research social science methods

Research Methods in the Social Sciences: An A-Z of key concepts

Research Methods in the Social Sciences features chapters that cover a wide range of concepts, methods, and theories. Each chapter begins with an introduction to a method, using real-world examples from a wide range of academic disciplines, before discussing the benefits and limitations of the approach, its current status in academic practice, and finally providing tips and advice on when and how to apply the method in research. The text covers both well-established concepts and emerging ideas, such as big data and network analysis, for qualitative and quantitative research methods.

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Stirring the Frequentist Pot with a Dash of Bayes

Rethinking Social Inquiry (RSI) is a key turning point in a long arc of development and contestation within and between qualitative and quantitative research methods in the social sciences. It builds on and further advances three important trends in these research methods: a renaissance in qualitative methods in the last decade, the continuing refinement of statistical and formal methods, and a nascent convergence of methodologists of all kinds behind a more pluralistic vision of methodology that includes growing interest in multimethod work. RSI achieves these contributions not just substantively but symbolically, bringing together leading methodologists in the quantitative and qualitative traditions, most notably the editors themselves, to address the tough issue of what would constitute shared standards for good research regardless of method. Although much of the initial commentary on RSI will no doubt focus on its critiques of Designing Social Inquiry, I suspect that in the long run the subtitle of RSI (“Diverse Tools, Shared Standards”) better captures what will be its lasting contribution to the social sciences.

Quantitative research: Methods in the social sciences

A tale of two cultures.

Some in the social sciences argue that the same logic applies to both qualitative and quantitative research methods. This book demonstrates that these two paradigms constitute different cultures, each internally coherent yet marked by contrasting norms, practices, and toolkits. The book identifies and discusses major differences between these two traditions that touch nearly every aspect of social science research, including design, goals, causal effects and models, concepts and measurement, data analysis, and case selection. Although focused on the differences between qualitative and quantitative research, the book also seeks to promote toleration, exchange, and learning by enabling scholars to think beyond their own culture and see an alternative scientific worldview. The book is written in an easily accessible style and features a host of real-world examples to illustrate methodological points.

The origins, development, and application of Qualitative Comparative Analysis: the first 25 years

A quarter century ago, in 1987, Charles C. Ragin published The Comparative Method, introducing a new method to the social sciences called Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). QCA is a comparative case-oriented research approach and collection of techniques based on set theory and Boolean algebra, which aims to combine some of the strengths of qualitative and quantitative research methods. Since its launch in 1987, QCA has been applied extensively in the social sciences. This review essay first sketches the origins of the ideas behind QCA. Next, the main features of the method, as presented in The Comparative Method, are introduced. A third part focuses on the early applications. A fourth part presents early criticisms and subsequent innovations. A fifth part then focuses on an era of further expansion in political science and presents some of the main applications in the discipline. In doing so, this paper seeks to provide insights and references into the origin and development of QCA, a non-technical introduction to its main features, the path travelled so far, and the diversification of applications.

Quantitative Research: Methods in the Social Sciences

Forskningstraditioner krydser deres spor - kvalitative og kvantitative socio-kulturelle empiriske forskningsmetoder.

The article takes up the discussion about qualitative and quantitative research methods as ostensibly incopatible approaches to empirical studies - an understanding which is broadly disseminated within a range of academic disciplines. The authors trouble this dualistic understanding through concrete discussions of methodological approaches conducted by as well qualitatively as quantitatively oriented reseachers. It is argued, that difference and potential incompatibility must be seen in relation to the metatheoretical basis for the studies and thereby in relation to the research ambitions, in which the studies are involved.

A Tale of Two Cultures: Qualitative and Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences. By Gary Goertz and James Mahoney. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012. 248p. $65.00 cloth, $29.95 paper.

Qualitative and quantitative research methods: old wine in new bottles on understanding and interpreting educational phenomena, evaluating new treatments in psychiatry: the potential value of combining qualitative and quantitative research methods, analysis regarding the importance of promotion in steel companies in indonesia.

ABSTRACT  The purpose of this research is to find out the promotion and marketing strategy for steel companies in Indonesia. The research method used in this research is qualitative and quantitative research methods. Qualitative research methods include interviews with resource persons and product users (extreme users and expert users) as well as literature studies of journals related to light steel, promotion, and marketing strategy. The conclusion of this research is the need for a promotion that can be accepted by customers and to be able to promote steel companies in Indonesia.   Keyword: branding, marketing, promotion, customers, steel.

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Basic Research Strategies for the Social Sciences: Research Methods

• Research Strategies
• Research Methods
• Systematic Reviews vs. Literature Reviews
• Background Information
• Evaluate Your Sources
• Scholarly vs. Non-scholarly Articles
• Finding Journals
• Journal Articles
• SU Libraries' Catalog
• Maps & Statistical Sources
• Videos/DVD's
• Links & Feeds
• Interlibrary Loan

Sage Research Methods Online (SRMO)

• SAGE Research Methods Online

Sage Research Methods Online (SRMO). SRMO provides access to information about research methods compiled from a variety of Sage publications, including books/handbooks, articles, and the “Little Green Book” series, Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences .  SRMO is searchable and browsable by author, and it includes a methods map, as well as video tutorials.  Results can be refined to focus on specific academic disciplines of interest.

Great resource for learning more about what comprises a specific research method, with a view into how that method was applied within actual published scholarly literature.

• analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• ethnography
• focus groups
• mixed methods
• narrative analysis
• qualitative research
• quantitative data analysis
• social network analysis
• structural equation modeling
• time-series analysis
• visual representations
• ... and more

Research Methodologies

There are a variety of methods you can adopt for your research strategy, depending on your subject area or the outcome of your research.  Research methodology will differ depending on whether:

• you are doing an empirical study, using quantitative data or qualitative information, or mixed methods approach
• If you are seeking very current sources, or
• historical research
• critical analysis

Your strategies will be different as will the type of information sources you will seek and find.

See some databases below that offer examples of research methods, datasets or cases:

• Sage Research Methods: Data Visualization Video, text, and datasets to teach researchers the fundamentals of data visualization and design.
• Sage Research Methods: Foundations Introductory information about research methods and design.
• SAGE Research Methods Cases Teaching cases in which a variety of research methods are used in a number of social sciences subject areas. Cases are incorporated into SAGE Research Methods Online.
• SAGE Research Methods Datasets Datasets for teaching qualitative and quantitative research methods. Datasets are incorporated into SAGE Research Methods Online, and include sample sets, with a description of the research project and instructions regarding the method.
• SAGE Research Methods Online Information about research methods and design; includes Sage Datasets and Sage Cases, and the qualitative and quantitative methods series, "Little Green Books" and “Little Blue Books.”

Research Integrity

• SU - Office of Research and Integrity The Office of Research and Integrity provides administrative services to university researchers to facilitate research and ensure regulatory compliance with applicable federal regulations, laws and University policies, including administrative support and regulatory advisement to the University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).

Qualitative Data Repository

Research methods for social sciences.

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Research Methods for the Social Sciences: An Introduction

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Valerie Sheppard, JIBC

Copyright Year: 2020

Last Update: 2024

Publisher: BCcampus

Language: English

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Table of Contents

• Accessibility Statement
• About This Book
• Chapter 1: Introduction to Research Methods
• Chapter 2: Ethics in Research
• Chapter 3: Developing a Research Question
• Chapter 4: Measurement and Units of Analysis
• Chapter 5: The Literature Review
• Chapter 6: Data Collection Strategies
• Chapter 7: Sampling Techniques
• Chapter 8: Data Collection Methods: Survey Research
• Chapter 9: Analysis Of Survey Data
• Chapter 10: Qualitative Data Collection & Analysis Methods
• Chapter 11: Quantitative Interview Techniques & Considerations
• Chapter 12: Field Research: A Qualitative Research Technique
• Chapter 13: Unobtrusive Research: Qualitative And Quantitative Approaches
• Chapter 14: The Research Proposal
• Chapter 15: Sharing Your Research
• Chapter 16: Reading and Understanding Social Research
• Chapter 17: Research Methods in the Real World
• List of Links

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This textbook provides a broad overview of research methods utilized in sociology. It will be of particular value for students who are new to research methods.

About the Contributors

Valerie Sheppard , JIBC

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Research Methods in the Social Sciences: An A-Z of key concepts

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Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices

Anol Bhattacherjee , University of South Florida Follow

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Description

This book is designed to introduce doctoral and graduate students to the process of scientific research in the social sciences, business, education, public health, and related disciplines. It is a one-stop, comprehensive, and compact source for foundational concepts in behavioral research, and can serve as a stand-alone text or as a supplement to research readings in any course on research methods.

The contents and examples are designed for anyone interested in behavioral research (not just information systems people), and so, the book should appeal to most business programs, social sciences, education, public health, and related disciplines.

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American Studies | Arts and Humanities | Education | Public Health | Social and Behavioral Sciences

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2.2 Research Methods

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Recall the 6 Steps of the Scientific Method
• Differentiate between four kinds of research methods: surveys, field research, experiments, and secondary data analysis.
• Explain the appropriateness of specific research approaches for specific topics.

Sociologists examine the social world, see a problem or interesting pattern, and set out to study it. They use research methods to design a study. Planning the research design is a key step in any sociological study. Sociologists generally choose from widely used methods of social investigation: primary source data collection such as survey, participant observation, ethnography, case study, unobtrusive observations, experiment, and secondary data analysis , or use of existing sources. Every research method comes with plusses and minuses, and the topic of study strongly influences which method or methods are put to use. When you are conducting research think about the best way to gather or obtain knowledge about your topic, think of yourself as an architect. An architect needs a blueprint to build a house, as a sociologist your blueprint is your research design including your data collection method.

When entering a particular social environment, a researcher must be careful. There are times to remain anonymous and times to be overt. There are times to conduct interviews and times to simply observe. Some participants need to be thoroughly informed; others should not know they are being observed. A researcher wouldn’t stroll into a crime-ridden neighborhood at midnight, calling out, “Any gang members around?”

