how to cite in a college essay

APA Citation Style 7th Edition: Welcome

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• Images, Charts, Graphs, Maps & Tables
• Journal Articles
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• Personal Communication (Interviews, Emails)
• Social Media
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• Paraphrasing
• No Author, No Date etc.
• Sample Papers
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What is APA?

APA style was created by the American Psychological Association. It is a set of rules for publications, including research papers.

In APA, you must "cite" sources that you have paraphrased, quoted or otherwise used to write your research paper. Cite your sources in two places:

• In the body of your paper where you add a brief in-text citation.
• In the Reference list at the end of your paper where you give more complete information for the source.

Acknowledgement

What's new in the 7th edition of apa.

Below is a summary of the major changes in the 7th edition of the APA Publication Manual.

Essay Format:

• Font - While you still can use Times New Roman 12, you are free to use other fonts. Calibri 11, Arial 11, Lucida Sans 10, and Georgia 11 are all acceptable.
• Headers - No running headers are required for student papers.
• Tables and Figures - There is a standardized format for both tables and figures.

Style, Grammar, Usage:

• Singular "they" required in two situations: when used by a known person as their personal pronoun or when the gender of a singular person is not known.
• Use only one space after a sentence-ending period.

Citation Style:

• Developed the 'Four Elements of a Reference" (Author, Date, Title, Source) to help writers to create references for source types not explicitly examined in the APA Manual.
• Three or more authors can be abbreviated to First author, et al. on the first citation.
• Up to 20 authors are spelled out in the References List.
• Publisher location is not required for books
• Ebook platform, format, or device is not required for eBooks.  
• Library database names are generally not required
• No "doi:" prefix, simply include the doi.
• All hyperlinks retain the https://
• Links can be "live" in blue with underline or black without underlining

Commonly Used Terms

Citing : The process of acknowledging the sources of your information and ideas.

DOI (doi) : Some electronic content, such as online journal articles, is assigned a unique number called a Digital Object Identifier (DOI or doi). Items can be tracked down online using their doi.

In-Text Citation : A brief note at the point where information is used from a source to indicate where the information came from. An in-text citation should always match more detailed information that is available in the Reference List.

Paraphrasing : Taking information that you have read and putting it into your own words.

Plagiarism : Taking, using, and passing off as your own, the ideas or words of another.

Quoting : The copying of words of text originally published elsewhere. Direct quotations generally appear in quotation marks and end with a citation.

Reference : Details about one cited source.

Reference List : Contains details on ALL the sources cited in a text or essay, and supports your research and/or premise.

Retrieval Date : Used for websites where content is likely to change over time (e.g. Wikis), the retrieval date refers to the date you last visited the website.

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• Last Updated: Mar 13, 2024 2:21 PM
• URL: https://libguides.msubillings.edu/apa7

Writing based on Texts

Citing sources, why you cite sources.

Citing sources means that you need to give credit to other authors’ specific information and ideas. Giving credit to the sources you used in your essay is important for several reasons:

• It allows your readers to distinguish your ideas from your sources’ ideas within the text of your writing.
• It adds to your own credibility as an author by showing you have done appropriate research on your topic and included that research ethically.
• It gives your readers additional resources (already curated by you in your research process) that they can go to if they want to read further about your topic.
• It helps you avoid unintentionally plagiarizing others’ work.

The following video provides a brief introduction to citing sources.

Citing to Avoid Plagiarism

Unintentional plagiarism (“stealing”) occurs when you don’t cite all of the source information used in your essay, even the information that you re-wrote in your own words. Remember, you need to cite all quotations, paraphrases, and summaries, since they present other people’s ideas. When you cite each piece of source information you’ve incorporated in your essay, you make it absolutely clear that the material was taken from a source. If you don’t cite your sources, your reader will assume the words and ideas are yours—and since that isn’t true, you will have committed plagiarism.

To avoid plagiarism, cite your source information briefly at the point of use, and more fully at the end of your essay. The point of use citation is called an in-text citation. In-text citations usually include the author’s last name and page number in parentheses at the end of the quoted, paraphrased, or summarized sentences, if a page number exists. You need to use an in-text citation every time you quote, paraphrase, or summarize. So you may have paragraphs that include many in-text citations depending on how much researched information you incorporate in your essay. While an attribution such “according to” signals the start of a source’s information, the in-text citation signals the end. You need both to accurately separate your sources’ information from your own. Just remember—when in doubt, cite within the text. Fuller citation, with more information about each source (e.g., author’s full name, publication title, date, etc.), occurs in a Works Cited list at the end of the essay.

How to Cite, using MLA Format

In-text citations.

Put the author’s last name and the page number(s) from which the quotation, paraphrase, or summary is taken in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

If you mention the author’s name at the start of the quote, paraphrase, or summary, put only the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

If you need to cite more than one source in your in-text citation, use a semicolon to separate the sources and list alphabetically.

For sources without page numbers, such as websites or blogs, either omit the page number or use a different indicator, if one exists.

Jamison defines “insider trading” in two different ways… (Calvert). OR

Jamison defines “insider trading” in two different ways… (Calvert, par. 4).

Works Cited at the End of the Essay

MLA uses a standard order of information for all types of sources. Note that if your source does not have a particular section, just skip that section and move on.

• The first author’s name is always Last Name, First Name.
• Subsequent authors’ names are in normal order, with First Name and then Last Name.
• Put a period at the end of the Names section.

2. Title of Source – the material you’re quoting, paraphrasing, summarizing

• Capitalize all words in the title of source except for articles, conjunctions, and prepositions (e.g., “a”, “and,” “of”).
• Put article, essay, and chapter titles, or any other “small” piece of material (poem, song title) inside of quotation marks.
• Book, film, journal, and web page titles go into italics (no quotation marks).
• Put a period at the end of the Title of Source section. (note that if the title is in quotation marks, the period goes inside the end quotation mark “like this.”).

3. Title of Container

The container is the “place” that holds or houses the source you’re using:

• A book chapter (the “title of source”) is held within a book (the “container”).
• A newspaper article (the “title of source”) is held within a newspaper (the “container”).
• An essay on a web page (the “title of source”) is held within a website (the “container”).
• A journal article (the “title of source”) is held within a journal (the “container”).

(And so forth)

• Capitalize all words in the title of the container except for articles, conjunctions, and prepositions (e.g., “a”, “and,” “of”).
• The container is almost always* in italic font.
• Put a comma at the end of the Title of Container.

*An example of a non-italicized container would be if you were citing an actual painting and the “container” was an art museum. The museum would be listed as the container but in plain font.

4. Other Contributors

Others who assisted with creating or handling the source, e.g., directors, editors, translators, performers, illustrators, etc.

• Introduce the role of other contributors using plain, unabbreviated language, e.g., performed by, directed by, etc.
• Put a comma at the end of the Other Contributors section.
• Version refers to an edition number, volume number, or month.
• Put a comma at the end of the Version section.
• Use this to provide an issue number (e.g., for a magazine or journal), a special archive number (e.g., with museum pieces), or something similar.
• Put a comma at the end of the Number section.

7. Publisher

The publisher is the person or institution that makes the source available to the world.

• Write out the complete publisher name; don’t abbreviate or omit words.
• Put a comma at the end of the Publisher section.

8. Publication Date – of the material you’re quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing

• Use MLA date format: day month year.  E.g.  12 January 2020
• Put a comma at the end of the Publication section.
• With longer months, you may abbreviate the source; if you do, follow the abbreviation with a period. E.g., 12 Jan. 2020

9. Location

The source’s location tells the reader where to find the source. Many sources will not have a location, but it should be listed if present.

• For single pages, use this format: p. 6.
• For two or more pages, list like this: pp. 62-4 or pp. 184-96.
• If using two or more pages and they cross a “hundred” marker, list like this: pp. 456-502.
• With web pages, give the URL—but omit the http:// at the beginning.
• Do not break URLs manually to try and fit them into your Works Cited entry; just type them in and let your Word processor decide where to break them.
• Put a period at the end of the Location section.

Format for Works Cited

The Works Cited list occurs at the end of the essay. Use the title Works Cited. Then list the sources in alphabetical order, according to the authors’ last names. If you have a source without a particular author, alphabetize according to the first main word in the source’s name (do not alphabetize by “a,” “an,” or “the”).

Do a hanging indent for your alphabetical list, so that each new source starts at your margin, and the second and subsequent lines of each entry are indented under that first line. Your Works Cited should look like this:

Citation Tools & Resources

There are many other online citation tools that help with both in-text and end-of-text citations. Some of these include the following:

• Citationmachine.net
• Easybib.com
• Citefast.com

These sites contain fuller information about citing sources:

• Empire State College’s  MLA Micro-course  offers a short, yet comprehensive, tutorial on citing sources using Modern Language Association format
• Empire State College’s library: Citing Your Sources contains many links and good information on documentation formats
• MLA Citation – offers a clear description of how to document sources using MLA format. This site is from the State University of New York at Albany

And these sites offer brief quizzes to help you test your understanding of the type of information you need to cite:

• Empire State College’s Understanding Plagiarism Quiz
• Plagiarism Self Test

Look at the article “ The Importance of High School Mentors ” on the website of The Atlantic magazine.

Find the information you need for an end-of-text citation in a Works Cited list.

Fill in appropriate pieces of the MLA Interactive Practice Template , with correct punctuation at the end of each section.

Then put the pieces together to create an actual citation and format it in MLA citation style.

Here’s the list of items you should have in the interactive template, item by item, with correct punctuation at the end of each item. At the end is the whole citation with all of the items put together and formatted in MLA citation style.

