example of instrument of the study in research paper

9 Best Examples of Research Instruments in Qualitative Research Explained

Introduction.

Qualitative research is a valuable approach that allows researchers to explore complex phenomena and gain in-depth insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals. In order to conduct qualitative research effectively, researchers often utilize various research methodologies and instruments. These methodologies and instruments serve as tools to collect and analyze data, enabling researchers to uncover rich and nuanced information.

In this article, we will delve into the world of qualitative research instruments, specifically focusing on research instrument examples. We will explore the different types of qualitative research instruments, provide specific examples, and discuss the advantages and limitations of using these instruments in qualitative research. By the end of this article, you will have a comprehensive understanding of the role and significance of research instruments in qualitative research.

Goals of Research Instruments in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research instruments are tools that researchers use to collect and analyze data in qualitative research studies. These instruments help researchers gather rich and detailed information about a particular phenomenon or topic.

One of the main goals of qualitative research is to understand the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals. To achieve this, researchers need to use instruments that allow for in-depth exploration and interpretation of data. Qualitative research instruments can take various forms, including interviews, questionnaires, observations, and focus groups. Each instrument has its own strengths and limitations, and researchers need to carefully select the most appropriate instrument for their study objectives.

Exploring qualitative research instruments involves understanding the characteristics and features of each instrument, as well as considering the research context and the specific research questions being addressed. Researchers also need to consider the ethical implications of using qualitative research instruments, such as ensuring informed consent and maintaining confidentiality and anonymity of participants.

Examples of Qualitative Research Instruments

Qualitative research instruments are tools used to collect data and gather information in qualitative research studies. These instruments help researchers explore and understand complex social phenomena in depth. There are several types of qualitative research instruments that can be used depending on the research objectives and the nature of the study.

Interviews are one of the most commonly used qualitative research instruments. They involve direct communication between the researcher and the participant, allowing for in-depth exploration of the participant’s experiences, perspectives, and opinions. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured , depending on the level of flexibility in the questioning process. They involve researchers asking open-ended questions to participants to gather in-depth information and insights. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Focus Groups

Focus groups are another example of qualitative research instrument that involves a group discussion led by a researcher or moderator. Participants in a focus group share their thoughts, ideas, and experiences on a specific topic. This instrument allows for the exploration of group dynamics and the interaction between participants. It also allow researchers to gather multiple perspectives and generate rich qualitative data.

Observations

Observations are a powerful qualitative research instrument that involves systematic and careful observation of participants in their natural settings. This type of qualitative research instrument allows researchers to gather data on behavior, interactions, and social processes. Observations can be participant observations, where the researcher actively participates in the setting, or non-participant observations, where the researcher remains an observer.

Document Analysis

Document analysis is a qualitative research instrument that involves the examination, analyzation and interpretation of written or recorded materials such as documents, texts, audio/video recordings or other written materials. Researchers analyze documents to gain insights into social, cultural, or historical contexts, as well as to understand the perspectives and meanings embedded in the documents.

Visual Methods

Visual methods, such as photography, video recording, or drawings, can be used as qualitative research instruments. These methods allow participants to express their experiences and perspectives visually, providing rich and nuanced data. Visual methods can be particularly useful in studying topics related to art, culture, or visual communication.

Diaries or Journals

Diaries or journals can be used as qualitative research instruments to collect data on participants’ thoughts, feelings, and experiences over a period of time. Participants record their daily activities, reflections, and emotions, providing valuable insights into their lived experiences.

While surveys are commonly associated with quantitative research, they can also be used as qualitative research instruments. Qualitative surveys typically include open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses. Surveys can be administered online, through interviews, or in written form.

Case Studies

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a particular individual, group, or phenomenon. They involve collecting and analyzing qualitative data from various sources such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. Case studies provide rich and detailed insights into specific contexts or situations.

Ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative research instrument that involves immersing researchers in a particular social or cultural group to observe and understand their behaviors, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic research often includes participant observation, interviews, and document analysis.

These are just a few examples of qualitative research instruments. Researchers can choose the most appropriate data collection method or combination of methods based on their research objectives, the nature of the research question, and the available resources.

Advantages of Using Qualitative Research Instruments

Gathering in-depth and detailed information.

Qualitative research instruments offer several advantages that make them valuable tools in the research process. Firstly, qualitative research instruments allow researchers to gather in-depth and detailed information. Unlike quantitative research instruments that focus on numerical data, qualitative instruments provide rich and descriptive data about participants’ feelings, opinions, and experiences. This depth of information allows researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research topic .

Flexibility and Adaptability in Qualitative Research

Another advantage of qualitative research instruments is their flexibility. Researchers can adapt their methods and questions during data collection to respond to emerging insights. This flexibility allows for a more dynamic and responsive research process, enabling researchers to explore new avenues and uncover unexpected findings.

Capturing Data in Natural Settings

Qualitative research instruments also offer the advantage of capturing data in natural settings. Unlike controlled laboratory settings often used in quantitative research, qualitative research takes place in real-world contexts. This natural setting allows researchers to observe participants’ behaviors and interactions in their natural environment, providing a more authentic and realistic representation of their experiences.