Making sociologists’ presence invisible is not always realistic for other reasons. That option is not available to a researcher studying prison behaviors, early education, or the Ku Klux Klan. Researchers can’t just stroll into prisons, kindergarten classrooms, or Klan meetings and unobtrusively observe behaviors or attract attention. In situations like these, other methods are needed. Researchers choose methods that best suit their study topics, protect research participants or subjects, and that fit with their overall approaches to research.

As a research method, a survey collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire or an interview. The survey is one of the most widely used scientific research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas.

At some point, most people in the United States respond to some type of survey. The 2020 U.S. Census is an excellent example of a large-scale survey intended to gather sociological data. Since 1790, United States has conducted a survey consisting of six questions to received demographical data pertaining to residents. The questions pertain to the demographics of the residents who live in the United States. Currently, the Census is received by residents in the United Stated and five territories and consists of 12 questions.

Not all surveys are considered sociological research, however, and many surveys people commonly encounter focus on identifying marketing needs and strategies rather than testing a hypothesis or contributing to social science knowledge. Questions such as, “How many hot dogs do you eat in a month?” or “Were the staff helpful?” are not usually designed as scientific research. The Nielsen Ratings determine the popularity of television programming through scientific market research. However, polls conducted by television programs such as American Idol or So You Think You Can Dance cannot be generalized, because they are administered to an unrepresentative population, a specific show’s audience. You might receive polls through your cell phones or emails, from grocery stores, restaurants, and retail stores. They often provide you incentives for completing the survey.

Sociologists conduct surveys under controlled conditions for specific purposes. Surveys gather different types of information from people. While surveys are not great at capturing the ways people really behave in social situations, they are a great method for discovering how people feel, think, and act—or at least how they say they feel, think, and act. Surveys can track preferences for presidential candidates or reported individual behaviors (such as sleeping, driving, or texting habits) or information such as employment status, income, and education levels.

A survey targets a specific population , people who are the focus of a study, such as college athletes, international students, or teenagers living with type 1 (juvenile-onset) diabetes. Most researchers choose to survey a small sector of the population, or a sample , a manageable number of subjects who represent a larger population. The success of a study depends on how well a population is represented by the sample. In a random sample , every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study. As a result, a Gallup Poll, if conducted as a nationwide random sampling, should be able to provide an accurate estimate of public opinion whether it contacts 2,000 or 10,000 people.

After selecting subjects, the researcher develops a specific plan to ask questions and record responses. It is important to inform subjects of the nature and purpose of the survey up front. If they agree to participate, researchers thank subjects and offer them a chance to see the results of the study if they are interested. The researcher presents the subjects with an instrument, which is a means of gathering the information.

A common instrument is a questionnaire. Subjects often answer a series of closed-ended questions . The researcher might ask yes-or-no or multiple-choice questions, allowing subjects to choose possible responses to each question. This kind of questionnaire collects quantitative data —data in numerical form that can be counted and statistically analyzed. Just count up the number of “yes” and “no” responses or correct answers, and chart them into percentages.

Questionnaires can also ask more complex questions with more complex answers—beyond “yes,” “no,” or checkbox options. These types of inquiries use open-ended questions that require short essay responses. Participants willing to take the time to write those answers might convey personal religious beliefs, political views, goals, or morals. The answers are subjective and vary from person to person. How do you plan to use your college education?

Some topics that investigate internal thought processes are impossible to observe directly and are difficult to discuss honestly in a public forum. People are more likely to share honest answers if they can respond to questions anonymously. This type of personal explanation is qualitative data —conveyed through words. Qualitative information is harder to organize and tabulate. The researcher will end up with a wide range of responses, some of which may be surprising. The benefit of written opinions, though, is the wealth of in-depth material that they provide.

An interview is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and it is a way of conducting surveys on a topic. However, participants are free to respond as they wish, without being limited by predetermined choices. In the back-and-forth conversation of an interview, a researcher can ask for clarification, spend more time on a subtopic, or ask additional questions. In an interview, a subject will ideally feel free to open up and answer questions that are often complex. There are no right or wrong answers. The subject might not even know how to answer the questions honestly.

Questions such as “How does society’s view of alcohol consumption influence your decision whether or not to take your first sip of alcohol?” or “Did you feel that the divorce of your parents would put a social stigma on your family?” involve so many factors that the answers are difficult to categorize. A researcher needs to avoid steering or prompting the subject to respond in a specific way; otherwise, the results will prove to be unreliable. The researcher will also benefit from gaining a subject’s trust, from empathizing or commiserating with a subject, and from listening without judgment.

Surveys often collect both quantitative and qualitative data. For example, a researcher interviewing people who are incarcerated might receive quantitative data, such as demographics – race, age, sex, that can be analyzed statistically. For example, the researcher might discover that 20 percent of incarcerated people are above the age of 50. The researcher might also collect qualitative data, such as why people take advantage of educational opportunities during their sentence and other explanatory information.

The survey can be carried out online, over the phone, by mail, or face-to-face. When researchers collect data outside a laboratory, library, or workplace setting, they are conducting field research, which is our next topic.

Field Research

The work of sociology rarely happens in limited, confined spaces. Rather, sociologists go out into the world. They meet subjects where they live, work, and play. Field research refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment. To conduct field research, the sociologist must be willing to step into new environments and observe, participate, or experience those worlds. In field work, the sociologists, rather than the subjects, are the ones out of their element.

The researcher interacts with or observes people and gathers data along the way. The key point in field research is that it takes place in the subject’s natural environment, whether it’s a coffee shop or tribal village, a homeless shelter or the DMV, a hospital, airport, mall, or beach resort.

While field research often begins in a specific setting , the study’s purpose is to observe specific behaviors in that setting. Field work is optimal for observing how people think and behave. It seeks to understand why they behave that way. However, researchers may struggle to narrow down cause and effect when there are so many variables floating around in a natural environment. And while field research looks for correlation, its small sample size does not allow for establishing a causal relationship between two variables. Indeed, much of the data gathered in sociology do not identify a cause and effect but a correlation .

Sociology in the Real World

Beyoncé and lady gaga as sociological subjects.

Sociologists have studied Lady Gaga and Beyoncé and their impact on music, movies, social media, fan participation, and social equality. In their studies, researchers have used several research methods including secondary analysis, participant observation, and surveys from concert participants.

In their study, Click, Lee & Holiday (2013) interviewed 45 Lady Gaga fans who utilized social media to communicate with the artist. These fans viewed Lady Gaga as a mirror of themselves and a source of inspiration. Like her, they embrace not being a part of mainstream culture. Many of Lady Gaga’s fans are members of the LGBTQ community. They see the “song “Born This Way” as a rallying cry and answer her calls for “Paws Up” with a physical expression of solidarity—outstretched arms and fingers bent and curled to resemble monster claws.”

Sascha Buchanan (2019) made use of participant observation to study the relationship between two fan groups, that of Beyoncé and that of Rihanna. She observed award shows sponsored by iHeartRadio, MTV EMA, and BET that pit one group against another as they competed for Best Fan Army, Biggest Fans, and FANdemonium. Buchanan argues that the media thus sustains a myth of rivalry between the two most commercially successful Black women vocal artists.

Participant Observation

In 2000, a comic writer named Rodney Rothman wanted an insider’s view of white-collar work. He slipped into the sterile, high-rise offices of a New York “dot com” agency. Every day for two weeks, he pretended to work there. His main purpose was simply to see whether anyone would notice him or challenge his presence. No one did. The receptionist greeted him. The employees smiled and said good morning. Rothman was accepted as part of the team. He even went so far as to claim a desk, inform the receptionist of his whereabouts, and attend a meeting. He published an article about his experience in The New Yorker called “My Fake Job” (2000). Later, he was discredited for allegedly fabricating some details of the story and The New Yorker issued an apology. However, Rothman’s entertaining article still offered fascinating descriptions of the inside workings of a “dot com” company and exemplified the lengths to which a writer, or a sociologist, will go to uncover material.

Rothman had conducted a form of study called participant observation , in which researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context. This method lets researchers experience a specific aspect of social life. A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into a trend, institution, or behavior. A researcher might work as a waitress in a diner, experience homelessness for several weeks, or ride along with police officers as they patrol their regular beat. Often, these researchers try to blend in seamlessly with the population they study, and they may not disclose their true identity or purpose if they feel it would compromise the results of their research.

At the beginning of a field study, researchers might have a question: “What really goes on in the kitchen of the most popular diner on campus?” or “What is it like to be homeless?” Participant observation is a useful method if the researcher wants to explore a certain environment from the inside.

Field researchers simply want to observe and learn. In such a setting, the researcher will be alert and open minded to whatever happens, recording all observations accurately. Soon, as patterns emerge, questions will become more specific, observations will lead to hypotheses, and hypotheses will guide the researcher in analyzing data and generating results.

In a study of small towns in the United States conducted by sociological researchers John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, the team altered their purpose as they gathered data. They initially planned to focus their study on the role of religion in U.S. towns. As they gathered observations, they realized that the effect of industrialization and urbanization was the more relevant topic of this social group. The Lynds did not change their methods, but they revised the purpose of their study.

This shaped the structure of Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture , their published results (Lynd & Lynd, 1929).

The Lynds were upfront about their mission. The townspeople of Muncie, Indiana, knew why the researchers were in their midst. But some sociologists prefer not to alert people to their presence. The main advantage of covert participant observation is that it allows the researcher access to authentic, natural behaviors of a group’s members. The challenge, however, is gaining access to a setting without disrupting the pattern of others’ behavior. Becoming an inside member of a group, organization, or subculture takes time and effort. Researchers must pretend to be something they are not. The process could involve role playing, making contacts, networking, or applying for a job.

