a Sports School Teaches Young Sportsmen

Famous athletes are thankful for their success, not only hard work and a stubborn streak. Most of these sportsmen are graduates of sports schools. Instead of reading school reviews, you could write your own research paper.

Sports Research Topics on Basketball, Hockey, Football

• History of Football
• Why Do We Call Rugby “Football”?
• Cheerleading as a Sport
• Appropriate Age to Start a Career in Hockey
• Hockey vs. Football: Which One is the Most Profitable?
• Hockey Inventions We Use Every Day
• The World’s Best Hockey Teams
• Basketball Tactics: How to Win
• The Most Brilliant Basketball Players Ever
• Ice Hockey vs. Grass Hockey
• Can Adults Start Playing Basketball and Succeed in It?
• Football as a Lifestyle: Role of Sports on Social Mobility of the UK
• Basketball Schools in the United States
• The Moment When Basketball Became a Sports Topic for Essays

Some kinds of sports, like football and hockey, have become a huge part of our lives. The theoretical and athletic training research topics in basketball, football, and hockey will give you a clear understanding of their modern pace.

Fitness Research Paper Topics

• Ways to Determine Strength
• Fitness in Sports Centers Is More Effective Than Home Fitness
• Peculiarities of Fitness for Middle-Aged People
• The Importance of Daily Fitness Exercises
• How Does Fitness Generate Willpower?
• Strict Rules Cause Stress
• Fitness Selfies and Safety
• Up-to-Date Society: Fitness Industry Analysis
• Why Can Multitasking Become a Barrier in Fitness Achievements?
• Fitness Improves Mental Health: Myth or Reality?
• Fitness as a Business
• Hidden Benefits From Doing Home Fitness
• Fitness Programs Created by Celebrities
• How to Get Used to Sports?
• Male and Female Fitness
• Peculiarities of Fitness for Children

Fitness includes not only exercises to keep fit, but it also includes a scope of healthy diet principles and mental attitude to workouts. Want to support or contradict this idea? The range of sports argument essay topics will make your choice easier.

Topics About Sports Nutrition

• The Significant Role of Nutrition in Sports
• How Do High Carb Intake Impact Athletics Performance?
• Ketogenic Diet for Sportsmen
• How to Calculate Carb, Protein, and Fat for Healthy Diet
• Does Protein Overconsumption Lead to Diseases?
• Empty Stomach Cardio Reduces Fat Faster: Myth or Fact?
• Why Do Athletes Need Cheat Meals?
• Food You Should Eat for Cheat Meals
• The Impact of Energy Drinks on Sports Performance
• Why Investigate and Write the Benefits of Physical Activity and Healthy Nutrition Paper in Schools?
• Simple and Complex Carbs: How to Distinguish
• Balanced Diet Is a Key to High Sports Results
• How Does Nutrition Influence Hormones in the Body?

What’s the necessary nutrition in sports? This question could be argued endlessly, and you can add your point of view in an argumentative topic sports paper. Every athlete knows that only the right balance between sports and nutrition gives a positive result and helps achieve success.

History Sports Research Topics for College Students

• History of the Olympic Games
• Sports in the Medieval Period
• The Top 5 Important Sports Events in History
• Sports in the USA: How Did It Establish?
• The Great Female Coaches in History
• Evolution of Baseball
• History of Wrestling
• The Top 10 Failed Football Games in History
• The Best Male Bodybuilding Competitions
• Sports Events That Became Movie Plots
• The Youngest Winners in Ice Skating
• Hockey History in Canada

Sports has a captivating flow of history. Picking up a sports presentation topic will immerse you in past events and teach what mistakes you might avoid in the cruel sports world.

Interesting Topics on Sports Psychology

• Psychological Pressure on Athletes
• Psychological Gender Problems in Gymnastics
• How Does Neuro-Linguistic Programming Improve Sports Results?
• Doping as a Result of Psychological Problems
• Psychological Traumas and Their Consequences
• Ways to Control Emotions in Sports
• Psychological Motivation of Young Sportsmen
• Psychological Aspects of Sports Trophies That Raise Self-Esteem
• What Psychological Barriers Can a Young Athlete Have on His Way to Winning?
• Ways to Avoid Psychological Pressure
• Psychological Safety in the Team
• Methods of Psychological Recovery

Being a sports team member or watching any sports movie, you can’t help but notice the inside psychological climate. Choosing and creating a draft on one of the essay topics about sports helps determine the necessity of psychological safety.

Research Topics on Sports Sociology

• Sports as a Serious Career
• What Causes Increased Sexual Activity in Athletes?
• Transgender People in Sports: Who Should Be Their Competitors?
• How Do Sports Prevent Juvenile Delinquency?
• The Sports Impact on Academic Performance
• Is Doing Sports a Tribal Behavior?
• Sports Idol Is Better Than a Pop Star
• Why Do Sports Discipline Us?
• Sports as One of the Ways to Stay Socialized
• Physical Education as a Mandatory Subject in Schools
• Men and Women Perceive Sports Differently: Reasons
• Popular Bias About Doing Sports

Even if you deal with sports activity as a leisure pastime, you might pick up one of the research topics in recreation and leisure and its impact on life’s social aspects.

Sports Marketing Research Ideas

• How to Promote a Sports Event
• Ways to Sell Sports Tickets Worldwide
• Using Sports Data to Sell Facilities for Gym
• The Most Expensive Items for Olympic Games
• How to Attract People to a New Sports Center
• How to Advertise Sports Events on Social Media
• Products Banned to Advertise by Athletes
• The Most Remarkable Sports Ads for the Last Two Decades
• Football as a Money-Making Source
• Motivational Sports Ads
• The Most Successful Cases of Sports Marketing in the UK

Sporting activities have become a huge field for earning money. Investigating sports related research topics will help you realize how sports products and celebrities could become income-generating sources.

Medicine and Injuries in Sports

• Methods to Help Recover After a Sports Trauma
• Types of Injuries in Sports
• How to prevent Athletic Varicose Disease?
• Medicines Allowed in Sports
• Consequences of Taking Painkillers
• Pros and Cons of Caffeine
• Yoga for Women’s Health
• How Can Elastic Therapeutic Tape Treat Tennis Injuries?
• Drugs Prohibited in Sports
• Athletic Exercises Can Help to Overcome Asthma
• Why Are Some Drugs Considered as Doping?
• Is It Safe to Practice Sports With Heart Diseases?
• Ways to Prevent Muscle Fatigue

Sports are connected with injuries, and it’s vital to know how to prevent or treat different kinds of injuries. If you are going to get involved in physical activities, you have to be aware of the medications you can take while practicing sports.

Since you have chosen a sports argumentative essay topic, you can start working on following a few certain steps:

• Find and study all the background information.
• Structure the data into several sections: introduction, methods and materials, results, discussion, and conclusions.
• Start writing a research paper outline focusing on the main point. You might even start writing from the middle, for example, from methods and materials, or discussion proceeding from that.
• Check and polish your paper to get rid of mistakes and typos.

Seems too tough? No need to rack your brain and surf the obscure corners of the Internet to find a sample essay for an exercise science research topic. Experts from  essay writing service   provide you with a unique research paper that meets all your requirements. We have a transparent working system: place your order, pay it, enjoy your time, and get your paper delivered on your email.

References:

• How to Write a Research Paper on Sports
• 5 Steps to Write a Sports Paper
• Youth Injuries in Sports
• Science of Sleep and Sports Performance
• Drinking Energy Drinks While Doing Sports
• Sports Among Children and Adults
• Sports Betting Research

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• 31 March 2021

Sports science

• Richard Hodson

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The competition to be crowned the fastest, strongest or most technically proficient sportsperson on the planet will once again reach its peak this summer when athletes descend on Tokyo for the Olympic Games. The global pandemic might rule out the throng of enthusiastic spectators that are typical of such an event, but millions will eagerly watch on television as the very best go toe-to-toe.

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Nature 592 , S1 (2021)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-00814-5

This article is part of Nature Outlook: Sports science , an editorially independent supplement produced with the financial support of third parties. About this content .

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Perspective article, artificial intelligence and machine learning in sport research: an introduction for non-data scientists.

• Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

In the last two decades, artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed the way in which we consume and analyse sports. The role of AI in improving decision-making and forecasting in sports, amongst many other advantages, is rapidly expanding and gaining more attention in both the academic sector and the industry. Nonetheless, for many sports audiences, professionals and policy makers, who are not particularly au courant or experts in AI, the connexion between artificial intelligence and sports remains fuzzy. Likewise, for many, the motivations for adopting a machine learning (ML) paradigm in sports analytics are still either faint or unclear. In this perspective paper, we present a high-level, non-technical, overview of the machine learning paradigm that motivates its potential for enhancing sports (performance and business) analytics. We provide a summary of some relevant research literature on the areas in which artificial intelligence and machine learning have been applied to the sports industry and in sport research. Finally, we present some hypothetical scenarios of how AI and ML could shape the future of sports.

Introduction

It was in Moneyball ( Lewis, 2004 ), the famous success storey of the Major League Baseball team “Oakland Athletics,” that using in-game play statistics came under focus as a means to assemble an exceptional team. Despite Oakland Athletics' relatively small budget, the adoption of a rigorous data-driven approach to assemble a new team led to the playoffs in the year 2002. An economic evaluation of the Moneyball hypothesis ( Hakes and Sauer, 2006 ) describes how, at the time, a baseball hitters' salary was not truly explained by the contribution of a player's batting skills to winning games. Oakland Athletics gained a big advantage over their competitors by identifying and exploiting this information gap. It's been almost two decades since Moneyball principles, or SABRmetrics ( Lewis, 2004 ) was introduced to baseball. SABR stands for Society for American Baseball Research and SABRmetricians are those scientists who gather the in-game data and analyse it to answer questions that will lead to improving team performance. Since the success of the Oakland Athletics, most MLB teams started employing SABRmetricians. The ongoing and exponential increase of computer processing power has further accelerated the ability to analyse “big data,” and indeed, computers increasingly are taking charge of the deeper analysis of data sets, through means of artificial intelligence (AI). Likewise, the surge in high-quality data collection and data aggregation (accomplished by organisations like Baseball Savant/StatCast, ESPN and others) are key ingredients to the spike in the accuracy and breadth of analytics that was observed in the MLB in recent years.

The adoption of AI and statistical modelling in sports has become therefore more prominent in recent years as new technologies and research applications are impacting professional sports at various levels of sophistication. The wide applicability of machine learning algorithms, combined with increasing computing processing power as well as access to more and new sources of data in recent years, has made sports organisations hungry for new applications and strategies. The overriding aim is still to make them more competitive on and off the field–in athletic and business performance. The benefits of leveraging the power of AI can, in that regard, take different forms from optimising business or technical decision making to enhancing athlete/team performance but also increasing demand for attendance at sporting events, as well as promoting alternative entertainment formats of the sport.

We next list some areas where AI and machine learning (ML) have left their footprints in the world of sports ( Beal et al., 2019 ) and provide some examples of applications in each (some of the listed applications could overlap with one or more of the areas).

• Game activity/analytics: match outcome modelling, player/ball Tracking, match event (e.g., shot) classification, umpire assistance, sports betting .

• Talent identification and acquisition: player recruitment, player performance measurement, biomechanics .

• Training and coaching: assessment of team formation efficacy, tactical planning, player injury modelling .

• Fan and business focused: measurement of a player's economic value, modelling demand for event attendance, ticket pricing optimisation (variable and dynamic), wearable and sensor design, highlight packaging, virtual and augmented reality sport applications, etc .

The field of AI (particularly ML) offers new methodologies that have proven to be beneficial for tackling the above challenges. In this perspective paper we aim to provide sports business professionals and non-technical sports audiences, coaches, business leaders, policy makers and stakeholders with an overview of the range of AI approaches used to analyse sport performance and business centric problems. We also discuss perspectives on how AI could shape the future of sports in the next few years.

Research on AI and ML in Sports

In this section, we will not be reviewing examples of how AI has been applied to sports for a specific application, but rather, we will look at the intersection of AI and sports at a more abstract level, discussing some research that either surveyed or summarised the application of AI and ML in sports.

One of the earliest works discussing the potential applications of artificial intelligence in sports performance, and its positive impact on improving decision-making is by Lapham and Bartlett (1995) . The paper discusses how expert systems (i.e., a knowledge-based database used for reasoning) can be used for sports biomechanics purposes. Bartlett (2006) reviewed developments in the use of AI in sports biomechanics (e.g., throwing, shot putting, football kicking, …) to show that, at the time of writing, expert systems were marginally used in sports biomechanics despite being popular for “gait analysis” whereas Artificial Neural Networks were used for applications such as performance patterns in training and movement patterns of sports performers. An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a system that mimics the functionality of a human brain. ANNs are used to solve computational problems or estimate functions from a given data input, by imitating the way neurons are fired or activated in the human brain. Several (layers of) artificial neurons, known as perceptrons, are connected to perform computations which return an output as a function of the provided input ( Anderson, 1995 ).

Bartlett (2006) predicted that multi-layer ANNs will play a big role in sports technique analysis in the future. Indeed, as we discuss later, multi-layer ANNs, now commonly referred to as Deep Learning, have become one of the most popular techniques in sports related analytics. Last but not least Bartlett (2006) described the applications of Evolutionary Computation and hybrid systems in the optimization of sports techniques and skill learning. Further discussion around the applications of AI in sports biomechanics can be found in Ratiu et al. (2010) . McCabe and Trevathan (2008) discussed the use of artificial intelligence for prediction of sporting outcomes, showing how the behaviour of teams can be modelled in different sporting contests using multi-layer ANNs.

Between 2006 and 2010, machine learning algorithms, particularly ANNs were becoming more popular amongst computer scientists. This was aided by the impressive improvements in computer hardware, but also due to a shift in mindset in the AI community. Large volumes of data were made public amongst researchers and scientists (e.g., ImageNet a visual database delivered by Stanford University), and new open-source machine learning competitions were organised (such as Netflix Prize and Kaggle). It is these types of events that have shaped the adoption of AI and machine learning in many different fields of study from medicine to econometrics and sports, by facilitating access to training data and offering free open-source tools and frameworks for leveraging the power of AI. Note that, in addition to ANN, other machine learning techniques are utilised in such competitions, and sometimes these can be used in combination with one another. For instance, some of the techniques that went into the winning of the Netflix prize include singular value decomposition combined with restricted Boltzmann machines and gradient boosted decision trees.

Other examples discussing ANNs in sports include Novatchkov and Baca (2013) who discuss how ANNs can be used for understanding the quality of execution, assisting athletes and coaches, and training optimisation. However, the applications of AI to sports analytics go beyond the use of ANNs. For example, Fister et al. (2015 ) discussed how nature-inspired AI algorithms can be used to investigate unsolved research problems regarding safe and effective training plans. Their approach ( Fister et al., 2015 ) relies on the notion of artificial collective intelligence ( Chmait et al., 2016 ; Chmait, 2017 ) and the adaptability of algorithms to adapt to a changing environment. The authors show how such algorithms can be used to develop an artificial trainer to recommend athletes with an informed training strategy after taking into consideration various factors related to the athlete's physique and readiness. Other types of scientific methods that include Bayesian approaches have been applied to determining player abilities ( Whitaker et al., 2021 ) but also predicting match outcomes ( Yang and Swartz, 2004 ). Bayesian analysis and learning is an approach for building (statistical and inference) models by updating the probability for a hypothesis as more evidence or information becomes available by using Bayes' theorem ( Ghosh et al., 2007 ).

There are numerous research papers in which AI and ML is applied to sport, and it is not our aim to comprehensively discuss these works here 1 . However, we refer to a recent survey that elaborates on this topic. Beal et al. (2019) surveyed the applications of AI in team sports. The authors summarised existing academic work, in a range of sports, tackling issues such as match outcome modelling, in-game tactical decision making, player performance in fantasy sport games, and managing professional players' sport injuries. Work by Nadikattu (2020) presents, at an abstract level, discussions on how AI can be implemented in (American) sports from enhancing player performance, to assisting coaches to come up with the right formations and tactics, to developing automated video highlights of sports matches and supporting referees using computer vision applications.

We emphasise that the application of AI in sports is not limited to topics of sports performance, athlete talent identification or the technical analysis of the game. The (off the field) business side of sports organisations is rapidly shifting towards a data driven culture led by developing profiles of their fans and their consumer preferences. As fans call for superior content and entertainment, sport organisations must react by delivering a customised experience to their patrons. This is often achieved by the use of statistical modelling as well as other machine learning solutions, for example, to understand the value of players from an economic perspective. As shown in Chmait et al. (2020a) , investigating the relationship between the talent and success of athletes (to determine the existence of what is referred to as superstardom phenomenon or star power) is becoming an important angle to explore value created in sport. To provide an idea of the extent of such work, we note some sports in which the relationship between famous players/teams and their effect on audience attendance or sport consumption has been studied:

• In soccer ( Brandes et al., 2008 ; Jewell, 2017 ),

• In Major League Baseball ( Ormiston, 2014 ; Lewis and Yoon, 2016 )

• In the National Basketball Association ( Berri et al., 2004 ; Jane, 2016 )

• In tennis: superstar player effect in demand for tennis tournament attendance ( Chmait et al., 2020a ), the presence of a stardom effect in social media ( Chmait et al., 2020b ), player effect on German television audience demand for live broadcast tennis matches ( Konjer et al., 2017 )

• And similarly, in Cricket ( Paton and Cooke, 2005 ), Hockey ( Coates and Humphreys, 2012 ), and in the Australian Football League ( Lenten, 2012 ).

AI algorithms are being used in Formula 1 (F1) to improve the racing tactics of competing teams by analysing data from hundreds of sensors in the F1 car. Recent work by Piccinotti (2021) shows how artificial intelligence can provide F1 with automated ways for identifying tyre replacement strategies by modelling pit-stop timing and frequency as sequential decision-making problems.

