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Pricing Strategies for Small Business

Darrell Zahorsky is an expert in search engine optimization (SEO) and marketing. He has worked for companies and clients such as Blackberry, ADP, and Subway.

• Don't Compete on Price Alone

Choosing a Price Strategy for Your Business

Avoiding a price war, the bottom line, frequently asked questions (faqs).

Kentaroo Tryman / Getty Images

Pricing strategy for your small business will set the standard for your product or service in the marketplace, and is an important dimension to both your bottom line and your competitive edge. Early in the life of your small business, research your intended market as deeply as possible, and pay close attention to past fluctuations in competition and demand.

Key Takeaways

• Small businesses should avoid competing on the lowest price, as they lack of economies of scale required to drive down costs.
• Pricing strategies for small businesses to try include value-based, cost-plus, and competitive pricing.
• Small businesses can avoid a price war by building their brands, offering niche products or services, and conducting diligent market research to understand customer needs and price sensitivity.

Don't Compete on Price Alone

When developing a business plan, owners often make the mistake of setting their pricing strategy to match the lowest-price provider in the market. This approach comes from a cursory understanding of direct competitors, and the assumption that the only way to win business is by having the lowest price.

However, having the lowest price is not a strong pricing strategy for small business, as it invites customers to see your product or service as a commodity, and obscures the value of your offering. If you're operating within a niche market, larger competitors with the ability to lower operating costs may eventually enter your segment, and can destroy any small business attempting to compete on price alone—including yours.

Avoid the low price strategy through research on the market you intend to enter, and by repeatedly analyzing the following variables:

Ceiling Price

The ceiling price is the highest price the market will bear, which can be explored by surveying both experts and consumers, and by asking questions regarding pricing limits. Keep in mind that the highest price available on the market may not necessarily be the ceiling price.

Competitive Analysis

Don't exclusively look at your competitor's pricing; look at the whole value of what they're offering. Are they serving price-conscious consumers or an affluent niche? What are the value-added services, if any? How do you compare?

Price Elasticity

Price elasticity tells you about the responsiveness, or elasticity, of the demand of a product or service when nothing changes but the price. Jill Avery, a senior lecturer at Harvard Business School told the Harvard Business Review that "marketers need to understand how elastic, sensitive to fluctuations in price, or inelastic, largely ambivalent about price changes, their products are when contemplating how to set or change a price. Some products have a much more immediate and dramatic response to price changes, usually because they’re considered nice-to-have or non-essential, or because there are many substitutes available."

Once you understand consumer demand within your market, review your own costs, supply chain, and profit goals as a way to inform your choice on pricing strategy. Below are a few pricing models to consider:

• Premium or Value-Based Pricing : The price is based on the perceived or estimated value of a product or service. There are few or no competitors for the product or service.
• Cost-Plus Pricing : The selling price is determined by adding a markup to the unit cost. The goal is to cover costs and generate profit without exceeding customer expectations for price.
• Competitive Pricing : Setting a price based on the price of the competition. This is commonly seen with commodity products.
• Price Skimming : Setting the price high initially and then lowering as additional competitors enter the market.
• Penetration Pricing : The price is set low to rapidly enter a competitive market and provoke word-of-mouth recommendations, only to be raised later.

A price war is when competitors continually lower their prices to undercut one another and gain market share. This almost never works out in a small business's favor, especially when competing against globalized pricing. According to Wharton School marketing professor, Z. John Zhang, the outbreak of a price war is considered a legitimate and effective business strategy in China. “In a growing market, there are all different companies competing—some good, some bad—and the industry finds a way to consolidate. The only way to do that is a price war, where you bring down the prices and squeeze out the inefficient [companies].”

But in the U.S. Zhang said, the markets are more mature and they offer, “oligopolistic competition among mostly equals and [therefore] encourages more finesse in devising marketing strategies.”

Oligopoly markets are markets in which a few suppliers dominate, which can reduce competition.

Below are tips to avoid a price war with your competitors:

• Develop your brand name to build recognition of your small business and to build resilience if a price war ensues.
• Find unique values which your business can add to stand out in the marketplace.
• Provide products or services that are exclusive to your business to ensure further protection from falling prices.
• Conduct diligent market research to understand customer needs and price sensitivity.

If you create sound market research habits early in your journey as a small business owner, you will have greater foresight when setting prices for your products or services, and an ability to adjust when necessary . Research will help you avoid taking a problematically low price-position in the market, and will provide valuable insights into how your future customers will spend money.

What is the simplest pricing strategy?

Cost-plus pricing may be the simplest strategy for small business. With this approach, you determine the breakeven point for your product, and then add a percentage-based premium or markup to arrive at the final price.

Why is pricing important for small business?

Pricing is the simplest and the fastest way for any business, including small business, to increase profits. According to McKinsey & Company, a 1% increase in price leads to an 8.1% increase in operating profit for firms listed in the S&P 1500. Meanwhile, a 1% decrease in price leads to a corresponding decrease in operating profit of 8.1%. Getting pricing right can have a significant effect on the success of a small business.

Want to read more content like this? Sign up for The Balance’s newsletter for daily insights, analysis, and financial tips, all delivered straight to your inbox every morning!

University of Missouri Extension. “ Selecting an Appropriate Pricing Strategy .”

Harvard Business Review. " A Refresher on Price Elasticity ."

Z. John Zhang. " How and Why Chinese Firms Excel in ‘The Art of Price War' ." Knowledge at Wharton .

OECD. “ Oligopoly Markets .”

McKinsey & Company. “ The Power of Price .”

Unit Pricing: A Guide to Understanding and Applying It

Unit pricing is a concept that holds great importance in both consumer and business contexts. It allows individuals and organizations to compare the prices of products accurately, helping them make informed decisions. This guide will explain what unit pricing means, why it matters, and how to calculate it. We’ll also provide real -life examples to illustrate its significance.

Understanding Unit Pricing:

Unit pricing, also known as unit cost or unit price analysis, refers to the process of determining the cost of a standard unit or quantity of a product or service. It’s a helpful tool for comparing prices and evaluating value for money , especially when products are sold in different quantities or measurements.

Why Unit Pricing Matters:

Unit pricing matters for various reasons, making it an essential concept in personal finance , shopping, and business. Here’s why:

• Price Comparison: Unit pricing allows consumers to compare the cost of different products based on a common unit of measurement, such as price per ounce, pound , or liter. This helps shoppers make informed choices when purchasing items.
• Bulk Buying : For businesses and consumers, unit pricing helps assess the cost-effectiveness of purchasing items in bulk. It answers questions like whether it’s cheaper to buy a single item or a larger package .
• Budgeting: Unit pricing is a valuable budgeting tool. By knowing the unit price, consumers can plan their expenses more effectively and allocate their budgets efficiently.

How to Calculate Unit Pricing:

To calculate unit pricing, follow these simple steps:

• Identify the Product: First, choose the product you want to assess. Make sure you understand the quantity or size it’s typically sold in (e.g., ounces, pounds, liters, etc.).
• Determine the Total Price: Check the total price of the product. This is the amount you pay for the entire item or package.
• Find the Unit of Measurement: Identify the unit of measurement that’s appropriate for the product. For example, if you’re comparing different-sized bottles of shampoo, the unit could be “fluid ounces.”
• Calculate the Unit Price: Divide the total price by the quantity or size of the product to find the unit price. The formula is simple: Unit Price = Total Price / Quantity (in the chosen unit of measurement)

Real-Life Example:

Let’s consider a practical example. You’re shopping for your favorite breakfast cereal, and you have two options:

• A 16-ounce box priced at $4.99.
• A 20-ounce box priced at $5.99.

To determine which box offers the better unit price, you can calculate it using the formula:

Unit Price = Total Price / Quantity

For the 16-ounce box: Unit Price = $4.99 / 16 ounces = $0.3119 per ounce (rounded to the nearest cent )

For the 20-ounce box: Unit Price = $5.99 / 20 ounces = $0.2995 per ounce (rounded to the nearest cent)

In this case , the 20-ounce box has the lower unit price, making it the more cost-effective choice.

Key Takeaways:

• Unit pricing is a tool for comparing and assessing the cost of products or services based on a standard unit of measurement.
• It matters because it helps consumers make informed purchasing decisions, allows for cost-effective bulk buying, and aids in budget planning .
• Calculating unit pricing involves dividing the total price by the quantity or size of the product, expressed in a chosen unit of measurement.

Unit pricing is a valuable concept that empowers consumers and businesses to make smart financial decisions. It enhances transparency in pricing, enabling individuals to get the best value for their money and organizations to optimize their procurement strategies. By understanding and utilizing unit pricing, one can navigate the market more efficiently and make choices that align with their needs and budget.

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15 pricing strategies and how to set yours

Hopefully, you enjoy what you do, and that's why you do it. But unfortunately, business isn't just about doing what you love—it's also about making money. And of course, making money means pricing your products or services correctly.

For your business to be sustainable, you'll need a pricing strategy that generates adequate income while also being attractive to customers.

Here's a guide to creating a pricing strategy that will keep your profits moving up and to the right.

What is a pricing strategy?

A pricing strategy is a plan for setting the best price for your products or services. The goal is to set a price that will entice customers to buy, but that isn't so low that you're not making a profit. 

Sure, you could just trial-and-error a bunch of prices until you find the price that maximizes profit without deterring potential customers—and there will probably still be some of that even after you choose a pricing strategy for your business. But you'll spend a lot less time and money starting with a pricing analysis than you will taking a complete shot in the dark.

15 common pricing methods and examples

Your core pricing strategy has to do with what you're selling: a luxury, a bargain, or just a good product for a good price. Once you have that figured out, you'll move on to choosing a pricing method, which is the how of your pricing strategy.

Pricing methods are sort of like plays in a playbook. Your product probably isn't going to switch from being a luxury to a bargain and back again, but you can (and, in some cases, should) switch up the pricing method you're using to better meet your market demands.

Here, we'll look at 15 of the most common pricing methods, plus how and when to use them.

1. Value-based pricing

The first pricing method is probably the one you're most familiar with: value-based pricing. You might think of it as the "default" pricing method since it consists of finding what the customer is willing to pay (the WTP price), making sure it's higher than the cost of production, and setting your price somewhere in between.

If you need to make a price adjustment, you can do so as long as the new price falls within the WTP range. If the new price surpasses this range, you'll need to explore avenues to expand the WTP range. You can do this by incorporating additional value into your product or service to increase the customer's willingness to pay the new price.

Takeaway: Charge what you can without turning off the customer to your product. 

2. Cost-plus pricing

A very similar method to value-based pricing is cost-plus pricing. Instead of basing prices on what the customer is willing to pay, businesses set prices by determining the cost of production and their ideal profit margin. For example, if a product costs $100 to make and a company's target margin is 15%, then the product will sell for $115. 

Cost-plus prices still need to fall within the WTP range, but they're not chosen based specifically on what the customer is willing to pay. If the cost-plus price falls outside the WTP range, the company either needs to adjust its target margin or find a way to lower production costs.

Takeaway: Ensure all costs are covered and don't keep you from reaching your desired profit margin.

3. Competitive pricing

When Norm McLaughlin formulated the pricing model for his business, Norm's Computer Services , he decided that he wanted to be considered competitive but not cheap. That meant his pricing was on par with his peers, but he avoided the use of any terminology like "budget," "cheap," or "cheapest" in his small business's marketing .

One of the things he tried early on was offering the first 15 minutes of work free of charge—if he solved the issue within that first quarter of an hour, the job would be completely free. It worked. Clients told him they wanted to pay even if he solved the issue in under 15 minutes because they didn't feel good about paying nothing for a service that involved someone coming to their home. It was an attractive offer that increased his competitive edge without negatively impacting his bottom line.

Takeaway: Maintain or gain market share from your competitors.  

4. Economy pricing

Similar to competitive pricing, economy pricing involves setting the lowest prices among your competitors to attract bargain buyers. But unlike competitive pricing, economy pricing specifically targets people who will consciously sacrifice quality in exchange for a cheaper price. Knowing this, you can source cheaper supplies, eliminate extra features, and make other changes to lower your production costs so that you can offer extremely low prices while continuing to make a profit. 

The fast fashion industry is infamous for its reliance on economy pricing. Clothes are created quickly using cheap (and often ethically questionable) labor, and they wear out quickly. This allows stores to sell highly trend-conscious clothing, since customers need to replace their clothes more frequently. Unfortunately, it also causes major environmental damage —and usually doesn't even save customers money compared to buying more expensive but longer-lasting clothing.

Takeaway: Attract price-sensitive customers while achieving high sales volume and cost efficiencies.

5. Penetration pricing

As a new business , you may find that you need to set your prices toward the lower end of the spectrum. Penetration pricing is when a business sets the price of a product or service low at the beginning, then raises the price once the company is more established.

Businesses that provide a service can draw customers in with low pricing, then win their loyalty with great service. Introductory offers can be a great way to entice new clients or customers. For example, you could offer a fixed price or percentage off the first job, or a portion of free labor. At least one of Norm's competitors offered a 10% reduction on labor for returning customers. In Norm's view, a better approach to customer retention was to offer them that 10% off the first job—and then do such good work that they wouldn't mind paying the full price for subsequent jobs.

Takeaway: Gain market share and attract customers quickly with low initial prices, then raise prices once you've established a strong customer base. 

6. Dynamic pricing

Have you ever pulled out your phone intending to grab a rideshare on a busy weekend night or (I wince just thinking about it) a holiday? Those jaw-dropping price surges are the result of what's called dynamic pricing, or pricing that changes fluidly according to availability and demand.