Promoting Participant Engagement and Collaboration

Furthermore, qualitative research instruments promote participant engagement and collaboration. By using methods such as interviews and focus groups, researchers can actively involve participants in the research process. This engagement fosters a sense of ownership and empowerment among participants, leading to more meaningful and insightful data.

Exploring Complex Issues Through Qualitative Research

Lastly, qualitative research instruments allow for the exploration of complex issues. Qualitative research is particularly useful when studying complex phenomena that cannot be easily quantified or measured. It allows researchers to delve into the underlying meanings, motivations, and social dynamics that shape individuals’ behaviors and experiences.

Limitations of Qualitative Research Instruments

Qualitative research instruments have several limitations that researchers need to consider when conducting their studies. In this section, we will delve into the limitations of qualitative research instruments as compared to quantitative research.

Time-Consuming Nature of Qualitative Research

One of the main drawbacks of qualitative research is that the process is time-consuming. Unlike quantitative research, which can collect data from a large sample size in a relatively short period of time, qualitative research requires in-depth interviews, observations, and analysis, which can take a significant amount of time.

Subjectivity and Potential Bias in Qualitative Research

Another limitation of qualitative research instruments is that the interpretations are subjective. Since qualitative research focuses on understanding the meaning and context of phenomena, the interpretations of the data can vary depending on the researcher’s perspective and biases. This subjectivity can introduce potential bias and affect the reliability and validity of the findings.

Complexity of Data Analysis

Additionally, qualitative research instruments often involve complex data analysis. Unlike quantitative research, which can use statistical methods to analyze data, qualitative research requires researchers to analyze textual or visual data, which can be time-consuming and challenging. The analysis process involves coding, categorizing, and interpreting the data, which requires expertise and careful attention to detail.

Challenges in Maintaining Anonymity and Privacy

Furthermore, qualitative research instruments may face challenges in maintaining anonymity. In some cases, researchers may need to collect sensitive or personal information from participants, which can raise ethical concerns . Ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of participants’ data can be challenging, and researchers need to take appropriate measures to protect the participants’ identities and maintain their trust.

Limited Generalizability of Qualitative Research Findings

Another limitation of qualitative research instruments is the limited generalizability of the findings. Qualitative research often focuses on a specific context or a small sample size, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to a larger population. While qualitative research provides rich and detailed insights into a particular phenomenon, it may not be representative of the broader population or applicable to other settings.

Difficulty in Replicating Qualitative Research Findings

Lastly, replicating findings in qualitative research can be difficult. Since qualitative research often involves in-depth exploration of a specific phenomenon, replicating the exact conditions and context of the original study can be challenging. This can make it difficult for other researchers to validate or replicate the findings, which is an essential aspect of scientific research.

Despite these limitations, qualitative research instruments offer valuable insights and understanding of complex phenomena. By acknowledging and addressing these limitations, researchers can enhance the rigor and validity of their qualitative research studies.

In conclusion, qualitative research instruments are powerful tools that enable researchers to explore and uncover the complexities of human experiences. By utilizing a range of instruments and considering their advantages and limitations, researchers can enhance the rigor and depth of their qualitative research studies.

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Research Methodologies: Research Instruments

• Research Methodology Basics
• Research Instruments
• Types of Research Methodologies

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Types of Research Instruments

A research instrument is a tool you will use to help you collect, measure and analyze the data you use as part of your research.  The choice of research instrument will usually be yours to make as the researcher and will be whichever best suits your methodology. 

There are many different research instruments you can use in collecting data for your research:

• Interviews  (either as a group or one-on-one). You can carry out interviews in many different ways. For example, your interview can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. The difference between them is how formal the set of questions is that is asked of the interviewee. In a group interview, you may choose to ask the interviewees to give you their opinions or perceptions on certain topics.
• Surveys  (online or in-person). In survey research, you are posing questions in which you ask for a response from the person taking the survey. You may wish to have either free-answer questions such as essay style questions, or you may wish to use closed questions such as multiple choice. You may even wish to make the survey a mixture of both.
• Focus Groups.  Similar to the group interview above, you may wish to ask a focus group to discuss a particular topic or opinion while you make a note of the answers given.
• Observations.  This is a good research instrument to use if you are looking into human behaviors. Different ways of researching this include studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in their everyday life, or something more structured. A structured observation is research conducted at a set time and place where researchers observe behavior as planned and agreed upon with participants.

These are the most common ways of carrying out research, but it is really dependent on your needs as a researcher and what approach you think is best to take. It is also possible to combine a number of research instruments if this is necessary and appropriate in answering your research problem.

Data Collection

How to Collect Data for Your Research   This article covers different ways of collecting data in preparation for writing a thesis.

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Research Instruments

• Resources for Identifying Instruments
• Assessing Instruments
• Obtaining the Full Instrument
• Getting Help

What are Research Instruments?

A research instrument is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to  your subject.

Research instruments can  be tests , surveys , scales ,  questionnaires , or even checklists .