Researchers from Tennis Australia and Victoria University devised a racket recommendation technique based on real HawkEye (computer vision system) data. An algorithm was used to recommend a selection of rackets based on movement, hitting pattern and style of the player with the aim to improve the player's performance ( Krause, 2019 ).

Accurate and fair judging of sophisticated skills in sports like gymnastics is a difficult task. Recently, a judging system was developed by Fujitsu Ltd. The system scores a routine based on the angles of a gymnast's joints. It uses AI to analyse 3D laser sensors that capture the gymnasts' movements ( Atiković et al., 2020 ).

Finally, it is important to note the exceptionally successful adoption of AI in board games like Chess, Checkers, Shogi and the Chinese game of GO, as well as virtual games (like Dota2 and StarCraft). In the last couple of decades, AI has delivered a staggering rise in performance in such areas to the point that machines (almost) constantly defeat human world champions. We refer to some notable solutions like Schaeffer et al. (2007) Checkers artificial algorithm, DeepBlue defeating Kasparov in Chess ( Campbell et al., 2002 ), AlphaGo Zero defeating Lee Sedol in Go ( Silver et al., 2017 ) (noting that AlphaZero is also unbeatable in chess) and Vinyals et al. (2019) AlphaStar in StarcraftII as well as superhuman AI for multiplayer poker ( Brown and Sandholm, 2019 ). Commonly, in these types of games or sports, AI algorithms rely on a Reinforcement Learning approach (which we will describe later) as well as using techniques like the Monte-Carlo Search Trees to explore the game and devise robust strategies to solve and play these games. Some of the recent testbeds used to evaluate AI agents and algorithms are discussed in Hernández-Orallo et al. (2017 ). For a broader investigation of AI in board and virtual/computer games refer to Risi and Preuss (2020) .

The rise of applying AI and ML is unstoppable and to that end, one might be wondering how AI an ML tools work and why are they different from traditional summary analytics. We touch upon these considerations in the next section.

The Machine Learning Paradigm

To understand why ML is used in a wide range of applications, we need to take a look into the difference between recent AI approaches to learning and traditional analytics approaches. At a higher conceptual level, one can describe old or traditional approaches to sports analytics, as starting off with some set of rules that constitute the problem definition, some data that is to be processed using a program/application which will then deliver answers to the given problem. In contrast, in a machine learning/predictive analytics paradigm, the way this process works is fundamentally different. For instance, in some approaches of the ML paradigm, one typically starts by feeding the program with answers and corresponding data to a specific problem, with an algorithm narrowing down the rules of the problem. These rules are later used for making predictions and they are evaluated or validated by testing their accuracy over new (unseen) data.

To that end, machine learning is an area of AI that is concerned with algorithms that learn from data by performing some form of inductive learning. In simple terms, ML prediction could be described as a function 2 from a set of inputs i 1 , i 2 , …, i n , to forecast an unknown value y , as follows f ( w 1 * i 1 , w 2 * i 2 , …, w n * i n ) = y , where w t is the weight of input t .

Different types or approaches of ML are used for different types of problems. Some of the most popular are supervised learning, unsupervised learning , and reinforcement learning :

• In supervised learning, we begin by observing and recording both inputs (the i 's) and outputs (the y 's) of a system, for a given period of time. This data (collection of correct examples of inputs and their corresponding outputs) is then analysed to derive the rules that underly the dynamics of the observed system, i.e., the rules that map a given input to its correct output.

• Unlike the above, in unsupervised learning, the correct examples or outputs from a given system are not available. The task of the algorithm is to discover (previously unnoticed) patterns in the input data.

• In reinforcement learning, an algorithm (usually referred to as an agent) is designed to take a series of actions that maximise its cumulative payoff or rewards over time. The agent then builds a policy (a map of action selection rules) that return a probability of taking a given action under different conditions of the problem.

For a thorough introduction to the fundamentals of machine learning and the popular ML algorithms see Bonaccorso (2017) . The majority of AI applications in sports are based on one or more of the above approaches to ML. In fact, in most predictive modelling applications, the nature of the output y that needs to be predicted or analysed could influence the architecture of the learning algorithm.

Explaining the details of how different ML techniques work is outside the scope of this paper. However, to provide an insight into how such algorithms function in layman's terms and the differences between them, we briefly present (hypothetical) supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement learning problems in the context of sports. These examples will assist the professionals but also applied researchers who work in sport to better understand the way that data scientists think so to facilitate talking to them about their approach and methodology, without requiring to dive deep into the details of the underlying analytics.

Supervised Learning: Predicting Player Injury

Many sports injuries (e.g., muscle strain) can be effectively treated or prevented if one is able to detect them early or predict the likelihood of sustaining them. There could be many different (combinations of) reasons/actions leading to injuries like muscle strain. For example, in the Australian Football League, some of hypotheses put forward leading to muscle strain include: muscle weakness and lack of flexibility, fatigue, inadequate warm-up, and poor lumbar posture ( Brockett et al., 2004 ). Detecting the patterns that can lead to such injuries is extremely important both for the safety of the players, and for the success and competitiveness of the team.

In a supervised learning scenario, data about the players would be collected from previous seasons including details such as the number of overall matches and consecutive matches they played, total time played in each match, categorised by age, number of metres run, whether or not they warmed up before the match, how many times they were tackled by other players, and so on , but more importantly, whether or not the players ended up injured and missed their next match.

The last point is very important as it is the principal difference between supervised learning and other approaches: the outcome (whether or not the player was injured) is known in the historical data that was collected from previous seasons. This historical data is then fed (with the outcome) to a machine learning algorithm with the objective of learning the patterns (combination of factors) which led to an injury (and usually assigning a probability of the likelihood of an injury given these patterns). Once these patterns are learnt, the algorithm or model is then tested on new (unseen data) to see if it performs well and indeed predicts/explains injury at a high level of accuracy (e.g., 70% of the time). If the accuracy of the model is not as required, the model is tuned (or trained with slightly different parameters) until it reaches the desired or acceptable accuracy. Note here that we did not single out a specific algorithm or technique to achieve the above. Indeed, this approach can be applied using many different ML algorithms such as Neural Networks, Decision Trees and regression models.

Unsupervised Learning: Fan Segmentation

We will use a sport business example to introduce the unsupervised learning approach. Most sports organisations keep track of historical data about their patrons who attended their sporting events, recording characteristics such as their gender, postcode, age, nationality, education, income, marital status, etc. A natural question of interest here is to understand if the different segments of customers/patrons will purchase different categories (e.g., price, duration, class etc.) of tickets.

Some AI algorithms are designed to help split the available data, so that each data point (historical ticket sale) sits in a group/class that is similar to the other data points (other sales) in that same class given the recorded features. The algorithm will then use some sort of a similarity or distance metric to classify the patrons according to the category of tickets that they might purchase.

This is different from how supervised learning algorithms, like those discussed in the previous section, work. As we described before, in supervised learning we instruct the algorithm with the outcome in advance while training it (i.e., we classify/label each observation based on the outcome: injury or no injury, cheap or expensive seats, …). In the unsupervised learning approach, there is no such labelling or classification of existing historical data. It is the mission of the unsupervised learning algorithm to discover (previously unnoticed) patterns in the input data and group it into (two or more) classes.

Imagine the following use case where an Australian Football League club aims to identify a highly profitable customer segment within its entire set of stadium attendees, with the aim to enhance its marketing operations. Mathematical models can be used to discover (segments of) similar customers based on variations in some customer attributes within and across each segment. A popular unsupervised learning algorithm to achieve such goal is the K-means clustering algorithm which finds the class labels from the data. This is done by iteratively assigning the data points (e.g., customers) from the input into a group/class based on the characteristics of this input. The essence is that the groups or classes to which the data points are assigned to are not defined prior to exploring the input data (although the number of groups or segments can be pre-defined) but are rather dynamically formed as the K-means algorithm iterates over the data points. In the context of customer segmentation, when presenting the mathematical model (K-means algorithm) with customer data, there is no requirement to label a portion (or any of) of this data into groups in advance in order to train the model as usually done in supervised models.

Reinforcement Learning: Simulations and Fantasy Sports

As mentioned before, in reinforcement learning, an algorithm (such as Q-learning and SARSA algorithms) learns how to complete a series of tasks (i.e., solve a problem) by interacting with an (artificial) environment that was designed to simulate the real environment/problem at hand. Unlike the case with supervised learning, the algorithm is not explicitly instructed about the right/accurate action in different states/conditions of the environment (or steps of problem it is trying to solve). But rather it incrementally learns such a protocol through reward maximisation.

In simple terms, reinforcement learning approaches represent problems using what are referred to as: an agent (a software algorithm), and a table of states and actions . When the agent executes an action, it transitions from one state to another and it receives a reward or a penalty (a positive or negative numerical score respectively) as a result. The reward/penalty associated with the action-state combination is then stored in the agent's table for future reference and refinement. The agent's goal is to take the action that maximises its reward. When the agent is still unaware of the expected rewards from executing a given action when at a given state, it takes a random action and updates its table following that action. After many (thousands of) iterations over the problem space, the agent's table holds (a weighted sum of) the expected values of the rewards of all future actions starting from the initial state.

Reinforcement learning has been applied to improve the selection of team formations in fantasy sports ( Matthews et al., 2012 ). Likewise, the use of reinforcement learning is prominent in online AI bots and simulators like chess, checkers, Go, poker, StarCraft, etc.

Finally, it is important to also note the existence of genetic or evolutionary algorithms, sometimes referred to as nature/bio-inspired algorithms. While such algorithms are not typically considered to be ML algorithms (but rather search techniques and heuristics), they are very popular in solving similar types of problems tackled by ML algorithms. In short, the idea behind such algorithms is to run (parallel) search, selection and mutation techniques, by going over possible candidate solutions of a problem. The solutions are gradually optimised until reaching a local (sub-optimal) or global maximum (optimal solution). To provide a high-level understanding of evolutionary algorithms, consider the following sequence of steps:

• We start by creating (a population of) initial candidate or random strategies/solutions to the problem at hand.

• We assess these candidate solutions (using a fitness function) and assign scores to each according to how well they solve the problem at hand.

• We then pick a selection of these candidate solutions that performed best at stage two above. We then combine ( crossbreed ) these together to generate ( breed) new solutions (e.g., take some attributes from one candidate solution and others from another candidate solution in order to come up with a new solution).

• We then apply random changes ( mutations ) to the resulting solutions from the previous step.

• We repeat the solution combination/crossbreeding process until a satisfactory solution is reached.

Evolutionary algorithms can be used as alternative means for training machine learning algorithms such as reinforcement learning algorithms and deep neural networks.

The Future of AI in Sport

There is no doubt that AI will continue to transform sports, and the ways in which we play, watch and analyse sports will be innovative and unexpected. In fact, machine learning has drastically changed the way we think about match strategies, player performance analytics but also how we track, identify and learn about sport consumers. A Pandora's box of ethical issues is emerging and will increasingly need to be considered when machines invade the traditionally human centred and naturally talented athlete base of sport. It is unlikely that AI will completely replace coaches and human experts, but there is no doubt that leveraging the power of AI will provide coaches and players with a big advantage and lead over those who only rely on human expertise. It will also provide sport business managers with deeper, real time insights into the behaviours, needs and wants of sport consumers and in turn AI will become a main producer of sport content that is personalised and custom made for individual consumers. But human direction and intervention seems to be, at least in the near future, still essential working towards elite sport performance and strategic decision making in sport business. The sporting performance on the field is often produced as an entertainment spectacle, where the sporting context is the platform for generating the business of sport. Replacing referees with automated AI is clearly possible and increasingly adopted in various sports, because it is more accurate and efficient, but is it what the fans want?

What might the future of sport with increasingly integrated AI look like? Currently, most of the research in AI and sports is specialised. That is to provide performance or business solutions and solve specific on and off field problems. For instance, scientists have successfully devised solutions to tackle problems like player performance measurement, and quantifying the effect of a player/team on demand for gate attendance. Nevertheless, our research has not identified studies (yet) that provide a 360-degree analysis on, for example, the absolute value of an athlete by taking into account all the dimensions of his or her performance on how much business can be developed, for example in regard to ticket sales or endorsement deals.

One of the main challenges to achieve such a comprehensive analysis is mainly due to the fact that data about players and teams, and commercial data such as ticket sales and attendance numbers, are kept proprietary and are not made public to avoid providing other parties with competitive information. Moreover, privacy is an important consideration as well. Regulations about data privacy and leakage of personal identification details must be put in place to govern the use and sharing of sports (performance and consumption) data. Data ownership, protection, security, privacy and access will all drive the need for comprehensive and tight legislation and regulation that will strongly influence the speed and comprehensiveness of the adoption of AI in sport. To that end, it is worth considering privacy and confidentiality implications independently when studying the leagues' journey of AI adoption compared to that of individual teams and ultimately the individual players. Eventually, the successful adoption of AI in a sports league will likely depend on the teams in that league and their players to be willing to share proprietary data or insights with other teams in the league. Performance data of players in particular is becoming a hot topic of disputation. It may well be AI that will determine the bargaining power of players and their agents in regard to the value of their contracts. As an extension of this it will then also be AI providing the information that will determine if players are achieving the performance objectives set by coaches and as agreed to in contracts. In other words, confidentiality and ownership of league, team or player level data will become an increasing bone of legal contention and this will be reflected in the complexity of contractual agreements and possible disputes in the change rooms and on the field of play. Being in control of which data can or cannot, and will or will not, be used is at stake.

From an economic perspective, relying on artificial algorithms could increase the revenue of sports organisations and event organisers when enabled to apply efficient variable and dynamic pricing strategies and build comprehensive and deep knowledge consumer platforms. Different types of ML algorithms can be adopted to deliver more effective customer marketing via personalisation and to increase sales funnel conversion rates.

Finally, for a window on the future of data privacy, it might be useful to return to baseball where the addiction to big data started its spread across the high-performance sport industry. Hattery (2017 , p. 282) explains that in baseball “using advanced data collection systems … the MLB teams compete to create the most precise injury prediction models possible in order to protect and optimise the use of their player-assets. While this technology has the potential to offer tremendous value to both team and player, it comes with a potential conflict of interest. Players' goals are not always congruent with those of the organisation: the player strives to protect his own career while the team is attempting to capitalise on the value of an asset. For this reason, the player has an interest in accessing data that analyses his potential injury risk. This highlights a greater problem in big data: what rights will individuals possess regarding their own data points?”

This privacy issue can be further extended to the sport business space Dezfouli et al. (2020) have shown how AI can be designed to manipulate human behaviour. Algorithms learned from humans' responses who were participating in controlled experiments. The algorithms identified and targeted vulnerabilities in human decision-making. The AI succeeded in steering participants towards executing particular actions. So, will AI one day be shaping the spending behaviour of sports fans by exploiting their fan infused emotional vulnerabilities and monitoring their (for example) gambling inclinations? Will AI sacrifice the health of some athletes in favour of the bigger team winning the premiership? Or is this already happening? Time will tell.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

NC and HW had major contribution to the writing of this manuscript. NC contributed to the writing of the parts around artificial intelligence and machine learning and provided examples of these. HW shaped the scope of the manuscript and wrote and edited many of its sections particularly the introduction and the discussion. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: artificial intelligence, machine learning, sports business, sports analytics, sport research, future of sports

Citation: Chmait N and Westerbeek H (2021) Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Sport Research: An Introduction for Non-data Scientists. Front. Sports Act. Living 3:682287. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2021.682287

Received: 18 March 2021; Accepted: 15 November 2021; Published: 08 December 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Chmait and Westerbeek. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Nader Chmait, nader.chmait@vu.edu.au

This article is part of the Research Topic

The Future of Sport Business

• Systematic review update
• Open access
• Published: 21 June 2023

The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model

• Narelle Eather   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6320-4540 1 , 2 ,
• Levi Wade   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4007-5336 1 , 3 ,
• Aurélie Pankowiak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0178-513X 4 &
• Rochelle Eime   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8614-2813 4 , 5  

Systematic Reviews volume  12 , Article number:  102 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Sport is a subset of physical activity that can be particularly beneficial for short-and-long-term physical and mental health, and social outcomes in adults. This study presents the results of an updated systematic review of the mental health and social outcomes of community and elite-level sport participation for adults. The findings have informed the development of the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults.

Nine electronic databases were searched, with studies published between 2012 and March 2020 screened for inclusion. Eligible qualitative and quantitative studies reported on the relationship between sport participation and mental health and/or social outcomes in adult populations. Risk of bias (ROB) was determined using the Quality Assessment Tool (quantitative studies) or Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (qualitative studies).

The search strategy located 8528 articles, of which, 29 involving adults 18–84 years were included for analysis. Data was extracted for demographics, methodology, and study outcomes, and results presented according to study design. The evidence indicates that participation in sport (community and elite) is related to better mental health, including improved psychological well-being (for example, higher self-esteem and life satisfaction) and lower psychological ill-being (for example, reduced levels of depression, anxiety, and stress), and improved social outcomes (for example, improved self-control, pro-social behavior, interpersonal communication, and fostering a sense of belonging). Overall, adults participating in team sport had more favorable health outcomes than those participating in individual sport, and those participating in sports more often generally report the greatest benefits; however, some evidence suggests that adults in elite sport may experience higher levels of psychological distress. Low ROB was observed for qualitative studies, but quantitative studies demonstrated inconsistencies in methodological quality.

Conclusions

The findings of this review confirm that participation in sport of any form (team or individual) is beneficial for improving mental health and social outcomes amongst adults. Team sports, however, may provide more potent and additional benefits for mental and social outcomes across adulthood. This review also provides preliminary evidence for the Mental Health through Sport model, though further experimental and longitudinal evidence is needed to establish the mechanisms responsible for sports effect on mental health and moderators of intervention effects. Additional qualitative work is also required to gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants.