Truly dynamic pricing requires an algorithm that can automatically adjust prices according to purchasing activity. Uber's CEO isn't sitting behind a Wizard of Oz curtain declaring price surges; the app automatically increases prices when demand is higher than the number of drivers on the road. A less immediate version of dynamic pricing can be seen at the gas pump, where prices change frequently in response to demand but aren't automatic (in some states, like New Jersey, they can't change more than once per day). 

For small businesses, dynamic pricing works best with services or custom products that require a price quote, since customers expect prices to be different depending on the project and circumstances. If your prices are listed on your site and you change them constantly, you'll drive away potential customers who perceive you as unpredictable or unreliable.

Takeaway: Maximize revenue while adjusting for real-time factors like demand, competition, and market conditions. 

7. Price skimming

Price skimming is the opposite of penetration pricing, where you start by setting the maximum price and gradually lower it over time. This strategy works best with products that have major releases, like laptops or cars. By price skimming, you'll be able to capture early buyers willing to pay top dollar for the latest and greatest; then, as you gradually lower the price, you'll be able to sell the maximum number of products at each price before dropping it again. 

One of the most well-known price skimmers is Apple, which has made its product launches into full events with tickets and fans to build as much hype as humanly possible. Mega-fans buy the newly unveiled products the moment they're available, even waiting in lines overnight outside Apple Stores to do so. As each new product is released, the older models get shunted down the pricing ladder to capture buyers with lower WTP points. 

Takeaway: Capture early adopters and maximize revenue with high initial prices before gradually reducing prices to attract more price-sensitive customers.

8. Hourly pricing

Often used in service-based industries, hourly pricing establishes prices based on the time spent on a particular task or service. This aligns the price directly with the effort or resources dedicated to the project. It's a straightforward method for you and the client to understand and agree upon the service's value.

Having said that, if your projects' complexity or required resources vary quite a bit, a flat hourly rate may not be best for your business.

Takeaway:   Ensure customers are billed fairly based on the actual hours worked.

9. Project-based pricing

Project-based pricing is also common in service-based industries. This method determines prices based on the scope, complexity, and resources required for each project. Rather than charging a fixed or hourly rate, companies assess the unique needs of each project and provide a tailored quote. That way, businesses are accounting for factors like resources, expertise, and time commitment required to complete the project successfully.

This pricing model is common for architects. When a client approaches an architecture firm with a request to design and construct a building, the firm will assess the project's scale, complexity, materials, and other specific requirements to provide a project-based quote. Obviously, the process and requirements for designing a public bathroom vs. a skyscraper will be very different, beyond just time discrepancies. 

Takeaway: Make sure profitability and effort are accounted for in your pricing structure.  

10. High-low pricing

I've taught all my loved ones that we don't walk into Michael's without a coupon or buy anything at JOANN that hasn't been marked down to at least 40% off.

These stores use high-low pricing, where they offer products or services at a higher price initially and periodically discount them. This approach attracts price-sensitive customers who are motivated by discounts (me) while also maximizing revenue from customers willing to pay higher prices to get their hands on the product before it starts flying off the shelves once it's been discounted.

Companies can maintain a balance between profitability and reaching a larger range of customers by driving traffic to their stores or websites during promotional periods.

Takeaway: Create a perception of value to encourage customer purchases. 

11. Bundle pricing

You've probably seen the Progressive commercials practically begging you to bundle your car and home insurance for a better deal. Or maybe you bundled your cable and phone services back in the day. 

Bundle pricing is when a company combines multiple products or services and offers them at a lower overall price than what each item would individually cost. This creates a perception of added value, convenience, and savings for customers. If you sell a lot of small items or are trying to spread the love to an overlooked service, this pricing strategy may help you increase your sales.

Takeaway: Sell items together in a package deal that's slightly cheaper than if you were to sell the items individually to increase sales and customer satisfaction.

12. Geographic pricing

I follow a candy shop on TikTok with the most delicious-looking candy I've ever seen. They're located in the U.K. and I'm in the U.S., which means I'd have to pay outrageous prices to account for the shipping costs.

Geographic pricing involves setting prices based on different geographic regions or markets, considering factors like local market conditions, competitive landscape, and transportation costs like shipping. While this strategy makes it harder for a candy lover like me to get their hands on some delectable sweets, if you want to expand outside of your own geographic region, this strategy may be inevitable to keep your profits stable.

Takeaway: Maintain profitability across all your geographic markets by adjusting for variable factors.

13. Psychological pricing

A book priced at $20? I'll pass. A book for $19.99? I'll take 10. This common phenomenon that we all fall for time and time again is called psychological pricing. Also known as charm pricing, this strategy leverages consumers' perceptions and emotions to make them think they're getting a better deal than they actually are. 

Making the price seem more appealing or affordable to customers effectively influences customer behavior and increases sales, even if the price difference is negligible (and even if the customer knows in their heart of hearts that it's negligible). You can combine this strategy with another method since it's a common standard in many industries.

Takeaway: Create the illusion of a lower price so customers perceive your price as fairer.  

14. Freemium pricing

If you're like me, you started out with the free version of Spotify until the ads were so grating on your soul that you gave in and shelled out the cash for the paid ad-free version. This method of offering a basic version of a product or service for free and charging for additional premium features or advanced functionality is called freemium pricing. 

By offering a free version, companies can give customers a taste of the value their product or service offers, build brand awareness, and create a larger user base. They then monetize their user base with an enhanced experience for a subscription fee or one-time purchase. If you're new to the market, this is a great way to get buy-in from people who would otherwise be unwilling to convert.

Takeaway: Attract a large user base and convert some into paying customers. 

15. Premium pricing

Some people enjoy the prestigious vibe and social appearance of luxury brands. For example, luxury car companies, like BMW or Mercedes-Benz, position their vehicles as high-end, offering advanced technology, luxurious interiors, and superior performance. (Although I'd love to see what they have that my Honda CR-V doesn't.) 

With those high-end features comes a high-end price tag, otherwise known as premium pricing. This strategy positions the company as exclusive and superior in value in comparison to lower-priced competitors. It appeals to a target market willing to pay a premium for the perceived benefits. If that's your target market, then this is your ticket.

Takeaway: Target affluent customers and generate higher profit margins. 

Factors to consider when pricing a product

You likely know off the bat that you'll need to consider your own business costs and competitor prices so that you can find a price that earns a profit but isn't so high that it drives potential customers to other businesses with better deals. But unfortunately, it's not that simple: there are a lot of factors you'll need to consider in order to determine the best pricing strategy for you.

I know I just said cost wasn't the only factor to consider, but it is the most important one to start with. If your prices aren't higher than your costs, you'll be out of business before you even get your company off the ground.

When calculating costs, make sure you include:

Product materials

Employee wages (that includes what you pay yourself!)

Overhead costs (rent, insurance, utilities, taxes, etc.)

Software and services for things like accounting, marketing, and legal

Shipping and transportation

Economic factors

When costs change, your prices will have to change in order to stay competitive and keep making a profit. Businesses that rely directly on commodities as supplies—so things like lumber, oil, and metals—will be most vulnerable to economic fluctuations , but all industries are affected in some way or another by global, political, and social changes. 

Conduct thorough research to identify what economic conditions your business thrives in, and recession-proof your business . Be proactive about anticipating events that could affect your supply and demand . You especially need to incorporate a safety net into your profit margins to ensure you have enough funds to stay in business during slow periods if you're in a more temperamental industry.

Competitor pricing

Your prices don't always need to be lower than your competitors', but if they're higher, you need to be able to justify it with added quality. Your products don't always need to be quality, but if they're low-quality, you'll need to be able to justify it with lower prices. Where you fall on either side of this trade-off determines your value position , which we'll discuss in a bit. But no matter how you decide to position your product, you'll need to stay up-to-date on what your competitors charge, pricing trends in your industry, and what pricing models work best for your market.

It's usually not difficult to find out what your competitors charge—either by visiting their websites or by calling them to ask. As you gather information for your competitor analysis , keep a spreadsheet where you can record prices and note things like introductory offers, loyalty programs, and discounts.

Positioning

It's a common misconception that businesses have to sell good-quality products to be successful. There are buyers at every price and quality level; what matters is how your product quality and price are positioned with respect to each other.

One of the easiest industries for demonstrating this concept is the airline industry, because there's no way to mistake the difference between a high- and low-quality purchase when there's a literal curtain dividing them. Normally, price and quality will align with one another. First-class tickets offer high quality at a high price, economy tickets offer low quality at a low price, and everyone else gets piled into coach. 

Value prices occur when quality is higher than price—when you fly during off-peak times or get upgraded to first class for free. When demand is high and seats are limited, the airlines can afford to charge higher prices for lower-quality seats, counting on the fact that you'll pay full price for a terrible seat if it's your only option.

When you apply this to your own pricing, ask yourself what kind of value your product or service offers. Are you solving an urgent problem , or is your product more for comfort and enjoyment? If you sell a first-class product, you'll lose money by selling it at economy prices. If you sell an economy product, you'll need to sell it for a bargain price.

As you start off in business, it's important to remember that you can change your pricing strategy as you go along. This is a marathon, not a sprint, so it's more about building a client base of satisfied customers who will come back to you again and again than it is to make as much money as possible as quickly as possible. 

And the good news is that you don't have to get everything right from the very beginning. You can try different approaches and make adjustments as you go until you're achieving the outcomes you want. To continue optimizing for success, learn how you can automate your small business .

Related reading:

The best eCommerce website building platforms for online stores

Optimizing your small business product mix

The best CRMs for small businesses

The best project management software for small businesses

This article was originally published in December 2020 by Norm Mclaughlin. It was most recently updated in July 2023.

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Cecilia Gillen

Cecilia is a content marketer with a degree in Media and Journalism from the University of South Dakota. After graduating, Cecilia moved to Omaha, Nebraska where she enjoys reading (almost as much as book buying), decor hunting at garage sales, and spending time with her two cats.

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The Ultimate Guide to Pricing Strategies & Models

Discover how to properly price your products, services, or events so you can drive both revenue and profit.

FREE SALES PRICING CALCULATOR

Determine the best pricing strategy for your business with this free calculator and template.

Updated: 08/16/23

Published: 08/16/23

Pricing your products and services can be tough. Set prices too high, and you miss out on valuable sales. Set them too low, and you miss out on valuable revenue.

Thankfully, pricing doesn’t have to be a sacrifice or a shot in the dark. There are dozens of pricing models and strategies that can help you better understand how to set the right prices for your audience and revenue goals.

That’s why we’ve created this guide.

Whether you’re a business beginner or a pricing pro, the tactics and strategies in this guide will get you comfortable with pricing your products. Bookmark this guide for later and use the chapter links to jump around to sections of interest.

Pricing Strategy

Types of pricing strategies, how to create a pricing strategy, pricing models based on industry or business.

Conducting a Pricing Analysis

Pricing Strategy Examples

A pricing strategy is a model or method used to establish the best price for a product or service. It helps you choose prices to maximize profits and shareholder value while considering consumer and market demand.

If only pricing was as simple as its definition — there’s a lot that goes into the process.

Pricing strategies account for many of your business factors, like revenue goals, marketing objectives, target audience, brand positioning, and product attributes. They’re also influenced by external factors like consumer demand, competitor pricing, and overall market and economic trends.

It’s not uncommon for entrepreneurs and business owners to skim over pricing. They often look at the cost of their products (COGS) , consider their competitor’s rates, and tweak their own selling price by a few dollars. While your COGS and competitors are important, they shouldn’t be at the center of your pricing strategy.

The best pricing strategy maximizes your profit and revenue.

Before we talk about pricing strategies, let’s review an important pricing concept that will apply regardless of what strategies you use.

Free Sales Pricing Strategy Calculator

• Cost-Plus Pricing
• Skimming Strategy
• Value-Based Pricing

You're all set!

Click this link to access this resource at any time.

Determine the Best Pricing Strategy For Your Business

Fill out this form to access the free template., price elasticity of demand.

Price elasticity of demand is used to determine how a change in price affects consumer demand.

If consumers still purchase a product despite a price increase (such as cigarettes and fuel) that product is considered inelastic .

On the other hand, elastic products suffer from pricing fluctuations (such as cable TV and movie tickets).

You can calculate price elasticity using the formula:

% Change in Quantity ÷ % Change in Price = Price Elasticity of Demand

The concept of price elasticity helps you understand whether your product or service is sensitive to price fluctuations. Ideally, you want your product to be inelastic — so that demand remains stable if prices do fluctuate.

Cost, Margin, & Markup in Pricing

To choose a pricing strategy, it’s also essential to understand the role of cost, margin, and markup — especially if you’d like your pricing to be cost-based . Let’s dive into the definition for each.

Cost refers to the fees you incur from manufacturing, sourcing, or creating the product you sell. That includes the materials themselves, the cost of labor, the fees paid to suppliers, and even the losses. Cost doesn’t include overhead and operational expenses such as marketing, advertising, maintenance, or bills.

Margin (in this case, gross margin) refers to the amount your business earns after you subtract manufacturing costs.

Markup refers to the additional amount you charge for your product over the production and manufacturing fees.

Now, let’s cover some common pricing strategies. As we do so, it’s important to note that these aren’t necessarily standalone strategies — many can be combined when setting prices for your products and services.

• Competition-Based Pricing
• Dynamic Pricing
• High-Low Pricing
• Penetration Pricing
• Skimming Pricing
• Psychological Pricing
• Geographic Pricing

Now, let's dive into the descriptions of each pricing strategy — many of which are included in the template below — so you can learn about what makes each of them unique.

Discover how much your business can earn using different pricing strategies with HubSpot's free sales pricing calculator so you can choose the best pricing model for your business.