To assure the strength of your study, it is important to use previously validated instruments!

Getting Started

Already know the full name of the instrument you're looking for? 

• Start here!

Finding a research instrument can be very time-consuming!

This process involves three concrete steps:

It is common that sources will not provide the full instrument, but they will provide a citation with the publisher. In some cases, you may have to contact the publisher to obtain the full text.

Research Tip :  Talk to your departmental faculty. Many of them have expertise in working with research instruments and can help you with this process.

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Research Instrument

Ai generator.

A research instrument is a tool or device used by researchers to collect, measure, and analyze data relevant to their study. Common examples include surveys, questionnaires , tests, and observational checklists. These instruments are essential for obtaining accurate, reliable, and valid data, enabling researchers to draw meaningful conclusions and insights. The selection of an appropriate research instrument is crucial, as it directly impacts the quality and integrity of the research findings.

What is a Research Instrument?

A research instrument is a tool used by researchers to collect and analyze data. Examples include surveys, questionnaires, and observation checklists. Choosing the right instrument is essential for ensuring accurate and reliable data.

Examples of Research Instruments

• Surveys: Structured questionnaires designed to gather quantitative data from a large audience.
• Questionnaires: Sets of written questions used to collect information on specific topics.
• Interviews: Structured or semi-structured conversations used to obtain in-depth qualitative data.
• Observation Checklists: Lists of specific behaviors or events that researchers observe and record.
• Tests: Standardized exams used to assess knowledge, skills, or abilities.
• Scales: Tools like Likert scales to measure attitudes, perceptions, or opinions.
• Diaries: Participant logs documenting activities or experiences over time.
• Focus Groups: Group discussions facilitated to explore collective views and experiences.

Examples of a Quantitative Research Instruments

• Structured Surveys: These are detailed questionnaires with predefined questions and response options, designed to collect numerical data from a large sample. They are often used in market research and social sciences to identify trends and patterns.
• Standardized Tests: These are assessments that measure specific knowledge, skills, or abilities using uniform procedures and scoring methods. Examples include IQ tests, academic achievement tests, and professional certification exams.
• Closed-Ended Questionnaires: These questionnaires contain questions with a limited set of response options, such as multiple-choice or yes/no answers. They are useful for gathering specific, quantifiable data efficiently.
• Rating Scales: These tools ask respondents to rate items on a fixed scale, such as 1 to 5 or 1 to 10. They are commonly used to measure attitudes, opinions, or satisfaction levels.
• Structured Observation Checklists: These checklists outline specific behaviors or events that researchers observe and record in a systematic manner. They are often used in studies where direct observation is needed to gather quantitative data.
• Statistical Data Collection Tools: These include various instruments and software used to collect and analyze numerical data, such as spreadsheets, databases, and statistical analysis programs like SPSS or SAS.
• Likert Scales: A type of rating scale commonly used in surveys to measure attitudes or opinions. Respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a series of statements on a scale, such as “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.”

Examples of a Qualitative Research Instruments

• Open-Ended Interviews: These interviews involve asking participants broad, open-ended questions to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences in depth. This method allows for rich, detailed data collection.
• Focus Groups: A small, diverse group of people engage in guided discussions to provide insights into their perceptions, opinions, and attitudes about a specific topic. Focus groups are useful for exploring complex behaviors and motivations.
• Unstructured Observation: Researchers observe participants in their natural environment without predefined criteria, allowing them to capture spontaneous behaviors and interactions in real-time.
• Case Studies: In-depth investigations of a single individual, group, event, or community. Case studies provide comprehensive insights into the subject’s context, experiences, and development over time.
• Ethnographic Studies: Researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of participants to understand their cultures, practices, and perspectives. This method often involves long-term observation and interaction.
• Participant Diaries: Participants keep detailed, personal records of their daily activities, thoughts, and experiences over a specific period. These diaries provide firsthand insights into participants’ lives.
• Field Notes: Researchers take detailed notes while observing participants in their natural settings. Field notes capture contextual information, behaviors, and interactions that are often missed in structured observations.
• Narrative Analysis: This method involves analyzing stories and personal accounts to understand how people make sense of their experiences and the world around them.
• Content Analysis: Researchers systematically analyze textual, visual, or a content to identify patterns, themes, and meanings. This method is often used for analyzing media, documents, and online content.
• Document Analysis: Researchers review and interpret existing documents, such as reports, letters, or official records, to gain insights into the context and background of the research subject.

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

• Validity: A good research instrument accurately measures what it is intended to measure. This ensures that the results are a true reflection of the concept being studied.
• Reliability: The instrument produces consistent results when used repeatedly under similar conditions. This consistency is crucial for the credibility of the research findings.
• Objectivity: The instrument should be free from researcher bias, ensuring that results are based solely on the data collected rather than subjective interpretations.
• Sensitivity: The instrument is capable of detecting subtle differences or changes in the variable being measured, allowing for more nuanced and precise data collection.
• Practicality: It is easy to administer, score, and interpret. This includes being time-efficient, cost-effective, and user-friendly for both researchers and participants.
• Ethical Considerations: The instrument respects the rights and confidentiality of participants, ensuring informed consent and protecting their privacy throughout the research process.
• Comprehensiveness: It covers all relevant aspects of the concept being studied, providing a complete and thorough understanding of the research topic.
• Adaptability: The instrument can be modified or adapted for different contexts, populations, or research settings without losing its effectiveness.
• Clarity: The questions or items in the instrument are clearly worded and unambiguous, ensuring that participants understand what is being asked without confusion.
• Cultural Sensitivity: The instrument is appropriate for the cultural context of the participants, avoiding language or content that may be misinterpreted or offensive.