Once inside a group, some researchers spend months or even years pretending to be one of the people they are observing. However, as observers, they cannot get too involved. They must keep their purpose in mind and apply the sociological perspective. That way, they illuminate social patterns that are often unrecognized. Because information gathered during participant observation is mostly qualitative, rather than quantitative, the end results are often descriptive or interpretive. The researcher might present findings in an article or book and describe what he or she witnessed and experienced.

This type of research is what journalist Barbara Ehrenreich conducted for her book Nickel and Dimed . One day over lunch with her editor, Ehrenreich mentioned an idea. How can people exist on minimum-wage work? How do low-income workers get by? she wondered. Someone should do a study . To her surprise, her editor responded, Why don’t you do it?

That’s how Ehrenreich found herself joining the ranks of the working class. For several months, she left her comfortable home and lived and worked among people who lacked, for the most part, higher education and marketable job skills. Undercover, she applied for and worked minimum wage jobs as a waitress, a cleaning woman, a nursing home aide, and a retail chain employee. During her participant observation, she used only her income from those jobs to pay for food, clothing, transportation, and shelter.

She discovered the obvious, that it’s almost impossible to get by on minimum wage work. She also experienced and observed attitudes many middle and upper-class people never think about. She witnessed firsthand the treatment of working class employees. She saw the extreme measures people take to make ends meet and to survive. She described fellow employees who held two or three jobs, worked seven days a week, lived in cars, could not pay to treat chronic health conditions, got randomly fired, submitted to drug tests, and moved in and out of homeless shelters. She brought aspects of that life to light, describing difficult working conditions and the poor treatment that low-wage workers suffer.

The book she wrote upon her return to her real life as a well-paid writer, has been widely read and used in many college classrooms.

Ethnography

Ethnography is the immersion of the researcher in the natural setting of an entire social community to observe and experience their everyday life and culture. The heart of an ethnographic study focuses on how subjects view their own social standing and how they understand themselves in relation to a social group.

An ethnographic study might observe, for example, a small U.S. fishing town, an Inuit community, a village in Thailand, a Buddhist monastery, a private boarding school, or an amusement park. These places all have borders. People live, work, study, or vacation within those borders. People are there for a certain reason and therefore behave in certain ways and respect certain cultural norms. An ethnographer would commit to spending a determined amount of time studying every aspect of the chosen place, taking in as much as possible.

A sociologist studying a tribe in the Amazon might watch the way villagers go about their daily lives and then write a paper about it. To observe a spiritual retreat center, an ethnographer might sign up for a retreat and attend as a guest for an extended stay, observe and record data, and collate the material into results.

Institutional Ethnography

Institutional ethnography is an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships. Developed by Canadian sociologist Dorothy E. Smith (1990), institutional ethnography is often considered a feminist-inspired approach to social analysis and primarily considers women’s experiences within male- dominated societies and power structures. Smith’s work is seen to challenge sociology’s exclusion of women, both academically and in the study of women’s lives (Fenstermaker, n.d.).

Historically, social science research tended to objectify women and ignore their experiences except as viewed from the male perspective. Modern feminists note that describing women, and other marginalized groups, as subordinates helps those in authority maintain their own dominant positions (Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada n.d.). Smith’s three major works explored what she called “the conceptual practices of power” and are still considered seminal works in feminist theory and ethnography (Fensternmaker n.d.).

Sociological Research

The making of middletown: a study in modern u.s. culture.

In 1924, a young married couple named Robert and Helen Lynd undertook an unprecedented ethnography: to apply sociological methods to the study of one U.S. city in order to discover what “ordinary” people in the United States did and believed. Choosing Muncie, Indiana (population about 30,000) as their subject, they moved to the small town and lived there for eighteen months.

Ethnographers had been examining other cultures for decades—groups considered minorities or outsiders—like gangs, immigrants, and the poor. But no one had studied the so-called average American.

Recording interviews and using surveys to gather data, the Lynds objectively described what they observed. Researching existing sources, they compared Muncie in 1890 to the Muncie they observed in 1924. Most Muncie adults, they found, had grown up on farms but now lived in homes inside the city. As a result, the Lynds focused their study on the impact of industrialization and urbanization.

They observed that Muncie was divided into business and working class groups. They defined business class as dealing with abstract concepts and symbols, while working class people used tools to create concrete objects. The two classes led different lives with different goals and hopes. However, the Lynds observed, mass production offered both classes the same amenities. Like wealthy families, the working class was now able to own radios, cars, washing machines, telephones, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators. This was an emerging material reality of the 1920s.

As the Lynds worked, they divided their manuscript into six chapters: Getting a Living, Making a Home, Training the Young, Using Leisure, Engaging in Religious Practices, and Engaging in Community Activities.

When the study was completed, the Lynds encountered a big problem. The Rockefeller Foundation, which had commissioned the book, claimed it was useless and refused to publish it. The Lynds asked if they could seek a publisher themselves.

Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture was not only published in 1929 but also became an instant bestseller, a status unheard of for a sociological study. The book sold out six printings in its first year of publication, and has never gone out of print (Caplow, Hicks, & Wattenberg. 2000).

Nothing like it had ever been done before. Middletown was reviewed on the front page of the New York Times. Readers in the 1920s and 1930s identified with the citizens of Muncie, Indiana, but they were equally fascinated by the sociological methods and the use of scientific data to define ordinary people in the United States. The book was proof that social data was important—and interesting—to the U.S. public.

Sometimes a researcher wants to study one specific person or event. A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. To conduct a case study, a researcher examines existing sources like documents and archival records, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation and even participant observation, if possible.

Researchers might use this method to study a single case of a foster child, drug lord, cancer patient, criminal, or rape victim. However, a major criticism of the case study as a method is that while offering depth on a topic, it does not provide enough evidence to form a generalized conclusion. In other words, it is difficult to make universal claims based on just one person, since one person does not verify a pattern. This is why most sociologists do not use case studies as a primary research method.

However, case studies are useful when the single case is unique. In these instances, a single case study can contribute tremendous insight. For example, a feral child, also called “wild child,” is one who grows up isolated from human beings. Feral children grow up without social contact and language, which are elements crucial to a “civilized” child’s development. These children mimic the behaviors and movements of animals, and often invent their own language. There are only about one hundred cases of “feral children” in the world.

As you may imagine, a feral child is a subject of great interest to researchers. Feral children provide unique information about child development because they have grown up outside of the parameters of “normal” growth and nurturing. And since there are very few feral children, the case study is the most appropriate method for researchers to use in studying the subject.

At age three, a Ukranian girl named Oxana Malaya suffered severe parental neglect. She lived in a shed with dogs, and she ate raw meat and scraps. Five years later, a neighbor called authorities and reported seeing a girl who ran on all fours, barking. Officials brought Oxana into society, where she was cared for and taught some human behaviors, but she never became fully socialized. She has been designated as unable to support herself and now lives in a mental institution (Grice 2011). Case studies like this offer a way for sociologists to collect data that may not be obtained by any other method.

Experiments

You have probably tested some of your own personal social theories. “If I study at night and review in the morning, I’ll improve my retention skills.” Or, “If I stop drinking soda, I’ll feel better.” Cause and effect. If this, then that. When you test the theory, your results either prove or disprove your hypothesis.

One way researchers test social theories is by conducting an experiment , meaning they investigate relationships to test a hypothesis—a scientific approach.

There are two main types of experiments: lab-based experiments and natural or field experiments. In a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that more data can be recorded in a limited amount of time. In a natural or field- based experiment, the time it takes to gather the data cannot be controlled but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher.

As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for testing if-then statements: if a particular thing happens (cause), then another particular thing will result (effect). To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables.

Classically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might provide tutoring to the experimental group of students but not to the control group. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record of a student, for example.

And if a researcher told the students they would be observed as part of a study on measuring the effectiveness of tutoring, the students might not behave naturally. This is called the Hawthorne effect —which occurs when people change their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study. The Hawthorne effect is unavoidable in some research studies because sociologists have to make the purpose of the study known. Subjects must be aware that they are being observed, and a certain amount of artificiality may result (Sonnenfeld 1985).

A real-life example will help illustrate the process. In 1971, Frances Heussenstamm, a sociology professor at California State University at Los Angeles, had a theory about police prejudice. To test her theory, she conducted research. She chose fifteen students from three ethnic backgrounds: Black, White, and Hispanic. She chose students who routinely drove to and from campus along Los Angeles freeway routes, and who had had perfect driving records for longer than a year.

Next, she placed a Black Panther bumper sticker on each car. That sticker, a representation of a social value, was the independent variable. In the 1970s, the Black Panthers were a revolutionary group actively fighting racism. Heussenstamm asked the students to follow their normal driving patterns. She wanted to see whether seeming support for the Black Panthers would change how these good drivers were treated by the police patrolling the highways. The dependent variable would be the number of traffic stops/citations.

The first arrest, for an incorrect lane change, was made two hours after the experiment began. One participant was pulled over three times in three days. He quit the study. After seventeen days, the fifteen drivers had collected a total of thirty-three traffic citations. The research was halted. The funding to pay traffic fines had run out, and so had the enthusiasm of the participants (Heussenstamm, 1971).

Secondary Data Analysis

While sociologists often engage in original research studies, they also contribute knowledge to the discipline through secondary data analysis . Secondary data does not result from firsthand research collected from primary sources, but are the already completed work of other researchers or data collected by an agency or organization. Sociologists might study works written by historians, economists, teachers, or early sociologists. They might search through periodicals, newspapers, or magazines, or organizational data from any period in history.

Using available information not only saves time and money but can also add depth to a study. Sociologists often interpret findings in a new way, a way that was not part of an author’s original purpose or intention. To study how women were encouraged to act and behave in the 1960s, for example, a researcher might watch movies, televisions shows, and situation comedies from that period. Or to research changes in behavior and attitudes due to the emergence of television in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a sociologist would rely on new interpretations of secondary data. Decades from now, researchers will most likely conduct similar studies on the advent of mobile phones, the Internet, or social media.