Download Template

1. competition-based pricing strategy.

Competition-based pricing is also known as competitive pricing or competitor-based pricing. This pricing strategy focuses on the existing market rate (or going rate ) for a company’s product or service; it doesn’t take into account the cost of their product or consumer demand.

Instead, a competition-based pricing strategy uses the competitors’ prices as a benchmark. Businesses who compete in a highly saturated space may choose this strategy since a slight price difference may be the deciding factor for customers.

With competition-based pricing , you can price your products slightly below your competition, the same as your competition, or slightly above your competition. For example, if you sold marketing automation software , and your competitors’ prices ranged from $19.99 per month to $39.99 per month, you’d choose a price between those two numbers.

Whichever price you choose, competitive pricing is one way to stay on top of the competition and keep your pricing dynamic.

Competition-Based Pricing Strategy in Marketing

Consumers are primarily looking for the best value which isn’t always the same as the lowest price. Pricing your products and services competitively in the market can put your brand in a better position to win a customer’s business. Competitive pricing works especially well when your business offers something the competition doesn’t — like exceptional customer service, a generous return policy, or access to exclusive loyalty benefits .

2. Cost-Plus Pricing Strategy

A cost-plus pricing strategy focuses solely on the cost of producing your product or service, or your COGS . It’s also known as markup pricing since businesses who use this strategy “markup” their products based on how much they’d like to profit.

To apply the cost-plus method, add a fixed percentage to your product production cost. For example, let’s say you sold shoes. The shoes cost $25 to make, and you want to make a $25 profit on each sale. You’d set a price of $50, which is a markup of 100%.

Cost-plus pricing is typically used by retailers who sell physical products. This strategy isn’t the best fit for service-based or SaaS companies as their products typically offer far greater value than the cost to create them.

Cost-Plus Pricing Strategy in Marketing

Cost-plus pricing works well when the competition is pricing using the same model. It won’t help you attract new customers if your competition is working to acquire customers rather than growing profits. Before executing this strategy, complete a pricing analysis that includes your closest competitors to make sure this strategy will help you meet your goals.

3. Dynamic Pricing Strategy

Dynamic pricing is also known as surge pricing, demand pricing, or time-based pricing. It’s a flexible pricing strategy where prices fluctuate based on market and customer demand.

Hotels, airlines, event venues, and utility companies use dynamic pricing by applying algorithms that consider competitor pricing, demand, and other factors. These algorithms allow companies to shift prices to match when and what the customer is willing to pay at the exact moment they’re ready to make a purchase.

Dynamic Pricing Strategy in Marketing

Dynamic pricing can help keep your marketing plans on track. Your team can plan for promotions in advance and configure the pricing algorithm you use to launch the promotion price at the perfect time. You can even A/B test dynamic pricing in real-time to maximize your profits.

4. High-Low Pricing Strategy

A high-low pricing strategy is when a company initially sells a product at a high price but lowers that price when the product drops in novelty or relevance. Discounts, clearance sections, and year-end sales are examples of high-low pricing in action — hence the reason why this strategy may also be called a discount pricing strategy.

High-low pricing is commonly used by retail firms that sell seasonal items or products that change often, such as clothing, decor, and furniture. What makes a high/low pricing strategy appealing to sellers? Consumers enjoy anticipating sales and discounts, hence why Black Friday and other universal discount days are so popular.

High-Low Pricing Strategy in Marketing

If you want to keep the foot traffic steady in your stores year-round, a high-low pricing strategy can help. By evaluating the popularity of your products during particular periods throughout the year, you can leverage low pricing to increase sales during traditionally slow months.

5. Penetration Pricing Strategy

Contrasted with skimming pricing, a penetration pricing strategy is when companies enter the market with an extremely low price, effectively drawing attention (and revenue) away from higher-priced competitors. Penetration pricing isn’t sustainable in the long run, however, and is typically applied for a short time.

This pricing method works best for brand new businesses looking for customers or for businesses that are breaking into an existing, competitive market. The strategy is all about disruption and temporary loss … and hoping that your initial customers stick around as you eventually raise prices.

(Another tangential strategy is loss leader pricing , where retailers attract customers with intentionally low-priced items in hopes that they’ll buy other, higher-priced products, too. This is precisely how stores like Target get you — and me.)

Penetration Pricing Strategy in Marketing

Penetration pricing has similar implications as freemium pricing — the money won’t come in overnight. But with enough value and a great product or service, you could continue to make money and scale your business as you increase prices. One tip for this pricing strategy is to market the value of the products you sell and let price be a secondary point.

6. Skimming Pricing Strategy

A skimming pricing strategy is when companies charge the highest possible price for a new product and then lower the price over time as the product becomes less and less popular. Skimming is different from high-low pricing in that prices are lowered gradually over time.

Technology products, such as DVD players, video game consoles, and smartphones, are typically priced using this strategy as they become less relevant over time. A skimming pricing strategy helps recover sunk costs and sell products well beyond their novelty, but the strategy can also annoy consumers who bought at full price and attract competitors who recognize the “fake” pricing margin as prices are lowered.

Skimming Pricing Strategy in Marketing

Skimming pricing strategy can work well if you sell products that have products with varying life cycle lengths. One product may come in and out of popularity quickly so you have a short time to skim your profits in the beginning stages of the life cycle. On the flip side, a product that has a longer life cycle can stay at a higher price for more time. You’ll be able to maintain your marketing efforts for each product more effectively without constantly adjusting your pricing across every product you sell.

7. Value-Based Pricing Strategy

A value-based pricing strategy is when companies price their products or services based on what the customer is willing to pay. Even if it can charge more for a product, the company decides to set its prices based on customer interest and data.

If used accurately, value-based pricing can boost your customer sentiment and loyalty. It can also help you prioritize your customers in other facets of your business, like marketing and service.

On the flip side, value-based pricing requires you to constantly be in tune with your various customer profiles and buyer personas and possibly vary your prices based on those differences.

Value-Based Pricing Strategy in Marketing

Marketing to your customers should always lead with value, so having a value-based pricing model should help strengthen the demand for your products and services. Just be sure that your audiences are distinct enough in what they’re willing to pay for — you don’t want to run into trouble by charging more or less based on off-limits criteria .

8. Psychological Pricing Strategy

Psychological pricing is what it sounds like — it targets human psychology to boost your sales.

For example, according to the " 9-digit effect ", even though a product that costs $99.99 is essentially $100, customers may see this as a good deal simply because of the "9" in the price.

Another way to use psychological pricing would be to place a more expensive item directly next to (either, in-store or online) the one you're most focused on selling . Or offer a "buy one, get one 50% off (or free)" deal that makes customers feel as though the circumstances are too good to pass up on.

And lastly, changing the font, size, and color of your pricing information on and around your products has also been proven, in various instances, to boost sales.

Psychological Pricing Strategy in Marketing

Psychological pricing strategy requires an intimate understanding of your target market to yield the best results. If your customers are inclined to discounts and coupons, appealing to this desire through your marketing can help this product meet their psychological need to save money. If paying for quality is important to your audience, having the lowest price on the shelf might not help you reach your sales goals. Regardless of the motivations your customers have for paying a certain price for a product, your pricing and marketing should appeal to those motivations.

9. Geographic Pricing Strategy

Geographic pricing is when products or services are priced differently depending on geographical location or market.

This strategy may be used if a customer from another country is making a purchase or if there are disparities in factors like the economy or wages (from the location in which you're selling a good to the location of the person it is being sold to).

Geographic Pricing Strategy in Marketing

Marketing a geographically priced product or service is easy thanks to paid social media advertising. Segmenting by zip code, city, or even region can be accomplished at a low cost with accurate results. Even as specific customers travel or permanently move, your pricing model will remain the same which helps you maintain your marketing costs.

Download our free guide to creating buyer personas to easily organize your audience segments and make your marketing stronger.

Like we said above, these strategies aren’t necessarily meant to stand alone. We encourage you to mix and match these methods as needed.

Below, we cover more specific pricing models for individual products.

Pricing Models

While your pricing strategy may determine how your company sets fees for its offerings overall , the below pricing models can help you set prices for specific product lines. Let's take a look.

1. Freemium

A combination of the words “free” and “premium,” freemium pricing is when companies offer a basic version of their product hoping that users will eventually pay to upgrade or access more features.

Unlike cost-plus, freemium is a pricing model commonly used by SaaS and other software companies. They choose this model because free trials and limited memberships offer a peek into a software’s full functionality — and also build trust with a potential customer before purchase.

With freemium, a company’s prices must be a function of the perceived value of their products. For example, companies that offer a free version of their software can’t ask users to pay $100 to transition to the paid version. Prices must present a low barrier to entry and grow incrementally as customers are offered more features and benefits.

Freemium Pricing in Marketing

Freemium pricing may not make your business a lot of money on the initial acquisition of a customer, but it gives you access to the customer which is just as valuable. With access to their email inboxes, phone number, and any other contact information you gather in exchange for the free product, you can nurture the customer into a brand loyal advocate with a worthwhile LTV .

2. Premium Pricing

Also known as prestige pricing and luxury pricing, a premium pricing model is when companies price their products high to present the image that their products are high-value, luxury, or premium. Prestige pricing focuses on the perceived value of a product rather than the actual value or production cost.

Prestige pricing is a direct function of brand awareness and brand perception. Brands that apply this pricing method are known for providing value and status through their products — which is why they’re priced higher than other competitors. Fashion and technology are often priced using this model because they can be marketed as luxurious, exclusive, and rare.

Premium Pricing in Marketing

Premium pricing is quite dependent upon the perception of your product within the market. There are a few ways to market your product in order to influence a premium perception of it including using influencers, controlling supply, and driving up demand.

3. Hourly Pricing

Hourly pricing, also known as rate-based pricing, is commonly used by consultants, freelancers, contractors, and other individuals or laborers who provide business services. Hourly pricing is essentially trading time for money. Some clients are hesitant to honor this pricing strategy as it can reward labor instead of efficiency.

Hourly Pricing in Marketing

If your business thrives on quick, high-volume projects, hourly pricing can be just the incentive for customers to work with you. By breaking down your prices into hourly chunks, customers can make the decision to work with you based on a low price point rather than finding room in their budget for an expensive project-based commitment.

4. Bundle Pricing

Bundle pricing is when you offer (or "bundle") two or more complementary products or services together and sell them for a single price. You may choose to sell your bundled products or services only as part of a bundle, or sell them as both components of bundles and individual products.

This is a great way to add value through your offerings to customers who are willing to pay extra upfront for more than one product. It can also help you get your customers hooked on more than one of your products faster.

Bundle Pricing in Marketing

Marketing bundle deals can help you sell more products than you would otherwise sell individually. It’s a smart way to upsell and cross-sell your offerings in a way that is beneficial for the customer and your revenue goals.

5. Project-Based Pricing

Project-based pricing is the opposite of hourly pricing — this approach charges a flat fee per project instead of a direct exchange of money for time. It is also used by consultants, freelancers, contractors, and other individuals or laborers who provide business services.

Project-based pricing may be estimated based on the value of the project deliverables. Those who choose this pricing model may also create a flat fee from the estimated time of the project.

Project-Based Pricing in Marketing

Leading with the benefits a customer will derive from working with your business on a project can make project-based pricing more appealing. Although the cost of the project may be steep, the one-time investment can be worth it. Your clients will know that they’ll be able to work with you until the project is completed rather than until their allotted hours are depleted.

6. Subscription Pricing

Subscription pricing is a common pricing model at SaaS companies, online retailers, and even agencies who offer subscription packages for their services.

Whether you offer flat rate subscriptions or tiered subscriptions, the benefits of this model are endless. For one, you have all but guaranteed monthly recurring revenue (MRR) and yearly recurring revenue. That makes it simpler to calculate your profits on a monthly basis. It also often leads to higher customer lifetime values .

The one thing to be wary of when it comes to subscription pricing is the high potential for customer churn . People cancel subscriptions all the time, so it's essential to have a customer retention strategy in place to ensure clients keep their subscriptions active.

Subscription Pricing in Marketing

When marketing your subscription products, it's essential to create buyer personas for each tier. That way, you know which features to include and what will appeal to each buyer. A general subscription that appeals to everyone won't pull in anyone.

Even Amazon, which offers flat-rate pricing for its Prime subscription, includes a membership for students. That allows them to market the original Prime more effectively by creating a sense of differentiation.

Now, let’s discuss how to build a pricing strategy of your own liking.

1. Evaluate pricing potential.

You want to make a strategy that is optimal for your unique business. To begin, you need to evaluate your pricing potential. This is the approximate product or service pricing your business can potentially achieve in regard to cost, demand, and more.

Some factors that can affect your pricing potential include:

• Geographical market specifics
• Operating costs
• Inventories
• Demand fluctuations
• Competitive advantages and concerns
• Demographic data

We’ll dive deeper into demographic data in the next step.

2. Determine your buyer personas.

You have to price your product on the type of buyer persona that’s looking for it. When you look at your ideal customer, you’ll have to look at their:

• Customer Lifetime Value
• Willingness to Pay
• Customer Pain Points

To aid in this process, interview customers and prospects to see what they do and like, and ask for your sales team’s feedback on the best leads and their characteristics.

3. Analyze historical data.

Take a look at your previous pricing strategies. You can calculate the difference in closed deals, churn data , or sold product on different pricing strategies that your business has worked with before and look at which were the most successful.