Research Instrument Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a versatile and widely used research instrument composed of a series of questions aimed at gathering information from respondents. It is designed to collect both quantitative and qualitative data through a mix of open-ended and closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions allow respondents to express their thoughts in their own words, providing rich, detailed insights, while closed-ended questions offer predefined response options, facilitating easier statistical analysis. Questionnaires can be administered in various formats, including paper-based, online, or via telephone, making them accessible to a wide audience and suitable for large-scale studies.

The design of a questionnaire is crucial to its effectiveness. Clear, concise, and unbiased questions are essential to ensure reliable and valid results. A well-crafted questionnaire minimizes respondent confusion and reduces the risk of biased answers, which can skew data. Moreover, the order and wording of questions can significantly impact the quality of the responses. Properly designed questionnaires are invaluable tools for a range of research purposes, from market research and customer satisfaction surveys to academic studies and social science research. They enable researchers to gather a broad spectrum of data efficiently and effectively, making them a cornerstone of data collection in many fields.

Research instrument Sample Paragraph

A research instrument is a vital tool used by researchers to collect, measure, and analyze data from participants. These instruments vary widely and include questionnaires, surveys, interviews, observation checklists, and standardized tests, each serving distinct research needs. For example, questionnaires and surveys are commonly employed to gather quantitative data from large groups, providing statistical insights into trends and patterns. In contrast, interviews and focus groups are used to delve deeper into participants’ experiences and perspectives, yielding rich qualitative data. The careful selection and design of a research instrument are crucial, as they directly impact the accuracy, reliability, and validity of the collected data,

How to Make Research Instrument

Creating an effective research instrument involves several key steps to ensure it accurately collects and measures the necessary data for your study:

1. Define the Research Objectives

• Identify the Purpose : Clearly outline what you aim to achieve with your research.
• Specify the Variables : Determine the specific variables you need to measure.

2. Review Existing Instruments

• Literature Review : Look at existing studies and instruments used in similar research.
• Evaluate Suitability : Assess if existing instruments can be adapted for your study.

3. Select the Type of Instrument

• Choose the Format : Decide whether a survey, questionnaire, interview guide, test, or observation checklist best fits your needs.
• Determine the Method : Consider whether your data collection will be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods.

4. Develop the Content

• Draft Questions or Items : Write questions that align with your research objectives and variables.
• Ensure Clarity and Relevance : Make sure each question is clear, concise, and directly related to the research objectives.
• Use Simple Language : Avoid jargon to ensure respondents understand the questions.

5. Validate the Instrument

• Expert Review : Have experts in your field review the instrument for content validity.
• Pilot Testing : Conduct a pilot test with a small, representative sample to identify any issues.

6. Refine the Instrument

• Revise Based on Feedback : Modify the instrument based on feedback from experts and pilot testing.
• Check for Reliability : Ensure the instrument consistently measures what it is supposed to.

7. Finalize the Instrument

• Create Instructions : Provide clear instructions for respondents on how to complete the instrument.
• Format Appropriately : Ensure the layout is user-friendly and the instrument is easy to navigate.

8. Implement and Collect Data

• Administer the Instrument : Distribute your instrument to the target population.
• Monitor Data Collection : Ensure the data collection process is conducted consistently.

FAQ’s

How do you choose a research instrument.

Select based on your research goals, type of data needed, and the target population.

What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research instruments?

Qualitative instruments collect non-numerical data, while quantitative instruments collect numerical data.

Can you use multiple research instruments in one study?

Yes, using multiple instruments can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem.

How do you ensure the reliability of a research instrument?

Test the instrument multiple times under the same conditions to check for consistent results.

What is the validity of a research instrument?

Validity refers to how well an instrument measures what it is intended to measure.

How can you test the validity of a research instrument?

Use methods like content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity to test an instrument.

What is a pilot study?

A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of a research instrument to identify any issues before the main study.

Why is a pilot study important?

It helps refine the research instrument and improve its reliability and validity.

What is an unstructured interview?

An unstructured interview allows more flexibility, with open-ended questions that can adapt based on responses.

What is the role of observation in research?

Observation allows researchers to collect data on behaviors and events in their natural settings.

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• v.89(6); Nov-Dec 2014

Field work I: selecting the instrument for data collection *

Joao luiz bastos.

1 Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC) - Florianópolis (SC), Brazil.

Rodrigo Pereira Duquia

2 Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA) - Porto Alegre (RS), Brazil.

David Alejandro González-Chica

Jeovany martínez mesa.