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Introduction

The organizational structure of sport and the performance demands characteristic of sport training and competition provide a unique opportunity for participants to engage in health-enhancing physical activity of varied intensity, duration, and mode; and the opportunity to do so with other people as part of a team and/or club. Participation in individual and team sports have shown to be beneficial to physical, social, psychological, and cognitive health outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Often, the social and mental health benefits facilitated through participation in sport exceed those achieved through participation in other leisure-time or recreational activities [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Notably, these benefits are observed across different sports and sub-populations (including youth, adults, older adults, males, and females) [ 11 ]. However, the evidence regarding sports participation at the elite level is limited, with available research indicating that elite athletes may be more susceptible to mental health problems, potentially due to the intense mental and physical demands placed on elite athletes [ 12 ].

Participation in sport varies across the lifespan, with children representing the largest cohort to engage in organized community sport [ 13 ]. Across adolescence and into young adulthood, dropout from organized sport is common, and especially for females [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], and adults are shifting from organized sports towards leisure and fitness activities, where individual activities (including swimming, walking, and cycling) are the most popular [ 13 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Despite the general decline in sport participation with age [ 13 ], the most recent (pre-COVID) global data highlights that a range of organized team sports (such as, basketball, netball volleyball, and tennis) continue to rank highly amongst adult sport participants, with soccer remaining a popular choice across all regions of the world [ 13 ]. It is encouraging many adults continue to participate in sport and physical activities throughout their lives; however, high rates of dropout in youth sport and non-participation amongst adults means that many individuals may be missing the opportunity to reap the potential health benefits associated with participation in sport.

According to the World Health Organization, mental health refers to a state of well-being and effective functioning in which an individual realizes his or her own abilities, is resilient to the stresses of life, and is able to make a positive contribution to his or her community [ 20 ]. Mental health covers three main components, including psychological, emotional and social health [ 21 ]. Further, psychological health has two distinct indicators, psychological well-being (e.g., self-esteem and quality of life) and psychological ill-being (e.g., pre-clinical psychological states such as psychological difficulties and high levels of stress) [ 22 ]. Emotional well-being describes how an individual feels about themselves (including life satisfaction, interest in life, loneliness, and happiness); and social well–being includes an individual’s contribution to, and integration in society [ 23 ].

Mental illnesses are common among adults and incidence rates have remained consistently high over the past 25 years (~ 10% of people affected globally) [ 24 ]. Recent statistics released by the World Health Organization indicate that depression and anxiety are the most common mental disorders, affecting an estimated 264 million people, ranking as one of the main causes of disability worldwide [ 25 , 26 ]. Specific elements of social health, including high levels of isolation and loneliness among adults, are now also considered a serious public health concern due to the strong connections with ill-health [ 27 ]. Participation in sport has shown to positively impact mental and social health status, with a previous systematic review by Eime et al. (2013) indicated that sports participation was associated with lower levels of perceived stress, and improved vitality, social functioning, mental health, and life satisfaction [ 1 ]. Based on their findings, the authors developed a conceptual model (health through sport) depicting the relationship between determinants of adult sports participation and physical, psychological, and social health benefits of participation. In support of Eime’s review findings, Malm and colleagues (2019) recently described how sport aids in preventing or alleviating mental illness, including depressive symptoms and anxiety or stress-related disease [ 7 ]. Andersen (2019) also highlighted that team sports participation is associated with decreased rates of depression and anxiety [ 11 ]. In general, these reviews report stronger effects for sports participation compared to other types of physical activity, and a dose–response relationship between sports participation and mental health outcomes (i.e., higher volume and/or intensity of participation being associated with greater health benefits) when adults participate in sports they enjoy and choose [ 1 , 7 ]. Sport is typically more social than other forms of physical activity, including enhanced social connectedness, social support, peer bonding, and club support, which may provide some explanation as to why sport appears to be especially beneficial to mental and social health [ 28 ].

Thoits (2011) proposed several potential mechanisms through which social relationships and social support improve physical and psychological well-being [ 29 ]; however, these mechanisms have yet to be explored in the context of sports participation at any level in adults. The identification of the mechanisms responsible for such effects may direct future research in this area and help inform future policy and practice in the delivery of sport to enhance mental health and social outcomes amongst adult participants. Therefore, the primary objective of this review was to examine and synthesize all research findings regarding the relationship between sports participation, mental health and social outcomes at the community and elite level in adults. Based on the review findings, the secondary objective was to develop the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model.

This review has been registered in the PROSPERO systematic review database and assigned the identifier: CRD42020185412. The conduct and reporting of this systematic review also follows the Preferred Reporting for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 30 ] (PRISMA flow diagram and PRISMA Checklist available in supplementary files ). This review is an update of a previous review of the same topic [ 31 ], published in 2012.

Identification of studies

Nine electronic databases (CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Informit, Medline, PsychINFO, Psychology and Behavioural Sciences Collection, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched for relevant records published from 2012 to March 10, 2020. The following key terms were developed by all members of the research team (and guided by previous reviews) and entered into these databases by author LW: sport* AND health AND value OR benefit* OR effect* OR outcome* OR impact* AND psych* OR depress* OR stress OR anxiety OR happiness OR mood OR ‘quality of life’ OR ‘social health’ OR ‘social relation*’ OR well* OR ‘social connect*’ OR ‘social functioning’ OR ‘life satisfac*’ OR ‘mental health’ OR social OR sociolog* OR affect* OR enjoy* OR fun. Where possible, Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) were also used.

Criteria for inclusion/exclusion

The titles of studies identified using this method were screened by LW. Abstract and full text of the articles were reviewed independently by LW and NE. To be included in the current review, each study needed to meet each of the following criteria: (1) published in English from 2012 to 2020; (2) full-text available online; (3) original research or report published in a peer-reviewed journal; (4) provides data on the psychological or social effects of participation in sport (with sport defined as a subset of exercise that can be undertaken individually or as a part of a team, where participants adhere to a common set of rules or expectations, and a defined goal exists); (5) the population of interest were adults (18 years and older) and were apparently healthy. All papers retrieved in the initial search were assessed for eligibility by title and abstract. In cases where a study could not be included or excluded via their title and abstract, the full text of the article was reviewed independently by two of the authors.

Data extraction

For the included studies, the following data was extracted independently by LW and checked by NE using a customized Google Docs spreadsheet: author name, year of publication, country, study design, aim, type of sport (e.g., tennis, hockey, team, individual), study conditions/comparisons, sample size, where participants were recruited from, mean age of participants, measure of sports participation, measure of physical activity, psychological and/or social outcome/s, measure of psychological and/or social outcome/s, statistical method of analysis, changes in physical activity or sports participation, and the psychological and/or social results.

Risk of bias (ROB) assessment

A risk of bias was performed by LW and AP independently using the ‘Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies’ OR the ‘Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies’ for the included quantitative studies, and the ‘Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Checklist for the included qualitative studies [ 32 , 33 ]. Any discrepancies in the ROB assessments were discussed between the two reviewers, and a consensus reached.

The search yielded 8528 studies, with a total of 29 studies included in the systematic review (Fig.  1 ). Tables  1 and 2 provide a summary of the included studies. The research included adults from 18 to 84 years old, with most of the evidence coming from studies targeting young adults (18–25 years). Study samples ranged from 14 to 131, 962, with the most reported psychological outcomes being self-rated mental health ( n  = 5) and depression ( n  = 5). Most studies did not investigate or report the link between a particular sport and a specific mental health or social outcome; instead, the authors’ focused on comparing the impact of sport to physical activity, and/or individual sports compared to team sports. The results of this review are summarized in the following section, with findings presented by study design (cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal).

Flow of studies through the review process

Effects of sports participation on psychological well-being, ill-being, and social outcomes

Cross-sectional evidence.

This review included 14 studies reporting on the cross-sectional relationship between sports participation and psychological and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 414 to n  = 131,962 with a total of n  = 239,394 adults included across the cross-sectional studies.

The cross-sectional evidence generally supports that participation in sport, and especially team sports, is associated with greater mental health and psychological wellbeing in adults compared to non-participants [ 36 , 59 ]; and that higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, are also linked to lower levels of mental distress in adults . This was not the case for one specific study involving ice hockey players aged 35 and over, with Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) reporting no relationship between participation in ice hockey and either mental health, or perceived life stress [ 54 ]. There is also some evidence to support that previous participation in sports (e.g., during childhood or young adulthood) is linked to better mental health outcomes later in life, including improved mental well-being and lower mental distress [ 59 ], even after controlling for age and current physical activity.

Compared to published community data for adults, elite or high-performance adult athletes demonstrated higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction [ 39 ]; and reported reduced tendency to respond to distress with anger and depression. However, rates of psychological distress were higher in the elite sport cohort (compared to community norms), with nearly 1 in 5 athletes reporting ‘high to very high’ distress, and 1 in 3 reporting poor mental health symptoms at a level warranting treatment by a health professional in one study ( n  = 749) [ 39 ].

Four studies focused on the associations between physical activity and sports participation and mental health outcomes in older adults. Physical activity was associated with greater quality of life [ 56 ], with the relationship strongest for those participating in sport in middle age, and for those who cycled in later life (> 65) [ 56 ]. Group physical activities (e.g., walking groups) and sports (e.g., golf) were also significantly related to excellent self-rated health, low depressive symptoms, high health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and a high frequency of laughter in males and females [ 60 , 61 ]. No participation or irregular participation in sport was associated with symptoms of mild to severe depression in older adults [ 62 ].

Several cross-sectional studies examined whether the effects of physical activity varied by type (e.g., total physical activity vs. sports participation). In an analysis of 1446 young adults (mean age = 18), total physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and team sport were independently associated with mental health [ 46 ]. Relative to individual physical activity, after adjusting for covariates and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), only team sport was significantly associated with improved mental health. Similarly, in a cross-sectional analysis of Australian women, Eime, Harvey, Payne (2014) reported that women who engaged in club and team-based sports (tennis or netball) reported better mental health and life satisfaction than those who engaged in individual types of physical activity [ 47 ]. Interestingly, there was no relationship between the amount of physical activity and either of these outcomes, suggesting that other qualities of sports participation contribute to its relationship to mental health and life satisfaction. There was also some evidence to support a relationship between exercise type (ball sports, aerobic activity, weightlifting, and dancing), and mental health amongst young adults (mean age 22 years) [ 48 ], with ball sports and dancing related to fewer symptoms of depression in students with high stress; and weightlifting related to fewer depressive symptoms in weightlifters exhibiting low stress.

Longitudinal evidence

Eight studies examined the longitudinal relationship between sports participation and either mental health and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 113 to n  = 1679 with a total of n  = 7022 adults included across the longitudinal studies.

Five of the included longitudinal studies focused on the relationship between sports participation in childhood or adolescence and mental health in young adulthood. There is evidence that participation in sport in high-school is protective of future symptoms of anxiety (including panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, social phobia, and agoraphobia) [ 42 ]. Specifically, after controlling for covariates (including current physical activity), the number of years of sports participation in high school was shown to be protective of symptoms of panic and agoraphobia in young adulthood, but not protective of symptoms of social phobia or generalized anxiety disorder [ 42 ]. A comparison of individual or team sports participation also revealed that participation in either context was protective of panic disorder symptoms, while only team sport was protective of agoraphobia symptoms, and only individual sport was protective of social phobia symptoms. Furthermore, current and past sports team participation was shown to negatively relate to adult depressive symptoms [ 43 ]; drop out of sport was linked to higher depressive symptoms in adulthood compared to those with maintained participation [ 9 , 22 , 63 ]; and consistent participation in team sports (but not individual sport) in adolescence was linked to higher self-rated mental health, lower perceived stress and depressive symptoms, and lower depression scores in early adulthood [ 53 , 58 ].

Two longitudinal studies [ 35 , 55 ], also investigated the association between team and individual playing context and mental health. Dore and colleagues [ 35 ] reported that compared to individual activities, being active in informal groups (e.g., yoga, running groups) or team sports was associated with better mental health, fewer depressive symptoms and higher social connectedness – and that involvement in team sports was related to better mental health regardless of physical activity volume. Kim and James [ 55 ] discovered that sports participation led to both short and long-term improvements in positive affect and life satisfaction.

A study on social outcomes related to mixed martial-arts (MMA) and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) showed that both sports improved practitioners’ self-control and pro-social behavior, with greater improvements seen in the BJJ group [ 62 ]. Notably, while BJJ reduced participants’ reported aggression, there was a slight increase in MMA practitioners, though it is worth mentioning that individuals who sought out MMA had higher levels of baseline aggression.

Experimental evidence

Six of the included studies were experimental or quasi-experimental. Sample sizes ranged from n  = 28 to n  = 55 with a total of n  = 239 adults included across six longitudinal studies. Three studies involved a form of martial arts (such as judo and karate) [ 45 , 51 , 52 ], one involved a variety of team sports (such as netball, soccer, and cricket) [ 34 ], and the remaining two focused on badminton [ 57 ] and handball [ 49 ].

Brinkley and colleagues [ 34 ] reported significant effects on interpersonal communication (but not vitality, social cohesion, quality of life, stress, or interpersonal relationships) for participants ( n  = 40) engaging in a 12-week workplace team sports intervention. Also using a 12-week intervention, Hornstrup et al. [ 49 ] reported a significant improvement in mental energy (but not well-being or anxiety) in young women (mean age = 24; n  = 28) playing in a handball program. Patterns et al. [ 57 ] showed that in comparison to no exercise, participation in an 8-week badminton or running program had no significant improvement on self-esteem, despite improvements in perceived and actual fitness levels.

Three studies examined the effect of martial arts on the mental health of older adults (mean ages 79 [ 52 ], 64 [ 51 ], and 70 [ 45 ] years). Participation in Karate-Do had positive effects on overall mental health, emotional wellbeing, depression and anxiety when compared to other activities (physical, cognitive, mindfulness) and a control group [ 51 , 52 ]. Ciaccioni et al. [ 45 ] found that a Judo program did not affect either the participants’ mental health or their body satisfaction, citing a small sample size, and the limited length of the intervention as possible contributors to the findings.

Qualitative evidence

Three studies interviewed current or former sports players regarding their experiences with sport. Chinkov and Holt [ 41 ] reported that jiu-jitsu practitioners (mean age 35 years) were more self-confident in their lives outside of the gym, including improved self-confidence in their interactions with others because of their training. McGraw and colleagues [ 37 ] interviewed former and current National Football League (NFL) players and their families about its impact on the emotional and mental health of the players. Most of the players reported that their NFL career provided them with social and emotional benefits, as well as improvements to their self-esteem even after retiring. Though, despite these benefits, almost all the players experienced at least one mental health challenge during their career, including depression, anxiety, or difficulty controlling their temper. Some of the players and their families reported that they felt socially isolated from people outside of the national football league.

Through a series of semi-structured interviews and focus groups, Thorpe, Anders [ 40 ] investigated the impact of an Aboriginal male community sporting team on the health of its players. The players reported they felt a sense of belonging when playing in the team, further noting that the social and community aspects were as important as the physical health benefits. Participating in the club strengthened the cultural identity of the players, enhancing their well-being. The players further noted that participation provided them with enjoyment, stress relief, a sense of purpose, peer support, and improved self-esteem. Though they also noted challenges, including the presence of racism, community conflict, and peer-pressure.

Quality of studies

Full details of our risk of bias (ROB) results are provided in Supplementary Material A . Of the three qualitative studies assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP), all three were deemed to have utilised and reported appropriate methodological standards on at least 8 of the 10 criteria. Twenty studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, with all studies clearly reporting the research question/s or objective/s and study population. However, only four studies provided a justification for sample size, and less than half of the studies met quality criteria for items 6, 7, 9, or 10 (and items 12 and 13 were largely not applicable). Of concern, only four of the observational or cohort studies were deemed to have used clearly defined, valid, and reliable exposure measures (independent variables) and implemented them consistently across all study participants. Six studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies, with three studies described as a randomized trial (but none of the three reported a suitable method of randomization, concealment of treatment allocation, or blinding to treatment group assignment). Three studies showed evidence that study groups were similar at baseline for important characteristics and an overall drop-out rate from the study < 20%. Four studies reported high adherence to intervention protocols (with two not reporting) and five demonstrated that.study outcomes were assessed using valid and reliable measures and implemented consistently across all study participants. Importantly, researchers did not report or have access to validated instruments for assessing sport participation or physical activity amongst adults, though most studies provided psychometrics for their mental health outcome measure/s. Only one study reported that the sample size was sufficiently powered to detect a difference in the main outcome between groups (with ≥ 80% power) and that all participants were included in the analysis of results (intention-to-treat analysis). In general, the methodological quality of the six randomised studies was deemed low.

Initially, our discussion will focus on the review findings regarding sports participation and well-being, ill-being, and psychological health. However, the heterogeneity and methodological quality of the included research (especially controlled trials) should be considered during the interpretation of our results. Considering our findings, the Mental Health through Sport conceptual model for adults will then be presented and discussed and study limitations outlined.

Sports participation and psychological well-being

In summary, the evidence presented here indicates that for adults, sports participation is associated with better overall mental health [ 36 , 46 , 47 , 59 ], mood [ 56 ], higher life satisfaction [ 39 , 47 ], self-esteem [ 39 ], body satisfaction [ 39 ], HRQoL [ 60 ], self-rated health [ 61 ], and frequency of laughter [ 61 ]. Sports participation has also shown to be predictive of better psychological wellbeing over time [ 35 , 53 ], higher positive affect [ 55 ], and greater life satisfaction [ 55 ]. Furthermore, higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, have been linked to lower levels of mental distress, higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction in adults [ 39 ].