4. Strike a balance between value and business goals.

When developing your pricing strategy, you want to make sure the price is good to your bottom line and your buyer personas. This compromise will better help your business and customer pool, with the intentions of:

• Increasing profitability
• Improving cash flow
• Market penetration
• Expanding market share

5. Look at competitor pricing.

You can’t make a pricing strategy without conducting research on your competitors’ offerings. You’ll have to decide between two main choices when you see the price difference for your same product or service:

• Beat your competitors’ price - If a competitor is charging more for the same offering as your brand, then make the price more affordable.
• Beat your competitors’ value - Also known as value-based pricing , you can potentially price your offering higher than your competitors if the value provided to the customer is greater.

To see the competition’s full product or service offering, conduct a full competitive analysis so you can see their strengths and weaknesses, and make your pricing strategy accordingly.

So we’ve gone over how to create a pricing strategy, now let’s discuss how to apply these steps to different businesses and industries.

Not every pricing strategy is applicable to every business. Some strategies are better suited for physical products whereas others work best for SaaS companies. Here are examples of some common pricing models based on industry and business.

Product Pricing Model

Unlike digital products or services, physical products incur hard costs (like shipping, production, and storage) that can influence pricing. A product pricing strategy should consider these costs and set a price that maximizes profit, supports research and development, and stands up against competitors.

👉🏼 We recommend these pricing strategies when pricing physical products : cost-plus pricing, competitive pricing, prestige pricing, and value-based pricing.

Digital Product Pricing Model

Digital products, like software, online courses, and digital books, require a different approach to pricing because there’s no tangible offering or unit economics (production cost) involved. Instead, prices should reflect your brand, industry, and overall value of your product.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing digital products: competition-based pricing, freemium pricing, and value-based pricing.

Restaurant Pricing Model

Restaurant pricing is unique in that physical costs, overhead costs, and service costs are all involved. You must also consider your customer base, overall market trends for your location and cuisine, and the cost of food — as all of these can fluctuate.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing at restaurants: cost-plus pricing, premium pricing, and value-based pricing.

Event Pricing Model

Events can’t be accurately measured by production cost (not unlike the digital products we discussed above). Instead, event value is determined by the cost of marketing and organizing the event as well as the speakers, entertainers, networking, and the overall experience — and the ticket prices should reflect these factors.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing live events: competition-based pricing, dynamic pricing, and value-based pricing.

Services Pricing Model

Business services can be hard to price due to their intangibility and lack of direct production cost. Much of the service value comes from the service provider’s ability to deliver and the assumed caliber of their work. Freelancers and contractors , in particular, must adhere to a services pricing strategy.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing services: hourly pricing, project-based pricing, and value-based pricing.

Nonprofit Pricing Model

Nonprofits need pricing strategies, too — a pricing strategy can help nonprofits optimize all processes so they’re successful over an extended period of time.

A nonprofit pricing strategy should consider current spending and expenses, the breakeven number for their operation, ideal profit margin, and how the strategy will be communicated to volunteers, licensees, and anyone else who needs to be informed. A nonprofit pricing strategy is unique because it often calls for a combination of elements that come from a few pricing strategies.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing nonprofits: competitive pricing, cost-plus pricing, demand pricing, and hourly pricing.

Education Pricing Model

Education encompasses a wide range of costs that are important to consider depending on the level of education, private or public education, and education program/ discipline.

Specific costs to consider in an education pricing strategy are tuition, scholarships, additional fees (labs, books, housing, meals, etc.). Other important factors to note are competition among similar schools, demand (number of student applications), number and costs of professors/ teachers, and attendance rates.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing education: competitive pricing, cost-based pricing, and premium pricing.

Real Estate Pricing Model

Real estate encompasses home value estimates, market competition, housing demand, and cost of living. There are other factors that play a role in real estate pricing models including potential bidding wars, housing estimates and benchmarks (which are available through real estate agents but also through free online resources like Zillow ), and seasonal shifts in the real estate market.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing real estate: competitive pricing, dynamic pricing, premium pricing, and value-based pricing.

Agency Pricing Model

Agency pricing models impact your profitability, retention rates, customer happiness, and how you market and sell your agency. When developing and evolving your agency’s pricing model, it’s important to take into consideration different ways to optimize it so you can determine the best way to boost the business's profits.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing agencies: hourly pricing, project-based pricing, and value-based pricing.

Manufacturing Pricing Model

The manufacturing industry is complex — there are a number of moving parts and your manufacturing pricing model is no different. Consider product evolution, demand, production cost, sale price, unit sales volume, and any other costs related to your process and product. Another key part to a manufacturing pricing strategy is understanding the maximum amount the market will pay for your specific product to allow for the greatest profit.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing manufacturing: competitive pricing, cost-plus pricing, and value-based pricing.

Ecommerce Pricing Model

Ecommerce pricing models are how you determine the price at which you’ll sell your online products and what it'll cost you to do so. Meaning, you must think about what your customers are willing to pay for your online products and what those products cost you to purchase and/or create. You might also factor in your online campaigns to promote these products as well as how easy it is for your customers to find similar products to yours on the ecommerce sites of your competitors.

👉🏼 We recommend using these pricing strategies when pricing ecommerce: competitive pricing, cost-based pricing, dynamic pricing, freemium pricing, penetration pricing, and value-based pricing.

Pricing Analysis

Pricing analysis is a process of evaluating your current pricing strategy against market demand. Generally, pricing analysis examines price independently of cost. The goal of a pricing analysis is to identify opportunities for pricing changes and improvements.

You typically conduct a pricing analysis when considering new product ideas, developing your positioning strategy, or running marketing tests. It's also wise to run a price analysis once every year or two to evaluate your pricing against competitors and consumer expectations — doing so preemptively avoids having to wait for poor product performance.

How to Conduct a Pricing Analysis

1. determine the true cost of your product or service..

To calculate the true cost of a product or service that you sell, you’ll want to recognize all of your expenses including both fixed and variable costs. Once you’ve determined these costs, subtract them from the price you’ve already set or plan to set for your product or service.

2. Understand how your target market and customer base respond to the pricing structure.

Surveys, focus groups, or questionnaires can be helpful in determining how the market responds to your pricing model. You’ll get a glimpse into what your target customers value and how much they’re willing to pay for the value your product or service provides.

3. Analyze the prices set by your competitors.

There are two types of competitors to consider when conducting a pricing analysis: direct and indirect.

Direct competitors are those who sell the exact same product that you sell. These types of competitors are likely to compete on price so they should be a priority to review in your pricing analysis.

Indirect competitors are those who sell alternative products that are comparable to what you sell. If a customer is looking for your product, but it’s out of stock or it’s out of their price range, they may go to an indirect competitor to get a similar product.

4. Review any legal or ethical constraints to cost and price.

There’s a fine line between competing on price and falling into legal and ethical trouble. You’ll want to have a firm understanding of price-fixing and predatory pricing while doing your pricing analysis in order to steer clear of these practices.

Analyzing your current pricing model is necessary to determine a new (and better!) pricing strategy. This applies whether you're developing a new product, upgrading your current one, or simply repositioning your marketing strategy.

Next, let’s look at some examples of pricing strategies that you can use for your own business.

Dynamic Pricing Strategy: Chicago Cubs Freemium Pricing Strategy: HubSpot Penetration Pricing Strategy: Netflix Premium Pricing: AWAY Competitive Pricing Strategy: Shopify Project-Based Pricing Strategy: Courtney Samuel Events Value-Based Pricing Strategy: INBOUND Bundle Pricing: State Farm Geographic Pricing: Gasoline

Pricing models can be hard to visualize. Below, we’ve pulled together a list of examples of pricing strategies as they’ve been applied to everyday situations or businesses.

1. Dynamic Pricing Strategy: Chicago Cubs

I live in Chicago five blocks away from Wrigley Field, and my friends and I love going to Cubs games. Finding tickets is always interesting, though, because every time we check prices, they’ve fluctuated a bit from the last time. Purchasing tickets six weeks in advance is always a different process than purchasing them six days prior — and even more sox pricing at the gate.

This is an example of dynamic pricing — pricing that varies based on market and customer demand. Prices for Cubs games are always more expensive on holidays, too, when more people are visiting the city and are likely to go to a game.

(Another prime example of dynamic pricing is INBOUND , for which tickets get more expensive as the event nears.)

2. Freemium Pricing Strategy: HubSpot

HubSpot is an example of freemium pricing at work. There's a free version of the CRM for scaling businesses as well as paid plans for the businesses using the CRM platform that need a wider range of features .

Moreover, within those marketing tools, HubSpot provides limited access to specific features. This type of pricing strategy allows customers to acquaint themselves with HubSpot and for HubSpot to establish trust with customers before asking them to pay for additional access.

3. Penetration Pricing Strategy: Netflix

Netflix is a classic example of penetration pricing : entering the market at a low price (does anyone remember when it was $7.99?) and increasing prices over time. Since I joined a couple of years ago, I’ve seen a few price increase notices come through my own inbox.

Despite their increases, Netflix continues to retain — and gain — customers. Sure, Netflix only increases their subscription fee by $1 or $2 each time, but they do so consistently. Who knows what the fees will be in five or ten years?

4. Premium Pricing: AWAY

There are lots of examples of premium pricing strategies … Rolex, Tesla, Nike — you name it. One that I thought of immediately was AWAY luggage .

Does luggage need to be almost $500? I’d say no, especially since I recently purchased a two-piece Samsonite set for one-third the cost. However, AWAY has still been very successful even though they charge a high price for their luggage. This is because when you purchase AWAY, you’re purchasing an experience. The unique branding and the image AWAY portrays for customers make the value of the luggage match the purchase price.

5. Competitive Pricing Strategy: Shopify

Shopify is an ecommerce platform that helps businesses manage their stores and sell their products online. Shopify — which integrates with HubSpot — has a competitive pricing strategy.

There are a number of ecommerce software options on the market today — Shopify differentiates itself by the features they provide users and the price at which they offer them. They have three thoughtfully-priced versions of their product for customers to choose from with a number of customizable and flexible features.

With these extensive options tailored to any ecommerce business' needs, the cost of Shopify is highly competitive and is often the same as or lower than other ecommerce platforms on the market today.

6. Project-Based Pricing Strategy: Courtney Samuel Events

Anyone who's planned a wedding knows how costly they can be. I'm in the midst of planning my own, and I've found that the bundled, project-based fees are the easiest to manage. For example, my wedding coordinator Courtney charges one flat fee for her services. This pricing approach focuses on the value of the outcome (e.g., an organized and stressless wedding day) instead of the value of the time spent on calls, projects, or meetings.

Because vendors like Courtney typically deliver a variety of services — wedding planning, day-of coordination, physical meetings, etc. — in addition to spending time answering questions and providing thoughtful suggestions, a project-based fee better captures the value of her work. Project-based pricing is also helpful for clients and companies who'd rather pay a flat fee or monthly retainer than deal with tracked hours or weekly invoices.

7. Value-Based Pricing Strategy: INBOUND

While INBOUND doesn't leave the ultimate ticket price up to its attendees, it does provide a range of tickets from which customers can choose. By offering multiple ticket "levels," customers can choose what experience they want to have based on how they value the event.

INBOUND tickets change with time, however, meaning this pricing strategy could also be considered dynamic (like the Cubs example above). As the INBOUND event gets closer, tickets tend to rise in price.

8. Bundle Pricing: State Farm

State Farm is known for its tongue-in-cheek advertisements and its bundle deals for home and auto insurance. You can receive a quote on one or the other, but getting a quote on both can save you money on your premiums.

State Farm benefits from bundle pricing by selling more policies, and consumers benefit by paying less than they normally would if they used two different insurance providers for home and auto coverage.

9. Geographic Pricing: Gasoline

Gasoline is notorious for having a wide range of prices around the world, but even within the United States, prices can vary by several dollars depending on the state you live in. In California for example, gas prices have consistently hovered around $3 in the summer months for the past 10 years. On the other hand, gas prices in Indiana have been in the $2 range during the same time period. Laws, environmental factors, and production cost all influence the price of gasoline in California which causes the geographic disparity in the cost of the fuel.

Get Your Pricing Strategy Right

Thinking about everything that goes into pricing can make your head spin: competitors, production costs, customer demand, industry needs, profit margins … the list is endless. Thankfully, you don’t have to master all of these factors at once.

Simply sit down, calculate some numbers (like your COGS and profit goals), and figure out what’s most important for your business. Start with what you need, and this will help you pinpoint the right kind of pricing strategy to use.

More than anything, though, remember pricing is an iterative process. It’s highly unlikely that you’ll set the right prices right away — it might take a couple of tries (and lots of research), and that’s OK.

Editor's note: This post was originally published in March 2019 and has been updated for comprehensiveness.

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Calculating the unit economics for your startup: Guide

Kateryna Pysmenna

Tech Researcher

Head of Business Development

Get your project estimation!

To keep afloat, every startup needs to be profitable. In theory, all you need to do is maximize the difference between the cost of production and the marketing costs for your product or service. In practice, just as you can’t reduce the cost of production to zero, you can’t endlessly increase your marketing costs because of competitors and the solvency of your target customers.

How to find the right balance between expenses and revenues that will make your business viable? There’s one possible answer — by calculating your unit economics .

Making unit economics clearer

The core of unit economics for startups is identifying whether you earn a profit or go into the red after you’ve sold a product unit and incurred all costs associated with that sale. First of all, let’s get to the bottom of the costs, then clarify what counts as a product unit.

What should you include in costs?