3 Latin American Cooperative Oncology Group (LACOG) - Porto Alegre (RS), Brazil.

Renan Rangel Bonamigo

The selection of instruments that will be used to collect data is a crucial step in the research process. Validity and reliability of the collected data and, above all, their potential comparability with data from previous investigations must be prioritized during this phase. We present a decision tree, which is intended to guide the selection of the instruments employed in research projects. Studies conducted along these lines have greater potential to broaden the knowledge on the studied subject and contribute to addressing truly socially relevant needs.

INTRODUCTION

This article discusses one of the most trivial aspects of a researcher's daily tasks, which is to select among various available options the instruments to perform data collection that meet the intended objectives and, at the same time, respect budgetary and temporal restrictions as well as other equally relevant issues when conducting a research. The instrument for data collection is a key element of the traditional questionnaires, which are used to investigate various topics of interest among participants of scientific studies. It is through questionnaires / instruments aimed to assess, for example, sun exposure, family history of skin diseases and mental disorders, that it is possible to measure these phenomena and analyze their associations in health surveys. In this paper, we discuss only questionnaires and their elementary components - the instruments; the reader should refer to specialized literature for knowledge and proper management of other resources available for data collection, including, for example, equipment to measure blood pressure, exams on cutaneous surface lesions and collection of biological material in studies focused on biochemical markers, such as blood parameters etc. Even so, it is argued that the guiding principles presented in this text widely apply, with minor adaptations, to all data collection processes.

As discussed earlier, all scientific investigations, including those in the field of Dermatology, must start with a clear and predefined question. 1 Only after formulating a pertinent research question may the researcher and his/her team plan and implement a series of procedures, which will be able to answer such a question with acceptable levels of validity and reliability . This means that the scientific activity is organized by framing questions and executing a series of procedures to address them, including, for example, the use of questionnaires and their constituent instruments. Such procedures should be recognized as processes that respect ethical research guidelines and whose results are accepted by the scientific community, i.e. they are valid and reliable. However, it should be clarified before moving forward, albeit briefly and partially, what is commonly meant by validity and reliability in science.

In general, validity is considered to be present in an instrument, procedure or research as a whole, when they produce results that reflect what they initially aimed to evaluate or measure. 2 A research can be judged both in terms of internal validity when its conclusions are correct for that sample of studied individuals, as well as external validity, when its results can be generalized to other contexts and population domains. 3 For example, in a survey that estimates the frequency of pediatric atopic dermatitis in Southeast Brazil, the closer the results are to the examined subjects' reality, the greater their internal validity. In other words, if the actual frequency of atopic dermatitis were 12.5% for this region and population, a research that achieved a similar result would be considered internally valid. 4 The ability to generalize or extrapolate those results to other regions in the country would be reflected in the study's external validity. Furthermore, to be valid in any dimension this research should have used an established instrument, able to distinguish individuals who actually have this dermatological condition from those who do not have it. So, the study's validity research depends on the validity of the very instruments that are used.

A research instrument is deemed reliable when it is able to consistently generate the same results after being applied repeatedly to the same group of subjects. This concept is often used in multiple stages of the research process including, for example, when a data collection supervisor performs a quality control check, reapplying some questions to the same subjects already interviewed or even during the construction of a new instrument in the test-retest phase in which the reliability and consistency of the given answers are examined. The Acne-Specific Quality of Life Questionnaire was considered reliable after recording consistent data on the same individuals in an interval of seven days between the first and second administrations. 5 Moreover, a study will be more reliable as more precise instruments are used in data collection and as more subjects are recruited - studies with a significant number of participants present results with a smaller margin of error. It is noteworthy that, although the concept of reliability extrapolates the question of temporal consistency (test-retest), we will address this aspect in a more limited fashion in this article. The interested reader should consult specific publications for further discussion of this topic. 6

Resuming our original question, it must be noted that the need for careful selection of instruments to be used in scientific investigations must have a solid theoretical basis and should not be considered as a mere fad. Ultimately, the wrong choice of an instrument can compromise the internal validity of the study, producing misleading results, which are therefore unable to answer the research question originally formulated. Besides, the choice of an instrument also has implications in the ability to generalize the research results (external validity), and to compare them with those of other studies conducted nationally or internationally on the same subject - researchers using equivalent instruments can establish an effective dialogue, which enables a more comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon in question, including its antecedents and consequences. 7

In order to justify the need to carefully select the instruments to be used in scientific research and also provide basic guidelines so that these decisions are based on solid grounds, we will divide this article into the following sections: (1) On the comparative nature the of scientific research; (2) How to select the most appropriate instrument for my research when there are prototypes available in the scientific literature; and (3) What to do when there are no available instruments to assess the phenomenon of interest to the researcher.

ON THE COMPARATIVE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

The inherently comparative nature of scientific research represents an aspect that may sometimes pass unnoticed even to the more experienced researcher. However, the careful examination of a project's theoretical framework, the discussion of a scientific article and also the study results are sufficient to easily demonstrate this comparative nature.