• Sebenius, Alyza.
• “The Importance of High School Mentors.”
• You have two options for the container in this case; either would be correct: The Atlantic , theatlantic.com ,
• The article has no “other contributors,” so skip this and leave it blank.
• The article has no version, so skip this and leave it blank.
• The article has no number, so skip this and leave it blank.
• If you scroll to the bottom of the page, you’ll find the publisher, which should be: The Atlantic Monthly Group,
• You can use one of two options; either is correct: 13 January 2016 13 Jan. 2016
• www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/01/mentorship-in-public-schools/423945.

• Citing Sources, includes material adapted from The Word on College Reading and Writing and Excelsior Online Writing Lab; attributions below, . Authored by : Susan Oaks. Project : Introduction to College Reading & Writing. License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• pages on Crediting & Citing Your Sources and Creating a Works Cited Page. Authored by : Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear. Provided by : OpenOregon Educational Resources. Located at : https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• pages on MLA In-Text Citations, Three or More Authors, Multiple Works by the Same Author, No Page Numbers. Provided by : Excelsior Online Writing Lab. Located at : https://owl.excelsior.edu/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• video Citation: A (Very) Brief Introduction . Authored by : libncsu. Provided by : Ask Us. Located at : . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• image of student working at laptop. Authored by : Jan Vau0161ek . Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/photos/laptop-woman-education-study-young-3087585/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved
• image of many students gathered around a computer monitor. Authored by : vicwag. Provided by : Pixabay. Located at : https://pixabay.com/photos/student-people-latin-school-person-2816892/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved

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Table of Contents

Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, citation guide – learn how to cite sources in academic and professional writing.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

Citation isn't just about adhering to prescribed rules or ensuring each dot and comma is in its rightful place. It's a rhetorical , fluid, intuitive process where writers must balance the authoritative voices of external sources with their own unique voice . Learn actionable strategies to weave sources into your writing .

For writers, learning how to cite sources in academic and professional writing is twofold: one aspect is rule-bound and procedural, while the other is open-ended and creative:

• Communities of practice — such as The APA – American Psychological Association or the MLA – The Modern Language Association — develop unique textual practices — including conventions for acknowledging, quoting , paraphrasing , and summarizing sources
• research the status of the scholarly conversation on any particular topic among domain experts (e.g., scholars, researchers and practitioners)
• engage in rhetorical analysis (especially audience analysis ) to determine the reader’s expectations regarding citation , media , genre , voice –and related matters
• realize, through drafting , what it is they want to say — and, consequently, whom they need to cite.

Key Concepts: Academic Dishonesty ; Attribution; Evidence ; Information, Data ; Archive ; Epistemology ; Plagiarism ; Textual Research ; Symbol Analyst ; The CRAAP Test

Introduction

Citation — the act of informing your audience when you integrate material into your work that originates from another source — is both (1) a procedural, rule-bound process and (2) a creative act.

Citation as a Procedural, Rule-bound Process

First and foremost, citation functions as a methodical, rule-driven process, where adhering to the conventions of specific citation styles is paramount. For instance, if you are a scientist attempting to publish an article in The New England Journal of Medicine , you would need to follow the ICMJE Recommendations or the Vancouver system to ensure your references are correctly formatted and accepted by the journal’s editors.

This procedural aspect of citation can be broken down into four main steps:

• Determine the Citation Style: Understand the specific citation style your assignment or publication demands, be it APA, MLA, Chicago, or others.
• Choose Your Citation Strategy or Tool: Opt for a strategy or citation tool to systematically track and organize your citations.
• Compose Citations: Ensure accurate representation for all material borrowed from other sources, be it summarized , paraphrased , or quoted .
• Review and Revise: As your work develops, rigorously verify that your citations — in-text (parenthetical, numbered, or note citations, and in the reference list — conform to the requirements of the required citation style.

For a deeper understanding of these basic steps, consult the following:

• Citation – When & Why You Must Cite Sources in Academic & Professional Writing
• Paraphrase – Definition & Examples – How to Paraphrase with Clarity & Concision
• Quotation – When & How to Use Quotes in Your Writing
• Summary – How to Summarize Sources in Academic & Professional Writing

Citation as a Creative Act

Beyond the specific conventions dictated by formats like APA or MLA , citation is fundamentally about joining an ongoing dialogue with fellow scholars, past and present. Thus, beyond being rule-bound, citation is also a rhetorical, creative act.

When writers summarize , paraphrase , or quote others, they’re not just borrowing words or thoughts. Instead, they’re actively positioning themselves within a broader, dynamic conversation that encompasses centuries of human thought and inquiry. Take, for instance, the act of referencing Michelle Alexander’s “The New Jim Crow” . Citing Alexander’s work is akin to stepping into an expansive auditorium, catching Alexander’s eye, and confidently contributing to a resounding, layered discussion. Happily, in attendance at the auditorium are all of the writers that Alexander quoted — and all of the authors those writers cited. And, streaming in the door are new authors who are eager to add their two cents to the conversation .

Here’s the bottom line: human nature instinctively pushes us toward collaboration and the sharing of knowledge . Across history, great thinkers have acknowledged and celebrated this collective instinct.

The Association of College and Research Libraries reinforces this through their “Scholarship as a Conversation ” framework. They posit that knowledge isn’t just a treasure waiting to be discovered but an ongoing dialogue to be engaged with. Within this context, citation isn’t just a formality; it’s an essential tether, anchoring our ideas to the vast mosaic of scholarly exchange.

Historical reflections affirm this communal approach to knowledge. Bernard of Chartres, in 1159, coined the metaphor of “dwarves perched on the shoulders of giants,” emphasizing our continuous build on the foundational work of predecessors. Similarly, Isaac Newton, in 1675, noted that his groundbreaking discoveries were possible due to the insights of those before him. In turn, Kenneth Burke’s ‘parlor metaphor’ offers a vivid portrayal of this timeless academic exchange. He likens it to a conversation that’s been underway long before we join in and will continue long after we’ve departed, with new voices continually enriching the discourse.

Today, platforms like Google Scholar echo this enduring philosophy, with its motto, “Stand on the shoulders of Giants.” It serves as a reminder that as we wade through the extensive realm of human understanding, citation acts as our guiding star – enabling us to both find our way and add our unique insights to humanity’s unending scholarly conversation.

How Can I Determine Which Citation Style to Use?

Each community of practice adopts its own discourse conventions for citation. For instance, a paper written for an English course might expect citations to follow the Modern Language Association (MLA) style, while a psychology research article would typically utilize the American Psychological Association (APA) format. Similarly, a historian might lean towards the Chicago Manual of Style. Thus, there isn’t a one-size-fits-all approach to incorporating sources into your writing.

Thus, your first step when endeavoring to weave the ideas and words of others into your writing is to engage in rhetorical analysis :

• What citation format does your audience anticipate? This often hinges on the academic discipline, publication venue, or even a specific instructor’s preference.
• Do your readers prefer direct quotations , paraphrases , or a mix of both?
• How frequently do they expect sources to be cited?
• Are primary sources prioritized over secondary ones?

Is Using a Citation Tool a Good Idea?

Yes! Utilizing a citation tool scugh as Zotero can greatly benefit students and professionals alike for several reasons:

• Efficiency and Consistency: These tools automate the creation of citations and ensure consistency across all references, which is especially beneficial when handling multiple sources.
• Accuracy: Many citation tools extract data directly from journals, databases, or websites, which minimizes potential human errors in capturing details such as authors, publication dates, or titles.
• Adaptability: One of the notable benefits of citation tools is their ability to quickly switch between various citation styles. This is invaluable if you’re writing assignments for different courses or if you’re publishing in diverse venues with distinct citation requirements.
• Archival and Organizational Benefits: Citation tools store and organize references, providing a valuable archive of your reading history. This not only helps you keep track of sources you’ve read but also leverages your reading history to aid in future research or writing projects. The ability to categorize, tag, and annotate references can be a game-changer for extensive research projects.
• Cross-Platform Synchronization: Many citation tools synchronize across devices and platforms. This means you can access, add to, or edit your library from any device, ensuring seamless integration into your workflow.

When Should I Directly Quote a Source Versus Paraphrasing or Summarizing It?

Use a Direct Quote :

• When Original Phrasing is Important : Some authors have a unique way of expressing thoughts that can’t be recreated without losing its essence. If a particular turn of phrase or specific words are crucial, retain them.
• When It Supports Your Point Strongly : If a quote directly aligns with your argument and bolsters it more than a paraphrase or summary would, opt for a direct quote .
• For Credibility : Quoting renowned experts or primary sources can lend your work credibility . Direct quotes serve as evidence that your claims are rooted in established research or authoritative opinions.

Paraphrase :

• To Personalize Information : Paraphrasing allows you to present information in your voice . This not only showcases your understanding but ensures the information seamlessly blends with your narrative.
• To Simplify Complex Content : Some original texts may be laden with jargon or complex structures. Paraphrasing can distill these intricate concepts into more accessible language. It’s an opportunity to break down and explain content, making it easier for your audience to grasp.

Summarize :

• Providing an Overview : When you need to touch upon the general themes or major points of a large body of work without diving deep into specifics, summarizing is your go-to tool.
• Condensing Information : Summarizing is especially useful when dealing with lengthy sources. It allows you to present the core ideas succinctly, giving readers a snapshot of the content without overwhelming them with details.

How Can I Distinguish My Ideas from Those of My Sources?

It’s essential that writers neither claim others’ ideas as their own (which is plagiarism ) nor allow their original thoughts to be overshadowed by external sources. To ensure clarity for your readers, you must differentiate between your ideas and those of your sources.