Variable costs are those which change according to production volume. The more product units you produce, the higher your variable costs, and vice versa. Variable costs include:

• Cost of raw materials for production
• Packaging costs
• Shipping costs
• Usage-based equipment depreciation
• Credit card fees on customer transactions
• Wages for labor, assuming they’re hourly
• Marketing campaigns
• Sales commissions

Unlike variable costs, fixed costs remain the same whether you produce something or not, so you can’t reduce or eliminate them. Examples of fixed costs include:

• Lease payments
• Rent payments
• Fixed salaries
• Employee benefits
• Payroll taxes
• Office supplies

Let’s highlight one more dimension of costs — the cost of goods sold ( COGS ) . What falls under COGS are any expenses directly associated with production of your goods or services, whether they are variable or fixed. To understand how to calculate unit economics for your startup, you should have a clear picture of what to consider as your COGS. For a software as a service business, COGS can include:

• Hosting costs (costs for cloud computing services like AWS, Dropbox, and Google Drive)
• Costs for third-party APIs and SDKs embedded in your online constructor (payment gateways like Stripe or PayPal)
• Credit card fees on customer transactions (percentage of customer payments)
• Costs for website maintenance (managing data centers and servers)
• Costs for customer support (onboarding, consulting, data exporting, transaction assistance)

What counts as a product unit?

A unit is an element that generates measurable value for your business. Depending on what your business counts as a unit, you can approach unit economics calculation in two ways:

Approach #1. When a unit is one item sold

You can define a unit as one item sold if you have:

• An online shop in which one item sold is a physical good you’re selling
• A software as a service platform , where one item sold is a paid subscription (monthly, quarterly, annual, etc.)
• A B2C platform , where one item sold can be defined as one ride in a car , one order or one delivery (if you decide to make an on-demand food delivery app like Postmates )

To determine unit economics in this case, first of all, you need to calculate how much profit you can get after selling your goods or services — that is, you have to calculate your gross profit :

After getting your gross profit, you can figure out how profitable your business is by calculating the percentage of gross profit in your total sales — that is, by calculating your contribution margin :

Example. Say you’re going to sell porcelain cups via your website. The cost to produce one cup is $5: $2 for raw materials and $3 for the direct labor involved in producing one cup. Plus, you need to pay on average $2 for packaging and delivery and $1 for credit card transaction fees. Also, you need to spend on average $1 on marketing and sales efforts to sell one cup. Thus, your variable costs will be $9 . You can sell cups for $15 each. In this case, your gross profit per cup will be $15 - $9 = $6 . To calculate your net profit, you need to take into account your fixed costs. Assuming you incur monthly fixed costs of $3,000, which includes office rent, insurance, taxes, employee salaries, utilities, and technical maintenance and support for your website. In this case, your monthly profit will look like this :

As you can see, you can reach the break-even point when your fixed costs are equal to your gross profit based on 500 cups sold. Let’s calculate your contribution margin:

This means that you’ll earn only $0.40 from every dollar in sales . If you strive to increase your profit (which means increasing your contribution margin as well), you need to reduce your variable costs.

Approach #2. When you link a unit with one customer

This customer-centric approach is common for developing software products both for B2C and B2B segments:

• For B2B , a unit might be an entry in a CRM system . For example, for a medical equipment supplier like Philips, a unit can be defined as a hospital where Philips has established its respiratory ventilators.
• For B2C websites , mobile apps, and SaaS platforms, a unit can be defined as a user , a customer , or a subscriber . If you make a real estate platform like Zillow , your unit will likely be a homebuyer, a tenant, or an agent; when creating a fitness app , your unit will be a coach or an athlete; building an educational app , your unit will be a teacher or a learner.

When you define a unit as one customer, calculating your unit economics will be based on a ratio of two key mobile app engagement metrics :

• Customer acquisition cost (CAC) , which estimates the cost to attract one customer
• Customer lifetime value (LTV) , which shows how much revenue one customer will bring to your company before stopping to use your product or service

The core equation for calculating unit economics for a startup is as follows:

Example. Let's assume you want to sell courses via an online educational platform. It takes you $450 to make video lessons for one course, and you can sell one course for $20 per student. After building an e-learning website , you get an average of 30 paying students per course, so your variable costs are $15 per student. You get a gross profit of $5 on each sale. To attract one paying student, you need to spend $5. Students tend to buy three courses on average until they totally satisfy their educational needs. Thus, your CAC is $5 and your LTV is $5 x 3= $15 . Since your LTV is triple your CAC, investors are likely to consider your online educational platform worth investment.

Key reasons why you need to calculate unit economics

For every venture, CAC needs to be less than LTV . This rule is a basic unit economics calculation. However, many of Silicon Valley’s failures happen because companies (and their investors) have a firm belief in their ability to somehow sidestep this law.

An illustrative example is Hollar , with its idea to sell branded consumables through an online dollar store. Hollar’s team thought they could provide discounts on premium goods thanks to customers who would buy multiple items at a time, thereby cutting shipping costs. But selling at a loss and skyrocketing financial losses were the facts of Hollar's life. Not helpful was over $77 million in funding that the online shop had raised since the 2015 year founded, and in February 2020 Hollar announced its closing.

Bret Waters who teaches entrepreneurship at Stanford once said:

“It turns out that selling dollar bills for eighty cents is really fun — and makes you really popular – but isn’t exactly sustainable”

That’s why the unit economics calculation is very important. At the early stages , a thorough calculation of your unit economics with a high dose of realism can prevent major financial losses and frustration in business. No less useful can be calculating unit economics as your startup grows and develops .

To learn how to estimate your unit economics for a startup, let’s take a look at a specific example of a software as a service business and make predictive unit economics calculations.

Note that unit economics for your first-purchase customers and repeat customers have different values. In the following example, we’ve made calculations for first-purchase customers. To figure out how to calculate unit economics for SaaS businesses by dividing users into cohorts, scroll down.

Seven steps to calculate SaaS unit economics

Say you’re going to develop a platform like WordPress . Your goal is to allow entrepreneurs to create websites without hiring developers. To introduce your online constructor’s capabilities, you provide users with a 14-day free trial. Then, you offer a paid subscription: $10 per month or $100 per year. So, let's look at an example of how to calculate unit economics for SaaS.

Step 1. Define the right conversion rate

Thanks to your marketing campaigns, let’s assume you attract 20,000 website visitors in the first month. This is your monthly user acquisition (UA) . Out of these 20,000 visitors, 500 visitors turn into leads — those who push the button and start a free 14-day trial. In this case, you get your first conversion rate (CR1) :

After trying your web constructor for free, out of 500 leads, let’s say 170 leads pay a monthly subscription and 30 leads become annual subscribers. You can calculate your second conversion rate (CR2) separately for monthly and annual subscribers or collectively:

Step 2. Find your average price

To calculate unit economics for your startup, you need to know your average price (AvP) — the arithmetic average of your customers’ payments per month:

In our example:

Step 3. Determine your cost of goods sold (COGS)

Besides calculating your average price, you should be aware of how much it costs you to deliver your online service to customers — that is, you should identify your COGS . Typically, the COGS for a SaaS platform should be between 10% to 20% of the total product price. Let’s say that it costs you $4.50 to deliver your service to a customer.

Step 4. Set your average payment count

One more metric you need to determine is the average payment count ( APC ), which indicates the average number of payments that one customer will make while using your software. For example, if your customers buy monthly subscriptions for 18 months on average, your APC will be 18.

Step 5. Calculate your average revenue (ARPC, ARPU)

Now let’s move to the average revenue you’ll get from a single customer within the period of using your product. This metric can be referred to as average revenue per customer ( ARPC ) or customer lifetime value ( cLTV ), but either way the approach to calculating it is the same:

Now it’s simple to figure out how much revenue your average user (in our example, a website visitor) brings. You can calculate the average revenue per user ( ARPU ) or lifetime value ( LTV ) using the following formula:

In our example, you’ll get:

Step 6. Define your acquisition cost (marketing budget, CPA, CAC)

To calculate unit economics for startups, it’s important to know how much it will cost you to attract a single customer. To acquire 20,000 visitors to your website, you’re likely to spend a lot on:

• Paid advertising
• SEO and marketing tools
• Sales and marketing staff salaries

For example, say your user acquisition budget is $100,000 per month. Dividing this number with the total number of users that visit your website, you can figure out how much it costs you to attract one user, or your cost per acquisition (CPA) :

The next step is to figure out how much it will cost you to attract one paying customer (subscriber). Change the denominator in the CPA equation to the number of customers per month to get your customer acquisition cost (CAC) :

Let’s sum up the unit economics calculation for your hypothetical SaaS business. It turns out that you spend $5 to attract one website visitor and get back $3.42, and it costs you $500 to get a paying customer who gives you only $342 in payback . With CAC less than LTV, this SaaS business is loss-making .

Step 7. Calculate your profit (revenue, GP, GPM, CM)

Let’s take a closer look at metrics that refer to your startup’s revenue and profit.

Revenue ( R ) indicates the turnover you get from your subscription sales in a month. You can calculate it with the following formula:

Gross profit ( GP ) measures the effectiveness of your budget use when comparing the revenue to the cost associated with producing your product or service. It looks like this:

Unlike gross profit, which is a current value, gross profit margin ( GPM ) is gross profit as a percentage of the company’s revenue. In other words, the gross profit margin indicates how effective your company is at generating revenue from each dollar you’ve spent on production.

The equation to calculate GPM is as follows:

The contribution margin ( CM ) shows the effectiveness of selling your product or service on your user flow. To calculate it, multiply your user acquisition rate by the difference between the revenue you get from a single user and the cost to attract that user:

Despite your gross profit margin being high, you have a solid cash gap between the revenue you get and the amount you spend. Some companies entertain the illusion that profit from devoted customers in subsequent repeat purchases can close this gap and make their unit economics positive. Don’t get yourself into this illusion!

It’s vital — especially for newly formed businesses — to reach positive unit economics on first purchases before the budget dries out. You should be sure that your startup idea will be profitable regardless of whether someone wants to buy your product/service again or only once .

Four high-impact tactics to improve your unit economics

When your CAC > LTV, what can you do to reverse these metrics? First of all, you need to discover the metrics that will significantly increase your LTV or reduce your CAC if slightly changed. In most cases, improving unit economics for your tech startup is about changing four indicators: user acquisition, cost per acquisition, conversion rate, and average payment count.

• Increase user acquisition. This metric impacts your cost per acquisition: the higher your UA, the lower your CPA. If you have a low user acquisition rate, it means you have problems with marketing, advertising campaigns, and virality.
• Cut cost per acquisition. This metric impacts your contribution margin: the lower your CPA, the higher your CM. If your CPA is high, it means you use non-targeted marketing channels, face too much competition, or your communication with users is far from perfect.
• Improve your conversion rate. This is the most essential indicator of user engagement. CR increases your LTV, so the higher your CR, the more profitable your business. If users don’t understand the benefits of your offer after visiting your website, get tired of your long sales funnel, or get confused with your UX design, your conversion rate will be miserable.
• Increase average payment count. This metric shows how marketable your product or service is, how well it meets your target users’ needs, and how loyal your customers are to your brand. Your LTV is directly tied to your APC. If your APC is low, pay attention to the retention rate and how often you offer users to purchase your product (push notifications, call-to-action buttons, pop-ups, etc.).

Let’s find the optimal unit economics model for a SaaS platform using the reactive approach. Say your fixed costs on rent, utilities, salaries, and taxes are about $20,000 per month, and to cover them, you want to reach a positive contribution margin of $30,000.

As you can see, increasing user acquisition from 20,000 website visitors to 30,000, the conversion rate from 1% to 1.35%, and the average payment count from 18 to 24 payments leads to the desired contribution margin of $29,060. This contribution margin allows you to cover fixed costs and turn a loss-making business into a profitable one.

Before you dive into your startup development, it’s sensible to figure out whether you can generate the user traffic, conversion rate, cost per acquisition, marketing budget, and number of repeat purchases required to stay afloat.

To do this, our unit economics calculator can come in handy. Download it, put your values in the yellow cells, calculate your unit economics, and analyze the outputs.

To understand whether you can expand your business right now, while calculating the user traffic you need, take into account only those acquisition channels that can bring you rapid results. For example, advertising campaigns can sharply skyrocket the number of your website visitors, unlike organic traffic or referral marketing , which require more time and effort to increase your user acquisition rate.

Moving from predictive to flexible unit economics

As your business grows, you will collect more and more data about your key performance metrics. To correctly measure your profit and choose effective ways for business expansion, you need to calculate and analyze unit economics by dividing users into cohorts accounting for their retention rate and churn rate and by specifying your monthly recurring revenue.

Cohort analysis

Predictive unit economics is based on one cohort of users : the first buyers in the first month of your website operating. But since your business develops, you’ll get:

• monthly active users
• users that buy only one time
• users that buy your product or service for some period and then quit
• users that don’t buy anything during a couple of months and then return

All these types of users generate different revenue, have unique conversion rates, and require separate calculations. Cohort analysis is a matrix that you can use to divide users into groups (for example, by month) and record what revenue they bring to you each month.

Monthly recurring revenue

For SaaS businesses, subscription types can vary, as can the size of monthly payments from customers. For example, some of your customers can move from an existing plan to a lower plan or to a higher plan and buy add-ons or cross-products in a given month.

To make your unit economics analysis more thorough, you need to define your monthly recurring revenue ( MRR ). It indicates the revenue from all active subscriptions along with periodic charges from discounts, add-ons, cross-selling, and coupons over a specific month.

To make a thorough unit economics analysis for an existing business, you need to take into account all types of MRR, namely:

• New MRR — First payments from new customers
• Old MRR — Recurring payments from current customers
• Expansion MRR — Extra payments driven by customers’ moving to more expensive plans
• Contraction MRR — Reduced payments due to customers’ moving to less expensive plans
• Churn MRR — Reduction in payments for a specific month
• Reactivation MRR — Renewed payments caused by the return of customers who account for churn MRR

Calculating unit economics for an existing business isn’t a cakewalk. We’ll consider it in more detail in subsequent posts.