Investigations in the field of Social Anthropology, for example, are based on comparisons of complex cultural systems; the identification of idiosyncrasies in a particular cultural system is only possible after its confrontation with the characteristics of another system. 8 So, the conclusion that a specific South American indigenous population exhibits distinct kinship relations from those observed in the hegemonic Western family composition only occurs when these two forms of cultural systems are compared.

The same occurs in the healthcare field - comparisons are crucial to arrive at conclusions, including the evaluation of consistency of certain scientific findings among a set of previously conducted studies. Likewise, if a researcher is interested in examining the quality of life of patients affected by the pain caused by lower-limb ulcers, he and his team should necessarily make comparisons.

In this case, the comparison is between two distinct groups of subjects with lower-limb ulcers, one of them with pain and the other without it, to ascertain whether the levels of quality of life found in both groups are similar or not. If the researcher observes, by comparison, that the group with pain has a diminished quality of life compared to the group without pain, he may conclude that there is a negative correlation between quality of life and pain related to lowerlimb ulcers.

However, the comparative principle goes beyond contrasting internal groups in a study, as illustrated above. Researchers of a particular subject, for example, the development of melanocytic lesions, can only confirm that the use of sunscreen prevents their occurrence, when multiple scientific studies evaluating this question have previously shown it. In other words, by comparing the results generated by several investigations on the same topic, the scientific community can judge the consistency of the findings and thus make a solid conclusion about the subject matter.

Considering that the comparison of results from different studies is a key aspect of the production and consolidation of scientific knowledge, the following question arises: How should one conduct scientific studies so that their results are comparable to each other? Invariably, the answer to this question includes the use of scientific research instruments that are valid, reliable, and equivalent in different studies. So, what are the basic elements of the selection and use of these tools that enables this scientific dialogue? This is exactly what the subsequent section aims to answer.

HOW TO SELECT THE MOST APPROPRIATE INSTRUMENTS FOR MY RESEARCH, WHEN THERE ARE PROTOTYPES AVAILABLE IN THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE

We assume that the researcher has already formulated a clear and pertinent research question, which he or she wants to answer by conducting a scientific research. To illustrate the situation, imagine that a researcher is interested in estimating the frequency of depression and anxiety in a population of caregivers of pediatric patients with chronic dermatoses. The research question could be worded specifically in this way: What is the frequency of anxiety and depression in caregivers of children under five years of age, with chronic dermatoses (atopic dermatitis, vitiligo and psoriasis) residing in the city of Porto Alegre in 2014?

Considering that the phenomenon to be evaluated is restricted to anxiety and depression, how should the investigator proceed in this regard? There are at least two possible alternatives: the researcher can develop a set of entirely original items (instrument) to measure both mental disorders cited or select valid and reliable instruments already available in the scientific literature to assess such disorders.

Both alternatives have their own implications. Developing a new instrument means conducting an additional research project that will require considerable effort and time to be carried out. The scientific literature on to the development and adaptation of instruments emphatically condemns this decision. 9 Often, researchers who choose to develop new instruments overestimate the deficiencies of the existing ones and disregard the time and effort needed to construct a new and appropriate prototype. In most cases, the optimistic and to some extent naive expectations of these researchers are frustrated by the development of a new instrument whose flaws are potentially similar to or even greater than the ones found in existing instruments, but with an additional aggravating factor: the possibility of comparing the results of a study performed with the newly developed instrument to those of previous studies employing other measuring tools is, at least initially, nonexistent. In general, we recommend developing new instruments only when there are no other options for measuring the phenomenon in question or when the existing ones have huge and confirmed limitations.

If the researcher has taken the (right) decision to use an existing instrument to assess anxiety and depression, we suggest that he or she should cover the following steps: 9

• Conduct a very broad and thorough literature search to retrieve the instruments that assess the phenomenon in question. The bibliographic search can start in the traditional bibliographical resources in healthcare, such as PubMed, but it must also take in consideration those available in other scientific fields, such as psychology and education whenever necessary;
• Identify all the available instruments to measure the phenomenon of interest. Eventually, some may not have been published in books, book chapters or as scientific articles. In these cases, it is essential to make contact with the researchers working in the area to ask them about the existence of unpublished measuring instruments (gray literature);

Aspects regarding validity and reliability (quality) of measurement instruments *

• Select an instrument that meets the goals of your study, considering ethical, budgetary and time constraints, among others. Whenever the chosen instrument has been created in a research context significantly distinct from that of your investigation, search the literature for studies of cross-cultural adaptation that aimed to produce an equivalent version of the instrument for the language and cultural specificities of your research context. 11 Thus, as argued by Reichenheim & Moares, "the process of cross-cultural adaptation should be a combination between a component of literal translation of words and phrases from one language to another and a meticulous tuning process, that addresses the cultural context and lifestyle of the target-population to which the version will be applied." 10

Proceeding as described above, the privileged scenario will be the one in which studies addressing the same phenomena shall be conducted with equivalent instruments to assess them and therefore their results will be readily comparable. This would be the same as having a study conducted in different countries on the topics of depression and anxiety in caregivers of pediatric patients with chronic skin diseases and each one would use a version of the instrument adapted for the respective research contexts. So, while in Brazil the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale would be used in a version adapted to Brazilian Portuguese, the equivalent version of this same instrument in Japanese would be used in Japan. Therefore, the rates of these common mental disorders, estimated by both studies would be directly comparable at the end of each survey.