Readers, moving from left to right, shouldn’t have to double back to figure out the origin of the information in a paragraph or section. Take Theresa Lovins’s essay, “Objectionable Rock Lyrics”, as an instance:

“Many Americans fear government intervention when it comes to human rights. They fear that government censorship of rock lyrics might lead to other restrictions. Then too, what would the guidelines be, who would make these decisions, and how might it affect our cherished constitutional rights? Questions like these should always be approached with serious consideration. We have obligations as parents to protect our children and as Americans to uphold and protect our rights. Therefore, it’s important to ask what effects proposals like Tipper Gore’s, president of PMRC, might have on our freedoms in the future. She recommends that the record companies utilize a rating system: X would stand for profane or sexually explicit lyrics, V for violence, O for occultism, and D/A for drugs/alcohol. The PMRC also suggest that the lyrics be displayed on the outside cover along with a general warning sticker which perhaps might read “Parental Guidance: Explicit Lyrics.” To date, record companies have not agreed to all these demands but some have decided to put warning labels on certain questionable albums (Morthland).”

While Lovins provides complete documentation for her source (i.e., Morthland), she doesn’t clearly delineate what precisely she’s borrowing from him. This ambiguity could be effortlessly addressed with a transitional phrase, such as, “In a recent examination of this controversy, John Morthland’s essay in High Fidelity notes that Tipper Gore has proposed…”. By doing so, Lovins ensures her audience knows exactly where her own thoughts conclude and Morthland’s begin.

First-time Introductions:

• MLA Style Example : “Before exploring the intricacies of cultural hybridity, it’s valuable to understand Homi Bhabha’s viewpoint. In The Location of Culture , he notes that mimicry often renders “the colonial subject… as a ‘partial’ presence” (Bhabha 123).”
• APA Style Example : “When assessing cultural hybridity, Bhabha (1994) in his seminal work, The Location of Culture , suggests that mimicry can make “the colonial subject… a ‘partial’ presence” (p. 123).”

Subsequent References:

• After the initial introduction, you can frequently refer just to the author’s last name. Only revert to the full reference if there’s ambiguity or if you’re switching to another work by the same author.
• Example : “As the discussion progresses, Bhabha (1994) further unpacks the intricate dynamics of post-colonial identities, emphasizing the transformative potential of hybrid cultures.”

Key Points to Remember:

• Clarity is Essential : Your audience should always be aware of whose perspective is being presented: yours or a cited source. Proper introductions and references prevent any mix-ups.
• Signposting is Beneficial : Using verbs like “claims,” “asserts,” or “proposes” acts as indicators that the ensuing information is from a cited work.
• Your Voice is Vital : Although external sources bolster your content’s credibility , your personal interpretations , analysis, and synthesis are what set your work apart. Make sure to regularly interject with your perspectives or evaluations of the cited material.

Why Should I End a Paragraph in My Own Voice Instead of a Quote or Paraphrase?

Your paper’s primary voice should be yours, highlighting your unique perspective and contributions. While it’s essential to support your claims with reliable evidence, the primary voice guiding the conversation should be yours. Each paragraph should start and conclude with your insights, ensuring your narrative remains central.

So, how can you, as a writer, effectively conclude a paragraph in your own voice?

• Echo key terms from the quotation or paraphrase in your concluding sentences.
• Identify connections between your viewpoint and the cited content.
• Align the quotation or paraphrase with the overarching aim of the paragraph or your main thesis.
• Draw from the source to craft a smooth transition to the subsequent paragraph.

Illustrative Example :

Main Point : The presence of plastics is ubiquitous in America, yet only a fraction are recycled.

Quotation : “In 2023, merely 8% of the entire plastic waste was redirected for recycling” (“Plastics”).

Initial Paragraph :

Every day, recyclable plastic items surround us. Found in shopping malls, restaurants, offices, schools, or homes, these plastics come as shopping bags, packaging, containers, and more. The choice arises: trash or recycle? The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) underscores, “only 8% of the total plastic waste generated in 2023 was recovered for recycling” (“Plastics”).

Drawback : The paragraph halts suddenly with the EPA’s statement.

Improved Conclusion :

This figure indicates that most of the plastic waste in 2023 remained unrecycled in America. Addressing this sizable non-recycling demographic with targeted campaigns might be the next strategic step.

Citations :

MLA: “Plastics.” EPA. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 16 Apr. 2023. Web. 26 Apr. 2023.

APA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2023). Plastics. www.epa.gov/plastics.

What’s the Difference Between a Primary and a Secondary Source, and How Might I Approach Integrating Each Into My Writing?

Understanding the distinction between primary and secondary sources is foundational for both academic and professional writing . These sources form the underpinning of our arguments and narratives . For instance, while a comprehensive report may state thousands are affected by an issue, often it’s the personal account of an individual that resonates profoundly with readers.

1. Definitions:

• Examples : Original documents (e.g., diaries, letters), raw data, artworks, and interviews.
• Examples : Articles, books, or documentaries that critique or comment on primary sources; literature reviews.

2. Strengths of Each Source:

Primary Sources:

• They offer firsthand, unvarnished insights.
• Allow readers to engage directly with raw evidence.
• Provide an authentic voice to a narrative.

Secondary Sources:

• They are part of the written archive, allowing other researchers to validate and engage with the information.
• Provide synthesized views, amalgamating various primary sources.
• Offer expert interpretations, shedding light on complexities and nuances.

3. Approaching Integration:

• Contextualize : Describe the broader setting or circumstances of the primary source. For a diary entry, detail the societal backdrop and key events of that time to anchor readers.
• Analyze : Examine the material’s themes, biases, and underlying messages, and explain its relevance to your argument.
• Reference Correctly : Given their place in the written archive, ensure bibliographic information is accurate so others can trace back to the original source.
• Discuss Specific Interpretations : When using a secondary source, highlight its unique perspective or analytical approach. For instance, if referencing a book review that offers a novel interpretation of a classic work, explain this viewpoint and its significance.

4. Balancing the Two:

The manner in which you integrate primary and secondary sources is influenced by the genre of your writing and the rhetorical strategies you’re employing:

• Purpose and Genre : If you’re writing a case study or ethnography , the genre itself dictates a heavier reliance on primary data, giving voice to firsthand experiences. Contrastingly, a literature review or meta-analysis would lean more on secondary sources to map out existing scholarship on a topic.
• Rhetorical Impact : Primary sources, with their raw and unmediated essence, can be powerful tools for ethos and pathos , grounding your narrative in authenticity and evoking emotional responses. Secondary sources, on the other hand, can bolster logos , providing scholarly depth, breadth, and validation to your claims .
• Crafting a Cohesive Narrative : Seamlessly weaving in primary and secondary sources isn’t just about juxtaposing raw data with textual research . It’s about crafting a narrative where each type of source complements the other. A quote from an individual might be the heart of your argument , but the scholarly discussions surrounding that quote give it context and broader significance.

How Can I Effectively Connect My Claims with Sourced Evidence?

Connecting your claims with sourced evidence is pivotal in academic and professional writing . It not only fortifies your arguments but also ensures that your readers understand the relevance of the evidence you’re providing.

1. Avoid Assumptions: Many writers think the relationship between their claim and the evidence is obvious. However, readers might not see the link as clearly. Hence, after presenting sourced material, always explain its significance to your point, purpose, and thesis.

2. Make Direct Connections: Consider the reader as someone who isn’t familiar with your topic. This means after introducing a quote or data, bridge it to your argument.

• Example: Palin suggests most of our oil is sourced from unstable regions. While this concern is valid, we believe offshore drilling poses a bigger economic risk.
• Example: Although Palin’s viewpoint underscores the significance of domestic oil production, it doesn’t consider the environmental risks associated with offshore drilling.
• Example: Despite arguments favoring offshore drilling, our stance is that its potential hazards far outweigh the benefits.

3. Engage with the Source:

• Explain the importance: Clarify why the sourced material is vital to your argument. Don’t assume the reader grasps its significance.
• Talk back to the source: Showcase your understanding and use it to bolster your stance.
• Discuss the implications: Dive into the consequences of your argument in light of the sourced material.

Ultimately, the goal is to ensure the reader comprehends how the evidence supports, complicates, or even challenges your claims. Remember, you’re not just citing sources; you’re weaving them into your narrative, making your arguments robust and nuanced.

APA Example: Flower and Hayes (1981) argue that many writers view writing as a “serendipitous experience, an act of discovery” (p. 286). This notion underscores the unpredictable nature of the writing process and suggests that exploring various writing methods can be a journey of discovery in itself.

MLA Example: According to Flower and Hayes, many authors perceive writing as “a serendipitous experience, an act of discovery” (286). This perspective highlights the evolving nature of writing, emphasizing the need to embrace diverse writing techniques.

How Can I Show the Relevance or Credibility of a Source to My Readers?