Social scientists also learn by analyzing the research of a variety of agencies. Governmental departments and global groups, like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics or the World Health Organization (WHO), publish studies with findings that are useful to sociologists. A public statistic like the foreclosure rate might be useful for studying the effects of a recession. A racial demographic profile might be compared with data on education funding to examine the resources accessible by different groups.

One of the advantages of secondary data like old movies or WHO statistics is that it is nonreactive research (or unobtrusive research), meaning that it does not involve direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors. Unlike studies requiring direct contact with people, using previously published data does not require entering a population and the investment and risks inherent in that research process.

Using available data does have its challenges. Public records are not always easy to access. A researcher will need to do some legwork to track them down and gain access to records. To guide the search through a vast library of materials and avoid wasting time reading unrelated sources, sociologists employ content analysis , applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as they relate to the study at hand.

Also, in some cases, there is no way to verify the accuracy of existing data. It is easy to count how many drunk drivers, for example, are pulled over by the police. But how many are not? While it’s possible to discover the percentage of teenage students who drop out of high school, it might be more challenging to determine the number who return to school or get their GED later.

Another problem arises when data are unavailable in the exact form needed or do not survey the topic from the precise angle the researcher seeks. For example, the average salaries paid to professors at a public school is public record. But these figures do not necessarily reveal how long it took each professor to reach the salary range, what their educational backgrounds are, or how long they’ve been teaching.

When conducting content analysis, it is important to consider the date of publication of an existing source and to take into account attitudes and common cultural ideals that may have influenced the research. For example, when Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd gathered research in the 1920s, attitudes and cultural norms were vastly different then than they are now. Beliefs about gender roles, race, education, and work have changed significantly since then. At the time, the study’s purpose was to reveal insights about small U.S. communities. Today, it is an illustration of 1920s attitudes and values.

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• General Sociology
• Research Methodologies

Essentials of Research Methods: A Guide to Social Science Research

ISBN: 978-0-631-23048-9

September 2004

Wiley-Blackwell

Janet M. Ruane

Essentials of Research Methods is a concise and accessible introduction to research methods in the social sciences.

Written by an expert of research methods teaching, this book takes extraordinary care to focus the reader on experiences in his or her everyday life as a way of understanding and performing research methods.

• Introduces students to research methods with clear, concise, and accessible prose.
• Focuses the reader on everyday life as a way to understand research methods.
• Covers ethics, data gathering and analysis, and statistics.
• Includes further reading lists, graphs, exercises, study questions, a glossary, and an annotated list of web resources.
• Introduces students to research methods in clear, concise, and accessible prose.
• Includes further reading lists, graphs, exercises, study questions, and an annotated list of web resources.

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Social Science Research Methods

Explore social science research methods books.

• Qualitative research methods
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SCS 224 (Campus) - Social Science Research Methods

Institutional review board.

Institutional review boards are committees formed to review and monitor biomedical and behavioral research with human subjects. All research involving human subjects must be approved by the IRB before research begins. Visit the SNHU IRB site to learn more, review the research submission process, and download the forms you'll need to get started.

• SNHU Institutional Review Board This link opens in a new window

SNHU Undergraduate Research

SNHU hosts an annual Undergraduate Research Day on campus to showcase research done by undergraduates during the year. Students select a mentor, submit a proposal by the deadline, and if accepted, conduct their research and present on the first Wednesday of April at Undergraduate Research Day. Students conducting research using human subjects are required to submit a proposal to the IRB (see box above) prior to submitting their proposal to UGR. 

This SCS224 class is encouraged to submit their research projects to SNHU Undergraduate Research Day. See the SNHU Undergraduate Research site for more information. Proposals may be submitted directly using the link below:

• SNHU Undergraduate Research This link opens in a new window

Conducting Social Science Research

Conducting your own original Social Science research may mean designing and executing surveys or experiments, collecting and coding data, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions from your findings. Conducting original or primary research is how scholars and students contribute to the body of scholarly knowledge. You may find the resources on research methodologies, psychological tests & assessments and databases that include datasets on this page helpful during the design and execution of your research project.

 Research Methodologies

The scs224 course objectives & outcomes.

Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:

• Demonstrate an understanding of the nature, types, and functions of the various approaches to research
• Articulate how various research designs, methods, techniques, and instruments are used for conducting research and/or analyzing research results
• Locate, interpret, and critique existing research in their own field of study
• Explain what constitutes credible and/or good research
• Develop and defend a viable research proposal
• Conduct research utilizing at least one qualitative method

SAGE Research Methods Database

The SAGE Research Methods database (Link below) provides definitions, tutorials, videos, cases, etc. about all the different types of research methodologies. 

• Sage Research Methods LibGuide Anyone doing research at a university - whether they are doing a student research project or dissertation, or planning a large scale study - needs to use the right tools to plan their study, gather their data, and make sense of their findings. These tools are the 'research methods' of the social sciences. This research guide is to help you in your exploration of research methods in the social sciences. In this guide are tips to find resources on the SAGE Research Methods platform. It will also guide you in finding the best literature to enable you to choose a methodology and launch into your research project.
• SAGE Research Methods: Sociology SAGE Research Methods resources focused on Sociology including the video, "How Do I Research Social Change?" and reference books on Social Science research, as well as common methodologies used in the Social Sciences.
• SAGE Research Methods User Guide for Students This link opens in a new window SAGE Research Methods Quick Guide for Students about content in SRM and how to use it for your research project.

SAGE Research Methods Research Tools

 Click on the Research Tools tab at the top of the screen to see the following tools to help you learn about the different methods and select the tools you need to conduct your research study.

• Methods Map

The  Methods Map  is a tool designed to help you understand how method concepts relate to one another using a visualization to understand the world of research methods more easily. The map has an entry for every method concept in SRM. It shows the  definition  of that term, and provides a link to the content on that subject. To the left of the term are any broader concepts related to the term, and to the right are any narrower concepts related to the term. There are also sometimes related terms below the selected entry. Clicking on a particular concept makes that concept central on the page, and shows broader, narrower and related terms for that particular concept. 

• Project Planner  

Project Planner   provides step-by-step guidance to students and researchers in designing and completing a research project. This tool is divided into chronological sections, allowing the user to start from the beginning of the research process or to navigate to specific stages. Just beginning your research project? Try  Why Do Research?  or  Developing a Researchable Question . Problems collecting data? Navigate to  Data Collection . Each section begins with a brief synopsis describing what will be covered in that stage, and ends with an interactive checklist to ensure all necessary steps have been taken. Throughout the planner, links to useful content such as video, the Methods Map, books, and journal articles are included.

• Which Stats Test

Knowing which statistical test to use to answer your question is tricky. Use this simple tool to help narrow down the options!

Video: Using the SRM Methods Map

Psychological Tests and Assessments

Researchers use various tools to measure particular psychological and social phenomenon. These tools or tests are stringently reviewed for validity and reliability. When searching for tests, be sure to locate the accompanying reviews to substantiate your choice of tool prior to submitting your research proposal to the Institutional Review Board (IRB).

You may find tests listed in these databases that are available only in print format or from the creator. Check the availability and permissions to see how you might access a copy of the instrument.

• Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Sciences (MIDSS) This link opens in a new window The Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Sciences (MIDSS) is designed to be a repository for instruments that are used to collect data from across the social sciences. Use the site to discover instruments you can use in your own research.
• PSI CHI Research Measures Database This link opens in a new window Psi Chi, the International Honor Society in Psychology, maintains a database of various websites linking to research measures, tools, and instruments. There are multiple ways to use this website. All of the resources are tagged by category and by keywords, so you can retrieve lists of resources related to various topical domains (e.g., affective, social, cognitive) or search by keywords.

You may also find information about psychological measures in books. Below are some examples:

Data Sets 

Research may be conducted using existing data sets. Demographic data sets may be used to frame further research. The library subscribes to some databases containing data sets. Others are available freely online.

Online Open Data Sets

What is Open Data? In simple terms, Open Data means the kind of data which is open for anyone and everyone for access, modification, reuse, and sharing. Open Data derives its base from various “open movements” such as open-source, open hardware, open government, open science, etc. Governments, independent organizations, and agencies have come forward to open the floodgates of data to create more and more open data for free and easy access.(Definition from freeCodeCamp.org)

• Data.gov This link opens in a new window
• Google Dataset Search This link opens in a new window
• Google Public Data Explorer This link opens in a new window
• Harvard Dataverse This link opens in a new window
• Mass Observation Archive
• ICPSR Data Archive
• Kaggle This link opens in a new window
• Open Data Monitor This link opens in a new window
• World Health Organization (WHO) Open Data Repository This link opens in a new window
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• Next: Citing Sources (APA Format) >>

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Research Methods in the Social Sciences

Psychology in Everyday Life

Eighth edition | ©2015 chava frankfort-nachmias; david nachmias; jack dewaard.

ISBN:9781429233002

Read and study old-school with our bound texts.

With its clear presentation and integration of detailed real-world examples, the acclaimed Research Methods in the Social Sciences accessibly illustrates the relevance of social sciences research without sacrificing key content. The eighth edition includes engaging new studies and examples that explore the use of Twitter feeds in social sciences research, the effect of climate change on human conflict, the use of rational intuition in explaining the Chelyabinsk meteor explosion, and much more. The eighth edition also includes new and expanded coverage of conducting qualitative research, as well as conducting research in our digital age, including the use of the Internet and various computer software packages for retrieving, cleaning, coding, and analyzing "big data."