Despite considerable heterogeneity of sports type, cross-sectional and experimental research indicate that team-based sports participation, compared to individual sports and informal group physical activity, has a more positive effect on mental energy [ 49 ], physical self-perception [ 57 ], and overall psychological health and well-being in adults, regardless of physical activity volume [ 35 , 46 , 47 ]. And, karate-do benefits the subjective well-being of elderly practitioners [ 51 , 52 ]. Qualitative research in this area has queried participants’ experiences of jiu-jitsu, Australian football, and former and current American footballers. Participants in these sports reported that their participation was beneficial for psychological well-being [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], improved self-esteem [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], and enjoyment [ 37 ].

Sports participation and psychological ill-being

Of the included studies, n  = 19 examined the relationship between participating in sport and psychological ill-being. In summary, there is consistent evidence that sports participation is related to lower depression scores [ 43 , 48 , 61 , 62 ]. There were mixed findings regarding psychological stress, where participation in childhood (retrospectively assessed) was related to lower stress in young adulthood [ 41 ], but no relationship was identified between recreational hockey in adulthood and stress [ 54 ]. Concerning the potential impact of competing at an elite level, there is evidence of higher stress in elite athletes compared to community norms [ 39 ]. Further, there is qualitative evidence that many current or former national football league players experienced at least one mental health challenge, including depression, anxiety, difficulty controlling their temper, during their career [ 37 ].

Evidence from longitudinal research provided consistent evidence that participating in sport in adolescence is protective of symptoms of depression in young adulthood [ 43 , 53 , 58 , 63 ], and further evidence that participating in young adulthood is related to lower depressive symptoms over time (6 months) [ 35 ]. Participation in adolescence was also protective of manifestations of anxiety (panic disorder and agoraphobia) and stress in young adulthood [ 42 ], though participation in young adulthood was not related to a more general measure of anxiety [ 35 ] nor to changes in negative affect [ 55 ]). The findings from experimental research were mixed. Two studies examined the effect of karate-do on markers of psychological ill-being, demonstrating its capacity to reduce anxiety [ 52 ], with some evidence of its effectiveness on depression [ 51 ]. The other studies examined small-sided team-based games but showed no effect on stress or anxiety [ 34 , 49 ]. Most studies did not differentiate between team and individual sports, though one study found that adolescents who participated in team sports (not individual sports) in secondary school has lower depression scores in young adulthood [ 58 ].

Sports participation and social outcomes

Seven of the included studies examined the relationship between sports participation and social outcomes. However, very few studies examined social outcomes or tested a social outcome as a potential mediator of the relationship between sport and mental health. It should also be noted that this body of evidence comes from a wide range of sport types, including martial arts, professional football, and workplace team-sport, as well as different methodologies. Taken as a whole, the evidence shows that participating in sport is beneficial for several social outcomes, including self-control [ 50 ], pro-social behavior [ 50 ], interpersonal communication [ 34 ], and fostering a sense of belonging [ 40 ]. Further, there is evidence that group activity, for example team sport or informal group activity, is related to higher social connectedness over time, though analyses showed that social connectedness was not a mediator for mental health [ 35 ].

There were conflicting findings regarding social effects at the elite level, with current and former NFL players reporting that they felt socially isolated during their career [ 37 ], whilst another study reported no relationship between participation at the elite level and social dysfunction [ 39 ]. Conversely, interviews with a group of indigenous men revealed that they felt as though participating in an all-indigenous Australian football team provided them with a sense of purpose, and they felt as though the social aspect of the game was as important as the physical benefits it provides [ 40 ].

Mental health through sport conceptual model for adults

The ‘Health through Sport’ model provides a depiction of the determinants and benefits of sports participation [ 31 ]. The model recognises that the physical, mental, and social benefits of sports participation vary by the context of sport (e.g., individual vs. team, organized vs. informal). To identify the elements of sport which contribute to its effect on mental health outcomes, we describe the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ model (Fig.  2 ). The model proposes that the social and physical elements of sport each provide independent, and likely synergistic contributions to its overall influence on mental health.

The Mental Health through Sport conceptual model

The model describes two key pathways through which sport may influence mental health: physical activity, and social relationships and support. Several likely moderators of this effect are also provided, including sport type, intensity, frequency, context (team vs. individual), environment (e.g., indoor vs. outdoor), as well as the level of competition (e.g., elite vs. amateur).

The means by which the physical activity component of sport may influence mental health stems from the work of Lubans et al., who propose three key groups of mechanisms: neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral [ 64 ]. Processes whereby physical activity may enhance psychological outcomes via changes in the structural and functional composition of the brain are referred to as neurobiological mechanisms [ 65 , 66 ]. Processes whereby physical activity provides opportunities for the development of self-efficacy, opportunity for mastery, changes in self-perceptions, the development of independence, and for interaction with the environment are considered psychosocial mechanisms. Lastly, processes by which physical activity may influence behaviors which ultimately affect psychological health, including changes in sleep duration, self-regulation, and coping skills, are described as behavioral mechanisms.

Playing sport offers the opportunity to form relationships and to develop a social support network, both of which are likely to influence mental health. Thoits [ 29 ] describes 7 key mechanisms by which social relationships and support may influence mental health: social influence/social comparison; social control; role-based purpose and meaning (mattering); self-esteem; sense of control; belonging and companionship; and perceived support availability [ 29 ]. These mechanisms and their presence within a sporting context are elaborated below.

Subjective to the attitudes and behaviors of individuals in a group, social influence and comparison may facilitate protective or harmful effects on mental health. Participants in individual or team sport will be influenced and perhaps steered by the behaviors, expectations, and norms of other players and teams. When individual’s compare their capabilities, attitudes, and values to those of other participants, their own behaviors and subsequent health outcomes may be affected. When others attempt to encourage or discourage an individual to adopt or reject certain health practices, social control is displayed [ 29 ]. This may evolve as strategies between players (or between players and coach) are discussion and implemented. Likewise, teammates may try to motivate each another during a match to work harder, or to engage in specific events or routines off-field (fitness programs, after game celebrations, attending club events) which may impact current and future physical and mental health.

Sport may also provide behavioral guidance, purpose, and meaning to its participants. Role identities (positions within a social structure that come with reciprocal obligations), often formed as a consequence of social ties formed through sport. Particularly in team sports, participants come to understand they form an integral part of the larger whole, and consequently, they hold certain responsibility in ensuring the team’s success. They have a commitment to the team to, train and play, communicate with the team and a potential responsibility to maintain a high level of health, perform to their capacity, and support other players. As a source of behavioral guidance and of purpose and meaning in life, these identities are likely to influence mental health outcomes amongst sport participants.

An individual’s level of self-esteem may be affected by the social relationships and social support provided through sport; with improved perceptions of capability (or value within a team) in the sporting domain likely to have positive impact on global self-esteem and sense of worth [ 64 ]. The unique opportunities provided through participation in sport, also allow individuals to develop new skills, overcome challenges, and develop their sense of self-control or mastery . Working towards and finding creative solutions to challenges in sport facilitates a sense of mastery in participants. This sense of mastery may translate to other areas of life, with individual’s developing the confidence to cope with varied life challenges. For example, developing a sense of mastery regarding capacity to formulate new / creative solutions when taking on an opponent in sport may result in greater confidence to be creative at work. Social relationships and social support provided through sport may also provide participants with a source of belonging and companionship. The development of connections (on and off the field) to others who share common interests, can build a sense of belonging that may mediate improvements in mental health outcomes. Social support is often provided emotionally during expressions of trust and care; instrumentally via tangible assistance; through information such as advice and suggestions; or as appraisal such feedback. All forms of social support provided on and off the field contribute to a more generalised sense of perceived support that may mediate the effect of social interaction on mental health outcomes.

Participation in sport may influence mental health via some combination of the social mechanisms identified by Thoits, and the neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral mechanisms stemming from physical activity identified by Lubans [ 29 , 64 ]. The exact mechanisms through which sport may confer psychological benefit is likely to vary between sports, as each sport varies in its physical and social requirements. One must also consider the social effects of sports participation both on and off the field. For instance, membership of a sporting team and/or club may provide a sense of identity and belonging—an effect that persists beyond the immediacy of playing the sport and may have a persistent effect on their psychological health. Furthermore, the potential for team-based activity to provide additional benefit to psychological outcomes may not just be attributable to the differences in social interactions, there are also physiological differences in the requirements for sport both within (team vs. team) and between (team vs. individual) categories that may elicit additional improvements in psychological outcomes. For example, evidence supports that exercise intensity moderates the relationship between physical activity and several psychological outcomes—supporting that sports performed at higher intensity will be more beneficial for psychological health.

Limitations and recommendations

There are several limitations of this review worthy of consideration. Firstly, amongst the included studies there was considerable heterogeneity in study outcomes and study methodology, and self-selection bias (especially in non-experimental studies) is likely to influence study findings and reduce the likelihood that study participants and results are representative of the overall population. Secondly, the predominately observational evidence included in this and Eime’s prior review enabled us to identify the positive relationship between sports participation and social and psychological health (and examine directionality)—but more experimental and longitudinal research is required to determine causality and explore potential mechanisms responsible for the effect of sports participation on participant outcomes. Additional qualitative work would also help researchers gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants. Thirdly, there were no studies identified in the literature where sports participation involved animals (such as equestrian sports) or guns (such as shooting sports). Such studies may present novel and important variables in the assessment of mental health benefits for participants when compared to non-participants or participants in sports not involving animals/guns—further research is needed in this area. Our proposed conceptual model also identifies several pathways through which sport may lead to improvements in mental health—but excludes some potentially negative influences (such as poor coaching behaviors and injury). And our model is not designed to capture all possible mechanisms, creating the likelihood that other mechanisms exist but are not included in this review. Additionally, an interrelationship exits between physical activity, mental health, and social relationships, whereby changes in one area may facilitate changes in the other/s; but for the purpose of this study, we have focused on how the physical and social elements of sport may mediate improvements in psychological outcomes. Consequently, our conceptual model is not all-encompassing, but designed to inform and guide future research investigating the impact of sport participation on mental health.

The findings of this review endorse that participation in sport is beneficial for psychological well-being, indicators of psychological ill-being, and social outcomes in adults. Furthermore, participation in team sports is associated with better psychological and social outcomes compared to individual sports or other physical activities. Our findings support and add to previous review findings [ 1 ]; and have informed the development of our ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults which presents the potential mechanisms by which participation in sport may affect mental health.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the work of the original systematic review conducted by Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., and Payne, W. R. (2013).

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Narelle Eather & Levi Wade

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Narelle Eather

College of Health, Medicine, and Wellbeing, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia

Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Ballarat Road, Footscray, VIC, 3011, Australia

Aurélie Pankowiak & Rochelle Eime

School of Science, Psychology and Sport, Federation University Australia, University Drive, Mount Helen, VIC, 3350, Australia

Rochelle Eime

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All authors contributed to the conducting of this study and reporting the findings. The titles of studies identified were screened by LW, and abstracts and full text articles reviewed independently by LW and NE. For the included studies, data was extracted independently by LW and checked by NE, and the risk of bias assessment was performed by LW and AP independently. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.

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Eather, N., Wade, L., Pankowiak, A. et al. The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model. Syst Rev 12 , 102 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02264-8

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How to do Research on Sports

Today, the sports business is a billion-dollar industry and an integral part of American and world culture. Interest in sports has hardly waned from the most watched Super Bowls, to the greatest World Series, to record-breaking accomplishments of sports stars. Yet there is a dark side; widespread controversies about steroid use, long-term contracts ruining the sport, and franchises relocating to other cities when the revenues dry up.

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Whether you love sports, have a difficult research question or a desire to learn more about a particular sport, athlete, or controversial issue, many sources provide information to suit your needs for research paper writing. Among them are almanacs and general reference works, abstract and citation indexes, popular periodicals and journals, and countless print and electronic sources.

The following sources describe the selected references in the above categories to get you started.

Selected Subject Headings

Listed below is a sample of a few broad Library of Congress subject headings—made up of one word or more representing concepts under which all library holdings are divided and subdivided by subject—which you can search under and use as subject terms as well when searching online library catalogs for preliminary and/or additional research, such as books, audio and video recordings, and other references, related to your research paper topic. When researching materials on your topic, subject heading searching may be more productive than searching using simple keywords. However, keyword searching when using the right search method (Boolean, etc.) and combination of words can be equally effective in finding materials more closely relevant to the topic of your research paper.

Suggested Research Topics for Sports

• Coaching (athletics)
• College Sports
• Doping in Sports
• Mass Media and Sports
• Outdoor Life
• Physical Education and Training
• Professional Sports
• Recreation Sport
• Sporting Goods
• Sports for Women
• Sports—Administration/Management
• Sports—History
• Sports—Medicine
• Sports—Psychology
• Television Broadcasting of Sports
• Violence in Sports

Selected Keyword Search Strategies and Guides

If your topic is “steroid use in professional sports,” for example, enter “steroids” and “professional sports” with “and” on the same line to locate sources directly compatible with the primary focus of your research paper. To find research on more specific aspects of your topic, from your list of keywords that you developed alternate with one new keyword at a time with “and” in between (for example, “steroids and athletes and professional sports,” “steroids and ban and professional sports,” “steroids and performance and professional sports,” “steroids and suspensions and professional sports,” etc.).

For additional help with keyword searching, navigation or user guides for online indexes and databases by many leading providers—including Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, EBSCO, H.W. Wilson, OCLC, Ovid Technologies, ProQuest, and Thomson Gale—are posted with direct links on library Web sites to guides providing specific instruction to using whichever database you want to search. They provide additional guidance on how to customize and maximize your searching, including advanced searching techniques and grouping of words and phrases using the Boolean search method—of your topic, of bibliographic records, and of full-text articles, and other documents related to the subject of your research paper. Many libraries, under the “Help” sections of their Web sites, post their own tutorials on subject and keyword searching, which you can also consult.

Selected Source and Subject Guides

As part of your preliminary research to find appropriate resources for your research paper, information source and research guides are available at most public and academic libraries and are keyword searchable through your library’s online catalog (to search and locate guides, enter your “subject” followed by these keywords one search at a time: “information sources,” “reference sources,” and “research guide”). Printed guides available for this subject area include

Information Sources in Sport and Leisure , edited by Michele Shoebridge, 345 pages (London; New York: Bowker-Saur, 1992)

Sport, Leisure, and Tourism Information Sources: A Guide for Researchers , edited by Martin Scarrott, 267 pages (Oxford and Boston: Butterworth Heinemann, 1999)

Sports, Exercise, and Fitness: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources , by Mary Beth Allen, 287 pages (Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, 2005)

Sports History: A Guide to Scholarship, the Literature and Sources of Information , by Richard William Cox (London: Frank Cass, 2002)

Women in Sport: A Guide to Information Sources , by Mary L. Remley, 139 pages (Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research Co., 1980)

In addition to these sources of research, most college and university libraries offer online subject guides arranged by subject on the library’s Web page; others also list searchable course-related “LibGuides” by subject. Each guide lists more recommended published and Web sources—including books and references, journal, newspaper and magazines indexes, full-text article databases, Web sites, and even research tutorials—you can access to expand your research on more specific issues and relevant to your research paper subject.

Selected Books and References

ESPN Sports Almanac 2009 , edited by Gerry Brown and Michael Morrison, 976 pages (New York: Ballantine Books, 2008)

Called by its publisher “the most authoritative sports reference book ever published,” this best-selling almanac annually recaps the major sports stories and sports moments of the previous year. Featuring hundreds of photographs and thousands of graphics and tables, it offers year-by-year and sport-by-sport coverage, including facts and statistics, “Top Ten Moments” from each sport, plus essays and analysis by popular ESPN on-air personalities including Tim Kurkjian, Rick Reilly, Bill Simmons, Dick Vitale, and others.

Sports Illustrated 2009 Almanac , by the editors of Sports Illustrated, 576 pages (New York: Time, Inc., Home Entertainment, 2008)

Originally published annually by Little, Brown & Co., from 1992 to 2002 this book provides extensive coverage of the year in sports for 19 major sports, including baseball, football, biathlon, and figure skating. Included is a wealth of statistics, records, and essays by Sports Illustrated writers.

Dictionaries

Churchill Livingstone’s Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science and Medicine , 3rd ed., compiled by Michael Kent, 624 pages (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2007)

Written for athletes, coaches, medical professionals, and students, this third revised and updated edition includes more than 7,500 cross-referenced terms in all major areas of sports science and medicine. Subjects covered include anatomy, exercise physiology, nutrition, sports sociology, sports injuries, and scientific and training principles.

Dictionary of Sport and Exercise Science and Medicine , edited by Sheila Jennet, M.D. 496 pages (St. Louis, Mo.: Elsevier, 2008)

Easy-to-use dictionary that covers all sports and exercise sports sciences. Entries feature clear and concise definitions of terms for such areas as adapted physical education, biomechanics, exercise physiology, motor control, motor development, motor learning, sport pedagogy, sport psychology, and sport sociology.

Encyclopedias

Berkshire Encyclopedia of World Sport , edited by David Levinson and Karen Christensen, 4 vols., 1,816 pages (Great Barrington, Mass.: Berkshire Publishing Group, 2005)

Information about hundreds of sports from around the world since ancient times is well detailed and nicely chronicled in this informative four-volume encyclopedia. Entries cover not only each individual sport and how it’s played but also the history and evolution, human experience, emotion, and influences that shaped them.

International Encyclopedia of Women and Sports , 3 vols., edited by Karen Christensen, Allen Guttmann, and Gertrude Pfister (New York: Macmillan Library Reference, 2001)

In the words of one critic, “No other encyclopedia treats the field of women in international sports with such currency, depth, and detail” as this three-volume reference set does. It features more than 130 biographies, 170 individual and group sports overviews, and 75 country profiles, all related to women and sports. Articles up to 4,000 words long examine cultural, ethical, health, and societal issues, as well as non-Western sports, extreme sports, and outdoor recreation, generously supplemented by photographs, charts, informative sidebars, and bibliographies.