If you want to conduct a meticulous analysis of your unit economics, be ready to explore lots of indicators and combine them to see the whole picture. Usually, tracking profitability in a company is a task for the chief financial officer (CFO). As for software development, unit economics is the prerogative of a product manager .

If you have any questions or you need help with bringing your website or mobile app idea to the market, feel free to contact us .

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Pricing Strategies and Models Explained

4 min. read

Updated January 18, 2024

What’s the right price for your product or service?

What price will make you profitable and attract customers?

Not sure? Keep reading to learn the basics of pricing strategy and setting the right price.

• What is a pricing strategy?

A pricing strategy is the overarching approach or plan a business uses to determine the price of its products or services. 

It considers various factors such as market conditions, competition, production costs, and the perceived value to the customer. The ultimate goal of a pricing strategy is to maximize profitability, maintain or grow market share, and ensure long-term sustainability while meeting the company’s other objectives.

• What is a pricing model?

A pricing model is the specific method used to set the price of a product or service. It provides a structure to implement your chosen pricing strategy.

What’s the difference?

The distinction between a pricing strategy and a pricing model lies in their scope, purpose, and application.

The pricing strategy aligns prices with business objectives, market conditions, and customer perceptions. A pricing strategy considers market entry tactics, customer psychology, brand positioning, and long-term market objectives. 

The pricing model is the mathematical method you use to create a specific price. It usually involves manufacturing costs, customer demand, and competitor pricing. 

Think of the strategy as the roadmap guiding where a company wants to go with its pricing and the model as the vehicle it uses to get there.

• Types of pricing strategies

1. Penetration pricing

Setting an initial low price to quickly attract customers and establish a market presence. Ideal for new entrants wanting rapid market share. 

Example: Streaming services offering discounted rates for the first three months.

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2. Price skimming

Starting with a high price and then reducing it over time. Suitable for innovative products. 

Example: New tech gadgets like smartphones often use this strategy.

3. Value-based pricing

Pricing based on the perceived value to the customer rather than production costs. Works best for unique products or services. 

Example: Luxury brands like Rolex or Louis Vuitton.

4. Competitive pricing

Setting prices based on competitor rates. Ideal for industries with many competitors offering similar products. 

Example: Supermarkets pricing staple goods.

5. Premium pricing

Charging a higher price to reflect a product’s premium status and quality. 

Example: Brands like Apple or Tesla.

6. Economy pricing

Offering no-frills products at a low price. Common in mass markets. 

Example: Budget airlines like Ryanair.

7. Bundle pricing

Grouping multiple products together at a discounted rate. Useful for increasing sales volume. 

Example: Cable TV packages.

8. Price leadership

Price leadership occurs when one dominant company, usually the largest or most influential in an industry, sets the price of a product or service, and other competitors in the market follow suit.

Example:  

OPEC often influences global oil prices by adjusting its production levels. 

9. Preemptive pricing

Intended to drive away competition or deter others from entering the marketplace by deliberately selling at below market prices (temporarily, of course).

Amazon launching the Kindle with e-books priced below typical hardcover prices. 

• Types of pricing models

1. Cost-plus pricing

Calculating the cost of production and adding a fixed gross margin. Common in retail. 

Example: A shirt that costs $20 to make might be sold for $40.

2. Geographic pricing

Adjusting prices based on location or region. 

Example: A software product priced differently for the U.S. versus India.

3. Dynamic pricing model

Prices change based on real-time factors. 

Example: Uber’s surge pricing during high demand.

4. Tiered pricing model

Different prices for varying levels of product features. See an example of how tiers and introductory pricing can be used to introduce and grow your business.

Example: Software packages with Basic, Pro, and Premium tiers.

5. Freemium model

Basic services are free, with charges for advanced features. 

Example: Spotify offers free music streaming but charges for an ad-free experience.

6. Subscription model

Recurring fee for product or service access. 

Example: Monthly Netflix subscriptions.

7. Pay-what-you-want model

Customers choose their price. Often seen in indie industries. 

Example: Some indie video games or music albums.

8. Volume-based pricing

Decreased price per unit with increased quantity. 

Example: Wholesale retailers like Costco.

9. License pricing model

One-time fee for product usage over a period. 

Example: Microsoft Office’s one-time purchase option.

10. High-low pricing model 

Products have a higher standard price but are frequently discounted. 

Example: Department stores having frequent sales.

• How to choose your pricing strategy

Selecting a pricing strategy comes down to cost, goals, and customer perception. Here’s how:

1. Set business objectives

Define clear goals, such as maximizing profit, penetrating the market, establishing a premium brand image, or achieving specific revenue targets. Your pricing should align with these objectives.

2. Understand your costs

Consider both direct costs (like raw materials and labor) and expenses (such as rent and marketing). Factor in variable costs that change with production volume and expenses that remain constant. Determine the break-even point to identify the minimum price needed to cover all expenses.

3. Analyze the competition

Research competitor prices and understand their value propositions. Identify their market positioning, whether premium or budget and observe any historical pricing trends or changes to gauge market reactions.

4. Know your audience

Understand your target audience’s demographics and what they value in a product. Gauge their price sensitivity and gather feedback on pricing preferences to ensure your price resonates with them.

5. Test and adjust

Before a broad rollout, test the new pricing on a segment of your audience. Refine your pricing based on customer input.

• More on pricing products and services

Check out our other startup pricing resources to turn your pricing strategy into profitable steps for your business.

• How to price your products
• How to price your services
• Mistakes to avoid when setting prices

See why 1.2 million entrepreneurs have written their business plans with LivePlan

Kody Wirth is a content writer and SEO specialist for Palo Alto Software—the creator's of Bplans and LivePlan. He has 3+ years experience covering small business topics and runs a part-time content writing service in his spare time.

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What Is Break-Even Analysis?

Break-even point formula.

• Calculating BEP and Contribution Margin

Who Calculates the BEP?

Why break-even analysis matters, the bottom line.

• Investing Basics

Break-Even Analysis: Formula and Calculation

Adam Hayes, Ph.D., CFA, is a financial writer with 15+ years Wall Street experience as a derivatives trader. Besides his extensive derivative trading expertise, Adam is an expert in economics and behavioral finance. Adam received his master's in economics from The New School for Social Research and his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in sociology. He is a CFA charterholder as well as holding FINRA Series 7, 55 & 63 licenses. He currently researches and teaches economic sociology and the social studies of finance at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

Gordon Scott has been an active investor and technical analyst or 20+ years. He is a Chartered Market Technician (CMT).

Break-even analysis compares income from sales to the fixed costs of doing business. Five components of break-even analysis include fixed costs, variable costs, revenue, contribution margin, and break-even point (BEP). When companies calculate the BEP, they identify the amount of sales required to cover all fixed costs to begin generating a profit. The break-even point formula can help find the BEP in units or sales dollars.

Key Takeaways:

• Using the break-even point formula, businesses can determine how many units or dollars of sales cover the fixed and variable production costs.
• The break-even point (BEP) is considered a measure of the margin of safety.
• Break-even analysis is used broadly, from stock and options trading to corporate budgeting for various projects.

Investopedia / Paige McLaughlin

Break-even analysis involves a calculation of the break-even point (BEP) . The break-even point formula divides the total fixed production costs by the price per individual unit, less the variable cost per unit.

BEP = Fixed Costs / (Price Per Unit - Variable Cost Per Unit)

Break-even analysis looks at the fixed costs relative to the profit earned by each additional unit produced and sold. A firm with lower fixed costs will have a lower break-even point of sale and $0 of fixed costs will automatically have broken even with the sale of the first product, assuming variable costs do not exceed sales revenue. Fixed costs remain the same regardless of how many units are sold. Examples of fixed and variable costs include:

Calculating the Break-Even Point and Contribution Margin

Break-even analysis and the BEP formula can provide firms with a product's contribution margin. The contribution margin is the difference between the selling price of the product and its variable costs. For example, if an item sells for $100, with fixed costs of $25 per unit, and variable costs of $60 per unit, the contribution margin is $40 ($100 - $60). This $40 reflects the revenue collected to cover the remaining fixed costs, which are excluded when figuring the contribution margin.

Contribution Margin = Item Price - Variable Cost Per Unit

To find the total units required to break even, divide the total fixed costs by the unit contribution margin. Assume total fixed costs are $20,000. With a contribution margin of $40 above, the break-even point is 500 units ($20,000 divided by $40). Upon selling 500 units, the payment of all fixed costs is complete, and the company will report a net profit or loss of $0.

BEP (Units) = Total Fixed Costs / Contribution Margin

To calculate the break-even point in sales dollars, divide the total fixed costs by the contribution margin ratio. The contribution margin ratio is the contribution margin per unit divided by the sale price.

Contribution Margin Ratio = Contribution Margin Per Unit / Item Price

BEP (Sales Dollars) = Total Fixed Costs / Contribution Margin Ratio

The contribution margin ratio is 40% ($40 contribution margin per item divided by $100 sale price per item). The break-even point in sales dollars is $50,000 ($20,000 total fixed costs divided by 40%).

In accounting, the margin of safety is the difference between actual sales and break-even sales. Managers utilize the margin of safety to know how much sales can decrease before the company or project becomes unprofitable.

• Entrepreneurs
• Financial Analysts
• Stock and Option Traders
• Government Agencies

Although investors are not interested in an individual company's break-even analysis on their production, they may use the calculation to determine at what price they will break even on a trade or investment. The calculation is useful when trading in or creating a strategy to buy options or a fixed-income security product.

• Pricing : Businesses get a comprehensible perspective on their cost structure with a break-even analysis, setting prices for their products that cover their fixed and variable costs and provide a reasonable profit margin.
• Decision-Making : When it comes to new products and services, operational expansion, or increased production, businesses can chart their profit to sales volume and use break-even analysis to help them make informed decisions surrounding those activities.
• Cost Reduction : Break-even analysis helps businesses find areas to reduce costs to increase profitability.
• Performance Metric: Break-even analysis is a financial performance tool that helps businesses ascertain where they are in achieving their goals.

What Are Some Limitations of Break-Even Analysis?

Break-even analysis assumes that the fixed and variable costs remain constant over time. Costs may change due to factors such as inflation, changes in technology, or changes in market conditions. It also assumes that there is a linear relationship between costs and production. Break-even analysis ignores external factors such as competition, market demand, and changes in consumer preferences.

What Are the Components of Break-Even Analysis?

There are five components of break-even analysis including fixed costs, variable costs, revenue, contribution margin, and the break-even point (BEP).

Why Is the Contribution Margin Important in Break-Even Analysis?

The contribution margin represents the revenue required to cover a business' fixed costs and contribute to its profit. Through the contribution margin calculation, a business can determine the break-even point and where it can begin earning a profit.

How Do Businesses Use the Break-Even Point in Break-Even Analysis?

The break-even point (BEP) helps businesses with pricing decisions, sales forecasting, cost management, and growth strategies. A business would not use break-even to measure its repayment of debt or how long that repayment will take to complete.

Break-even analysis is a tool used by businesses and stock and option traders. Break-even analysis is essential in determining the minimum sales volume required to cover total costs and break even. It helps businesses choose pricing strategies, and manage costs and operations. In stock and options trading, break-even analysis helps find the minimum price movements required to cover trading costs and make a profit. Traders can use break-even analysis to set realistic profit targets, manage risk, and make informed trading decisions.

U.S. Small Business Administration. " Break-Even Point ."

Professor Rosemary Nurre, College of San Mateo. " Accounting 131: Chapter 6, Cost-Volume-Profit Relationships ."

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Blogs & articles, how to write a pricing strategy for my business plan.

In this blog you will learn about the importance of choosing the right pricing strategy for a successful business plan.

Why is a pricing strategy important for a business plan?

A business plan is a written document outlining a company’s core business practices – from products and services offered to marketing, financial planning and budget, but also pricing strategy. This business plan can be very lengthy, outlining every aspect of the business in detail. Or it can be very short and lean for start ups that want to be as agile as possible.

This plan can be used for external investors and relations or for internal purposes. A business plan can be useful for internal purposes because it can make sure that all the decision makers are on the same page about the most important aspects of the business.

A 1% price increase can lead to an 8% increase in profit margin.

A business plan could be very lengthy and detailed or short and lean, but in all instances, it should have a clear vision for how pricing is tackled. A pricing strategy ultimately greatly determines the profit margin of your product or service and how much revenue the company will make. Thorough research of consultancy agencies also show that pricing is very important. McKinsey even argues that a 1% prices increase can lead up to an 8% increase in profits. That is a real example of how small adjustments can have a huge impact!

It is clear that each business plan should have a section about pricing strategies. How detailed and complicated this pricing strategy should be depends for each individual business and challenges in the business environment. However, businesses should at least take some factors into account when thinking about their pricing strategy.

What factors to take into account?

The pricing strategy can best be explained in the marketing section of your business plan. In this section you should describe what price you will charge for your product or service to customers and your argumentation for why you ask this. However, businesses always balance the challenging scale of charging too much or too little. Ideally you want to find the middle, the optimal price point.

The following questions need to be answered for writing a well-structured pricing strategy in your business plan:

What is the cost of your product or service?

Most companies need to be profitable. They need to pay their expenses, their employees and return a reasonable profit. Unless you are a well-funded-winner-takes-all-growth-company such as Uber or Gorillas, you will need to earn more than you spend on your products. In order to be profitable you need to know how much your expenses are, to remain profitable overall.