New to This Edition

Eighth Edition | ©2015

Chava Frankfort-Nachmias; David Nachmias; Jack DeWaard

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Eighth Edition | 2015

Table of Contents

Chava Frankfort-Nachmias

Chava Frankfort-Nachmias is an Emeritus Professor of Sociology at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. In addition to Research Methods in the Social Sciences, she is coauthor of Social Statistics for a Diverse Society, coeditor of Sappho in the Holy Land (with Erella Shadmi) and numerous publications on ethnicity and development, urban revitalization, science and gender, and women in Israel. She was the recipient of the University of Wisconsin System teaching improvement grant on integrating race, ethnicity, and gender into the social statistics and research methods curriculum.

David Nachmias

David Nachmias is a Senior Fellow Emeritus at the Israel Democracy Institute (IDI) and holds the Romulo Betancourt Chair in Political Science at Tel Aviv University. Professor Nachmias has extensively published and presented papers in the areas of Political Science, Public Administration and Public Policy, both in Israel and abroad. He now serves on the editorial board of Policy Studies Review; and is a member of the American Political Science Association; Midwest Political Science Association; Policy Studies Organization; the International Political Science Association and Israels Political Science Association. His numerous books and articles include: Public Policy in Israel, Frank Cass, 2002; Executive Governance in Israel, Patgrave, 2002 "The Bias of Pluralism: The Redistributive Consequences of Israels New Electoral Law" in A. Arian and Michal Shamir (eds.) The Elections in Israel - 1996, State University of New York Press, 1999.

Jack DeWaard

Jack DeWaard is an Associate Professor in the Department of Sociology and Graduate Faculty in Population Studies in the Minnesota Population Center at University of Minnesota who specializes in international and internal migration, racial and ethnic stratification and inequality, demography and ecology, and quantitative methods. DeWaard teaches graduate and undergraduate courses on research methods.

Eighth Edition | 2015

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Social Science Research Methods (Certificate)

On this page:, at a glance: program details.

Certificate Map Major/Certificate Map archive

• Location: Tempe campus

Program Description

The certificate program in social science research methods prepares students to acquire, manage and analyze a broad range of human thought and behavior data. Data can be qualitative (e.g., text, images, sound) or quantitative (e.g., direct observation, surveys, geographic information systems).

Data acquisition skills may include downloading and managing information from online sources, collecting data in surveys or making direct observations. A key feature of this program is a focus on data analysis, so students can analyze any data they collect.

All students in this program demonstrate skills in statistical analysis and selecting methods related to their interests.

Program Requirements

ACO 100: All About Data: Design, Query, and Visualization (QTRS OR CS) (3) ACT 435: Statistics for Risk Modeling (3) ACT 450: Actuarial Models (3) ALA 235: Introduction to Computer Modeling (CS) (3) AML 253: Introduction to Mathematical Tools and Modeling for the Life and Social Sciences (MATH) (3) AML 441: Mathematical Concepts and Tools in Sustainability (3) ASM 494: Models in Social Evolution (3) BME 301: Numerical Methods in Biomedical Engineering (2) BMI 211: Modeling Biomedical Decisions (3) BMI 311: Modeling Biomedical Knowledge (3) BMI 312: Modeling Biomedical Data (3) BMI 461: Advanced Topics in Biomedical Informatics I (3) BMI 462: Advanced Topics In Biomedical Informatics II (3) COM 308: Advanced Research Methods in Communication (L) (3) COM 407: Advanced Critical Methods in Communication (3) CRJ 303: Statistical Analysis (QTRS OR CS) (3) ECN 310: Applied Regression and Data Analytics (3) ECN 416: Game Theory and Economic Behavior (3) EDP 454: Statistical Data Analysis in Education (3) FAS 361: Applied Research Methods (SOBE OR L or SB) or SOC 391: Applied Research Methods (SOBE OR L or SB) (3) FAS 498: Advanced Statistics for Social Sciences (3) GCU 351: Population Geography (GCSI OR SB & G) (3) GCU 373: Introduction to Geographic Information Science (SG) (4) GCU 442: Geographical Analysis of Transportation (SB) (3) GCU 496: Geographic Research Methods (L) (3) GIS 311: Geographic Information Science III (QTRS OR CS) (4) GIS 322: Programming Principles in GIS II (3) GIS 341: Cartography and Georepresentation (QTRS OR CS) (3) GIS 431: Spatial Databases (3) GIS 441: Geographics: Interactive and Animated Cartography and Geovisualization (CS) (3) GIS 461: Fundamentals of Spatial Optimization or PUP 481: Fundamentals of Spatial Optimization (3) GIS 462: Location Analysis and Modeling (3) GIS 470: Advanced Statistics for Geography and Planning (QTRS OR CS) (3) GIS 471: Spatial Statistics for Geography and Planning (3) GIS 472: Spatial Regression Analysis (3) GPH 494: Advanced Digital Analysis (3) HSE 290: Experimental Methods for Human Systems Research (QTRS OR L) (3) HSE 390: Qualitative Research Methods (L) (3) IFT 200: Information Modeling, Storage and Retrieval (3) IFT 410: Big Data Tools and Practices (3) MKT 352: Marketing Research (L) (3) POS 301: Empirical Political Inquiry (SOBE OR SB) or SGS 305: Empirical Political Inquiry (SOBE OR SB) (3) POS 401: Political Statistics (QTRS OR CS) or SGS 401: Political Statistics (QTRS OR CS) (3) PSY 330: Statistical Methods (QTRS OR CS) (3) PUP 424: Planning Methods (4) SBS 302: Qualitative Methods (SOBE OR SB) (3) SBS 404: Social Statistics II: Multivariate Analysis (CS) (3) SOC 389: Ethnographic Field Lab or SBS 389: Ethnographic Field Lab or ASB 389: Ethnographic Field Lab (1-6) SOS 211: Calculus and Probability for the Life and Social Sciences (MATH) (3) STP 280: Probability and Statistics for Researchers (QTRS OR CS) (3) STP 310: Design and Analysis of Experiments (3) STP 311: Regression and Time Series Analyses (3) STP 315: Statistical Computing (3) STP 420: Introductory Applied Statistics (QTRS OR CS) (3) STP 421: Probability (3) STP 425: Stochastic Processes (3) STP 429: Applied Regression (QTRS OR CS) (3) STP 450: Nonparametric Statistics (3) STP 460: Categorical Data Analysis (3) TWC 301: Fundamentals of Writing for Digital Media (L) (3) TWC 411: Principles of Visual Communication (L) (3) Required Capstone Course -- 3 credit hours ASB 499: Individualized Instruction or an equivalent capstone course approved by academic advisor (3) Prerequisite courses may be needed in order to complete the requirements of this certificate.

Enrollment Requirements

A student pursuing an undergraduate certificate must be enrolled as a degree-seeking student at ASU. Undergraduate certificates are not awarded prior to the award of an undergraduate degree. A student already holding an undergraduate degree may pursue an undergraduate certificate as a nondegree-seeking graduate student.

Career Outlook

People with the skill set needed to solve complex problems are in demand in the job market. There is a growing need for researchers and analysts with keen thinking skills who can manage, evaluate and interpret large amounts of data to address these challenges.

Some career opportunities include:

• acting as legal advocates in international cases
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Example Careers

Students who complete this degree program may be prepared for the following careers. Advanced degrees or certifications may be required for academic or clinical positions.

Biostatisticians

• Growth: 31.6%
• Median Salary*: 98920

Cartographers and Photogrammetrists

• Median Salary*: 71890

Clinical Research Coordinators

• Growth: 4.8%
• Median Salary*: 144440

Survey Researchers

• Growth: -3.8%
• Median Salary*: 60410

Geographic Information Systems Technologists and Technicians

• Growth: 9.7%
• Median Salary*: 98740

Social Science Research Assistants

• Median Salary*: 50470

Mathematicians

• Growth: 2.2%
• Median Salary*: 112110

Operations Research Analysts

• Growth: 22.5%
• Median Salary*: 85720

Statisticians

* Data obtained from the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) under sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Labor/Employment and Training Administration (USDOL/ETA).

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• Systematic Review
• Open access
• Published: 16 July 2024

Public health education using social learning theory: a systematic scoping review

• Ting Liu 1 ,
• Patrick Cheong-Iao Pang 1 &
• Chi-Kin Lam 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1906 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

333 Accesses

Metrics details

Public health education (PHE) in social environments plays a crucial role in mitigating the impact of public health events, especially with the recent surge in global incidents. Social learning theory (SLT) provides a strong theoretical foundation for implementing PHE. The objective of this study is to conduct a systematic scoping review of PHE using SLT, synthesizing the target populations, types of research, main findings, and future directions.

The study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Extension for Scoping Review (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. We conducted a comprehensive search of five electronic databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, ProQuest, and APA PsycInfo) for English articles related to PHE using SLT. Two reviewers independently screened the titles and abstracts. Descriptive statistics were utilized to analyze the characteristics of the articles included in the study, followed by a comprehensive narrative analysis of the results.

Research on PHE using SLT mainly focuses on adolescents, students, special patients, and vulnerable populations. The study sample includes seven research types and nine commonly used experimental methods. Four modes of PHE using SLT are identified, along with four types of summarized research results.

PHE research based on SLT can be prioritized for preventing widespread infectious diseases, spreading fundamental public health information, and assisting patients with particular illnesses. To enhance the implementation of PHE, researchers and policymakers should integrate online and offline health education resources, ensure the accessibility of up-to-date information, and leverage digital technologies in PHE. More highly interactive and participatory health education courses will be established in social learning environments to encourage public participation in PHE.