When you’re crafting an argument or presenting information , the strength and credibility of your sources are paramount. Especially in an academic or professional setting, readers seek evidence that’s not only compelling but also credible . Here’s how you can underscore the relevance and credibility of your sources:

• Highlight the Author’s Expertise: When referring to a notable author, highlight their qualifications and achievements in the relevant field. If you’re discussing the topic of grit and perseverance in writing and citing Angela Duckworth , an esteemed psychologist and author known for her work on this topic, leverage her credentials. Example: “Angela Duckworth, a celebrated psychologist and the author of Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance , argues that grit is a more significant predictor of success than talent.”
• Publication Type: University presses, often associated with established academic institutions, are generally held in higher regard compared to trade presses or self-publishing platforms like Amazon. This is because university presses often undergo rigorous peer- review processes .
• Journal Credibility: Is the journal you’re citing from peer-reviewed? Peer-reviewed journals maintain a stringent evaluation process where experts in the field review articles before publication. Journals published by professional societies, like the American Psychological Association, often carry weight due to their association with established experts in the field.
• Journal Rankings: In many professions, journals are ranked based on factors like citation rates and impact factor. Quoting from a top-tier journal can add gravitas to your argument. Example: “A recent study published in The Journal of Positive Psychology , a peer-reviewed journal ranked among the top 10 in the field, supports Duckworth’s theory…”
• Prioritize Recent Sources (When Applicable): In rapidly evolving subjects like technology or health, the currency of your source can attest to its relevance. Example: “In her 2023 Ted Talk, Duckworth updated her theory on grit by introducing…”
• Demonstrate How the Source Augments Your Argument: Seamlessly connect your source’s assertions to the point you’re underscoring. Example: “Duckworth’s emphasis on sustained effort aligns with studies on successful writers who, despite initial setbacks, persisted and improved over time.”
• Address Potential Bias: By identifying any inherent bias in your source, you enhance your credibility as a discerning researcher. Example: “Although the research was funded by the National Writers’ Association , its findings resonate with independent studies conducted at institutions like Yale and Cambridge.”
• Cross-reference with Other Credible Sources: Support from multiple authoritative sources reinforces the credibility of a point. Example: “This perspective on grit isn’t limited to Duckworth. Both The Journal of Educational Psychology and articles from the British Psychological Society have echoed similar findings.”
• Recognize Limitations: Accepting and indicating the limitations of a source showcases a balanced approach. Example: “Duckworth’s research, while pioneering, focuses mainly on students and educators. It’s essential to consider its applicability to writers from diverse backgrounds and experiences.”

Can I Ever Integrate a Source Without Directly Citing It in the Text? If So, How?

It’s essential to give credit to sources to maintain the integrity of your work and avoid plagiarism. While in-text citations are a direct way to do this, there are other methods to reference sources more discreetly:

• Endnotes or Footnotes: Some documentation styles permit the use of endnotes or footnotes instead of in-text citations. This method prevents the main body of your text from being disrupted by citations. Instead, you’d insert a superscript number that leads to a note at the end of your paper (endnote) or the bottom of the page (footnote) with the source’s full details. Example : You might write, “Grit, a combination of passion and perseverance, plays a significant role in achieving long-term goals[^1].” The corresponding note would provide the full citation for Angela Duckworth’s work on grit.
• General Bibliography/Works Cited: If you’ve integrated overarching ideas from a source, like Duckworth’s foundational theories on grit, but haven’t quoted or paraphrased a specific section, you might not need an in-text citation. Instead, Duckworth’s work would appear in a general bibliography or works cited page, signaling its influence on your understanding.
• Indirect Citations: There may be times when you encounter a perspective on Duckworth’s work cited in another author’s study. If you can’t access Duckworth’s original material, you can reference the intermediary source. Your citation method will vary depending on the documentation style. Example (in APA style): A recent interpretation of Duckworth’s theory, as discussed by Thompson (2022), suggests…
• Paraphrasing Broad Ideas: If you’re referring to widespread knowledge, like the basic definition of grit, you might not need an in-text citation. However, if you’re diving into detailed theories or unique interpretations specific to Duckworth, a citation is essential.

What about Newspapers & Magazines?

Mainstream publications, such as The New York Times or renowned magazines, adopt a different approach to referencing than scholarly or professional works. In these outlets, formal citation methods typical of academic journals aren’t always employed. Instead, there’s a general assumption that these publications have undergone a comprehensive editorial process, ensuring the information’s credibility. A key component of this process is the understanding that if readers or other stakeholders have questions regarding the sources of specific information, they can reach out to the author or publication directly to request these details. Thus, when you use information from such outlets in your writing, it’s essential to maintain this practice: always be prepared to direct readers to your primary source if questioned.

If I’m Reviewing Someone’s Research, How Much Detail Should I Provide about Their Research Methods?

If I’m Reviewing Someone’s Research, How Much Detail Should I Provide About Their Research Methods?

When reviewing another’s research, especially in academic or professional settings, it’s essential to strike a balance. You want to provide enough detail so readers can assess the study’s validity and relevance without overwhelming them with minutiae. The amount of detail needed can depend on your audience, the nature of the study, and the context in which you’re discussing it.

Consider the Purpose of Your Review :

• For Broad Overviews : When discussing the general findings of a study for a more general audience, a brief mention of the methods might suffice. E.g., “In her research on grit, Angela Duckworth conducted extensive surveys across diverse groups, finding a significant correlation between grit and long-term success.”
• For In-depth Analyses or Critiques : If you’re critiquing the study’s methodology or comparing methodologies across studies, you’ll need to delve deeper. E.g., “Duckworth’s study used a five-point Likert scale to measure respondents’ perseverance and passion for long-term goals, a decision that some researchers have debated due to potential response biases.”
• For Replication or Further Studies : If the aim is to allow others to replicate the study or to build upon it, every detail becomes vital, from the sample size to the statistical tests used.

Tips for Detailing Research Methods :

• Highlight Key Components : Describe the research design (e.g., longitudinal, experimental), the participants (sample size, demographics), the tools used (e.g., surveys, interviews), and the analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests, coding procedures).
• Address Potential Biases : For more critical reviews, discuss any potential sources of bias or limitations in the study. Was the sample representative? Were there any confounding variables?
• Compare with Other Studies : If relevant, compare the methods used in the research you’re reviewing with those of other similar studies. This can help readers gauge the study’s uniqueness or reliability.
• Use Visual Aids : Charts, tables, or diagrams can be beneficial in summarizing complex methods or when comparing methods across multiple studies.

For most college-level papers or articles, it’s advisable to include a clear and concise description of the research methods, allowing readers to gauge the study’s reliability and relevance to your discussion or argument. As you become more familiar with your audience and their expectations, you’ll develop a sense for the right level of detail to include.

How Do I Handle Sources From Non-Traditional Mediums, Like Podcasts, Tweets, or YouTube Videos?

In the digital age, research isn’t limited to books, journals, or articles. Multimedia platforms offer rich content that can be invaluable for your work. However, citing these non-traditional mediums can feel a bit daunting. Here’s a guide on how to navigate this terrain:

1. Podcasts:

• Host(s) of the episode.
• “Title of the episode.”
• Name of the podcast ,
• Production company or publisher,
• Date of publication.
• Platform (if applicable).

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela, host. “The Power of Grit.” Character Lab , Character Lab, 6 June 2021, characterlab.org/podcast/.

• Host(s) of the episode (Year, Month Day of publication).
• Title of the episode (No. episode number) [Audio podcast episode].
• In Name of the podcast .
• Production company or publisher.

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. (Host). (2021, June 6). The Power of Grit (No. 23) [Audio podcast episode]. In Character Lab . Character Lab.

• Author (individual or organization).
• Full text of the tweet.
• Twitter, Date of the tweet.

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela [@angeladuckw]. “Delving deeper into the nuances of grit and determination…” Twitter, 15 February 2022, twitter.com/angeladuckw/status/xxxxxx.

• Author (Year, Month Day of tweet).
• Full text of the tweet (up to the first 20 words) [Tweet].

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. [@angeladuckw]. (2022, February 15). Delving deeper into the nuances of grit and determination… [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/angeladuckw/status/xxxxxx

3. YouTube Videos:

• Author(s) or creator(s) (individual, group, or organization).
• “Title of the video.”

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela. “Exploring Grit in Education.” YouTube , 1 September 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxxxxx .

• Author (Year, Month Day of publication).
• Title of the video [Video].

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. (2021, September 1). Exploring Grit in Education [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxxxxx

• Citation formats might slightly change based on specific style guide versions or nuances. Always consult the relevant style guide.
• While MLA traditionally doesn’t include URLs, modern editions have adapted to the digital age by including them. Check with your instructor or publication’s preference.

How Do I Cite a Source That Was Quoted by Another Author I’m Reading?

When you come across a situation where you want to cite a quotation or idea that your primary source (the source you’re reading) has taken from another source (the original source), this is known as a secondary or indirect citation. It’s always preferable to locate the original source and cite from it directly; however, there are instances where this may not be feasible. In such cases, you’ll need to provide a citation that acknowledges both the primary and the original sources.

Here’s how you can handle secondary or indirect citations in both APA and MLA styles:

APA : When citing a source you found in another source, name the original author within your sentence, but follow it with “as cited in” and then immediately use the author, publication date, and page number (if available) of the secondary source in your parenthetical citation.

Example : Let’s say you’re reading a book by Thompson (2022) in which he quotes Duckworth (2007). You want to use Duckworth’s quote, but you can’t access her original work. Your in-text citation would look something like this:

Duckworth (2007, as cited in Thompson, 2022, p. 56) asserts that “grit is a combination of passion and perseverance.”

In your reference list, you would only include the secondary source, Thompson’s book, since that’s the source you actually read.

MLA : In MLA style, you’ll indicate the quote’s indirect nature in the in-text citation by using the phrase “qtd. in” (short for “quoted in”).

Example : Using the same scenario, your in-text citation would look like this:

Duckworth asserts that “grit is a combination of passion and perseverance” (qtd. in Thompson 56).

On your Works Cited page, you would only include a full citation for Thompson’s book, the secondary source you consulted.

Remember, using secondary citations should be an exception rather than the rule. Whenever possible, always try to consult and cite the original source directly to ensure the accuracy and context of the information.

Related Articles:

Citation - how to connect evidence to your claims, citation & voice - how to distinguish your ideas from your sources.

Citation Conventions - What is the Role of Citation in Academic & Professional Writing?