Rules of the Game: The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of all the Sports of the World , by the Diagram Group, 320 pages (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995)

This concise, color-illustrated volume details the rules and procedures, equipment required, and methods of scoring for more than 150 sports—including darts and jai alai—for over 400 related events.

General Reference

Sports: The Complete Visual Reference , by Francois Fortin (New York: Firefl y Books, 2003)

Fully revised color-illustrated reference guide to more than 125 sports played around the world, such as baseball, basketball, hockey, golf, BMX, and diving, grouped by category. Clear, concise explanations detail the origin, method of play, the kinds of equipment and environments, and physical and training requirements of each sport. Charts of world records and legendary competitors of the past are also included.

Handbook of Sport Psychology , 3rd ed., edited by Gershon Tenenbaum and Robert C. Eklund, 960 pages (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2007)

Authored by leading experts, this third, revised edition, featuring 22 chapters, documents the psychological aspects, discipline, and training of competitive sports, including new research and approaches to exercise, motivation, pain management, and performance.

Sports Nutrition: Olympic Handbook of Sports Medicine , edited by Ronald J. Maughan and Louise Burke, 200 pages (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Science, 2002)

This book offers practical nutritional information. Subjects covered include nutrition needs, exercise and energy demands, recovery time between training sessions, and nutritional strategies for training, as well as other related topics, such as weight management, limitations to exercise performance, sports foods, and other supplements vital to training and performance.

Selected Full-Text Article Databases

Academic Search Premier  (Ipswich, Mass.: EBSCO Publishing, EBSCOHost, 1972– )

Full-text articles from more than 4,650 publications, including an index of articles found in 1,000 other academic publications, for information on a wide range of topics in art, computer science, education, engineering, ethnic studies, humanities, language, literature, medical sciences, social sciences, and more.

Education Abstracts Full Text  (Bronx, N.Y.: H.W. Wilson Co., Wilson Disc, WilsonWeb/OCLC Education Abs/Ovid Technologies, Inc./ProQuest/Thomson DIALOG, 1983– )

Indexes, abstracts, and provides selected full text of articles in more than 400 education-related periodicals and yearbooks. Includes journals that cover physical education and sports in schools. Indexing begins in June 1983, and abstracts and full-text articles in August 1994, with most full-text articles beginning in 1996. Also produced under the name of Wilson Education Abstracts, both on CD-ROM and online.

Health Source: Consumer Edition  (Ipswich, Mass.: EBSCO Publishing, EBSCOHost, indexing/abstracting: 1984– , full text: 1990– )

Provides full text of 300 consumer-health, international health and nutrition journals—largely English-language materials—plus indexing and abstracts from newsletters, pamphlets, reference books, and other information. Useful for researching topics such as biomechanics, food sciences, physical fitness, sports and sports medicine, and wellness. Dates of coverage vary by title; full text from 1990 to the present.

InfoTrac OneFile  (Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale InfoTrac, 1980– )

Features citations, abstracts, and full-text articles from more than 6,000 scholarly journals, popular magazines, and newspapers in nearly every academic discipline, including the arts and humanities, social sciences and science and technology, as well as business, law, current affairs and general interest topics, from 1980 to the present updated daily.

LexisNexis Academic Universe  (Dayton, Ohio: LexisNexis, 1970– )

Good source for finding current articles and information on professional and amateur sports and athletes featuring full-text newspaper and journal articles more than 5,600 news, business, legal, medical, and reference publications. Includes national and regional newspapers such as the San Francisco Chronicle and The New York Times, broadcast transcripts, wire services, international news and non-English language sources. Stories are searchable under the “General News Topics” category, and under “News/Arts and Sports.”

ProQuest Research Library  (Ann Arbor, Mich.: ProQuest, index: 1971– , full text: 1986– )

Useful for researching such as topics as athletes, exercise, physical fitness, and sports injuries, ProQuest Research Library (originally Periodical Abstracts Research II) indexes current articles, some 2,500 full-text journals, in nearly every academic discipline, as well as current affairs and general interest topics. Citations and abstracts are from selected publications since 1972, with more complete coverage beginning in 1996. Updated daily, this multidisciplinary database mixes scholarly and popular journals, with full-text coverage of nearly 15 exercise and sport science titles from 1988 to the present.

PsycARTICLES  (Washington, .D.C.: American Psychological Association PsycINFO, 1894– )

Online database of full-text articles published by the American Psychological Association, APA Educational Publishing Foundation, the Canadian Psychological Association, and Hogrefe and Huber Publishers covering all aspects of psychology. Covers such areas as sports psychology, leisure, and rehabilitation.

SBRnet: Sport Business Research Network  (Princeton, N.J.: Sports Business Research Network, 1993– )

Major online research database featuring articles, consumer surveys, government data, market research reports, and news releases, some in full text, covering all facets of the sports industry, from archery to youth sports. This comprehensive database provides immediate access to market research from the National Sporting Goods Association, the U.S. Department of Commerce, and sports governing bodies, full-text articles from 14 magazines and newsletters published by Miller Freeman, the world’s largest sporting goods trade publisher, and newsletters provided by leading independent industry experts. In mid-1999, SBRNet added buyTRACK, a new database created by Harris Interactive, which tracks the sporting goods purchasing habits of consumers on the Internet.

SPORTDiscus  (Ottawa, Canada: Sports Information Resource Centre [SIRC], 1830– )

Contains more than 700,000 citations and abstracts, with links to full-text articles, to periodical literature in physical fitness, recreation, sport management, sport science, and related areas. Coverage includes worldwide scientific and practical literature, such as articles, audiovisual material, conference proceedings, dissertations, monographs, and research reports for both individual and team sports. Also indexed is literature on coaching, conditioning, officiating, and training, and additional sport- and fitness-related topics, including biomechanics, exercise physiology, exercise psychology, international sports history, sport psychology, and much more. Most sources are in English and French.

Selected Periodicals

American Track and Field  (Madison, Wisc.: Shooting Star Media, 1994– , five times yearly)

Aimed principally at high school, college, and club track and field and cross-country coaches, this professional periodical is a source of training information, new techniques, and approaches meant to improve “the performance of American athletes in the disciplines of track and field, cross country, and race walking.” An official partner with the U.S.A. Track and Field organization, American Track and Field was first published in 1994 and is issued five times yearly. Each issue profiles top athletes and coaches, reviews major world athletic events, reports on U.S. championships, and offers informative articles on related topics, including individual event training, sports nutrition, and sports psychology.

Baseball America  (Durham, N.C.: American Sports Pub., 1981– , weekly)

Perhaps the best baseball weekly in its class, this popular tabloid provides complete coverage of high school, college, and professional baseball. Highlighting each issue are expertly written articles, columns, and features covering the latest news, the top names and up-and-coming players in the game, plus statistics and scores of the most recent games. Past issues are available in microform from January 1991 through the end of the previous year.

Basketball Digest  (Evanston, Ill.: Century Pub. Co., 1973– , six times yearly)

Published six times yearly since November 1973, this entertaining tabloid provides an insider’s perspective on NBA, NCAA, and WNBA basketball, and the world of hoops in general. Every issue contains informative and timely features, player profiles, statistics, schedules, and more. The editors also publish special sections every year featuring their selections of the “NBA Player of the Year,” “All-NBA Teams,” “All-Rookie Teams,” and “All-American Teams.”

Football Digest  (Evanston, Ill.: Century Pub. Co., 1971– , eight times yearly)

From the publisher of Basketball Digest and Hockey Digest, this photo-packed magazine has since 1971 delivered comprehensive coverage of happenings in NFL and college football, including in-depth season previews, informative interviews with players and coaches, the latest news, NFL and college schedules, NFL rosters and directories, and relevant statistics on players and teams. Special issues are also devoted annually to the “NFL All-Pro” and “College All-American” teams.

Golf Digest  (Evanston, Ill.: Golf Digest, 1950– , monthly)

Published monthly since 1950, this glossy magazine provides practical advice and in-depth coverage of the game of golf for both amateur and semiprofessional golfers alike. Coverage includes “how-to” articles and lessons, feature stories, and reviews of the most recent championship opens, equipment reviews, and much more.

Hockey Digest   (Evanston, Ill.: Century Pub. Co., 1972– , six times yearly)

Since its first issue, published in November 1972, for more than 30 years this popular tabloid has provided the most extensive coverage of hockey, from the game’s top stars and Stanley Cup championships to college hockey. A wide range of articles is included in each issue, including interviews with professionals, in-depth features, and expert analysis of the latest trends and game action.

Journal of Sport History  (Radford, Va.: North American Society for Sport History, 1974– , quarterly)

A project of the Amateur Athletic Association of Los Angeles and the North American Society for Sport History, this scholarly publication offers articles in each issue devoted to the study of all aspects of sport history. Most articles and back issues of the journal are available online as PDF files from 1974 to 2001, and are fully searchable.

The NCAA News  (Shawnee Mission, Kan.: National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1900–2007, biweekly, online: 2008– )

The NCAA News is the official publication of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), a voluntary organization with members from nearly 1,200 colleges and universities, athletic conferences, and sports organizations nationwide. Published biweekly in print through 2007, this leading authority on college athletics covers the latest news regarding the business and administration of college athletics throughout the year. Beginning in January 2008, The NCAA News discontinued its print edition, becoming a daily online publication instead. To access, visit  http://www.ncaa.org/  and click on “NCAA News.”

Pro Football Weekly   (Chicago, Ill.: Pro Football Weekly, Inc., 1967– , weekly)

Devoted exclusively to pro football, this weekly tabloid newsmagazine provides complete coverage of the NFL, Canadian, Arena, and European football leagues. Each issue features award-winning columns and features, inside information, game previews, scouting analysis, investigative reporting, rosters and injury reports, and complete scores and statistics of the previous week’s action. Some content is published online and accessible at  http://www.profootballweekly.com/ .

Runner’s World  (Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press, 1970– , monthly)

First introduced nationally in 1970, this long-running monthly magazine publishes informative and helpful articles of interest to runners of all ages. Issues contain timely articles on medical and training advice, sports medicine and nutrition, shoe evaluations, profiles of running personalities, and coverage of important races and upcoming events designed to educate and inform its readers.

The Sporting News  (St. Louis, Mo.: Sporting News, 1886– , weekly)

Long known as the “bible of baseball” and “America’s sport authority,” this weekly sports publication, published since 1886, provides weekly analysis and reviews of every major sport, including baseball, basketball, football, and hockey. Every issue combines in-depth articles, team-by-team capsules, and the latest news and statistics covering American professional and college sports. The Sporting News also provides online access to archival material covering all sports through its Web page called The Vault. Included are sports histories, virtual scrapbooks of legendary sports figures, special features on sports anniversaries, and other resources. To access, visit  http://www.sportingnews.com/ .

Sports Illustrated  (New York: Time, Inc., 1954– , weekly)

Perhaps “the most recognized periodical of American sports,” this popular weekly magazine has provided coverage of American sports since 1954. Combining commentary and analysis with action-packed photography, every week articles include profiles of past and current sports legends, weekly wrap-ups of recent competitions in professional and college sports, major sport news, and primers of upcoming college and pro sport seasons. Full-text articles are also found in the library database Expanded Academic ASAP (1980– ).

Tennis  (Trumbull, Conn.: Miller Sports Group LLC, 1965– , 10 times yearly)

In print since 1965, this popular publication is a primary source of information and instruction for fans and avid tennis players of all levels of expertise. Articles cover every facet of the game with a primary emphasis on improving skill and enjoyment of the game. Contents of the most current issue are retrievable online at  http://www.tennis.com/ .

USA Today Sports Weekly  (Arlington, Va.: Gannett Co., 1991– , weekly)

Formerly known as Baseball Weekly, this newspaper-style tabloid, first published on April 11, 1991, in partnership with USA Today, provides comprehensive coverage of current sports in season. Each publication includes articles, features, commentaries, photos, statistics, and box scores of the previous week’s games. An electronic version is available by subscription. To subscribe and access, visit  http://www.usatodaysportsweekly.newsstand.com/ .

Selected Web Sites

Sports Videos, Articles, Player Biographies and More!  ( http://www.sporthaven.com/ )

Provides news and scores from all major professional sports, including the Canadian Football League (CFL), National Basketball Association (NBA), National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), National Football League (NFL), National Hockey League (NHL), Professional Golf Association (PGA), racing, tennis, and more.

American Statistics Association—Sports Data Resources  ( http://www.amstat.org/sections/sis/Sports%20Data%20Resources/ )

Comprehensive online directory provided by the American Statistics Association featuring links to Web sites for a number of sports, including baseball, basketball, football, hockey, and soccer.

CBS Sports  ( http://www.cbssports.com/ )

A free service of CBS Broadcasting, Inc., offering full-text articles, scores, columns, and a search engine for information on baseball, NFL, NBA, NHL, golf, tennis, auto racing, and other sports.

SI  ( https://www.si.com/ )

Delivers full-text articles from Sports Illustrated, plus individual sections on baseball, pro and college football, pro and college basketball, golf, hockey, motor sports, soccer, tennis, and women’s sports, and scoreboards and team pages.

ESPN SportsZone  ( http://espn.go.com/ )

Offers regularly updated full-text articles on the NFL, college football, the NHL, the NBA, college basketball, and other sports.

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80 Exciting Sports Research Topics for Winning Moments in 2023

Sports are an important part of our lives. Cricket, soccer, hockey, or rugby. Impossible to imagine a life without sports.

Sports are not just games that we play for fun or recreation. They are also a way to stay fit and healthy and develop teamwork and communication skills.

While some play sports, most watch them; plenty of academics love to do research and make them better and more fun. After offering professional writing help , we can share loads of information with you. As we see you here, it means that you are one of those researchers, too, looking for some inspiration to find your sports research topics.

Table of Contents

Sports Research Topics: Cricket, Football, Hockey, Badminton, and more

Sports research is a very broad topic; it can take time for your supervisor to find sports research paper topics. This list of sports research paper topics may help you.

This list should give you some ideas for your next project, but feel free to explore other areas too! 

Sports Research Paper Topics: Football

FIFA 2022 was one of the greatest events in human history. It is a trend, and you can follow it with our sports research paper topics.

• The evolution of football player’splayer’s development through teams and clubs
• A look at the talent hunt in football: the process that major clubs put themselves through
• The role of families and how they play in the football system is an invaluable element of it.
• The game of football is a symbol of a specific region
• The local authorities that fund football at a local level
• The basic elements and core motivations of football fans
• Models and scales of football that are different from one another
• FIFA 2022: An in-depth analysis of the  biggest upsets  in the history of the game
• The selection of young football talents to represent the Club
• Football, between symbolic resources, social integration, economic optimization, and sports performance
• Why did the African and Arab teams win the FIFA 2022 championship?
• Exercise and fatigue when there is an intermittent activity
• Developing and improving stamina to be able to play 90 minutes of a match
• Reduced level of play and playing conditions as a result
• An analysis of the footballer’sfootballer’s activity over some time
• Match goals according to the period in which the match took place
• Aspects of physical preparation in the analysis of performance factors
• The amount of time the ball was in possession and the average amount of touches it received
• The history and evolution of yellow and red cards in football: A study of the history and evolution of the rules
• An analysis of the technical-tactical activity of football players
• Analyzing a footballer’sfootballer’s physical activity based on physiology
• An overview of intermittent exercise and its different forms

Thinking about starting your research? Let’sLet’s explore  How To Write A Research Paper Fast?

Sports Research Topics: Cricket

Cricket is one of the most discussed sports research paper topics. Here are some ideas for sports research for sports science students

• History of Mankad: Is it ethical? Why or why not should it be illegal?
• Deepti Sharma Mankad controversy? What is your opinion from a cricket expert’sexpert’s perspective?
• What are Cricket, its history, and the characteristics of the cricket field
• Use a cricket pitch analysis as a tool to improve your game.
• Before a cricket match, it is important to analyze the weather conditions.
• An overview of the characteristics of cricket grounds
• Cricket’sCricket’s history from its beginnings to the present
• The history and struggles of women women’s Cricket in the world
• What are the differences between women’s Cricket and men’smen’s Cricket?
• The Mankad controversy what are your thoughts on it?
• Shoaib Akhtar was one of the fastest bowlers in Cricket. But what made him so fast? Study of a biographical nature through a biographical analysis
• What makes Australian Cricket so unbeatable? 
• What the Australians did to defeat England, one of the pioneers of Cricket? 
• In the history of Cricket, there has been a great deal of change: How do you form a thesis on the topic?
• Test cricket’scricket’s history from the beginning to the present
• An introduction to the history of one-day Cricket
• A brief history of T20 Internationals
• An interesting research study to see how Cricket has evolved in South Asia over the centuries
• A summary of the game of Cricket. 
• A brief description of Cricket’sCricket’s rules and strategies
• An analysis of the role of the empires during a cricket match
• The Third Empire and advancements in camera technology help the cricket game improve detail.
• What is the origin and etymology of the word Cricket?
• Globalization of Cricket as it relates to the game
• A brief explanation of the cricketing principle
• What are the rules of Cricket?
• A description of the cricket bat and ball that can be used for Cricket
• The cricket glossary: a complete guide to the game

Worried about your outline?  How To Write A Research Paper Outline ?

Sports Research Topics: Hockey

If you are more of a hockey fan, here are some more sports research paper topics that are all about hockey.