WHAT TO DO WHEN THERE ARE NO AVAILABLE INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING THE PHENOMENON OF INTEREST TO THE RESEARCHER

Whenever the researcher is confronted with the lack of instruments for measuring the phenomenon of interest, it is possible to follow at least one of these leads:

• Ultimately, review the research question and replace it with one that does not involve the assessment of the phenomenon for which there are no measurement tools available;
• Develop an ancillary research program, whose main objective is to perform a cross-cultural adaptation of a measurement instrument to the context in which the investigation will be conducted. In this case, one must consider the need to postpone the original study until the adapted version of the instrument is available - something that takes in the most optimistic prediction, two to three years; or
• Temporarily suspend the research initiative, waiting until other researchers have provided an adapted version of the selected instrument, making it possible to execute the study in a similar sociocultural context.

The synthesis of the entire process suggested in this article is illustrated in the decision tree, depicted in Figure 1 . We believe that the conduct of studies along these lines has an even greater potential to increase the knowledge on the particularities of any topic of interest and, ultimately, contribute to approaching socially relevant demands.

Decision tree to guide the process of choosing an instrument to collect scientific research data

Conflict of Interest: None

Financial Support: None

How to cite this article: Bastos JL, Duquia RP, González-Chica DA, Mesa JM, Bonamigo RR. Field work I: selecting the instrument for data collection. An Bras Dermatol. 2014;89(6):918-23.

* Work performed at the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Porto Alegre Health Sciences Federal University and Latin American Cooperative Oncology Group (LACOG) - Porto Alegre (RS), Brazil.

Research Instrument Design and Sample

• First Online: 22 June 2021

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• Saiyidi Mat Roni 3 &
• Hadrian Geri Djajadikerta 3  

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Research is a journey. While the destination is the end, it is the process that adds colours to the fun. A good research answers questions and offers solutions. Even when the research concludes with no definitive answer, the work offers ways to investigate a phenomenon (or demonstrates the not-to-do ways because these are deemed unsuccessful!). And to kick off with the journey, we explore two technical parts of research in this chapter– survey questionnaire and sample size. The survey questionnaire is the tool where you use to collect data from the sample. The sample size is the total number of individuals for whom the survey is sent. We demonstrate how you can create the right questions to get the right answers from the right number of individuals.

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Mat Roni, S., Djajadikerta, H.G. (2021). Research Instrument Design and Sample. In: Data Analysis with SPSS for Survey-based Research. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0193-4_1

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Methodology

• Data Collection | Definition, Methods & Examples

Data Collection | Definition, Methods & Examples

Published on June 5, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 21, 2023.

Data collection is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements. Whether you are performing research for business, governmental or academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem .

While methods and aims may differ between fields, the overall process of data collection remains largely the same. Before you begin collecting data, you need to consider:

• The  aim of the research
• The type of data that you will collect
• The methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and process the data

To collect high-quality data that is relevant to your purposes, follow these four steps.

Table of contents

Step 1: define the aim of your research, step 2: choose your data collection method, step 3: plan your data collection procedures, step 4: collect the data, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about data collection.

Before you start the process of data collection, you need to identify exactly what you want to achieve. You can start by writing a problem statement : what is the practical or scientific issue that you want to address and why does it matter?

Next, formulate one or more research questions that precisely define what you want to find out. Depending on your research questions, you might need to collect quantitative or qualitative data :

• Quantitative data is expressed in numbers and graphs and is analyzed through statistical methods .
• Qualitative data is expressed in words and analyzed through interpretations and categorizations.

If your aim is to test a hypothesis , measure something precisely, or gain large-scale statistical insights, collect quantitative data. If your aim is to explore ideas, understand experiences, or gain detailed insights into a specific context, collect qualitative data. If you have several aims, you can use a mixed methods approach that collects both types of data.

• Your first aim is to assess whether there are significant differences in perceptions of managers across different departments and office locations.
• Your second aim is to gather meaningful feedback from employees to explore new ideas for how managers can improve.

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Based on the data you want to collect, decide which method is best suited for your research.

• Experimental research is primarily a quantitative method.
• Interviews , focus groups , and ethnographies are qualitative methods.
• Surveys , observations, archival research and secondary data collection can be quantitative or qualitative methods.

Carefully consider what method you will use to gather data that helps you directly answer your research questions.

When you know which method(s) you are using, you need to plan exactly how you will implement them. What procedures will you follow to make accurate observations or measurements of the variables you are interested in?

For instance, if you’re conducting surveys or interviews, decide what form the questions will take; if you’re conducting an experiment, make decisions about your experimental design (e.g., determine inclusion and exclusion criteria ).