How does your price compare to other alternatives in the market?

Most companies have competitors for their products or services, only few companies can act as a monopoly. Therefore, you need to know how your price compares to the other prices in the market. Are you one of the cheapest, the most expensive or somewhere in the middle?

Why is your price competitive?

When you know the prices of your competitors, you need to be able to explain why your price is better or different than that of your competitions. Do you offer more value for the same price? Do you offer less, but are you the cheapest? Or does your company offer something so unique that a premium pricing strategy sounds fair to your customer? You need to be able to stand out from the competition and price is an efficient differentiator.

What is the expected ROI (Return On Investment)?

When you set your price, you need to be able to explain how much you are expeciting to make. Will the price you offer attract enough customers to make your business operate profitable? Let’s say your expenses are 10.000 euros per month, what return will your price get you for your expected amount of sales?

Top pricing strategies for a business plan

Now you know why pricing is important for your business plan, “but what strategies are best for me?” you may ask. Well, let’s talk pricing strategies. There are plenty of pricing strategies and which ones are best for which business depends on various factors and the industry. However, here is a list of 9 pricing strategies that you can use for your business plan.

• Cost-plus pricing
• Competitive pricing
• Key-Value item pricing
• Dynamic pricing
• Premium pricing
• Hourly based pricing
• Customer-value based pricing
• Psychological pricing
• Geographical pricing

Most of the time, businesses do not use a single pricing strategy in their business but rather a combination of pricing strategies. Cost-plus pricing or competitor based pricing can be good starting points for pricing, but if you make these dynamic or take geographical regions into account, then your pricing becomes even more advanced!

Pricing strategies should not be left out of your business plan. Having a clear vision on how you are going to price your product(s) and service(s) helps you to achieve the best possible profit margins and revenue. If you are able to answer thoughtfully on the questions asked in this blog then you know that you have a rather clear vision on your pricing strategy.

If there are still some things unclear or vague, then it would be adviceable to learn more about all the possible pricing strategies . You can always look for inspiration to our business cases. Do you want to know more about pricing or about SYMSON? Do not hesitate to contact us!

Do you want a free demo to try how SYMSON can help your business with margin improvement or pricing management? Do you want to learn more? Schedule a call with a consultant and book a 20 minute brainstorm session!

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Free Financial Templates for a Business Plan

By Andy Marker | July 29, 2020

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In this article, we’ve rounded up expert-tested financial templates for your business plan, all of which are free to download in Excel, Google Sheets, and PDF formats.

Included on this page, you’ll find the essential financial statement templates, including income statement templates , cash flow statement templates , and balance sheet templates . Plus, we cover the key elements of the financial section of a business plan .

Financial Plan Templates

Download and prepare these financial plan templates to include in your business plan. Use historical data and future projections to produce an overview of the financial health of your organization to support your business plan and gain buy-in from stakeholders

Business Financial Plan Template

Use this financial plan template to organize and prepare the financial section of your business plan. This customizable template has room to provide a financial overview, any important assumptions, key financial indicators and ratios, a break-even analysis, and pro forma financial statements to share key financial data with potential investors.

Download Financial Plan Template

Word | PDF | Smartsheet

Financial Plan Projections Template for Startups

This financial plan projections template comes as a set of pro forma templates designed to help startups. The template set includes a 12-month profit and loss statement, a balance sheet, and a cash flow statement for you to detail the current and projected financial position of a business.

‌ Download Startup Financial Projections Template

Excel | Smartsheet

Income Statement Templates for Business Plan

Also called profit and loss statements , these income statement templates will empower you to make critical business decisions by providing insight into your company, as well as illustrating the projected profitability associated with business activities. The numbers prepared in your income statement directly influence the cash flow and balance sheet forecasts.

Pro Forma Income Statement/Profit and Loss Sample

Use this pro forma income statement template to project income and expenses over a three-year time period. Pro forma income statements consider historical or market analysis data to calculate the estimated sales, cost of sales, profits, and more.

‌ Download Pro Forma Income Statement Sample - Excel

Small Business Profit and Loss Statement

Small businesses can use this simple profit and loss statement template to project income and expenses for a specific time period. Enter expected income, cost of goods sold, and business expenses, and the built-in formulas will automatically calculate the net income.

‌ Download Small Business Profit and Loss Template - Excel

3-Year Income Statement Template

Use this income statement template to calculate and assess the profit and loss generated by your business over three years. This template provides room to enter revenue and expenses associated with operating your business and allows you to track performance over time.

Download 3-Year Income Statement Template

For additional resources, including how to use profit and loss statements, visit “ Download Free Profit and Loss Templates .”

Cash Flow Statement Templates for Business Plan

Use these free cash flow statement templates to convey how efficiently your company manages the inflow and outflow of money. Use a cash flow statement to analyze the availability of liquid assets and your company’s ability to grow and sustain itself long term.

Simple Cash Flow Template

Use this basic cash flow template to compare your business cash flows against different time periods. Enter the beginning balance of cash on hand, and then detail itemized cash receipts, payments, costs of goods sold, and expenses. Once you enter those values, the built-in formulas will calculate total cash payments, net cash change, and the month ending cash position.

Download Simple Cash Flow Template

12-Month Cash Flow Forecast Template

Use this cash flow forecast template, also called a pro forma cash flow template, to track and compare expected and actual cash flow outcomes on a monthly and yearly basis. Enter the cash on hand at the beginning of each month, and then add the cash receipts (from customers, issuance of stock, and other operations). Finally, add the cash paid out (purchases made, wage expenses, and other cash outflow). Once you enter those values, the built-in formulas will calculate your cash position for each month with.

‌ Download 12-Month Cash Flow Forecast

3-Year Cash Flow Statement Template Set

Use this cash flow statement template set to analyze the amount of cash your company has compared to its expenses and liabilities. This template set contains a tab to create a monthly cash flow statement, a yearly cash flow statement, and a three-year cash flow statement to track cash flow for the operating, investing, and financing activities of your business.

Download 3-Year Cash Flow Statement Template

For additional information on managing your cash flow, including how to create a cash flow forecast, visit “ Free Cash Flow Statement Templates .”

Balance Sheet Templates for a Business Plan

Use these free balance sheet templates to convey the financial position of your business during a specific time period to potential investors and stakeholders.

Small Business Pro Forma Balance Sheet

Small businesses can use this pro forma balance sheet template to project account balances for assets, liabilities, and equity for a designated period. Established businesses can use this template (and its built-in formulas) to calculate key financial ratios, including working capital.

Download Pro Forma Balance Sheet Template

Monthly and Quarterly Balance Sheet Template

Use this balance sheet template to evaluate your company’s financial health on a monthly, quarterly, and annual basis. You can also use this template to project your financial position for a specified time in the future. Once you complete the balance sheet, you can compare and analyze your assets, liabilities, and equity on a quarter-over-quarter or year-over-year basis.

Download Monthly/Quarterly Balance Sheet Template - Excel

Yearly Balance Sheet Template

Use this balance sheet template to compare your company’s short and long-term assets, liabilities, and equity year-over-year. This template also provides calculations for common financial ratios with built-in formulas, so you can use it to evaluate account balances annually.

Download Yearly Balance Sheet Template - Excel

For more downloadable resources for a wide range of organizations, visit “ Free Balance Sheet Templates .”

Sales Forecast Templates for Business Plan

Sales projections are a fundamental part of a business plan, and should support all other components of your plan, including your market analysis, product offerings, and marketing plan . Use these sales forecast templates to estimate future sales, and ensure the numbers align with the sales numbers provided in your income statement.

Basic Sales Forecast Sample Template

Use this basic forecast template to project the sales of a specific product. Gather historical and industry sales data to generate monthly and yearly estimates of the number of units sold and the price per unit. Then, the pre-built formulas will calculate percentages automatically. You’ll also find details about which months provide the highest sales percentage, and the percentage change in sales month-over-month. 

Download Basic Sales Forecast Sample Template

12-Month Sales Forecast Template for Multiple Products

Use this sales forecast template to project the future sales of a business across multiple products or services over the course of a year. Enter your estimated monthly sales, and the built-in formulas will calculate annual totals. There is also space to record and track year-over-year sales, so you can pinpoint sales trends.

Download 12-Month Sales Forecasting Template for Multiple Products

3-Year Sales Forecast Template for Multiple Products

Use this sales forecast template to estimate the monthly and yearly sales for multiple products over a three-year period. Enter the monthly units sold, unit costs, and unit price. Once you enter those values, built-in formulas will automatically calculate revenue, margin per unit, and gross profit. This template also provides bar charts and line graphs to visually display sales and gross profit year over year.

Download 3-Year Sales Forecast Template - Excel

For a wider selection of resources to project your sales, visit “ Free Sales Forecasting Templates .”

Break-Even Analysis Template for Business Plan

A break-even analysis will help you ascertain the point at which a business, product, or service will become profitable. This analysis uses a calculation to pinpoint the number of service or unit sales you need to make to cover costs and make a profit.

Break-Even Analysis Template

Use this break-even analysis template to calculate the number of sales needed to become profitable. Enter the product's selling price at the top of the template, and then add the fixed and variable costs. Once you enter those values, the built-in formulas will calculate the total variable cost, the contribution margin, and break-even units and sales values.

Download Break-Even Analysis Template

For additional resources, visit, “ Free Financial Planning Templates .”

Business Budget Templates for Business Plan

These business budget templates will help you track costs (e.g., fixed and variable) and expenses (e.g., one-time and recurring) associated with starting and running a business. Having a detailed budget enables you to make sound strategic decisions, and should align with the expense values listed on your income statement.

Startup Budget Template

Use this startup budget template to track estimated and actual costs and expenses for various business categories, including administrative, marketing, labor, and other office costs. There is also room to provide funding estimates from investors, banks, and other sources to get a detailed view of the resources you need to start and operate your business.

Download Startup Budget Template

Small Business Budget Template

This business budget template is ideal for small businesses that want to record estimated revenue and expenditures on a monthly and yearly basis. This customizable template comes with a tab to list income, expenses, and a cash flow recording to track cash transactions and balances.

Download Small Business Budget Template

Professional Business Budget Template

Established organizations will appreciate this customizable business budget template, which  contains a separate tab to track projected business expenses, actual business expenses, variances, and an expense analysis. Once you enter projected and actual expenses, the built-in formulas will automatically calculate expense variances and populate the included visual charts. 

‌ Download Professional Business Budget Template

For additional resources to plan and track your business costs and expenses, visit “ Free Business Budget Templates for Any Company .”

Other Financial Templates for Business Plan

In this section, you’ll find additional financial templates that you may want to include as part of your larger business plan.

Startup Funding Requirements Template

This simple startup funding requirements template is useful for startups and small businesses that require funding to get business off the ground. The numbers generated in this template should align with those in your financial projections, and should detail the allocation of acquired capital to various startup expenses.

Download Startup Funding Requirements Template - Excel

Personnel Plan Template

Use this customizable personnel plan template to map out the current and future staff needed to get — and keep — the business running. This information belongs in the personnel section of a business plan, and details the job title, amount of pay, and hiring timeline for each position. This template calculates the monthly and yearly expenses associated with each role using built-in formulas. Additionally, you can add an organizational chart to provide a visual overview of the company’s structure. 

Download Personnel Plan Template - Excel

Elements of the Financial Section of a Business Plan

Whether your organization is a startup, a small business, or an enterprise, the financial plan is the cornerstone of any business plan. The financial section should demonstrate the feasibility and profitability of your idea and should support all other aspects of the business plan. 

Below, you’ll find a quick overview of the components of a solid financial plan.

• Financial Overview: This section provides a brief summary of the financial section, and includes key takeaways of the financial statements. If you prefer, you can also add a brief description of each statement in the respective statement’s section.
• Key Assumptions: This component details the basis for your financial projections, including tax and interest rates, economic climate, and other critical, underlying factors.
• Break-Even Analysis: This calculation helps establish the selling price of a product or service, and determines when a product or service should become profitable.
• Pro Forma Income Statement: Also known as a profit and loss statement, this section details the sales, cost of sales, profitability, and other vital financial information to stakeholders.
• Pro Forma Cash Flow Statement: This area outlines the projected cash inflows and outflows the business expects to generate from operating, financing, and investing activities during a specific timeframe.
• Pro Forma Balance Sheet: This document conveys how your business plans to manage assets, including receivables and inventory.
• Key Financial Indicators and Ratios: In this section, highlight key financial indicators and ratios extracted from financial statements that bankers, analysts, and investors can use to evaluate the financial health and position of your business.

Need help putting together the rest of your business plan? Check out our free simple business plan templates to get started. You can learn how to write a successful simple business plan  here . 

Visit this  free non-profit business plan template roundup  or download a  fill-in-the-blank business plan template  to make things easy. If you are looking for a business plan template by file type, visit our pages dedicated specifically to  Microsoft Excel ,  Microsoft Word , and  Adobe PDF  business plan templates. Read our articles offering  startup business plan templates  or  free 30-60-90-day business plan templates  to find more tailored options.

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When teams have clarity into the work getting done, there’s no telling how much more they can accomplish in the same amount of time.  Try Smartsheet for free, today.

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The larger your business, the bigger the opportunity is to impact your bottom-line by improving your energy management strategy. Learn more about commercial electricity rates here .

Hitting Your Business' Sustainability Goals

Sustainability is coming more into focus as businesses evolve and make promises to promote a cleaner, more eco-friendly environment. Many businesses have sustainability goals outlined for both the near and long term future and energy supply is often a core driver.