• Hockey’sHockey’s history from its inception to the present
• An overview of the sport of hockey in South Asia
• A case study of senior hockey culture in the United States
• Why are there so many gender prejudices in hockey when it comes to sports and masculinity
• A method of improving ice hockey speed using elastic resistance has been developed.
• The friction between the puck and the ice in ice hockey
• What are the most effective strategies for ice hockey clubs and the federation regarding ice hockey in the United States?
• Sports marketing strategies and hockey marketing strategies
• The development and progress of hockey in the United States
• An overview of the history of hockey in Pakistan
• Hockey as a derivative game: an in-depth analysis
• Role of USA Hockey  in encouraging youngsters to play ice-hockey

Curious about more research topics? Have a look at Paper Perk’sPerk’s  402 Best Research Paper Topics

Sports Research Topics: Fitness & Health

When writing on sports research paper topics, we must always pay attention to fitness and health. That is the reason we play sports, don’tdon’t we?

• Sports measurement of the projected frontal surface of the human body
• The effectiveness of two upper limb training methods in increasing lower limb explosiveness
• How can sports nutrition help heal sports injuries?
• Competitive judo performance after passive, active, and electrostimulation recovery modes
• Handball performance is improved through visual perceptual preparation and speed improvement
• Sports injuries faced by female athletes
• Regional-level footballers and speed training frequency
• Sports nutrition as a branch of sports science
• Role of sports science in avoiding and healing sports injuries
• Short-term and long-term effects of self-massage on performance and flexibility
• Physical performance following standard and potentiator warm-ups
• Extensor force at isometric knee extension is related to extensor force at maximal knee extension
• Sports nutrition for female athletes
• Insights into how running is influenced by footwear and instructions
• Developing and evaluating a sports program for type 2 diabetics
• Age-related changes in muscle strength and balance following CrossFit training
• Analyzing the kinematics of an opposition football game
• Can sports nutrition help improve sports psychology in young athletes?
• An analysis of musculotendinous stiffness among athletes of different levels and activities
• Importance of joining a sports club for young athletes
• Variations in heart rate induced by workload
• In sports, how can strength and power gains be maximized?

Also related: 264  Medical Research Topics  for The Proposal Of The Year

Sports Research Topics: Rugby

• Studies examining the effects of aerobic efforts on athletes’athletes’ rapid phase of cardiac recovery during the early phases of a game of rugby union
• What is the difference between athletic and specific aerobic intermittent training?
• Unimodal muscle strengthening results in muscle imbalances in young rugby players.

Athletic training Research Topics 

• Sports psychology in team sports to form a healthy and friendly athletic behavior
• Team sports and the importance of sports celebrities in sports marketing
• How to write a sports medicine research paper? How to evaluate the medical accuracy and maintain nutritional data
• Athletic training for extreme sports during the Olympic games
• An examination of sports psychology from a clinical perspective
• Taking part in extreme sports is one of the most extreme types of recreation that you can do
• A study of the physiology and psychology of sport during athletic training

General Sports Topics

• The sports industry as an important sector of the country’scountry’s economy
• Sports industry as more than an economic effort
• How can professional athletes make the world a better place by playing friendly sports?
• Do you think about the pros and cons of professional athletes being portrayed as sports celebrities?
• Athletes play a major role in the promotion of the Olympics
• The best way for college students to become professional athletes
• What can youth sports do to help teams find professional athletes who can make a huge difference in their teams?
• How to write an interesting sports research paper as a college athlete?
• Role of college athletes to promote sports on a town level
• What role can sports news media firms play in promoting sports events?
• Sports psychology topics related to athletics performance
• A sports competition is a great source for research on sports psychology topics
• Role of sports in physical education and sports medicine
• Research on the athletic training and psychological analysis of successful sports personalities
• A study of sports performance based on athletic training
• How can athletic training help gain more and more sports trophies?
• Essentials of athletic training of a sports person
• Sports paper on athletic training
• A sports paper on how different genders perceive sports differently

Sports are an important part of our lives. It may be possible to live without them, but that won’twon’t be a very good life. Would it? Our sports research topics will help you score the goal right into the heart of your supervisor.  If you still need assistance with your research paper, you can contact  our team of writers . We can help you with any thesis or research problem you are facing.

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• December 30, 2016

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Sports research paper topics cover a wide range of fields.  Sports  is an activity which involves physical application and skill. The sports activity may either be done by an individual or a team competing against one another. It has been known that physical activity is vital to one’s holistic development and health.

Sports is an integral part of everyday life. It  helps build rapports with strangers and communities  besides reinforcing inequalities. This is often because sports events are graced by all classes of fans from the high and mighty to the average sports fan.

If you are taking a sports related course, here are topics you might want to craft a research paper on

A list of 50 Sports  Research Paper Topics 

• What are the ramification of use of steroids and drugs in sports.
• Life long benefits of child sports.
• Does youth sports play a part in character formation?
• How has sports evolved with technological advances?
• Does European football differ from American football?
• Is bubble football entertainment or a sport?
• How can sports injuries be prevented in rugby?
• What challenges do sports nutritionist face with the athletes?
• Should women sports get more coverage than the male sports?
• Does an athlete need  a sports manager?
• What are the attributes of a high school coach?
• What proper measures can be taken to avoid sudden death in athletes during a game?
• Are college football players receiving quality education? Or are they spending more time in the field?
• Should cross gender coaching be encouraged?
• Discuss gender stratification through study of  sports.
• Research on the history of ancient sports.
• What is the impact of sports role models to the youth?
• Discuss natural grass versus artificial turf on playing fields.
• Discuss the sociological aspect of money and sportsmen.
• The development and history of golf
• Does corruption in FIFA have an impact on football fans?
• What is the whole host of problems that come as a prize of fame in sports?
• Many superstars have insured their body parts. Do you see this as ethical?
• Does being athletic improve your intelligence?
• Discuss sports law and functions of a sports lawyer.
• Should sports academies be in every county?
• Athletes and protein how much is enough?
• How do anti inflammatory drugs work? Are they considered drugs?
• Discuss the role of lactic acid in an athlete’s performance.
• When does topical pain relievers become unsafe for an athlete?
• Can mental rehearsal and visualisation improve performance before competition?
• Can sports hypnosis improve healing on an injury?
• What is the role of a sports psychologist?
• Sports betting and its negative impact on the society.
• Are sports drinks that safe?
• Explore sports journalism.
• Discuss the life and personality of Dennis Rodman.
• Should sports betting be banned.
• Are women athletes prone to injuries than men?
• Is there a  correlation between aggression and hockey players?
• What can be done to avoid shoulder related sports injuries?
• Golf and social class. Is there a barrier for participation?
• Muslim women and sports.
• The role of media in promoting sports world wide.
• Discuss sports and nationalism.
• Discuss the development of sports for the disabled in your country.
• Discuss tips to avoid performance anxiety before a big game.
• Should women lift weights?
• Is the result of the Bruce Protocol effective on flexibility of a sports person?
• Can you do too much weight training?

How to Write an Interesting Research Sports Essay

Like any other research paper a sports research should start with a;

Strong Topic Always narrow down your category and pinpoint a specific issue. Instead of writing about Cricket as a sport, you may narrow down to a specific “ use of ergogenics in cricket”. This brings the focus of your audience to easily navigate the paper and understand it.

State your thesis this is the statement that states the writer’s main idea for the essay., outline your essay your essay should have an introduction, body and a conclusion., first draft  ensure the topic of each paragraph in the body of the essay directly relates to the thesis statement.  avoid straying from the topic so as not to lose your reader., second draft read through for any grammatical errors, stray in topic,and accurately cite., checklist for your second draft.

• Is my thesis statement clear with strong supporting argument?
• Did I miss anything on the outline?
• Is the flow of the essay logical?
• Are all sources cited properly to avoid plagiarized work?
• Are my points and intentions clear?

Final Draft A clean copy which has been proofread  and ready to be submitted.

Due to high demand, were are offering “write my sports research paper” services, check more details on how you can buy a paper   here   .

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STEP 1: Understand your research objective

Before you start developing your research question, think about your research objectives:

• What are you trying to do? (compare, analyse)
• What do you need to know about the topic?
• What type of research are you doing?
• What types of information/studies do you need? (e.g. randomised controlled trial, case study, guideline, protocol?)
• Does the information need to be current?

Watch the following video (6:26) to get you started:

Key points from the video

• All good academic research starts with a research question.
• A research question is an actual question you want to answer about a particular topic.
• Developing a question helps you focus on an aspect of your topic, which will streamline your research and writing.
• Pick a topic you are interested in.
• Narrow the topic to a particular aspect.
• Brainstorm some questions around your topic aspect.
• Select a question to work with.
• Focus the question by making it more specific. Make sure your question clearly states who, what, when, where, and why.
• A good research question focuses on one issue only and requires analysis.
• Your search for information should be directed by your research question.
• Your thesis or hypothesis should be a direct answer to your research question, summarised into one sentence.

STEP 2: Search before you research

The benefits of doing a background search :

• You can gather more background knowledge on a subject
• explore different aspects of your topic
• identify additional keywords and terminology

STEP 3: Choose a topic

The resources linked below are a good place to start: 

• UpToDate It covers thousands of clinical topics grouped into specialties with links to articles, drugs and drug interaction databases, medical calculators and guidelines.
• An@tomedia This online anatomy resource features images, videos, and slides together with interactive, educational text and quiz questions.
• Anatomy.tv Find 3D anatomical images; functional anatomy animations and videos, and MRI, anatomy, and clinical slides. Test your knowledge through interactive activities and quizzes.

STEP 4: Brainstorm your questions

Now you have explored different aspects of your topic, you may construct more focused questions (you can create a few questions and pick one later).

Learn more: 

• Clear and present questions: formulating questions for evidence based practice (Booth 2006) This article provides an overview of thinking in relation to the theory and practice of formulating answerable research questions.

STEP 5: Pick a question and focus

Once you have a few questions to choose from, pick one and refine it even further.

Are you required to use "PICO"?

• PICO worksheet
• Other frameworks

The PICO framework (or other variations) can be useful for developing an answerable clinical question. 

The example question used in this guide is a PICO question:   How does speech therapy compare to cognitive behavioural therapy in improving speech fluency in adolescents?

Use the interactive PICO worksheet to get started with your question, or you can download the worksheet document.

• Building your question with PICO

Here are some different frameworks you may want to use:

There are a number of PICO variations which can be used for different types of questions, such as qualitative, and background and foreground questions. Visit the Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) Guide to learn more:

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Good Scientific Practice and Ethics in Sports and Exercise Science: A Brief and Comprehensive Hands-on Appraisal for Sports Research

Nitin kumar arora.

1 Department of Intervention Research in Exercise Training, German Sport University Cologne, 50933 Cologne, Germany

2 Department of Physiotherapy, University of Applied Sciences, 44801 Bochum, Germany

Golo Roehrken

Sarah crumbach.

3 Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management, German Sport University Cologne, 50933 Cologne, Germany

Ashwin Phatak

4 Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, 50933 Cologne, Germany

Berit K. Labott

5 Institute of Sport Sciences, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany

André Nicklas

Pamela wicker.

6 Department of Sports Science, Bielefeld University, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany

Lars Donath

Associated data.

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Sports and exercise training research is constantly evolving to maintain, improve, or regain psychophysical, social, and emotional performance. Exercise training research requires a balance between the benefits and the potential risks. There is an inherent risk of scientific misconduct and adverse events in most sports; however, there is a need to minimize it. We aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the clinical and ethical challenges in sports and exercise research. We also enlist solutions to improve method design in clinical trials and provide checklists to minimize the chances of scientific misconduct. At the outset, historical milestones of exercise science literature are summarized. It is followed by details about the currently available regulations that help to reduce the risk of violating good scientific practices. We also outline the unique characteristics of sports-related research with a narrative of the major differences between sports and drug-based trials. An emphasis is then placed on the importance of well-designed studies to improve the interpretability of results and generalizability of the findings. This review finally suggests that sports researchers should comply with the available guidelines to improve the planning and conduct of future research thereby reducing the risk of harm to research participants. The authors suggest creating an oath to prevent malpractice, thereby improving the knowledge standards in sports research. This will also aid in deriving more meaningful implications for future research based on high-quality, ethically sound evidence.

1. Introduction

Historical milestones of ethical and scientific misconduct in research.

Until the early 19th century, ‘truth’ was fundamentally influenced by cults, religion, and monarchism [ 1 ]. With the ‘enlightenment’ of academicians, clinicians and researchers in the 19th century [ 2 ], scientific research started to impact the lives of people by providing balanced facts, figures and uncertainties, thereby leading to a better explanation for reality (i.e., evidence vs. eminence). However, dualistic thinking was still interfering with the newer rationalized approach as the estimation of reality by scientific estimation was still being challenged by the dogmatic view of real truth [ 3 ].

Over the last decades, researchers underestimated the importance of good ethical conduct [ 4 ] in human research by misinterpreting the probabilistic nature of scientific reasoning. Scientific research had constantly been exploited for personal reputations, political power, and terror [ 3 ]. The ‘Eugenics program’ originating from the Nazi ideology is an unsettling example of ethical failure and scientific collapse. As part of this program, scientific research was being exploited to justify unwanted sterilization (0.5 million) [ 5 ] and mass-killing (0.25 million) [ 6 ] for the sake of selection and elimination of ‘unfit genetic material’. In 1955, more than 200,000 children were infected with a Polio vaccine that was not appropriately handled as per the recommended routines [ 7 ]. Likewise, the thalidomide disaster of 1962 led to limb deformities and teratogenesis in more than ten thousand newborn children [ 8 ]. Considering the aforementioned unethical practices and misconduct, there is a strong need to comply with and re-emphasize the importance of ethics and good scientific practice in humans and other species alike.

In the process of evolution of scientific research, the Nuremberg code laid the foundation for developing ethical biomedical research principles (e.g., the importance of ‘voluntary and informed consent’) [ 9 ]. Based on the Nuremberg code and the previously available medical literature, the first ethical principles (i.e., Declaration of Helsinki) were put into practice for safe human experimentation by the World Medical Association in 1964. This declaration proved to be a cornerstone of medical research involving humans and emphasized on considering the health of the patients as the topmost priority [ 10 ]. The year 1979 could also be seen as an important milestone, as the ‘Belmont report’ was introduced that supported the idea: ‘the interventions and drugs have to eventually show beneficial effects’. The Belmont report suggests that the recruitment, selection and treatment of participants needs to be equitable. It also highlights the importance of providing a valid rationale for testing procedures to prevent and minimize the risks or harms to the included participants [ 11 ].

As a result of the introduction of ethical principles, it became evident that research designs and results should be independent of political influence and reputational gains. There should also be no undeclared conflicts of interest [ 12 ]. Interestingly, sports and exercise science emerged as politically meaningful instruments for showing power during the Cold War (i.e., Eastern socialism versus Western capitalism) [ 13 ]. Researchers were either being manipulated or sometimes not even published to reduce awareness about the negative effects of performance-enhancing substances [ 14 , 15 ]. Even though these malpractices were strictly against the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki [ 14 ], these were prevalent globally, thereby contributing to several incidents of doping in sports [ 16 ]. To further minimize unethical research practices, the Good Clinical Practice (GCP) Standards were presented in 1997 to guide the design of clinical trials and formulation of valid research questions [ 17 ]. However, some authors criticise the Good Clinical Practice standards as not being morally sufficient to rule out personal conflicts of interest when compared to the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki [ 18 ].

Nowadays, professional development and scientific reputation in the research community are related to an increase in the number of publications in high-ranked journals. However, the increasing number of publications gives very little information about the scientific quality of the employed methods, as some of the published papers either contain manipulated results [ 19 ] or methods that could not be replicated [ 12 ]. Moral and ethical standards are widely followed by sports researchers as evidenced by the applied methods that are mostly safe, justified, valuable, reliable and ethically approved. However, the ethical approval procedures, the dose and the application of exercise training vary greatly between studies and institutions. The review by Kruk et al., 2013 [ 20 ] provides a balanced summary of the various principles based on the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki. GCP standards of blinding (subjects and outcome assessors), randomization, and selection are not consistently considered and are sometimes difficult to follow due to limited financial and organizational resources. There is a prevalent trend in the publication of positive results in the scientific community, as negative results often fail to pass editorial review [ 21 ]. Additionally, certain unethical research practices have been observed, such as the multiple publication of data from a single trial (referred to as “data slicing”), the submission of duplicate findings to multiple journals, and instances of plagiarism [ 22 ]. These limitations negatively affect the power, validity, interpretability and applicability of the available evidence for future research in sports and exercise science. Previous research showed that, if used systematically, lifestyle change and exercise interventions can prove to be one of the most efficient strategies for obtaining positive health outcomes [ 23 ] and longevity [ 24 ]. Hence, the present article recommends avoiding malpractices and using the underlying ethical standards to balance risks and benefits along with preventing data manipulation and portrayal of false-positive results.

2. Codes of Conduct in Sport Research

All the available codes, declarations, statements, and guidelines aim at providing frameworks for conducting ethical research across disciplines. These frameworks generally cover the regulative, punitive, and educational aspects of research. Codes of ethical conduct not only outline the rules and recommendations for conducting research but also outline punishments in case of non-compliance or misconduct. Hence, these ethical codes and guidelines should be considered the most important educational keystones for researchers as these frameworks allow scientists to design and conduct their studies in a better way. Declarations and guidelines are regularly updated to accommodate newer information and corrections. Thus, one also needs to be flexible when using these guidelines as these reflect ongoing scientific and societal development.

Codes and declarations in sport and exercise science regulate both quantitative and qualitative research and include information about human and animal rights, research design and integrity, authorship and plagiarism. We will categorize these guidelines based on the individuals whom guidelines aim to protect (e.g., participants or researchers).

Legal codes and norms of a country are inherently binding to the researchers and institutions who are conducting the research and do not require ratification from the researching individual or organization. These laws can include data storage, child protection, intellectual property rights, or medical regulations applicable to a specific study. However, ethics codes not only cater to the questions of legality but also include moral parameters of research like conducting ‘true’ research. Likewise, if the codes are drafted by a research organization, everyone conducting research for this particular organization is supposed to follow these codes.