Citation Conventions - When Are Citations Required in Academic & Professional Writing?

Paraphrasing - How to Paraphrase with Clarity & Concision

Quotation - When & How to Use Quotes in Your Writing

Summary - Learn How To Summarize Sources in Academic & Professional Writing

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• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

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A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI
• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

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Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 18 March 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

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The College Student's Guide To Citation Styles

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Many writing assignments and projects will need to be completed during a student's college career . Plagiarism involves both intentional and unintentional copying of someone else's ideas and written work. Because plagiarism is a serious offense that could have serious academic repercussions, it's important to avoid it. Even unintentional plagiarism can carry a stiff penalty. Understanding plagiarism and its consequences is the first step to avoiding this mistake.

You can also avoid plagiarism by citing the sources you use in your writing to give proper credit to the original author or authors. Any time you use the research, ideas, or words of someone else in your own writing, you must cite this information with in-text citations and a complete list of sources at the end of the document. How you cite sources depends on the academic style of your document, so you must know the style requirements as you compile your citations.

The American Psychological Association style is the preferred style for science and social science documents. APA style stipulates double-spacing with one-inch margins on all four sides of the document. The preferred typeface for APA style is 12-point Times New Roman.

The APA citation style requires in-text citations and a full reference list at the end of the document. The format of the citations and entries into the reference list depends on the type of source cited. Write in-text citations directly into sentences to incorporate them into the text you are quoting or paraphrasing. For example, when citing a work written by a single author, include the idea or quote and then follow it with the author's last name and the year of publication in parentheses. If a source has two authors, list both names in every citation, connected with an ampersand and in parenthesis. For citations with more than two authors, list each author the first time, and in subsequent citations, list only the first author and use "et al."

The Modern Language Association style typically is used for literature and humanities documents. MLA citation requires two-part parenthetical entries for each source. The in-text citation identifies the source and points the reader to the works cited list, found following the document. Generally, the in-text citation should include the author's last name and the pages of the cited information, and you should place it immediately after the quoted or paraphrased text. For the works cited list, compile the sources in alphabetical order by the authors' last names or by the title of the article if author names are not available.

When writing medical documents or research, the American Medical Association style may be required. AMA style requires numerical citation of each source in the body of the document. Place the numbers outside of any commas or periods and inside any semicolons or colons. AMA style also requires a numerical reference list at the end of the document of all information cited.

The Chicago Manual of Style citation format is used in the natural and social sciences as well as humanities documents. When writing something that you will publish, CMS style is the standard. CMS style requires a superscript number after quoted or paraphrased text. Number each citation sequentially throughout the document. CMS gives the option of footnotes at the bottom of pages with citations or endnotes, which is a list of sources that appears at the end of the document. Footnotes generally are used in history, humanities, and art documents. Endnotes generally are used in social, natural, and physical science documents.

he Turabian style is a simplified Chicago style that is often used for natural and social sciences and humanities documents. A fundamental difference between CMS and Turabian styles involves publication. CMS is generally for published works, and Turabian style serves works that will not be published. Citations in Turabian style are generally the same as CMS style.

Additional Resources

• Citing a Basic Book in MLA Format : Use this tool to create an MLA citation by entering the requested information about the source.
• Cite Sources : This overall guide looks at how to cite sources in several styles.
• Citation Builder : This tool can help create citations in APA or MLA format.

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In-Text Citations: The Basics

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

Reference citations in text are covered on pages 261-268 of the Publication Manual. What follows are some general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay.

Note:  On pages 117-118, the Publication Manual suggests that authors of research papers should use the past tense or present perfect tense for signal phrases that occur in the literature review and procedure descriptions (for example, Jones (1998)  found  or Jones (1998)  has found ...). Contexts other than traditionally-structured research writing may permit the simple present tense (for example, Jones (1998)  finds ).

APA Citation Basics

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, like, for example, (Jones, 1998). One complete reference for each source should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

If you are referring to an idea from another work but  NOT  directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication and not the page number in your in-text reference.

On the other hand, if you are directly quoting or borrowing from another work, you should include the page number at the end of the parenthetical citation. Use the abbreviation “p.” (for one page) or “pp.” (for multiple pages) before listing the page number(s). Use an en dash for page ranges. For example, you might write (Jones, 1998, p. 199) or (Jones, 1998, pp. 199–201). This information is reiterated below.

Regardless of how they are referenced, all sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

In-text citation capitalization, quotes, and italics/underlining

• Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.
• If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source:  Permanence and Change . Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs:  Writing New Media ,  There Is Nothing Left to Lose .

( Note:  in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized:  Writing new media .)

• When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word:  Natural-Born Cyborgs .
• Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's  Vertigo ."
• If the title of the work is italicized in your reference list, italicize it and use title case capitalization in the text:  The Closing of the American Mind ;  The Wizard of Oz ;  Friends .
• If the title of the work is not italicized in your reference list, use double quotation marks and title case capitalization (even though the reference list uses sentence case): "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds;" "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."

Short quotations

If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and page number for the reference (preceded by "p." for a single page and “pp.” for a span of multiple pages, with the page numbers separated by an en dash).

You can introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

If you do not include the author’s name in the text of the sentence, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

Long quotations

Place direct quotations that are 40 words or longer in a free-standing block of typewritten lines and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout, but do not add an extra blank line before or after it. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mark.

Because block quotation formatting is difficult for us to replicate in the OWL's content management system, we have simply provided a screenshot of a generic example below.

Formatting example for block quotations in APA 7 style.

Quotations from sources without pages

Direct quotations from sources that do not contain pages should not reference a page number. Instead, you may reference another logical identifying element: a paragraph, a chapter number, a section number, a table number, or something else. Older works (like religious texts) can also incorporate special location identifiers like verse numbers. In short: pick a substitute for page numbers that makes sense for your source.

Summary or paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference and may omit the page numbers. APA guidelines, however, do encourage including a page range for a summary or paraphrase when it will help the reader find the information in a longer work. 

APA In-Text Citations and Sample Essay 7th Edition

This handout focuses on how to format in-text citations in APA.

Proper citation of sources is a two-part process . You must first cite each source in the body of your essay; these citations within the essay are called in-text citations . You MUST cite all quoted, paraphrased, or summarized words, ideas, and facts from sources. Without in-text citations, you are technically in danger of plagiarism, even if you have listed your sources at the end of the essay.

In-text citations point the reader to the sources’ information on the references page. The in-text citation typically includes the author's last name and the year of publication. If you use a direct quote, the page number is also provided.

More information can be found on p. 253 of the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

Citation Rules

Direct quotation with the author named in the text.

Heinze and Lu (2017) stated, “The NFL shifted its responses to institutional change around concussions significantly as the field itself evolved” (p. 509).

Note: The year of publication is listed in parenthesis after the names of the authors, and the page number is listed in parenthesis at the end of the quote.

Direct Quotation without the Author Named in the Text

As the NFL developed as an organization, it “shifted its responses to institutional change around concussions significantly” (Heinze & Lu, 2017, p. 509).

Note: At the end of the quote, the names of the authors, year of publication, and page number are listed in parenthesis.

Paraphrase with 1-2 Authors

As the NFL developed as an organization, its reactions toward concussions also transformed (Heinze & Lu, 2017).

Note: For paraphrases, page numbers are encouraged but not required.

Paraphrase with 3 or More Authors

To work toward solving the issue of violence in prisons begins with determining aspects that might connect with prisoners' violent conduct (Thomson et al., 2019).

Direct Quotation without an Author

The findings were astonishing "in a recent study of parent and adult child relationships" ("Parents and Their Children," 2007, p. 2).

Note: Since the author of the text is not stated, a shortened version of the title is used instead.

Secondary Sources

When using secondary sources, use the phrase "as cited in" and cite the secondary source on the References page.

In 1936, Keynes said, “governments should run deficits when the economy is slow to avoid unemployment” (as cited in Richardson, 2008, p. 257).

Long (Block) Quotations

When using direct quotations of 40 or more words, indent five spaces from the left margin without using quotation marks. The final period should come before the parenthetical citation.

At Meramec, an English department policy states:

To honor and protect their own work and that of others, all students must give credit to proprietary sources that are used for course work. It is assumed that any information that is not documented is either common knowledge in that field or the original work of that student. (St. Louis Community College, 2001, p. 1)

Website Citations

If citing a specific web document without a page number, include the name of the author, date, title of the section, and paragraph number in parentheses:

In America, “Two out of five deaths among U.S. teens are the result of a motor vehicle crash” (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2004, Overview section, para. 1).

Here is a print-friendly version of this content.

Learn more about the APA References page by reviewing this handout .

For information on STLCC's academic integrity policy, check out this webpage .

For additional information on APA, check out STLCC's LibGuide on APA .

Sample Essay

A sample APA essay is available at this link .

How to Write an Academic Essay with References and Citations

#scribendiinc

Written by  Scribendi

If you're wondering how to write an academic essay with references, look no further. In this article, we'll discuss how to use in-text citations and references, including how to cite a website, how to cite a book, and how to cite a Tweet, according to various style guides.

You might need to cite sources when writing a paper that references other sources. For example, when writing an essay, you may use information from other works, such as books, articles, or websites. You must then inform readers where this information came from. Failure to do so, even accidentally, is plagiarism—passing off another person's work as your own.

You can avoid plagiarism and show readers where to find information by using citations and references. 

Citations tell readers where a piece of information came from. They take the form of footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical elements, depending on your style guide. In-text citations are usually placed at the end of a sentence containing the relevant information. 

A reference list , bibliography, or works cited list at the end of a text provides additional details about these cited sources. This list includes enough publication information allowing readers to look up these sources themselves.