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Solar Panels

Installing solar on-site to eliminate energy price fluctuations and increase energy reliability

Community Solar

Purchasing energy supply from existing solar projects in your area

Renewable Energy Credits

Purchasing credits to off-set your energy usage with renewable power generation

When you request a quote, your Energy Advisor will ask about your sustainability goals and review options for powering your business with renewable energy.

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I built a 296-square-foot backyard tiny home in Atlanta: What to know if you want to convert a $5,000 shed from Costco

In 2021, I converted a 12-by-24-foot shed into a tiny home in my backyard in Atlanta, Georgia. Since then, I've used this structure — formally known as an accessory dwelling unit (ADU) — as a short- and long-term rental, my own personal living space, and most recently a home for my sister, brother-in-law, and new baby nephew.

Now, as a 28-year-old real estate entrepreneur, I run marketing for Gather ADU , the startup I co-founded to help other homeowners create more housing on their existing property.

With rising home prices , a national housing shortage , and demand for creative and affordable living arrangements, it's no wonder that companies like Amazon, Home Depot, and Costco are selling DIY shed kits and backyard guest houses.

I'm not surprised that people are attracted to the low prices. There's a lot of buzz , for example, about the easy-to-assemble Costco shed that's on sale in March for $5,000 and the possibility of converting it into a living space.

If you're tempted to click "add to cart" and turn one into a tiny home, though, here's what you should consider first:

1. You might need approvals or permits

Not all municipalities let you place or construct additional dwellings on your property. 

Your local zoning codes and classification will determine whether you can put a structure like this in your backyard in the first place, and dictate any rules that apply. For instance, some areas may have minimum lot size requirements, limits on the size or height of structures, setback regulations that tell you how close the ADU can be to property lines or other structures, and guidelines regarding utility connections.

You can find this information by searching your address online or calling your local zoning or permitting office. Try hitting Ctrl + F to look for the terms "accessory dwelling unit" or "guest house" in your zoning code.

By familiarizing yourself with these regulations up front, you can avoid potential legal hurdles such as fines and stop-work orders.

2. The structure might not be built for residential purposes

While sheds sold by companies like Amazon, Home Depot, and Costco may offer affordability and convenience, not all of these structures are suitable for long-term habitation.

Many sheds on the market are designed primarily for storage purposes. They lack the proper insulation, ventilation, and structural integrity to withstand the rigors of residential occupancy.

Before purchasing a shed for conversion into a living space, review the product specifications. Look for options explicitly marketed or certified for residential use. Reach out to the manufacturer if needed.

3. Plumbing and electricity aren't a given

Shed options typically aren't equipped with essential utilities like plumbing and electrical systems. 

Installing toilets, sinks, and showers requires careful planning and professional expertise. In addition to the cost of fixtures and materials, there might be expenses associated with trenching and connecting to existing sewer or septic systems.

Similarly, ensuring access to electricity involves more than simply plugging into an existing outlet. To convert a shed into a tiny home you can actually live in might require installing dedicated electrical wiring and outlets that comply with building codes and safety standards. 

Given the complexity of plumbing and electrical work, you'll need competent contractors. I'd urge you to prioritize expertise and reliability over price here.

4. Sheds aren't always the cheaper route

While the initial price tag may make a $5,000 Costco shed, for example, seem like a steal, the reality is that transforming such a structure into a livable space can get expensive fast. If you want a floor with that Costco shed, you're already up to $6,000, even with the sale.

You'll have to factor in additional expenses such as concrete foundation work, permit fees, and professional services from architects or engineers. And the interior build-out adds up with insulation, drywall, plumbing, electrical wiring, and furnishings.

In my experience, even a modest conversion will likely end up running $50,000 to $75,000 these days with all the labor and material costs. Mine cost $35,000, but I've seen costs rise significantly in just the past few years as I've helped others navigate the process.

Before committing to a shed conversion, browse various prefabricated models online and get three to five quotes from contractors for a shed buildout versus a newly constructed — or "stick-built" — dwelling. A stick-built home's durability and long-term value may end up outweighing the initial savings.

5. Making a shed functional can take longer than you think

Many shed kits claim the structures can be assembled in one day . The reality is that achieving a functional and comfortable living space requires careful planning, coordination, and execution.

Sure, the structure can be delivered and assembled in one day. But that doesn't account for preparing the foundation the structure will sit on or hooking it up to utilities.

In my experience, a typical tiny home build or conversion can take anywhere from three to 12 months to complete, depending on factors including permit processing times, contractor availability, and the complexity of the particular project. Mine took eight months altogether from building, electrical and plumbing permit submissions to finished home.

Plan accordingly — considering feasibility , costs , and financing options — and be prepared for unexpected delays.

Precious Price  is a TEDx speaker, marketing strategist, tiny homes expert, and social entrepreneur. She is the CMO at GatherADU, the startup she co-founded to help homeowners create housing using the underutilized space of their existing property. She holds a master's degree in management information systems from Indiana University. Follow her on  Instagram ,  Twitter  and  YouTube .

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I spent a night in one of the empty apartments in Malaysia's $100 billion ghost town, and I can see why very few people want to live there

• Forest City, a luxury estate in Malaysia, has thousands of empty apartments.
• I spent a night in one of these apartments and found they weren't as luxurious as they were branded to be.
• Dozens of vacant units in the estate are listed for rent on Airbnb.

Forest City is a luxury development in southern Malaysia. China's largest developer, Country Garden , spent $100 billion building the estate.

I first visited Forest City in May 2022, and it was a ghost town . I found towering apartment buildings spread across 4 square miles. A white-sand beach overlooked the Johor Strait, where I could see the silhouette of industrial plants in western Singapore. At night, the windows of hundreds of rows of apartments stayed dark. There were barely any cars on the road and only a handful of people at the beach.

Forest City predicts that some 700,000 people will live in the estate in the next six years. For now, it says there are only 9,000 residents .

In 2022, a security guard at a local condominium told me 20 people lived in the complex. This left me curious about what it would be like to spend a night in one of these apartments.

In March, eight years into Forest City's development, I returned to the estate.

I booked a homestay at a condominium unit for 70 Singapore dollars, or about $52, through a property manager. Dozens of similar units are listed on Airbnb for as little as $38 a night. The unit's owner, who's based in China, declined to comment on this story, citing privacy reasons.

Take a look inside one of the thousands of vacant apartments in Forest City.

Country Garden didn't respond to multiple requests for comment from Business Insider.

Forest City's apartment complexes are marketed as high-end.

I arrived in Forest City on a Friday afternoon. A row of businesses — from a furniture store to a hotpot restaurant — lined the road to the condominium where I stayed the night. One business owner, who declined to be named, said they opened their shop in October.

It was significantly busier than when I had first visited two years earlier. There was barely anyone around then, but now, a few dozen people were walking the streets and patronizing the shops.

I had high expectations for the condo, as Forest City had long branded its properties as upscale. In a July press release , Forest City said it offered "luxury high-rise waterfront apartments."

According to the press release, unit prices in Forest City start at 510,000 Malaysian ringgit, or about $108,000. It's expensive for Johor, the Malaysian state where Forest City is.

Muhammad Najib Razali, a professor of real estate at Malaysia Technology University, told me properties in Johor usually sold below 300,000 ringgit — the price considered affordable among the state's middle-income households.

Locals aren't the target market for these upscale condos. Some 98% of units sold in Forest City were purchased by foreign buyers, according to data cited in a 2017 paper by Ong Kian Ming, a Fulbright scholar who was Malaysia's Deputy Minister of International Trade and Industry. In June 2017, Country Garden told Bloomberg it had sold 16,000 units.

The lobby didn't make a strong first impression.

The complex looked pristine from the outside, with each 39-story building covered in greenery. But when I entered the lobby, it was far less manicured.

The elevators were plastered with peeling wallpaper with Forest City's logo and a phrase in Chinese and English that read: "Going home is the beginning of a new life."

Most of the apartments on my floor looked empty.

My unit for the night was on the seventh floor. There were about 20 units on the floor. Each of the units had a window that faced the hallway. I peered into them and could see that most of the units were either sparsely furnished or outright unfurnished.

Two of the units were used by the condo's staff — I spotted several men in uniforms leaving and entering the room — with a few pairs of shoes left outside the door.

In 2022, a Forest City representative told me more than 20,000 residential units had been sold. Now, it appeared that many of these units were vacant.

A resident at another apartment complex in Forest City told me they were the only people living on their floor. They added that most other floors in the building also had only one resident.

Najib said one reason so many units were empty was because many people bought them as investment properties.

"Some buyers thought that Forest City, in terms of the rental market, would be much easier to see return," he said.

One local business owner, who declined to be named, told me she also worked as a property agent in Forest City and had 50 units available for rent.

According to units listed on the property site iProperty, a three-bedroom, one-bathroom apartment at the condo costs as little as 1,100 ringgit, or $235, a month to rent. In comparison, renting a similar unit at Danga Bay — Country Garden's first venture in Malaysia just 20 miles from Forest City — costs more than 2,300 ringgit a month.

The unit looked as if it hadn't been lived in. It had an aesthetic similar to an Ikea showroom.

The unit wasn't anything special. It had a simple three-person couch, a small wooden coffee table, and no TV.

The apartment measured 635 square feet and had a master bedroom, two smaller rooms, and one common bathroom. There was also a compact kitchen with two stoves near the entrance.

According to the property website EdgeProp, the average house in Johor is nearly double the size of this unit, at about 1,264 square feet.

Koh Sin Yee, an adjunct senior research fellow with Monash University Malaysia, told me locals in Johor often preferred to purchase landed properties rather than high-rise apartments. She said this deterred many locals — even those who could afford it — from buying a house and living in Forest City.

According to data referenced in Ong's 2017 paper, at the time, only 78 out of the 5,344 units sold in Forest City were sold to Malaysians.

The master bedroom was furnished only with a double bed.

Unlike the other two bedrooms, the master bedroom had natural light streaming in from a large window. One of the common rooms faced the hallway, and when the blinds were opened, I could see straight into the hallway. At night, it felt eerie, as I could hear every little noise from the outside, such as the rustling of leaves and insects chirping.

The common rooms were furnished with nothing but a single bed. I could feel the plastic still wrapped around the mattresses when I lay down.

While the rest of the unit looked new, the bathroom was worse for wear.

Dirt and dead moths had piled up in the shower.

Showering was uncomfortable. The drain was clogged up, so I ended up ankle-deep in water.

The best part of the unit was the balcony, which had views of the coastal villas and the Johor Strait.

On its website, Forest City marketed these villas as a "peaceful retreat or a luxurious vacation home." These villas are larger than the apartments, with a living area between 753 square feet and 1,862 square feet. A total of 482 villas are set to be completed by 2026.

The villas looked like modern townhouses. Each villa had a rooftop and garage. Forest City hasn't announced how much these villas will cost.

While the condo was massive, I spotted only a handful of residents using its facilities.

Outside, there was a swimming pool, several outdoor gyms, and a playground.

There was no one at the pool in the morning. The Jacuzzi was full of cloudy-looking water.

I spotted a total of three residents, one of whom was blasting a song in Chinese from her phone and exercising on one of the tai-chi spinners at the outdoor gym.

It looked like an average residential neighborhood in Singapore — with its endless blocks of public housing and the ubiquitous sight of plants and trees — but without the people.

There was one place that didn't feel dead: the row of shops just outside the condo.

I headed for a meal at one of several Chinese restaurants just outside the condo. During my first visit, most of these stores were vacant. But now, it was where I found the most signs of life.

The moment I stepped into the restaurant, I was transported to China . Chinese pop music blared from the speakers as cigarette smoke wafted into the air.

Nearly everyone inside spoke only Chinese. Despite speaking Malay, the national language, I had to resort to pointing at items on the menu to order.

The area had become an enclave of sorts: The other stores nearby were also Chinese restaurants or convenience stores that sold household goods from China. There, people told me they were from the mainland, too, and only spoke Chinese.

"A certain demographic of Chinese people may prefer this kind of lifestyle in Malaysia," Koh said, adding that Forest City offered a lower cost of living than major cities in China and was designed in a way that was familiar to where Chinese residents may have lived back home.

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Rate cuts are coming: Gold prices hit a record high

• Gold prices surged Monday to a record high of $2,265.73 an ounce.
• The Fed's preferred gauge of underlying inflation came in as expected Friday, affirming 2024 rate-cut hopes.
• The yellow metal is generally seen as an inflation hedge, and it trades inversely to consumer prices.

The price of gold rallied to another record high on Monday, following fresh inflation data from Friday that boosted rate-cut hopes . 

The yellow metal climbed as much as 1.6% to a new high of $2,265.73 an ounce.

The year-over-year index of personal consumption expenditures rose 2.5% in February, in line with economist expectations. Core PCE, which excludes food and energy prices, rose 2.8% for the month, also in line with estimates. The results have fueled anticipation that the central bank's first rate cut will come in June.

Typically, a lower-rate environment makes holding gold more alluring compared with other assets such as bonds, which yield lower returns when interest rates drop. 

Federal Reserve Chair Jerome Powell also applauded the latest US inflation data, saying it's "along the lines of what we would like to see" during his speech on Friday, which echoed his reiteration in last month's policy meeting of a rate cut for this year .

The surging bullion price was also pushed up by its robust overseas demand, as global central banks are shifting away from dollar reserves because of geopolitical risks. 

On the other hand, China's struggling stock and real-estate markets have forced many investors to pivot to the "safe haven." In February, the People's Bank of China acquired about 390,000 troy ounces of the precious metal. Overall, China's central bank now holds about 72.58 million troy ounces of gold, equivalent to about 2,257 tons.

Get the latest Gold price here.

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