Researchers have the responsibility to assess which codes, and standards are relevant to their field of research depending on the country, participants, and research institution ( Table 1 ). This can be confirmed by the academic supervisors or the scientific ethics board of the research institution. While there is a growing number of codes and guidelines for different research fields, it is important to consider that none of these can cater to the needs of every single research design alone. For example, the Code of Ethics of the American Sociological Association (ASA) states: “Most of the Ethical Standards are written broadly in order to apply to sociologists in varied roles, and the application of an Ethical Standard may vary depending on the context” [ 25 ]. Hence, as ethical standards are not exhaustive, scientific conduct that is not specifically addressed by this Code of Ethics is not necessarily ethical or unethical [ 25 ].

Detailed overview of Codes, Declarations, Statements and Guidelines relevant for sports and exercise science research.

It is crucial to recognize the purpose of an ethics code rather than just following it for ticking boxes. Understanding the aims and limitations of an ethics code will allow for a more meaningful application of the underlying principles to the specific context without ignoring the potential limitations of a study. Unintentional transgressions can occur through subconscious bias, fallacies, or human errors. However, the unintentional errors can be mitigated by following the streamlined process of research conception, method development and study conduct following approval from the Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), Ethical Research Commissions (ERCs), supervisors, and peers. In case of intentional errors, the punitive aspect needs to come into action and the transgressors might need to be investigated and sanctioned, either by the research organizations or by law.

3. Differences between Drug and Exercise Trials

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are regarded as the highest level of evidence [ 26 , 27 ]. For both the cases (exercise vs. drug studies), RCTs primarily aim at investigating the dose-response relationships and obtaining causal relationships [ 28 ]. Drug trials compare one drug to other alternatives (e.g., another drug, a placebo, or a treatment as usual). Likewise, exercise trials often compare one mode of exercise to another exercise or no exercise interventions (e.g., usual care, waitlist control, true control, etc.), ideally under caloric, workload or time-matched conditions. However, placebo or sham trials are still rare in sports and exercise research due to their challenging nature [ 29 ]. The following quality requirements should be fulfilled for conducting high-quality exercise trials: (a) ensure blinding of assessors, participants and researchers; (b) placebo/sham intervention (if possible), and (c) adequate randomization and concealed allocation.

3.1. Blinding

The term ‘blinding’ (or ‘masking’) involves keeping several involved key persons unaware of the group allocation, the treatment, or the hypothesis of a clinical trial [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. The term blinding and also the types of blinding (single, double, or triple blind) are being increasingly used and accepted by researchers but there is a lack of clarity and consistency in the interpretation of those terms [ 33 , 35 , 36 ]. Blinding should be conducted for participants, health care providers, coaches, outcome assessors, data analysts, etc. [ 31 , 33 , 34 , 37 ]. The blinding process helps in preventing bias due to differential treatment perceptions and expectations of the involved groups [ 28 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 38 , 39 , 40 ].

Previous research has shown that trials with inadequately reported methods [ 41 ] and non-blinded assessors [ 42 ] or participants [ 43 ] tend to overestimate the effects of intervention. Hence, blinding serves as an important prerequisite for controlling the methodological quality of a clinical trial, thereby reducing bias in assessed outcomes. Owing to this reason, most of the current methodological quality assessment tools and reporting checklists have dedicated sections for ‘blinding’. For example, three out of eleven items are meant for assessing ‘blinding’ in the PEDro scale [ 44 ]; the CONSORT checklist for improving the reporting of RCTs also includes a section on ‘blinding’ [ 45 ]. In an ideal trial, all participants involved in the study should be ‘blinded’ [ 30 ]. However, choosing whom to ‘blind’ also depends on and varies with the research question, study design and the research field under consideration. In the case of exercise trials, blinding is either not adequately done or poorly reported [ 36 , 46 ]. The lack of reporting might be the result of a lack of awareness of the blinding procedures rather than the poor methodological conduct of the trial itself [ 34 ]. Hence, blinding is not sufficiently addressed in exercise, medicine and psychology trials [ 47 , 48 ] due to lacking knowledge, awareness and guidance in these scientific fields leading to an increased risk of bias [ 48 ].

Blinding of participants is difficult to achieve and maintain [ 34 , 39 , 40 , 49 ] in exercise trials as the participants would usually be aware of whether they are in the exercise group or the control (inactive) group [ 31 , 39 , 50 ]. Likewise, the therapists are also generally aware of the interventions they are delivering [ 51 ], and the assessors are aware of the group allocation because it is common in sports sciences that researchers are involved in different parts of research (recruiting, assessment, allocation, training, data handling analysis) due to limited financial resources. Thus, the adequacy of blinding is usually not assessed as it is often seen as ’impossible’ in exercise trials.

Consequently, we strongly recommend using independent staff for testing, training, control and supervision to improve possibilities of blinding of the individuals involved in the study [ 39 ]. Researcher also need to decide if it is methodologically feasible and ethically acceptable to withhold the information about the hypothesis and the study aims [ 52 ] from assessors and participants. This needs to be considered, addressed and justified before the trial commences (i.e., a priori). While reporting methods of exercise trials, it is important not only to describe who was blinded but also to elaborate the methods used for blinding [ 33 , 48 ]. This helps the readers and research community to effectively evaluate the level of blinding in the trial under consideration [ 33 , 53 ]. Furthermore, if blinding was carried out, the authors can also include the assessment of success of the blinding procedure [ 33 , 54 ]. Readers can access more information about the various possibilities for blinding using the following link ( http://links.lww.com/PHM/A246 accessed on 10 October 2022) [ 36 ].

3.2. “Placebo” (or Sham Intervention)

‘Placebo’ is an important research instrument used in pharmacology trials to demonstrate the true efficacy of a drug by minimizing therapy expectations of the participants [ 55 ]. As the term placebo is generally used in a broad manner, precise definitions are difficult. Placebo is used as a control therapy in clinical trials owing to their comparable appearance to the ‘real’ treatment without the specific therapeutic activity [ 56 ]. In an ideal research experiment, it would not be possible to differentiate between a placebo and an intervention treatment [ 57 , 58 ]. The participants should not be aware of the treatment group either, because it can lead to the knowledge of whether they received a placebo or the investigated drug [ 57 ]. A review of clinical trials comparing ‘no treatment’ to a ‘placebo treatment’ concluded that the placebo treatment had no significant additional effects overall but may produce relevant clinical effects on an individual level [ 59 ]. As outlined previously, the placebo effect is rarely investigated in sports and exercise studies. It is generally investigated using nutritional supplements, ergonomic aids, or various forms of therapy in the few existing studies [ 60 ]. Placebos have been shown to have a favorable effect on sports performance research [ 61 ], implying that these could be used for improving performance without using any additional performance-enhancing drugs [ 62 ].

However, it is quite difficult to have an adequate placebo in exercise intervention studies, as there is currently no standard placebo for structured exercise training [ 28 ]. For exercise training interventions, a placebo condition is defined as “an intervention that was not generally recognized as efficacious, that lacked adequate evidence for efficacy, and that has no direct pharmacological, biochemical, or physical mechanism of action according to the current standard of knowledge” [ 63 ]. As a result, using a placebo in exercise interventions is often seen as impractical and inefficient [ 57 , 58 ]. As the concept of blinding is also linked to the use of a placebo, it is usually difficult to implement in exercise trials.

When it comes to exercise experiments, an active control group is considered to be more effective than a placebo group [ 10 , 28 ]. In other cases, usual care or standard care can also be used as the control intervention [ 28 ]. In exercise trials, instead of using the term ‘placebo treatment’, the terms “placebo-like treatment” or “sham interventions” should be applied [ 64 , 65 ]. Previous recommendations by other researchers [ 61 ] also underpin our rationale.

3.3. Randomization and Allocation Concealment

Group allocation in a research study should be randomized and concealed by an independent researcher to minimize selection bias [ 66 ]. Randomization procedures ensure that the differences in treatment outcomes solely occur by chance [ 28 , 67 ]. Several methods for randomization are available; however, methods such as stratified randomization are being increasingly popular as they ensure equal distribution of participants to the different groups based on several important characteristics [ 66 ]. Other types of randomization, such as cluster randomization, may be appropriate when investigating larger groups, for example, in multicenter trials [ 28 ].

Since researchers are frequently involved in all phases of a trial (recruitment, allocation, assessment and data processing), randomization should usually be conducted by someone who is not familiar with the project’s aims and hypotheses. In studies with a large number of participants, the interaction between subjects and assessors can significantly impact the results [ 68 ]. The randomization procedure used in the clinical trial should be presented in scientific articles and project reports so that readers can understand and replicate the process if needed [ 66 ]. Based on the aforementioned aspects, exercise trials are not easily comparable to drug trials and the differences lead to difficulties in conducting scientifically conceptualized exercise trials. However, researchers should strive for quality research by using robust methods and providing detailed information on blinding, randomization, choice of control groups, or sham therapies, as appropriate. Researchers should critically evaluate the risk-benefit ratio of exercise so that the positive impacts of exercise on health can be derived and the cardiovascular risks associated with exercise could be minimized [ 69 ].

4. Key Elements of an Ethical Approval in Exercise Science

As previously described, ethical guidelines are needed to protect study participants from potential study risks and increase the chances of attaining results that ease interpretation. Therefore, a prospective ethical approval process is required prior to the recruitment of the participants [ 70 ]. This practice equally benefits the participants by safeguarding them against potential risks and the practitioners who base their clinical decisions on research results. Research results from a study with a strong methodology will enable informed and evidence-based decision making. If the methodology of a research project contains some major flaws, it will negatively affect the practical applicability of the observed results [ 71 ]. Various journal reviewers provide suggestions to reject manuscripts without any option to resubmit if no ethical approval information is provided. This demonstrates the importance of ethical approval and proper scientific conduct in research [ 70 ].

The following key elements need to be addressed in an ethical review proposal: Introduction, method, participant protection, and appendix. These key elements should be detailed in a proposal with at least three crucial characteristics addressed in each section ( Figure 1 ). This hands-on framework would help to expedite the process of decision-making for members of the ethics committee [ 72 ].

Overview 4 × 3 short list for outlining ethical approval in sport and exercise science.

The ‘introduction’ section should start with a general overview of the current state of research [ 4 ]. Researchers need to describe the rationale of the proposed study in an easy and comprehensible language considering the current state of knowledge on that topic [ 4 ]. The description helps to provide a balanced summary of the risks and benefits associated with the interventions in the proposed study. The novelty of the stated research question and the underlying hypothesis must be justified. If the proposed study fails to expand the current literature on the topic under consideration, conducting the study would be a ‘waste’ of time and financial resources for researchers, participants, and funding agencies [ 73 ]. Hence, ethical approvals should not be given for research projects that fail to provide novelty in the approach to the respective research area. The introduction should also include information on funding sources including the name of the funding partner, duration of monetary/resource support, and any potential conflicts of interest. If no funding is available, authors should declare that ‘This study received no funding’ [ 70 ].

The subsequent ‘methods’ section should include detailed information about the temporal and structural aspects of the study design. Researchers should justify the used study design in a detailed manner [ 4 , 28 ]. Multiple research designs can be utilized for addressing a specific research question, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and single-case trial designs [ 74 , 75 ]. However, a valid rationale should be provided for choosing a randomized cross-over trial design when the gold standard of randomized control trials is also feasible. Readers are advised to refer to the framework laid down by Hecksteden et al., 2018, for extensive information on this section [ 28 ]. Researchers should also provide a broad, global and up-to-date literature-based justification for their interventions or methods employed in the study. For instance, if the participants are asked to consume supplements, the recommendations for the dose needs to be explained based on prior high-quality studies and reviews for that supplement [ 4 ]. The criteria for subject selection (inclusion and exclusion criteria) and sample size estimation need to be explained in detail to allow replication of the study in the future [ 76 ]. Lacking sample size estimations is only acceptable in rare cases and requires detailed explanations (e.g., pilot trials, exploratory trials to formulate a hypothesis, acceptability trials). Moreover, sufficient details should be provided for the measuring devices used in the study and a sound rationale should be provided for the choice of that particular measuring device and the measured parameters [ 4 ].

The section on ‘participant protection’ deals with potential risks (physical and psychological adverse outcomes) and benefits to the participants. The focus should be adjusted to the study population under consideration. For example, while conducting a study on a novel weight training protocol with elite athletes, all information and possible effects on the athletes’ performance need to be considered, as their performance level is their ‘human capital’ [ 4 ]. The investigators also need to provide information on the individuals responsible for different parts of the study, i.e., treatment provider, outcome assessor, statistician, etc. In some cases, externally qualified personnel are needed during the examination process. For example, a physician might be needed for blood sampling or biopsies and this person should also be familiar with the regulations and procedures to avoid risk to the participants due to a lack of experience in this area. Prior experience and qualifications are required for conducting research with vulnerable groups, such as children, the elderly and pregnant females. Williams et al. (2011) summarized essential aspects of conducting research studies with younger participants [ 77 ]. Overall, the personnel should be blinded to the details of the group allocation and participants, if possible [ 30 ]. The study applicants also need to provide information about the planned compensation and the follow-up interventions. Harriss and colleagues suggested that the investigators are not expected to offer the treatments in case of injury to the participants during the study (except first aid) [ 70 ]. However, this recommendation is not usually documented and translated into research practice.

The ‘appendix’ section should contain relevant details about the following: consent, information to the participants and a declaration of pre-registration. The information to the participant and the consent forms need to be documented in an easy to understand language. A brief summary of the purpose of the study and the tasks to be performed by the participants should also be added. Then, a concise but comprehensive overview of the potential risks and benefits is needed. The next section should include information for participants: the participants’ right to decline participation without any consequence and the right to withdraw their consent at any time without any explanation. The regulations for the storage, sharing and retention of study data need to be detailed [ 70 ]. The names and institutional affiliations of all the researchers along with the contact information of the project manager should be listed. A brief overview of the study’s aim, tasks, methods and data acquisition strategies should be described. Finally, consent is needed for processing the recorded personal data [ 70 ]. The last section of the ‘appendix’ must include a declaration of pre-registration (e.g., registration in the Open Science Framework or trial registries) to avoid alterations in the procedure afterward and facilitate replication of study methods [ 78 ].

5. Study Design and Analysis Models

The process of conceptualizing an exercise trial might involve various pitfalls at every stage (hypothesis formulation, study design, methodology, data acquisition, data processing, statistical analysis, presentation and interpretation of results, etc.). Thus, the entire ‘design package’ needs to be considered when constructing an exercise (training) trial [ 28 ]. Formulation of an adequate and justified research question is the essential aspect before starting any research study. Formulating a good research question is pivotal to achieve adequate study quality [ 79 ]. According to Banerjee et al., 2009 [ 80 ], “a strong hypothesis serves the purpose of answering major part of the research question even before the study starts”. As outlined in previous sections, ethical research aspects must be taken into account while framing the research question to protect the privacy and reduce risks to the participants. The confidentiality of data should be ascertained and the participants should be free to withdraw from the study at any time. The authors should also avoid deceptive research practices [ 79 ].

Hecksteden et al., 2018, suggested that RCTs can be regarded as the gold standard for investigating the causal relationships in exercise trials [ 28 ]. However, it is sometimes not feasible to conduct RCTs in the field of sports science due to logistical issues, such as smaller sample sizes and blinding the location of the study (e.g., schools, colleges, clinics, etc.). In this case, alternative study designs such as cluster-RCTs, randomized crossover trials, N-of-1 trials, uncontrolled/non-randomized trials, and prospective cohort studies can be considered [ 81 ]. Considering the complex nature of exercise interventions, the Consensus on Exercise Reporting Template (CERT) has been developed to supplement the reporting and documentation of randomized exercise trials [ 81 ]. Adherence to these templates might help to improve the ethical proposal reporting standards when designing new RCTs.

A recent comment, in the journal ‘Nature’, highlights the importance of using the right statistical test and properly interpreting the results. According to the paper, the results of 51 percent of articles published in five peer-reviewed journals were misinterpreted [ 82 ]. Frequentist statistics and p -values are popular summaries of experimental results but there is a scope for misinterpretation due to the lack of supplementary information with these statistics. For instance, authors tend to draw inferences about the results of a study based on certain ‘ threshold p-values ’ (generally p < 0.05) [ 83 ]. However, with an increase in sample size, the p -value tends to come closer to zero regardless of the effect size of the intervention [ 83 ]. With the rise of larger datasets and thus potentially higher sample sizes, the p -value threshold becomes questionable. A call for action has recently been raised by more than 800 signatories to retire statistical significance and to stop categorizing results as being statistically significant or non-significant. Recently, researchers suggested using confidence intervals for improving the interpretation of study results [ 82 ]. Although alternative methods such as magnitude-based inference (MBI) exists, there is scarce evidence that MBI has checked the use of p -value and hypothesis testing by sports researchers [ 84 ]. MBI tends to reduce the type II error rate but it increases the type I error rate by about two to six times the rate of standard hypothesis testing [ 85 ]. In the next paragraphs, we focus on the commonly used practices within the frequentist statistics domain.

Frequentist statistical tests are categorized into parametric and non-parametric tests. Non-parametric tests do not require the data to be normally distributed, whereas parametric tests do [ 86 ]. The following factors help in deciding the appropriate statistical test: (a) type of dependent and independent variables (continuous, discrete, or ordinal); (b) type of distribution, if the groups are independent or matched; (c) levels of observations; and (d) time dependence. Readers can choose the right statistical tests based on the type of research data they are planning to use [ 87 , 88 ]. A recent publication outlined 25 common misinterpretations concerning p -values, confidence intervals, power calculations and key considerations while interpreting frequentist statistics [ 89 ]. We recommend sports researchers consider the listed warnings while interpreting the results of statistical tests.