Referencing is important for more than simply avoiding plagiarism. Referring to a trustworthy source shows that the information is reliable. Referring to reliable information can also support your major points and back up your argument. 

Learning how to write an academic essay with references and how to use in-text citations will allow you to cite authors who have made similar arguments. This helps show that your argument is objective and not entirely based on personal biases.

How Do You Determine Which Style Guide to Use?

Often, a professor will assign a style guide. The purpose of a style guide is to provide writers with formatting instructions. If your professor has not assigned a style guide, they should still be able to recommend one. 

If you are entirely free to choose, pick one that aligns with your field (for example, APA is frequently used for scientific writing). 

Some of the most common style guides are as follows:

AP style for journalism

Chicago style for publishing

APA style for scholarly writing (commonly used in scientific fields)

MLA style for scholarly citations (commonly used in English literature fields)

Some journals have their own style guides, so if you plan to publish, check which guide your target journal uses. You can do this by locating your target journal's website and searching for author guidelines.

How Do You Pick Your Sources?

When learning how to write an academic essay with references, you must identify reliable sources that support your argument. 

As you read, think critically and evaluate sources for:

Objectivity

Keep detailed notes on the sources so that you can easily find them again, if needed.

Tip: Record these notes in the format of your style guide—your reference list will then be ready to go.

How to Use In-Text Citations in MLA

An in-text citation in MLA includes the author's last name and the relevant page number: 

(Author 123)

How to Cite a Website in MLA

Here's how to cite a website in MLA:

Author's last name, First name. "Title of page."

Website. Website Publisher, date. Web. Date

retrieved. <URL>

With information from a real website, this looks like:

Morris, Nancy. "How to Cite a Tweet in APA,

Chicago, and MLA." Scribendi. Scribendi

Inc., n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2021.

<https://www.scribendi.com/academy/articles/how_to_cite_a_website.en.html>

How Do You Cite a Tweet in MLA ?

MLA uses the full text of a short Tweet (under 140 characters) as its title. Longer Tweets can be shortened using ellipses. 

MLA Tweet references should be formatted as follows:

@twitterhandle (Author Name). "Text of Tweet." Twitter, Date Month, Year, time of

publication, URL.

With information from an actual Tweet, this looks like:

@neiltyson (Neil deGrasse Tyson). "You can't use reason to convince anyone out of an

argument that they didn't use reason to get into." Twitter, 29 Sept. 2020, 10:15 p.m.,

https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/1311127369785192449 .

How to Cite a Book in MLA

Here's how to cite a book in MLA:

Author's last name, First name. Book Title. Publisher, Year.

With publication information from a real book, this looks like:

Montgomery, L.M. Rainbow Valley. Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1919.

How to Cite a Chapter in a Book in MLA

Author's last name, First name. "Title of Chapter." Book Title , edited by Editor Name,

Publisher, Year, pp. page range.

With publication information from an actual book, this looks like:

Ezell, Margaret J.M. "The Social Author: Manuscript Culture, Writers, and Readers." The

Broadview Reader in Book History , edited by Michelle Levy and Tom Mole, Broadview

Press, 2015,pp. 375–394.

How to  Cite a Paraphrase in MLA

You can cite a paraphrase in MLA exactly the same way as you would cite a direct quotation. 

Make sure to include the author's name (either in the text or in the parenthetical citation) and the relevant page number.

How to Use In-Text Citations in APA

In APA, in-text citations include the author's last name and the year of publication; a page number is included only if a direct quotation is used: 

(Author, 2021, p. 123)

How to Cite a Website in APA

Here's how to cite a website in APA:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year, Month. date of publication). Title of page. https://URL

Morris, N. (n.d.). How to cite a Tweet in APA, Chicago, and MLA. 

https://www.scribendi.com/academy/articles/how_to_cite_a_website.en.html       

Tip: Learn more about how to write an academic essay with  references to websites .

How Do You  Cite a Tweet in APA ?

APA refers to Tweets using their first 20 words. 

Tweet references should be formatted as follows:

Author, A. A. [@twitterhandle). (Year, Month. date of publication). First 20 words of the

Tweet. [Tweet] Twitter. URL

When we input information from a real Tweet, this looks like:

deGrasse Tyson, N. [@neiltyson]. (2020, Sept. 29). You can't use reason to convince anyone

out of an argument that they didn't use reason to get into. [Tweet] Twitter.

https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/1311127369785192449

How to Cite a Book in APA

Here's how to cite a book in APA:   

Author, A. A. (Year). Book title. Publisher.

For a real book, this looks like:

Montgomery, L. M. (1919). Rainbow valley.

Frederick A. Stokes Company.

How to Cite a Chapter in a Book in APA

Author, A. A. (Year). Chapter title. In Editor Name (Ed.), Book Title (pp. page range).

With information from a real book, this looks like:

Ezell, M. J. M. (2014). The social author: Manuscript culture, writers, and readers. In

Michelle Levy and Tom Mole (Eds.), The Broadview Reader in Book History (pp. 375–

394). Broadview Press.

Knowing how to cite a book and how to cite a chapter in a book correctly will take you a long way in creating an effective reference list.

How to Cite a Paraphrase in APA

You can cite a paraphrase in APA the same way as you would cite a direct quotation, including the author's name and year of publication. 

In APA, you may also choose to pinpoint the page from which the information is taken.

Referencing is an essential part of academic integrity. Learning how to write an academic essay with references and how to use in-text citations shows readers that you did your research and helps them locate your sources.

Learning how to cite a website, how to cite a book, and how to cite a paraphrase can also help you avoid plagiarism —an academic offense with serious consequences for your education or professional reputation.

Scribendi can help format your citations or review your whole paper with our Academic Editing services .

Take Your Essay from Good to Great

Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample, about the author.

Scribendi's in-house editors work with writers from all over the globe to perfect their writing. They know that no piece of writing is complete without a professional edit, and they love to see a good piece of writing transformed into a great one. Scribendi's in-house editors are unrivaled in both experience and education, having collectively edited millions of words and obtained numerous degrees. They love consuming caffeinated beverages, reading books of various genres, and relaxing in quiet, dimly lit spaces.

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• How to Cite a Website | MLA, APA & Chicago Examples

How to Cite a Website | MLA, APA & Chicago Examples

Published on March 5, 2021 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on January 17, 2024.

To cite a page from a website, you need a short in-text citation and a corresponding reference stating the author’s name, the date of publication, the title of the page, the website name, and the URL.

This information is presented differently in different citation styles. APA , MLA , and Chicago are the most commonly used styles.

Use the interactive example generator below to explore APA and MLA website citations.

Note that the format is slightly different for citing YouTube and other online video platforms, or for citing an image .

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Table of contents

Citing a website in mla style, citing a website in apa style, citing a website in chicago style, frequently asked questions about citations.

An MLA Works Cited entry for a webpage lists the author’s name , the title of the page (in quotation marks), the name of the site (in italics), the date of publication, and the URL.

The in-text citation usually just lists the author’s name. For a long page, you may specify a (shortened) section heading to locate the specific passage. Don’t use paragraph numbers unless they’re specifically numbered on the page.

The same format is used for blog posts and online articles from newspapers and magazines.

You can also use our free MLA Citation Generator to generate your website citations.

Generate accurate MLA citations with Scribbr

Citing a whole website.

When you cite an entire website rather than a specific page, include the author if one can be identified for the whole site (e.g. for a single-authored blog). Otherwise, just start with the site name.

List the copyright date displayed on the site; if there isn’t one, provide an access date after the URL.

Webpages with no author or date

When no author is listed, cite the organization as author only if it differs from the website name.

If the organization name is also the website name, start the Works Cited entry with the title instead, and use a shortened version of the title in the in-text citation.

When no publication date is listed, leave it out and include an access date at the end instead.

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An APA reference for a webpage lists the author’s last name and initials, the full date of publication, the title of the page (in italics), the website name (in plain text), and the URL.

The in-text citation lists the author’s last name and the year. If it’s a long page, you may include a locator to identify the quote or paraphrase (e.g. a paragraph number and/or section title).

Note that a general reference to an entire website doesn’t require a citation in APA Style; just include the URL in parentheses after you mention the site.

You can also use our free APA Citation Generator to create your webpage citations. Search for a URL to retrieve the details.

Generate accurate APA citations with Scribbr

Blog posts and online articles.

Blog posts follow a slightly different format: the title of the post is not italicized, and the name of the blog is.

The same format is used for online newspaper and magazine articles—but not for articles from news sites like Reuters and BBC News (see the previous example).

When a page has no author specified, list the name of the organization that created it instead (and omit it later if it’s the same as the website name).

When it doesn’t list a date of publication, use “n.d.” in place of the date. You can also include an access date if the page seems likely to change over time.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style, footnotes are used to cite sources. They refer to a bibliography at the end that lists all your sources in full.

A Chicago bibliography entry for a website lists the author’s name, the page title (in quotation marks), the website name, the publication date, and the URL.

Chicago also has an alternative author-date citation style . Examples of website citations in this style can be found here .

For blog posts and online articles from newspapers, the name of the publication is italicized. For a blog post, you should also add the word “blog” in parentheses, unless it’s already part of the blog’s name.

When a web source doesn’t list an author , you can usually begin your bibliography entry and short note with the name of the organization responsible. Don’t repeat it later if it’s also the name of the website. A full note should begin with the title instead.

When no publication or revision date is shown, include an access date instead in your bibliography entry.

The main elements included in website citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the date of publication, the page title, the website name, and the URL. The information is presented differently in each style.