Operationalization

Sometimes your variables can be measured directly: for example, you can collect data on the average age of employees simply by asking for dates of birth. However, often you’ll be interested in collecting data on more abstract concepts or variables that can’t be directly observed.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations. When planning how you will collect data, you need to translate the conceptual definition of what you want to study into the operational definition of what you will actually measure.

• You ask managers to rate their own leadership skills on 5-point scales assessing the ability to delegate, decisiveness and dependability.
• You ask their direct employees to provide anonymous feedback on the managers regarding the same topics.

You may need to develop a sampling plan to obtain data systematically. This involves defining a population , the group you want to draw conclusions about, and a sample, the group you will actually collect data from.

Your sampling method will determine how you recruit participants or obtain measurements for your study. To decide on a sampling method you will need to consider factors like the required sample size, accessibility of the sample, and timeframe of the data collection.

Standardizing procedures

If multiple researchers are involved, write a detailed manual to standardize data collection procedures in your study.

This means laying out specific step-by-step instructions so that everyone in your research team collects data in a consistent way – for example, by conducting experiments under the same conditions and using objective criteria to record and categorize observations. This helps you avoid common research biases like omitted variable bias or information bias .

This helps ensure the reliability of your data, and you can also use it to replicate the study in the future.

Creating a data management plan

Before beginning data collection, you should also decide how you will organize and store your data.

• If you are collecting data from people, you will likely need to anonymize and safeguard the data to prevent leaks of sensitive information (e.g. names or identity numbers).
• If you are collecting data via interviews or pencil-and-paper formats, you will need to perform transcriptions or data entry in systematic ways to minimize distortion.
• You can prevent loss of data by having an organization system that is routinely backed up.

Finally, you can implement your chosen methods to measure or observe the variables you are interested in.

The closed-ended questions ask participants to rate their manager’s leadership skills on scales from 1–5. The data produced is numerical and can be statistically analyzed for averages and patterns.

To ensure that high quality data is recorded in a systematic way, here are some best practices:

• Record all relevant information as and when you obtain data. For example, note down whether or how lab equipment is recalibrated during an experimental study.
• Double-check manual data entry for errors.
• If you collect quantitative data, you can assess the reliability and validity to get an indication of your data quality.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Likert scale

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Framing effect
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:

• You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g. understanding the needs of your consumers or user testing your website)
• You can control and standardize the process for high reliability and validity (e.g. choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods )

However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labor-intensive and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

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RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS These are the fact finding strategies. They are the tools for data collection. They include Questionnaire, Interview, Observation and Reading. Essentially the researcher must ensure that the instrument chosen is valid and reliable. The validity and reliability of any research project depends to a large extent on the appropriateness of the instruments. Whatever procedure one uses to collect data, it must be critically examined to check the extent to which it is likely to give you the expected results. Questionnaire • This is a data collection instrument mostly used in normative surveys. This is a systematically prepared form or document with a set of questions deliberately designed to elicit responses from respondents or research informants for the purpose of collecting data or information. • It is a form of inquiry document, which contains a systematically compiled and well organised series of questions intended to elicit the information which will provide insight into the nature of the problem under study. • It is a form that contains a set of questions on a topic or group of topics designed to be answered by the respondent. • The respondents are the population samples of the study. The answers provided by the respondents constitute the data for the report. The effective use of questionnaire for data collection depends on the mode of formulation and administration of the questions, the medium of delivering the questionnaire and the method of contacting respondents for retrieval of the questionnaire. These modes affect the credibility and quality of the data obtained. Note that the respondent is not under any obligation to respond to the questionnaire. The respondent therefore has to be influenced in order to submit accurate data to the questions administered. Read more for some expect strategies.

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In this article, as data collecting tools interviews and questionnaries used in social science and educational researches were examined. Firstly, the definitions and types of both techiques were discussed. then interwies and questionnaries were compared in terms of various aspects. these comparisions were made regarding information, bias, anonimity and confidentialty, response rate, validity, reliability and data analysis. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of both techniques were summarised in a table.

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This chapter sets out various methods for gathering important data on the language uses of participants in a research project. These methods imply interaction between students, teachers and researchers. They are used in the design of research projects based on action research, ethnography or conversational analysis, this being the case with the studies presented in the first section of this handbook. Gathering research data following these methodologies often implies preparing situations, tasks or activities that engage participants to interact around a specific theme or to mobilize certain communication skills.

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Writing can mean lowering or describing graphic symbols that describe a language understood by someone. For a researcher, management of research preparation is a very important step because this step greatly determines the success or failure of all research activities. Before a person starts with research activities, he must make a written plan commonly referred to as the management of research data collection. In the process of collecting research data, of course we can do the management of questionnaires as well as the preparation of interview guidelines to disseminate and obtain accurate information. With the arrangement of planning and conducting interviews: the ethics of conducting interviews, the advantages and disadvantages of interviews, the formulation of interview questions, the schedule of interviews, group and focus group interviews, interviews using recording devices, and interview bias. making a questionnaire must be designed with very good management by giving to the information needed, in accordance with the problem and all that does not cause problems at the stage of analysis and interpretation.

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