Out of the various frequentist statistical methods, analysis of variances (ANOVA) is one of the most widely used tests to analyze the results of RCTs. It does not, however, provide an estimate of the difference between groups, which is usually the most important aspect of an RCT [ 90 ]. Linear models (e.g., t -tests) suffer from similar issues when analyzing categorical variables, which are a wider part of RCT analysis [ 91 ]. Type I errors (false positive, rejecting a null hypothesis that is correct) and Type II errors (false negative, failure to reject a false null hypothesis) are often discussed while interpreting RCT results [ 80 ]. Though it is not possible to completely eliminate these errors, there are ways to minimize their likelihood and report the statistics appropriately. The most commonly used methods for minimizing error rates include the following: (a) increasing the sample size; (b) adjusting for covariates and baseline differences [ 92 ]; (c) eliminating significance testing; and (d) reporting a confusion matrix [ 80 , 86 , 93 ].

Mixed logit models are potential solutions for some of the challenges listed above. They combine the advantages of random effects logistic regression analysis with the benefits of regression models [ 94 ]. In addition, mixed logit models, as part of the larger framework of generalized linear mixed models, provide a viable alternative for analyzing a wide range of outcomes. For increasing the transparency and interpretability of the observed results, mixed logit classification algorithms and evaluation matrices such as cross validation and presentation of a confusion matrix (type I and type II error rates) can be utilized [ 86 ]. Mixed logit models can also be utilized as predictive models rather just ‘inference testing’ models.

6. Limitations

Despite extensive efforts to incorporate empirical and current evidence regarding good scientific practice and ethics into this paper, it is possible that some literature may have been omitted. Nonetheless, the paper comprehensively covers key aspects of prevalent ethical misconducts and the standards that should be upheld to prevent such practices. As a result, readers can have confidence in the literature presented, which is based on a substantial body of existing evidence. Readers are also encouraged to engage in critical evaluation and to consider new approaches that could improve the overall scientific literature.

7. Conclusions

We highlighted the various pitfalls and misconduct that can take place in sports and exercise research. Individual researchers associated with a research organization need to comply with the highest available standards. They need to maintain an intact ‘moral compass’ that is unaffected by expectations and environmental constraints thereby reducing the likelihood of unethical behavior for the sake of publication quantity, interpretability, applicability and societal trust in evidence-based decision-making. To achieve these objectives, a Health and Exercise Research Oath (HERO) could be developed that minimizes the allurement to cheat and could be used by PhD candidates, senior researchers, and professors. Such an oath would prevent intentional or unintentional malpractices in sport and exercise research, thereby strengthening the knowledge standards based on ethical exercise science research. Overall, this will also improve the applicability and interpretability of research outcomes.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the financial support of the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the Open Access Publication Fund of Bielefeld University for the article processing charge.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; methodology, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; resources, P.W. and L.D.; data curation, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; writing—original draft preparation, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; writing—review and editing, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; visualization, N.K.A., G.R., S.C., A.P., B.K.L., A.N., P.W. and L.D.; supervision, P.W. and L.D.; project administration, L.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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The joy of sports: How watching sports can boost well-being

Researchers explore in depth the positive psychological and neurophysiological benefits of watching sports.

For many individuals, sports have long served as a source of enjoyment and relaxation. Watching sports, particularly at large gatherings, goes beyond entertainment. It fosters a sense of community and belonging among audiences. This sense of connection not only makes individuals feel good but also benefits society by improving health, enhancing productivity, and reducing crime. Although it is popularly recognized for its positive effects, existing studies on the relationship between watching sports and well-being offer only limited evidence.

Recognizing this gap, a team of researchers led by Associate Professor Shintaro Sato from the Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Japan, embarked on a groundbreaking study. Prof. Sato, alongside Assistant Professor Keita Kinoshita from Nanyang Technological University and Dr. Kento Nakagawa from the Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, used a multi-method approach, combining secondary data analysis, self-reports, and neuroimaging measures to understand the connection between sports viewing and well-being in the general population. "A significant challenge in well-being research is the subjective nature of measurement procedures, potentially leading to biased findings. Therefore, our studies focused on both subjective and objective measures of well-being," explains Prof. Sato. Their research was published online on 22 March 2024 in Sports Management Review .

In the first study, the researchers analyzed large-scale publicly available data on the influence of watching sports on 20,000 Japanese residents. The results of this study confirmed the ongoing pattern of elevated reported well-being associated with regular sports viewing. However, this study was limited by its inability to provide deeper insight into the relationship between sports consumption and well-being.

The second study, an online survey aimed at investigating whether the connection between sports viewing and well-being varied depending on the type of sport observed, involved 208 participants. The experiment exposed them to various sports videos, assessing their well-being both before and after viewing. The findings underscored that widely embraced sports, like baseball, exerted a more significant impact on enhancing well-being compared to less popular sports, such as golf.

However, the most groundbreaking aspect of this research emerged in the third study. Here, the team employed neuroimaging techniques to scrutinize alterations in brain activity following sports viewing. Utilizing multimodal MRI neuroimaging measurement procedures, the brain activity of fourteen able-bodied Japanese participants was analyzed while they watched sports clips. The results of this investigation illuminated that, sports viewing triggered activation in the brain's reward circuits, indicative of feelings of happiness or pleasure. Additionally, a noteworthy finding surfaced in the structural image analysis. It revealed that individuals who reported watching sports more frequently exhibited greater gray matter volume in regions associated with reward circuits, suggesting that regular sports viewing may gradually induce changes in brain structures. "Both subjective and objective measures of well-being were found to be positively influenced by engaging in sports viewing. By inducing structural changes in the brain's reward system over time, it fosters long-term benefits for individuals. For those seeking to enhance their overall well-being, regularly watching sports, particularly popular ones such as baseball or soccer, can serve as an effective remedy," comments Prof. Sato.

The study has profound implications and theoretical contributions to sports management literature. Existing literature has primarily focused on sports fans; however, this study has taken into consideration a larger general population irrespective of their relationship to sports consumption. This research can contribute significantly to sports management practices and policymaking for public health.

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By a wide margin, Americans say football – not baseball – is ‘America’s sport’

Baseball is known as “America’s favorite pastime.” But for the largest share of the U.S. public, football is “America’s sport,” according to a recent Pew Research Center survey.

In August 2023, we asked nearly 12,000 U.S. adults the following question: “If you had to choose one sport as being ‘America’s sport,’ even if you don’t personally follow it, which sport would it be?” The question was part of a broader survey about sports fandom in the United States .

More than half of Americans (53%) say America’s sport is football – about twice the share who say it’s baseball (27%). Much smaller shares choose one of the other four sports we asked about: basketball (8%), soccer (3%), auto racing (3%) or hockey (1%).

We also included the option for Americans to write in another sport. The most common answers volunteered were golf, boxing, rodeo and ice skating. Other respondents used the opportunity to have some fun: Among the more creative answers we received were “competitive eating,” “grievance politics,” “reality TV” and “cow tipping.”

Ahead of Super Bowl LVIII on Feb. 11, Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to find out which sport Americans see as the country’s sport.

This analysis is based on a survey of 11,945 U.S. adults conducted Aug. 7-27, 2023. Everyone who took part is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. Address-based sampling ensures that nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here is the question used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

In every demographic group, football tops the list

In every major demographic group, football is the most common choice when the public is asked to identify America’s sport. It tops the list for men and women, for older and younger adults, and for White, Black, Hispanic and Asian Americans alike.

Still, some demographic differences emerge for certain sports. For instance, White Americans are more likely than other racial or ethnic groups to say the national sport is baseball, while Hispanic Americans are more likely than other groups to say it’s soccer. Black and Asian Americans, in turn, are more likely than White and Hispanic Americans to say America’s sport is basketball. In each of these racial and ethnic groups, however, by far the largest share of people say the national sport is football.

Most Americans don’t closely follow sports

Just because Americans see football as the national sport doesn’t mean they’ve been closely following the NFL season leading up to this weekend’s Super Bowl LVIII.

Most U.S. adults (62%) say they follow professional or college sports not too or not at all closely , and a similar share (63%) say they talk about sports with other people just a few times a month or less often, according to the Center’s August survey. In fact, only 7% of adults are what might be called sports “superfans” – people who follow sports extremely or very closely and talk about sports with other people at least every day.

Note: Here is the question used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

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Transgender athletes: Majority of elite female athletes support categorisation by biological sex, new research finds

17 April 2024 17 April 2024 . From the section Sport

The majority of elite female athletes questioned for a new study support the categorisation of women's sport by biological sex, rather than gender identity.

The research, from Manchester Metropolitan and Swansea universities and published on Wednesday, found 58% of respondents favoured categorisation in this way.

That rose to 77% among 'world class' athletes - those who had competed in Olympic or World Championship finals - regarding their own sports.

However, the majority of athletes competing in non-Olympic sports believe changing category should be allowed, with a highest rate of 74% among those in 'precision' sports such as archery.

The research, published in the Journal of Sports Sciences, is the largest of its kind to date, assessing the opinions of 175 national, elite and world class female athletes - current and retired - from a range of sports and countries.

Respondents include 26 world champions, 22 Olympians and six Paralympians, and shows for the first time that opinion varies according to career stage, competition level and sport type.

In March, a BBC Sport study found that more than 100 elite British sportswomen would be uncomfortable with transgender women competing in female categories in their sport.

In the debate surrounding the inclusion of transgender athletes, many argue that transgender women should not compete in elite women's sport because of any physical performance advantages they may retain - but others argue that sport should be more inclusive.

The debate centres on the balance of inclusion, sporting fairness and safety in women's sport - essentially, whether transgender women can compete in female categories without an unfair advantage.

Current International Olympic Committee guidelines effectively allow individual sports to decide on the best approach to balancing inclusion and fairness, opening the door over the last two years for the world governing bodies of sports such as athletics , aquatics and cycling to ban transgender women from female competition.

In 2022, British Triathlon became the first British sporting body to establish an open category in which transgender athletes can compete.

On Tuesday, UK culture secretary Lucy Frazer called on sporting bodies to "take an unambiguous position" and ban transgender athletes competing in elite women's sport.

What does the new research say?

The majority of athletes surveyed were from the United States, United Kingdom and Canada and competed in sports such as athletics, canoeing, ice/speed skating, swimming, hockey and curling.

In the new research, athletes answered questions based on different contexts of elite sport, for example sports heavily reliant on 'physical capacity' such as sprinting, 'precision sports' such as archery and 'contact sports' such as rugby union.

Among those competing in a current Olympic sport, most felt athletes should not be able to change category, with the percentage highest (93%) among those at world-class level in sports heavily reliant on physical capacity.

Of the 175 respondents, 68 are retired, with 83% of those supporting categories based on biological sex, compared to 64% of current Olympic sport athletes.

The research also shows that 81% of female athletes believe governing bodies should be doing more to make their sports more inclusive, while 94% do not show evidence of negative opinions towards gender transition generally. Of those surveyed, 66% believe transgender athletes are treated unfairly across sport.

Alun Williams, professor of sport and exercise genomics at the Manchester Metropolitan University Institute of Sport, says differences in opinion must be considered by sporting federations "if they are to truly understand the athlete viewpoint" on transgender inclusion in sport.

The report notes that these attitudes show any desire for restrictions on participation is "not likely grounded in negativity towards transgender people, but more likely based on seeking fair competition and capacity to win".

By publishing the questions used in full, the report authors say they hope this study will become an important resource for sport's governing bodies when it comes to developing guidelines regarding the eligibility and inclusion of transgender athletes in the future.

However, the study notes "specific considerations are needed for the differences between those with the greatest potential for rewards such as world class athletes and those that will not be directly affected by policy decisions such as retired athletes".

Dr Shane Heffernan of Swansea University said: "Our research provides evidence that governing bodies can use confidently - in an often polarised debate - knowing that it is based on work conducted with the scientific method and peer review.

"Opinions differ on inclusion of transgender athletes at all levels of sport that we assessed. Nuance must be applied when policy decisions are being made that affect the lives and sometimes livelihoods of athletes.

"High-level athletes' opinions show that transgender inclusion is valued, but fairness must take priority for athletes at the highest competitive level."

The research from MMU and Swansea is published a week after the release of research from the University of Brighton, funded by the IOC, which says it found that transgender women performed worse in some metrics compared to female athletes.

Authors of the Brighton research, published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, say the results suggest sporting governing bodies should show more "caution" before introducing an automatic ban on transgender women from the female category.

According to 2021 census data, 0.1% of the population of England and Wales identified as transgender women, with the same number identifying as transgender men.

Grizzly bear conservation is as much about human relationships as it is the animals

Associate Professor of Human Dimensions of Natural Resources, University of Montana

Disclosure statement

Alexander L. Metcalf has received funding from the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, the National Science Foundation, the Richard King Mellon Foundation, the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, the US Geological Survey, and the US Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Dr. Metcalf is an advisor to the Swan Valley Connections board of directors.

University of Montana provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

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Montanans know spring has officially arrived when grizzly bears emerge from their dens . But unlike the bears, the contentious debate over their future never hibernates. New research from my lab reveals how people’s social identities and the dynamics between social groups may play a larger role in these debates than even the animals themselves.

Social scientists like me work to understand the human dimensions behind wildlife conservation and management. There’s a cliché among wildlife biologists that wildlife management is really people management, and they’re right. My research seeks to understand the psychological and social factors that underlie pressing environmental challenges. It is from this perspective that my team sought to understand how Montanans think about grizzly bears.

To list or delist, that is the question

In 1975, the grizzly bear was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act following decades of extermination efforts and habitat loss that severely constrained their range . At that time, there were 700-800 grizzly bears in the lower 48 states, down from a historic 50,000 . Today, there are about 2,000 grizzly bears in this area, and sometime in 2024 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will decide whether to maintain their protected status or begin the delisting process.

Listed species are managed by the federal government until they have recovered and management responsibility can return to the states. While listed, federal law prevents hunting of the animal and destruction of grizzly bear habitat. If the animal is delisted, some states intend to implement a grizzly bear hunting season .

People on both sides of the delisting debate often use logic to try to convince others that their position is right. Proponents of delisting say that hunting grizzly bears can help reduce conflict between grizzly bears and humans . Opponents of delisting counter that state agencies cannot be trusted to responsibly manage grizzly bears.

But debates over wildlife might be more complex than these arguments imply.

Identity over facts

Humans have survived because of our evolved ability to cooperate . As a result, human brains are hardwired to favor people who are part of their social groups , even when those groups are randomly assigned and the group members are anonymous .

Humans perceive reality through the lens of their social identities. People are more likely to see a foul committed by a rival sports team than one committed by the team they’re rooting for. When randomly assigned to be part of a group, people will even overlook subconscious racial biases to favor their fellow group members.

Leaders can leverage social identities to inspire cooperation and collective action . For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, people with strong national identities were more likely to physically distance and support public health policies.

But the forces of social identity have a dark side, too. For example, when people think that another “out-group” is threatening their group, they tend to assume members of the other group hold more extreme positions than they really do . Polarization between groups can worsen when people convince themselves that their group’s positions are inherently right and the other group’s are wrong. In extreme instances, group members can use these beliefs to justify immoral treatment of out-group members .

Empathy reserved for in-group members

These group dynamics help explain people’s attitudes toward grizzly bears in Montana . Although property damage from grizzly bears is extremely rare, affecting far less than 1% of Montanans each year , grizzly bears have been known to break into garages to access food , prey on free-range livestock and sometimes even maul or kill people .

People who hunt tend to have more negative experiences with grizzly bears than nonhunters – usually because hunters are more often living near and moving through grizzly bear habitat.

In a large survey of Montana residents, my team found that one of the most important factors associated with negative attitudes toward grizzly bears was whether someone had heard stories of grizzly bears causing other people property damage. We called this “vicarious property damage.” These negative feelings toward grizzly bears are highly correlated with the belief that there are too many grizzly bears in Montana already.

But we also found an interesting wrinkle in the data . Although hunters extended empathy to other hunters whose properties had been damaged by grizzly bears, nonhunters didn’t show the same courtesy. Because property damage from grizzly bears was far more likely to affect hunters, only other hunters were able to put themselves in their shoes. They felt as though other hunters’ experiences may as well have happened to them, and their attitudes toward grizzly bears were more negative as a result.

For nonhunters, hearing stories about grizzly bears causing damage to hunters’ property did not affect their attitudes toward the animals.

Identity-informed conservation

Recognizing that social identities can play a major role in wildlife conservation debates helps untangle and perhaps prevent some of the conflict. For those wishing to build consensus, there are many psychology-informed strategies for improving relationships between groups .

For example, conversations between members of different groups can help people realize they have shared values . Hearing about a member of your group helping a member of another group can inspire people to extend empathy to out-group members.

Conservation groups and wildlife managers should take care when developing interventions based on social identity to prevent them from backfiring when applied to wildlife conservation issues. Bringing up social identities can sometimes cause unintended division. For example, partisan politics can unnecessarily divide people on environmental issues .

Wildlife professionals can reach their audience more effectively by matching their message and messengers to the social identities of their audience . Some conservation groups have seen success uniting community members who might otherwise be divided around a shared identity associated with their love of a particular place. The conservation group Swan Valley Connections has used this strategy in Montana’s Swan Valley to reduce conflict between grizzly bears and local residents.

Group dynamics can foster cooperation or create division, and the debate over grizzly bear management in Montana is no exception. Who people are and who they care about drives their reactions to this large carnivore. Grizzly bear conservation efforts that unite people around shared identities are far more likely to succeed than those that remind them of their divisions.

• Conservation
• Environment
• Endangered Species Act
• Grizzly bears
• Social identity
• Wildlife management
• STEEHM new research

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Research Fellow /Senior Research Fellow – Implementation Science

Associate Professor, Occupational Therapy

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