Peer Review reports

Public health as the science and technology of improving the environment, preventing disease, prolonging life expectancy, promoting physical and mental health, and fostering the development of individual potential through organized social activities [ 1 ]. Therefore, the social aspect of public health has to be considered in practice. Public health is also based on the principles of social justice and equity which aims to address the underlying factors that affect public health, including policies and practices [ 2 ]. PHE is the outcome of the simultaneous growth of medical education and the advancement of modern medical careers, especially in the field of medical education. PHE is classified into four categories in the most recent academic research: promoting physical and mental health, developing healthy behaviors, enhancing environmental health, and preventing and controlling diseases [ 3 ]. In recent years, the emergence of global public health crises has had a significant negative impact on governments and the public. In light of the recent global COVID-19 pandemic, it has become clear that the general public lacks public health knowledge, which highlights the importance of strengthening PHE. In order to mitigate the significant impact and consequences of different public health events on the general public and society, it is crucial for governments to prioritize PHE. At the social level, the general public is the target audience for PHE. Through PHE, the government and relevant organizations can effectively raise public awareness of public health and enhance the public's ability to respond effectively to various public health hazards. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct PHE within the social environment.

SLT, which developed from behaviorism, is a social psychological theory that examines human learning in social environments. It was proposed by American psychologist Albert Bandura in 1952. It primarily focuses on the interaction between the learning environment, cognition, and behavior in influencing people's learning behavior, emphasizing the significance of the learning environment and individual behavioral factors [ 4 ]. The theory suggests that individuals can achieve effective learning outcomes by creating a conducive learning environment, engaging in continuous observation, and self-directed learning [ 5 ]. In recent years, most of the research related to SLT has focused on the fields of behavioristics, criminology, and psychology, with limited application in the field of public health. However, there are very few studies based on SLT, which may hinder the effective implementation of public health services. While a small number of public health studies utilize SLT, they primarily focus on higher education and professional talent development in public health, with limited emphasis on public and social PHE studies. SLT’s theoretical support for PHE is necessary for two reasons. Firstly, the public learning environment of PHE is situated in the social public space. Although the implementation of PHE in the public social space is more flexible and covers a wider range of education, the learning environment of a traditional classroom is more stable than that of PHE. Therefore, SLT is necessary to help address the challenges that PHE may encounter during the implementation of social public space. Secondly, traditional PHE is conducted under the supervision of schools and teachers, while public-facing PHE lacks supervision and relies more on individual learning behavior and self-learning efficiency. SLT can enhance learning efficiency by boosting learning motivation and personal learning behavior, thereby promoting the implementation effectiveness of PHE.

PHE is facing numerous challenges worldwide, with the most prominent ones being the dissemination of inaccurate health information [ 6 ], the rapidly evolving global health challenges, and the unequal distribution of health education resources. Among them, the gap and inequality in health education resources are worsening [ 7 ], particularly concerning the quantity and quality of educational resources [ 8 ]. Set against such a background, SLT provides the theoretical support to address these current challenges facing PHE. Our work aims to understand individual learning behavior in social learning environments for learning public health knowledge, which can help to overcome the current challenges in PHE.

Given the importance of using SLT in PHE, this study integrates the SLT perspective and seeks to investigate the impact of SLT-based learning environments and individual behavioral factors on PHE within social contexts. Additionally, this study aims to examine the distinguishing features of PHE in both online and offline settings.

Research question

To accomplish the research objective, the following research questions have been formulated:

What are the target groups and research topics in this field of research?

What types of research and data analysis methods were utilized in these studies?

Which PHE models using SLT were used in these studies?

What are their findings and results?

What are the future trends and suggestions

Search strategy

The reports in this systematic scoping review adhere to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Review (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines [ 9 ]. This review also adheres to Arksey and O'Malley's five-stage framework [ 10 ]. A three-phase search strategy appropriate for scoping studies is utilized. The initial phase involved a restricted search on PubMed and ProQuest. The search terms are repeatedly generated from the research subjects and related theoretical concepts. In the second phase, from our inception until October 16, 2023, we conducted searches using specific terms in the following five databases: Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, PubMed, ProQuest, and APA PsycInfo. The following strings are used to conduct a Boolean search across the four databases. WOS, PubMed, ProQuest and APA PsycInfo with the Booleans “AND”: All fields “public health education” AND “social learning theory”. Scopus with the Booleans “AND”: Title, Abstract, Keywords “public health education” AND “social learning theory”. Limited to articles published between January 2014 and September 2023. The third phase also involves manually searching the full text of all selected articles, as well as references from other similar review studies.

Data selection and extraction

All retrieved records are exported to Zotero software, and any duplicate entries are removed. Two independent reviewers (TL and PP) initially screen the title and abstract of the article based on the inclusion criteria. Differences between two reviewers shall be resolved through negotiation with the third reviewer (CL). All standards are based on SLT, creating a social learning environment, and public-oriented health education. (1) This study is guided by SLT. (2) It focuses on educational behavior within the social environment. (3) The research is intended for the general public rather than professionals or students. Only articles, reviews, conference papers, early access, and proceeding papers are included. Detailed criteria for inclusion and exclusion are included in Table  1 .

Data charting

We developed a data extraction form following the methodology guidance for scoping review provided by the Joanna Briggs Institute and made additional adjustments to the form after piloting five articles [ 11 ]. The items on the form included author, year, country, target groups, research topic, research and data analysis methods, model (a model for implementing PHE), findings, and outcomes. The data were graphed by two independent reviewers, and any sections that resulted in disagreement were resolved by consulting with a senior reviewer.

Collating, summarizing and reporting the results

The data were collected, summarized, and analyzed, and descriptive statistics were used to characterize the sample articles. The findings were presented descriptively, accompanied by graphs and charts. The results were interpreted through a narrative synthesis to address the research questions targeted by the review. All the authors collectively confirmed the results.

As shown in Fig.  1 , a total of 4949 articles were retrieved through the systematic search. After using the Zotero software to exclude duplicate articles, 2584 articles remained. After two reviewers independently screened the article titles and abstracts, 2493 articles that were not directly related to the research topic were excluded. Additionally, 11 articles that were not in English were also excluded. The remaining 80 articles were independently assessed in full by two reviewers, and 43 articles were excluded. Finally, 37 articles were identified for inclusion in the scoping review for this systematic review (see Table  2 [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ]).

PRISMA flow diagram of selection process

Characteristics of studies

Countries of publications.

Of the 37 studies, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, China, and Canada were the top five countries in terms of the number of papers, with the remaining studies mainly originating from six other countries. As shown in Fig.  2 , the United States has the highest number of research projects among all countries, totaling 17. This indicates that the authors from the United States provide the most contributions to the research in SLT and PHE.

Distribution of 37 articles by country

Target groups of the studies

The studies covered 12 different target groups, including adolescents, students, vulnerable groups, community members, parents of children, young women, special patient groups, villagers, non-professional health workers, ethnic minorities, children in good health, and children with specific diseases. As shown in Fig.  3 . Adolescents and students were the primary focuses of the research. The health of vulnerable groups and community members were also a concern. There have been relatively few studies on children, but a significant number of studies have focused on children with rare diseases and their parents. Relatively little research has been done on groups such as young females, special patients, ethnic minorities, rural areas, and non-professional health workers.

Types of target groups for studies

Research topics

Research articles can be categorized into the following six themes: (1) sex education, encompassing HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment, as well as sex education and contraception; (2) special diseases, including diabetes, COVID-19, cancer, etc.; (3) rare diseases, such as Lyme disease in adolescents, mine pneumoconiosis, rural people snake bites, etc.; (4) non-disease health behavior education for adolescents, involving drinking, violence, smoking, etc.; (5) general public education, covering a wide range of health topics; (6) spiritual and mental health education research, such as adolescents' and college students' mental health, personal mental health, etc. The details of these topics are shown in Table  3 .

Types of studies

Sampling research is the most common method in intervention research, followed by quantitative and qualitative research. The four studies combined qualitative and quantitative methods. Three studies conducted sample reviews, while the other two focused on descriptive and case studies, respectively. In addition, two literature reviews and a systematic review are included. In contrast, the utilization of case studies and descriptive studies is more limited, as shown in Fig.  4 .

Methods and intervention forms of studies

There are nine experimental methods commonly used in research, as shown in Fig.  5 . Among these experimental methods, interviews, surveys, questionnaires, and (cluster) randomized controlled trials were widely used. Focus groups were used for qualitative studies, while T-tests and Chi-square tests were employed for quantitative studies. In addition, the methods of extended linear model, observation, and triangulation were also used.

Types of research and data analysis methods

In this study, we primarily identified four models for implementing PHE (Table  4 ). The first model involves offline intervention, followed by the production of materials related to PHE. Another type of intervention is online intervention. Finally, adults, serving as role models for healthy behavior among adolescents, evaluated and screened health education content posted on social media.

Definition of the effectiveness of PHE

Among the 37 studies, 18 defined the effectiveness of PHE through questionnaires, interviews, and scales after implementing health interventions like randomized controlled trials. They measured the effectiveness of interventions by establishing learning efficacy standards across various dimensions. Gottfredson et al. verified the effectiveness of family health education by tracking research subjects and measuring the positive interaction among adolescent gender, parental involvement time, and other variables 39. 5 studies defined the effectiveness of PHE based on participants' engagement in health education courses and acceptance of interventions. Garcia et al.'s study utilized interviews to assess the acceptability of intervention measures among participants, thus determining the effectiveness of PHE 31. 14 studies did not explicitly mention how to define the effectiveness of PHE. According to the analysis of the results of the effectiveness definition of the included study samples, it can be concluded that the criteria of the researchers' definition of the effectiveness of PHE are relatively unclear. There is no single measure or factor that can gauge the effectiveness of PHE. Defining effectiveness solely in terms of engagement and acceptance of PHE interventions and health courses is not comprehensive.

Main findings and results of studies

First, offline education environments in PHE interventions led by governments, schools, communities, or other organizations can effectively enhance health education and promote the dissemination of PHE. Providing educational guidance or courses to the public or to specific patients and their families has a positive impact on their health. Implementing PHE in communities and schools can promote students' physical and mental health and reduce unhealthy behaviors.