In APA , MLA , and Chicago style citations for sources that don’t list a specific author (e.g. many websites ), you can usually list the organization responsible for the source as the author.

If the organization is the same as the website or publisher, you shouldn’t repeat it twice in your reference:

• In APA and Chicago, omit the website or publisher name later in the reference.
• In MLA, omit the author element at the start of the reference, and cite the source title instead.

If there’s no appropriate organization to list as author, you will usually have to begin the citation and reference entry with the title of the source instead.

When you want to cite a specific passage in a source without page numbers (e.g. an e-book or website ), all the main citation styles recommend using an alternate locator in your in-text citation . You might use a heading or chapter number, e.g. (Smith, 2016, ch. 1)

In APA Style , you can count the paragraph numbers in a text to identify a location by paragraph number. MLA and Chicago recommend that you only use paragraph numbers if they’re explicitly marked in the text.

For audiovisual sources (e.g. videos ), all styles recommend using a timestamp to show a specific point in the video when relevant.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2024, January 17). How to Cite a Website | MLA, APA & Chicago Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 18, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/cite-a-website/

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / APA Format / How to Cite a Thesis or Dissertation in APA

How to Cite a Thesis or Dissertation in APA

In this citation guide, you will learn how to reference and cite an undergraduate thesis, master’s thesis, or doctoral dissertation. This guide will also review the differences between a thesis or dissertation that is published and one that has remained unpublished. The guidelines below come from the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2020a), pages 333 and 334. Please note that the association is not affiliated with this guide.

Alternatively, you can visit EasyBib.com for helpful citation tools to cite your thesis or dissertation .

Guide Overview

Citing an unpublished thesis or dissertation, citing a published dissertation or thesis from a database, citing a thesis or dissertation published online but not from a database, citing a thesis or dissertation: reference overview, what you need.

Since unpublished theses can usually only be sourced in print form from a university library, the correct citation structure includes the university name where the publisher element usually goes.

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year published). Title in sentence case [Unpublished degree type thesis or dissertation]. Name of institution.

Ames, J. H., & Doughty, L. H. (1911). The proposed plans for the Iowa State College athletic field including the design of a reinforced concrete grandstand and wall [Unpublished bachelor’s thesis]. Iowa State University.

In-text citation example:

• Parenthetical :  (Ames & Doughty, 1911)
• Narrative :  Ames & Doughty (1911)

If a thesis or dissertation has been published and is found on a database, then follow the structure below. It’s similar to the format for an unpublished dissertation/thesis, but with a few differences:

• The institution is presented in brackets after the title
• The archive or database name is included

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year published). Title in sentence case (Publication or Document No.) [Degree type thesis or dissertation, Name of institution]. Database name.

Examples 1:

Knight, K. A. (2011). Media epidemics: Viral structures in literature and new media (Accession No. 2013420395) [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Trotman, J.B. (2018). New insights into the biochemistry and cell biology of RNA recapping (Document No. osu1523896565730483) [Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University]. OhioLINK Electronic Theses & Dissertations Center.

In the example given above, the dissertation is presented with a Document Number (Document No.). Sometimes called a database number or publication number, this is the identifier that is used by the database’s indexing system. If the database you are using provides you with such a number, then include it directly after the work’s title in parentheses.

If you are interested in learning more about how to handle works that were accessed via academic research databases, see Section 9.3 of the Publication Manual.

In-text citation examples :

• Parenthetical citation : (Trotman, 2018)
• Narrative citation : Trotman (2018)

Author’s last name, F. M. (Year Published). Title in sentence case [Degree type thesis or dissertation, Name of institution]. Name of archive or collection. URL

Kim, O. (2019). Soviet tableau: cinema and history under late socialism [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh]. Institutional Repository at the University of Pittsburgh. https://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/37669/7/Olga%20Kim%20Final%20ETD.pdf

Stiles, T. W. (2001). Doing science: Teachers’ authentic experiences at the Lone Star Dinosaur Field Institute [Master’s thesis, Texas A&M University]. OAKTrust. https://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-2001-THESIS-S745

It is important to note that not every thesis or dissertation published online will be associated with a specific archive or collection. If the work is published on a private website, provide only the URL as the source element.

In-text citation examples:

• Parenthetical citation : (Kim, 2019)
• Narrative citation : Kim (2019)
• Parenthetical citation : (Stiles, 2001)
• Narrative citation : Stiles (2001)

We hope that the information provided here will serve as an effective guide for your research. If you’re looking for even more citation info, visit EasyBib.com for a comprehensive collection of educational materials covering multiple source types.

If you’re citing a variety of different sources, consider taking the EasyBib citation generator for a spin. It can help you cite easily and offers citation forms for several different kinds of sources.

To start things off, let’s take a look at the different types of literature that are classified under Chapter 10.6 of the Publication Manual :

• Undergraduate thesis
• Master’s thesis
• Doctoral dissertation

You will need to know which type you are citing. You’ll also need to know if it is published or unpublished .

When you decide to cite a dissertation or thesis, you’ll need to look for the following information to use in your citation:

• Author’s last name, and first and middle initials
• Year published
• Title of thesis or dissertation
• If it is unpublished
• Publication or document number (if applicable; for published work)
• Degree type (bachelor’s, master’s, doctoral)
• Thesis or dissertation
• Name of institution awarding degree
• DOI (https://doi.org/xxxxx) or URL (if applicable)

Since theses and dissertations are directly linked to educational degrees, it is necessary to list the name of the associated institution; i.e., the college, university, or school that is awarding the associated degree.

To get an idea of the proper form, take a look at the examples below. There are three outlined scenarios:

• Unpublished thesis or dissertation
• Published thesis or dissertation from a database
• Thesis or dissertation published online but not from a database

American Psychological Association. (2020a). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

American Psychological Association. (2020b). Style-Grammar-Guidelines. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles/parenthetical-versus-narrative

Published August 10, 2012. Updated March 24, 2020.

Written and edited by Michele Kirschenbaum and Elise Barbeau. Michele Kirschenbaum is a school library media specialist and the in-house librarian at EasyBib.com. Elise Barbeau is the Citation Specialist at Chegg. She has worked in digital marketing, libraries, and publishing.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

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To cite a published thesis in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the author, publication year, title of the thesis, institute name, archive name, and URL (uniform resource locator). The templates for an in-text citation and reference list entry of a thesis, along with examples, are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

Use the author surname and the publication year in the in-text citation.

Author Surname (Publication Year)

Cartmel (2007)

Parenthetical:

(Author Surname, Publication Year)

(Cartmel, 2007)

Reference list entry template and example:

The title of the thesis is set in sentence case and italicized. Enclose the thesis and the institute awarding the degree inside brackets following the publication year. Then add the name of the database followed by the URL.

Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the thesis [Master’s thesis, Institute Name]. Name of the Database. URL

Cartmel, J. (2007). Outside school hours care and schools [Master’s thesis, Queensland University of Technology]. EPrints. http://eprints.qut.edu.au/17810/1/Jennifer_Cartmel_Thesis.pdf

To cite an unpublished dissertation in APA style, it is important that you know some basic information such as the author, year, title of the dissertation, and institute name. The templates for in-text citation and reference list entry of an online thesis, along with examples, are given below:

Author Surname (Year)

Averill (2009)

(Author Surname, Year)

(Averill, 2009)

The title of the dissertation is set in sentence case and italicized. Enclose “Unpublished doctoral dissertation” inside brackets following the year. Then add the name of the institution awarding the degree.

Author Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the dissertation [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Name of the Institute.

Averill, R. (2009). Teacher–student relationships in diverse New Zealand year 10 mathematics classrooms: Teacher care [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Victoria University of Wellington.

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Open Letters: Our New Opinion-Writing Contest

We invite students to write public-facing letters to people or groups about issues that matter to them. Contest dates: March 13 to May 1.

By The Learning Network

What’s bothering you? Who could do something about it? What could you say to them that would persuade them to care, or to make change?

And … what if we all read your letter? How could you make us care too?

These are some of the questions we’re asking you to ponder for our new Open Letter Contest. An open letter is a published letter of protest or appeal usually addressed to an individual, group or institution but intended for the general public. Think of the many “Dear Taylor Swift” open letters you can find online and on social media: Sure, they’re addressed to Ms. Swift, but they’re really a way for the writer to share opinions and feelings on feminism, or ticket sales, or the music industry, or … the list goes on.

As you might already know if you’ve read Martin Luther King’s famous Letter From Birmingham Jail , an open letter is a literary device. Though it seems on the surface to be intended for just one individual or group, and therefore usually reads like a personal letter (and can make readers feel they are somehow “listening in” on private thoughts), it is really a persuasive essay addressed to the public. This recent letter signed by over 1,000 tech leaders about the dangers of A.I. , this funny 2020 letter addressed to Harry and Meghan , and this video letter from young Asian Americans to their families about Black Lives Matter are all examples of the tradition.

Now we’re inviting you to try it yourself. Write your own open letter, to anyone you like on any issue you care about, as long as it is also appropriate and meaningful for a general Times audience.

Whom should you write to? What should you say? How do open letters work?

The rules and FAQ below, along with our Student Opinion forum and related how-to guide , can walk you through ways to get started.

This is a new contest and we expect questions. Please ask any you have in the comments and we’ll answer you there, or write to us at [email protected]. And, consider hanging this PDF one-page announcement on your class bulletin board.

Here’s what you need to know:

The challenge, a few rules, resources for students and teachers, frequently asked questions, submission form.

Write an open letter to a specific audience that calls attention to an issue or problem and prompts reflection or action on it.