On the other hand, online PHE has played an effective role in disseminating health knowledge, bridging social gaps, and promoting timely prevention. Online platforms, including websites, apps, communities, forums, and knowledge bases, effectively share PHE information. Social media and apps are effectively delivering health education messages.

Finally, adult health behaviors can influence adolescent health behaviors, making it crucial for adolescents to establish positive examples of healthy behaviors. Monitoring and screening health information on social platforms is essential to prevent minors from accessing inaccurate information. Therefore, the elimination of boundaries between academic education, schools, students, and classrooms has enhanced the effectiveness of public health communication in the school environment.

PHE in a social learning environment

In the implementation of the PHE project, we may face various challenges, such as dealing with diverse individuals from different backgrounds 12. Factors contributing to intervention failure include changing views due to external circumstances. This makes it necessary to adapt interventions to evolving conditions and diverse educational goals. The target populations in PHE interventions are broad and diverse. To promote acceptance and comprehension of complex public health knowledge among diverse audiences, relying solely on traditional classrooms is insufficient. PHE should be implemented in a diverse social environment to attract a wider audience and provide comprehensive health education. This will help PHE reach a wider audience and achieve the best educational outcomes.

PHE should be conducted in a wider and inclusive social setting, with community public spaces being suitable venues. Community public spaces are commonly chosen by researchers for PHE implementation. These spaces allow people to engage in their daily activities and seek assistance conveniently from local community organizations. Communities share commonalities, including the natural and social environment, and may face similar public health problems. Therefore, implementing quick, easy, and flexible PHE measures in the community environment is a suitable solution to address the complexity of the target population during implementation.

Studies show that community-based public health engagement programs are feasible and effective 23. particularly in addressing regional diabetes issues 25. Community cohesion and a sense of belonging promote active participation in community activities. Successful implementation of PHE in community settings requires collaboration among community workers, government or non-governmental organizations, health workers, and community members. Community participatory PHE enhances health literacy and has been proven effective. The advantage of PHE in a social setting is the opportunity for full participation and interaction. Creating a conducive educational environment and supporting observational learning are crucial for PHE effectiveness. Participatory art education, such as participatory theater, has shown beneficial impacts on health education [ 49 ].

SDOH also have a significant effect on PHE. SDOH refers to the economic and social conditions that affect changes in the health status of individuals and groups [ 50 ]. The influence of individual behavior on social learning in SLT is closely related to the economic and social conditions that affect changes in individual and group health status in SDOH. Individual learning behavior is influenced not only by the learning environment, motivation, and other factors but also by personal income, education level, occupation, and other factors. Therefore, utilizing SDOH to examine PHE can assist us in accurately identifying the key factors influencing health and implementing appropriate health education and interventions. The distribution of social perception factors is often influenced by mainstream political ideology and public policies in the region [ 51 ]. The Special Health Status Report highlights the impact of social inequalities on health, including differences in factors such as income, education level, occupation, and living environment that contribute to inequitable health outcomes. Hollederer et al. mentioned that the unemployed are a vulnerable group in society, and the health status of the unemployed is often worse. However, reaching the unemployed with prevention and health promotion efforts is challenging 34. In PHE, the application of SDOH helps to promote equitable and inclusive health education, focusing on the health needs of vulnerable groups and reducing health inequalities. Parents of children with specific diseases belong to the category of vulnerable groups who have limited access to equitable health resources and require additional support from society, government, and policymakers 17. SDOH emphasizes multifaceted influences, including individual, societal, and system-level factors. Cross-sectoral and interdisciplinary partnerships are essential for the public health sector to effectively respond to health challenges. Lamb et al. applied an interdisciplinary participatory art approach to community PHE research with indigenous youth 19. Promote cooperation among all stakeholders from a health and wellness perspective to create a healthy environment and enhance public health. Based on PHE, comprehensive health intervention strategies can be developed. These strategies may include improving socio-economic conditions, promoting education and career development, enhancing the living environment, and strengthening community support. Such integrated intervention strategies can influence individual health behaviors and outcomes more comprehensively. Therefore, the application of SDOH in PHE contributes to a deeper understanding of the root causes and influencing factors of health problems. It can also contribute to the effective implementation of public health policies and interventions, ultimately achieving the goal of promoting overall social health and equity.

Observational learning based on SLT is significant in PHE, particularly in AIDS prevention education 28. Research supports the effectiveness of observational learning in health education. Adolescents’ health concepts and behaviors are strongly influenced by their external environment, with parents or caregivers having the greatest influence 30. Minors acquire public health knowledge through observational learning in social settings and may adopt unhealthy behaviors from adults. However, they may not have the ability to discern whether adults’ decisions are right or wrong. Studies show that even if parents smoke, it may not necessarily impact minors’ behavior. Nevertheless, adults play a vital role in educating minors about healthy behaviors and should serve as positive examples 38.

Offline interventions for PHE with SLT

In this review, offline PHE interventions were commonly used. Offline interventions refer to PHE initiatives and behaviors carried out by local communities, schools, or organizations. These include the development of intervention policies, strategies, and models by the government, communities, schools, or relevant private organizations. Implementing appropriate health measures, educational models, or activities through offline modes can enhance the success and reach of PHE. Additionally, health intervention programs have been effective in addressing spiritual and mental health issues in specific populations 33. Offline interventions are also effective on campus, with integrated interventions successfully preventing youth violence in schools 20. Implementing offline interventions in school communities can reduce unhealthy habits and promote students' mental health, behavior control, and wellness. Furthermore, PHE interventions can also influence the behavior of health workers and target groups 14.

Offline implementation of PHE can also be achieved through organizing PHE activities, campaigns, workshops, courses, and conferences. These methods are commonly utilized in research. Through organizing various offline PHE activities, the enthusiasm of the public to participate in health education can be effectively enhanced, and the learning efficiency of health knowledge can be improved in an atmosphere of interactive learning. Studies have shown that when people participate in interactive learning, their ability to discover, imagine, and construct is improved, and their learning enthusiasm is enhanced [ 52 ].

The implementation of PHE guidance and curricula can have a positive impact on the general public, as well as on patients with specific diseases. Studies have found that short-term public health classroom learning programs based on SLT can effectively improve children's understanding of health knowledge and influence their health attitudes and behaviors 26. Other studies suggest that PHE in schools should aim to eliminate the divisions between health education and academic education, teachers and students, classrooms and schools, and schools and families 14. In other words, it is necessary to break the traditional classroom education mode and overcome the limitations of the traditional classroom in space, time, form, and content through more flexible and diversified education methods.

Online interventions for PHE with SLT

Online PHE interventions are widely used and offer several advantages. They provide flexibility in terms of time and location, enabling individuals to access public health knowledge at their convenience. Online platforms have a broader reach compared to offline interventions, which are limited by the number of participants. Online PHE interventions can be continuous, allowing for updates and improvements in educational content. These interventions are particularly important for individuals facing mobility barriers and caregivers who struggle to attend offline activities. Research shows that online platforms serve as essential resources for health information and social support for people with specific diseases and their caregivers. Users rely on these platforms to gain knowledge, make informed decisions, and learn from the experiences of others 16. Online health education platforms have proven effective in supporting parents of children with special diseases and treatment needs 37 [ 53 ]. Optimizing digital health literacy among young people is critical due to their heavy use of the internet 27. Enhancing online platforms is necessary to cater to the educational needs of young people. Studies have also demonstrated the effectiveness of providing distance health education to young individuals 24.

Online platform researchers and designers gather user feedback to understand their needs and preferences, enabling them to create customized tools 30. Creating online virtual multidisciplinary communities of practice is an innovative approach to PHE, ensuring high-quality public health services for patients with specific diseases in specific areas 20. It is crucial for the online platform to fully meet user needs in order to retain users 22. Educational video games can complement other media in child health education programs, positively impacting children's health education 18. Videos and programs distributed through social media or other online platforms also contribute positively to PHE 18.

Individual social learning behavior and PHE

According to the research, PHE interventions can be categorized into two forms: online and offline. These interventions have different impacts on individual learning behaviors in the social environment, which can be further classified into two main aspects:

PHE interventions can be categorized into online and offline forms. In the societal learning environment, an individual's learning behavior in PHE is influenced by two objective factors: the temporal factor and the spatial factor. Offline PHE requires individuals to go to a specific location at specific times, which limits their ability to participate in and complete their education. Offline interventions also have limited coverage and lack long-term continuity. On the other hand, online PHE provides flexibility and is not significantly impacted by timing and location restrictions. It requires more preparation, but it offers learners more control and convenience. Online platforms enable a focus on evolving social dynamics, as well as individual and group differences, in public health and service delivery.

In the social learning environment, the distinction between active and passive learning affects individual learning behaviors in PHE. Participants in PHE activities need to have a high level of learning initiative in order to successfully complete the educational process. Offline PHE requires individuals to actively seek out and participate in educational activities, contributing to their own learning initiative. Additionally, offline interventions organized by reputable institutions enhance participation and interactivity, thereby improving learners’ efficiency and motivation. Incorporating participatory visual arts activities in offline interventions for dementia patients has shown positive impacts on cognitive, social, and psychological functioning [ 54 ]. Jensen et al. study also supports the benefits of participating in artistic and cultural activities for sexual health [ 55 ]. On the other hand, online health education interventions do not require a high level of learning initiative, as individuals can access knowledge whenever needed. However, accessing health information online carries the risk of encountering incorrect information, which is a disadvantage of online PHE.

Online and offline forms of PHE have their own advantages and disadvantages, and integrating both forms can fully leverage their strengths. Some studies have integrated online learning modules with traditional face-to-face courses to educate learners on cancer and health. The results showed that participants who engaged in both online and offline learning were motivated to modify their health behaviors in order to reduce the risk of cancer 29. Whether PHE is conducted online or offline, both the intervener and education recipients need to have motivation and enthusiasm to promote the completion of educational activities. To enhance the effectiveness and engagement of PHE initiatives, researchers and government personnel should consider integrating multiple health education models. This approach will help achieve PHE goals and maximize its impact.