Whether you choose to write to your parents, teachers, school board members or mayor; a member of Congress; the head of a corporation; an artist or entertainer; or a metonym like “Silicon Valley” or “The Kremlin,” ask yourself, What do I care about? Who can make changes, big or small, local or global, to address my issue or problem? What specifically do I want my audience to understand or do? And how can I write this as an “open letter,” compelling not just to me and the recipient, but to the general audience who will be reading my words?

The Times has published numerous open letters over the years, to both famous and ordinary people. You can find a long list of free examples in our related guide .

This contest invites students to express themselves and imagine that their words can lead to real change.

Your open letter MUST:

Focus on an issue you care about and with which you have some experience. You can write about almost anything you like, whether it’s a serious issue like bullying , or something more lighthearted like why bugs deserve respect , but we have found over the years that the most interesting student writing grows out of personal experience. Our related Student Opinion forum and how-to guide can help you come up with ideas.

Address a specific audience relevant to the issue. Choose an individual, group, organization or institution who is in a position to make change or promote understanding about your topic.

Call for action, whether the change you seek is something tangible , like asking Congress to enact a law or demanding a company stop a harmful practice, or something more abstract, like inviting your audience to reflect on something they may have never considered.

Be suitable and compelling for a wide general audience . An open letter simultaneously addresses an explicit recipient — whether Joe Biden or your gym teacher — as well as us, the general public, your implicit audience. Though your letter might seem to be meant just for one person, it is really trying to persuade all readers. Make sure you write it in such a way that it is relevant, understandable, appropriate and meaningful for anyone who might come across it in The New York Times. (Again, our related guide can help.)

Be written as a letter, in a voice and tone that is appropriate for both your audience and purpose. Are you simply taking an argumentative essay you’ve written for school already and slapping a “Dear X” on top of it and a “Sincerely, Y” on the bottom? No. A letter — even an open letter — is different from a formal essay, and your writing should reflect that. Can you be informal? Funny? If that makes sense for your purpose and audience, then yes, please.

Our related guide, and the many examples we link to, can help you think about this, but we hope the format of a letter will let you loosen up a bit and express yourself in your natural voice. (For example, you’ll be writing as “I” or “we,” and addressing your letter’s recipient as “you.”)

Also attempt to persuade a general audience. Though it is written in the form of a letter, it is an opinion piece, and you are trying to make a case and support it with evidence, as you would any argument. Remember that you are trying to change hearts and minds, so you’ll be drawing on the same rhetorical strategies as you might have for our long-running editorial contest . (Again, more on this in the related guide .)

Make your case in 460 words or fewer. Your title and sources are not part of the word count.

Inform with evidence from at least two sources, including one from The Times and one from outside The Times. We hope this contest encourages you to deepen your understanding of your topic by using multiple sources, ideally ones that offer a range of perspectives. Just make sure those sources are trustworthy .

Because this is a letter, not a formal essay, we are not asking you to provide in-text citations, but we will be asking you to list the sources you used — as many as you like — in a separate field that does not contribute to your word count. Keep in mind, however, that if you include evidence from those sources, our readers (and judges) should always be able to tell where it came from. Be careful to put quotations around any direct quotes you use, and cite the source of anything you paraphrase.

In addition to the guidelines above, here are a few more details:

You must be a student ages 13 to 19 in middle school or high school to participate , and all students must have parent or guardian permission to enter. Please see the F.A.Q. section for additional eligibility details.

The writing you submit should be fundamentally your own — it should not be plagiarized, created by someone else or generated by artificial intelligence.

Your open letter should be original for this contest. That means it should not already have been published at the time of submission, whether in a school newspaper, for another contest or anywhere else.

Keep in mind that the work you send in should be appropriate for a Times audience — that is, something that could be published in a family newspaper (so, please, no curse words).

You may work alone or in groups , but students should submit only one entry each.

You must also submit a short, informal “artist’s statement” as part of your submission, that describes your writing and research process. These statements, which will not be used to choose finalists, help us to design and refine our contests. See the F.A.Q. to learn more.

All entries must be submitted by May 1, at 11:59 p.m. Pacific time using the electronic form at the bottom of this page.

Use these resources to help you write your open letter:

Our step-by-step guide : To be used by students or teachers, this guide walks you through the process of writing an open letter.

A list of free examples of open letters published both in and outside The New York Times, which you can find in our step-by-step guide .

A writing prompt: To Whom Would You Write an Open Letter? This prompt offers students a “rehearsal space” for thinking about to whom they’d like to write, the reason they’re writing and why they think that issue is important — not only for the recipient but also for a wider audience.

Argumentative writing prompts: We publish new argumentative writing prompts for students each week in our Student Opinion and Picture Prompt columns. You can find them all, as they publish, here , or many of them, organized by topic, in our new collection of over 300 prompts .

Argumentative writing unit: This unit includes writing prompts, lesson plans, webinars and mentor texts. While it was originally written to support our Student Editorial Contest , the resources can help students make compelling arguments, cite reliable evidence and use rhetorical strategies for their open letters as well.

Our contest rubric : This is the rubric judges will use as they read submissions to this contest.

Below are answers to your questions about writing, judging, the rules and teaching with this contest. Please read these thoroughly and, if you still can’t find what you’re looking for, post your query in the comments or write to us at [email protected].

Questions About Writing

How is this contest different from your long-running Editorial Contest? Can we still use those materials?

For a decade we ran an editorial contest , and the students who participated wrote passionately about all kinds of things — A.I. , fast fashion , race , trans rights , college admissions , parental incarceration , fan fiction , snow days , memes , being messy and so much more . You can still write about the issues and ideas that fire you up — it’s just that this time around you’ll be framing your work as a letter to a person who has the power to make change on or bring understanding to that issue.

Our related guide has more about the differences between a traditional opinion essay and an open letter, but the many materials we developed for that earlier contest are also woven into the guide, as concepts like ethos, logos and pathos are still very much relevant to this challenge.

I have no idea what to write about. Where should I start?

Our Student Opinion forum can help via its many questions that encourage you to brainstorm both the audience you might write to and the topics you’d like to address.

Can I actually send my open letter?

You can! Just wait until after you have submitted your work to us to do so. (As always for our contests, you retain the copyright to the piece you submit, and can do whatever you like with it.)

Questions About Judging

How will my open letter be judged?

Your work will be read by New York Times journalists, as well as by Learning Network staff members and educators from around the United States. We will use this rubric to judge entries.

What’s the “prize”?

Having your work published on The Learning Network and being eligible to have your work published in the print New York Times.

When will the winners be announced?

About 8-10 weeks after the contest has closed.

My piece wasn’t selected as a winner. Can you tell me why?

We typically receive thousands of entries for our contests, so unfortunately, our team does not have the capacity to provide individual feedback on each student’s work.

QUESTIONS ABOUT THE RULES

Who is eligible to participate in this contest?

This contest is open to students ages 13 to 19 who are in middle school or high school around the world. College students cannot submit an entry. However, high school students (including high school postgraduate students) who are taking one or more college classes can participate. Students attending their first year of a two-year CEGEP in Quebec Province can also participate. In addition, students age 19 or under who have completed high school but are taking a gap year or are otherwise not enrolled in college can participate.

The children and stepchildren of New York Times employees are not eligible to enter this contest. Nor are students who live in the same household as those employees.

Can I have someone else check my work?

We understand that students will often revise their work based on feedback from teachers and peers. That is allowed for this contest. However, be sure that the final submission reflects the ideas, voice and writing ability of the student, not someone else.

Do I need a Works Cited page?

Yes. We provide you with a separate field to list the sources you used to inform or write your open letter. You’re allowed to format your list however you want; we will not judge your entry based on formatting in this section. Internal citations in your letter are not necessary.

Why are you asking for an Artist’s Statement about our process? What will you do with it?

All of us who work on The Learning Network are former teachers. One of the many things we miss, now that we work in a newsroom rather than a classroom, is being able to see how students are reacting to our “assignments” in real time — and to offer help, or tweaks, to make those assignments better. We’re asking you to reflect on what you did and why, and what was hard or easy about it, in large part so that we can improve our contests and the curriculum we create to support them. This is especially important for new contests, like this one.

Another reason? We have heard from many teachers that writing these statements is immensely helpful to students. Stepping back from a piece and trying to put into words what you wanted to express, and why and how you made artistic choices to do that, can help you see your piece anew and figure out how to make it stronger. For our staff, they offer important context that help us understand individual students and submissions, and learn more about the conditions under which students around the world create.

Whom can I contact if I have questions about this contest or am having issues submitting my entry?

Leave a comment on this post or write to us at [email protected].

QUESTIONS ABOUT TEACHING WITH THIS CONTEST

Do my students need a New York Times subscription to access these resources?

No. All of the resources on The Learning Network are free.

If your students don’t have a subscription to The New York Times, they can also get access to Times pieces through The Learning Network . All the activities for students on our site, including mentor texts and writing prompts, plus the Times articles they link to, are free. Students can search for articles using the search tool on our home page.

How do my students prove to me that they entered this contest?

After they press “Submit” on the form below, they will see a “Thank you for your submission.” line appear. They can take a screenshot of this message. Please note: Our system does not currently send confirmation emails.

Please read the following carefully before you submit:

Students who are 13 and older in the United States or the United Kingdom, or 16 and older elsewhere in the world, can submit their own entries. Those who are 13 to 15 and live outside the United States or the United Kingdom must have an adult submit on their behalf.

All students who are under 18 must provide a parent or guardian’s permission to enter.

You will not receive email confirmation of your submission. After you submit, you will see the message “Thank you for your submission.” That means we received your entry. If you need proof of entry for your teacher, please screenshot that message.

If you have questions about your submission, please write to us at [email protected] and provide the email address you used for submission.