Future trends in exploration

Future PHE research can focus on several areas, including prevention of large-scale infectious diseases, basic public health knowledge, health education for individuals with specific diseases and their families, as well as for vulnerable groups such as ethnic minorities and persons with disabilities. There is a lack of studies on the elderly population, despite the increasing global aging trend and the health challenges they face. Researchers should prioritize addressing the health concerns of the elderly and develop strategies for providing convenient and comprehensible PHE for this age group, particularly in chronic diseases, underlying conditions, and self-care. Adolescent health education and sex education remain important topics, but research may also shift towards including special patients, minority groups, and members of the broader community. The focus should be broadened to not overlook the health interests of minority populations. Additionally, PHE in the social environment should expand to include mental health, given the increasing mental and psychological pressures people face and their impact on personal and professional lives. Spiritual and mental health education should be emphasized in PHE.

In the future, the focus on social learning environments can be on enhancing public enthusiasm and participation in PHE by creating engaging and participatory educational atmospheres in community spaces. PHE interventions may combine online and offline approaches and collaborate with comprehensive intervention models to develop educational materials. Offline PHE can promote interaction and participation, increasing learners' motivation. Online PHE can enhance the dissemination of public health knowledge through user-friendly platforms and multimedia forms like AI interactive video games and electronic comics/animations. This combination of online and offline education, along with appropriate PHE materials, can greatly enhance understanding and facilitate widespread dissemination of PHE. The integrated use of these three forms can have a significant impact on PHE behavior in the social environment.

Strengths and limitations

Introducing SLT into the field of PHE, the study explores the relationship between individual learning and behavior in social settings, focusing on the effectiveness of offline and online PHE. The study highlights the importance of removing boundaries in school settings and promoting cross-cutting PHE. This perspective on cross-disciplinary implementation offers a novel approach to enhancing the comprehensiveness and dissemination of PHE. It also presents a clear focus and direction for future PHE research based on SLT, which includes an emphasis on preventing large-scale infectious diseases, providing health education for patients with specific diseases, and addressing health issues among the elderly population. It is unique in the selection of research topics, methodological framework, and prospects of research conclusions, providing distinctive contributions and values for the research and practice of PHE. However, this review has several limitations. First, this review does not include non-English publications or gray literature from related fields. As a result, some pertinent studies may have been overlooked. Secondly, while each scope review is subject to our assessment, no individual quality assessment score is provided for each sample article. The reason for this is that such an assessment would not add value to the review.

We have reviewed 37 studies of SLT based PHE. Most of them focus on adolescents and students, as well as sexual and disease-specific education, while it is fewer to study minorities and vulnerable groups, such young females and specific diseases. For PHE implementation, the combination of both online and offline PHE can be more effective by improving the real-time accessibility of health knowledge dissemination, and encouraging individuals to participate in PHE. The development of integrated PHE intervention models and diverse educational materials can promote the dissemination of public health knowledge and encourage broad participation. As suggested in our review, it is feasible and effective to offer participatory PHE in social learning settings, particularly within the community. The social learning environment should focus on fostering an interactive and participatory educational climate to increase public interest and participation in PHE. Additionally, researchers should prioritize the prevention of a wide range of infectious diseases, the dissemination of basic public health information, and health education for vulnerable populations, individuals with specific diseases, and their families. In conclusion, this work provides important references for further strengthening the implementation strategy and practice of PHE based on SLT.

Availability of data and materials

The author confirms that all data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. Furthermore, primary and secondary sources and data supporting the findings of this study were all publicly available at the time of submission.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the advice and assistance from Prof. Ying Lau from the Chinese University of Hong Kong in preparing this paper.

This research was funded by Macao Science and Technology Development Fund (funding ID: 0088/2023/ITP2) and Macao Polytechnic University research grant (project code: RP/FCA-10/2022).

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The “Invisible Benefits” of the Mercury Project Research Consortium

by Charles Senteio

In this essay, Rutgers University professor Charles Senteio describes how his research has been enhanced by the “invisible benefits” of participation in the SSRC’s global Mercury Project research consortium. He illustrates how funders’ choices in structuring collaborative work–within and across teams–create value beyond the direct funding of research projects, enabling new ideas and collaborations that wouldn’t have otherwise happened.

I first discovered and used the Invisible Work Framework during my PhD study; I now use it in my research and teach it to my health informatics students. I introduce the Framework in my undergraduate health informatics course when I introduce the social determinants of health . During the most recent semester, after my summary lecture a student eloquently expressed: “Taking care of yourself costs money.” I wrote it on the board, underlining the point. We paused for a minute, allowing students to absorb it. 

I approach classroom interactions this way, informed by my interest in health equity and the various drivers. But in addition to teaching, I am a social scientist concerned with translating research into practice to promote health equity—in a new book, I will be exploring how perceived discrimination influences health behaviors for Black Americans. I am also a healthcare consultant, focused on improving the quality of care for underserved patient populations. And I am a licensed therapist with a small private practice. All of these roles inform my work. And it takes work, often invisible, to draw from these various disciplines and networks.

The student got it exactly right: the work of taking care of oneself incurs costs—ones that often are invisible to those who don’t know to look. These logistical costs include getting transportation to a clinic or time off from an hourly wage job to attend an appointment. These costs can go unseen by those not attuned to the lived experience of individuals on the margin, who too often simply don’t ask. 

My research too incurs “invisible costs” because doing engaged, interdisciplinary, inter-institutional, and international work imposes costs on researchers that frequently are not visible to many research supporters. These costs exist because of weak infrastructure, which is not designed for the cross-disciplinary and cross-institutional collaborations necessary to design and execute translational health equity research, and because many researchers aren’t trained as networkers or communicators. Doing interdisciplinary health equity research can incur search and decision costs, direct and opportunity costs; it is not possible to do this research without a strong network.

Well-designed consortia—creating connective infrastructure and skills within and across teams— catalyze new, solutions-oriented ideas and collaborations, alleviating some invisible work. Yet these benefits will likely remain invisible to key allied stakeholders. Typical final reports describing research results may elide the full value of investing in efforts such as the Mercury Project. In this post, I use myself as a case study to bring to light how well-designed research consortia, like the Mercury Project, can bring about invisible, synergistic benefits beyond the directly-funded research. 

In-Person Connections: Building a Foundation for Future Collaboration 

I initially presented my team’s work— Combatting inaccurate health information with community-crafted messaging —to the wider consortium at the first Mercury Project research consortium in-person convening . We are using innovative methods to design and assess the effectiveness of public health messaging in Brazil and Mexico. At the outset of the project, this convening enabled me to get feedback on our approach from fellow Mercury Project grant awardees at a critical juncture of the project. The in-person convening also served a vital purpose of enabling awardees to meet and get to know each other.

Beyond this research feedback, we created critical intellectual and human connections at The Rockefeller Foundation’s Bellagio Center . By design, we had time to connect and converse, laying foundations whose impact will be felt far beyond the Mercury Project. Together, grantees and allied stakeholders generated inputs for the Mercury Project Research Framework , which connects all of our projects, allowing for cross-project summative statements. 

I had not met any of these researchers before our paths crossed in Bellagio in summer 2022; I do not think our paths would have crossed otherwise. Now I commiserate and collaborate with them. We provide intellectual and cognitive support, as well as emotional support, to one another. Translational, interdisciplinary health-equity work requires that researchers build and nurture their networks: these relationships represent the connective tissue that enables the existing work, and spawns new investigations. 

My specific Mercury Project team is based on research connections and nascent ideas forged in 2020 and enabled by this grant. Drawing on my life experiences and professional roles, my research focuses on people: how they think, how they perceive the world around them, and how those perceptions may influence health behaviors. For example, I became more interested in misinformation early in the pandemic because I saw that people’s perceptions about the pandemic, its causes, and recommendations designed to keep us safe ( e.g. , social distancing), were already influencing their intended behaviors. I was a part of various virtual discussions with people of color from my network around the U.S., via Zoom and chats. I heard people, some of whom I’d known for decades, openly questioning local social distancing guidelines, which tended to shift quite frequently. At times, I questioned them too. I noted similar scrutiny of masking recommendations, and then vaccine recommendations. 

As “the science” rapidly evolved under unprecedented public view during the summer of 2020—amid parts of the world undergoing a racial reckoning—we scientists scrambled to address escalating uncertainty. First we sought to understand “the science.” Then we attempted to inform others of it. I grappled with these issues during my MLK visiting faculty appointment at MIT’s Sloan School of Management. While there in Fall 2020, I wrote about how we scientists needed to consider communicating what we know—and what we do not know— to the public, an audience we do not typically address. 

While at MIT, I met cognitive and decision scientist Dave Rand, now co-PI on our Mercury Project initiative. Not only did the Mercury Project allow us to intensify our existing bilateral relationship, we now have a core team of seven. Our project illustrates a fundamental vision of the Mercury Project: convening multidisciplinary research teams (in our case, social work, information science, behavioral economics, and psychology), and involving local stakeholders rooted in their communities, along with local policymakers who are in a position to use our findings. 

Representatives from each Mercury Project team will gather in October 2024 in Nairobi to put our findings to use. For many of us, the Mercury Project represents one of the few opportunities to meaningfully engage with colleagues from other disciplines and continents. Traversing these differences in research training, methodology, approaches, institutions, countries, languages, and cultures is a rare opportunity to expand our methodological skills and grow our research networks. 

Building Networks: Strong Bridges to Support Problem-Solving Research 

Mercury Project funding has enabled me to expand and accelerate my own network of social science collaborators who are interested in translational research that impacts lives around the world. Doing excellent translational health equity work requires being interdisciplinary and, often, inter-institutional. In turn, this requires strong networks and skills, such as joint appointments across institutions, the ability to collaborate across disciplines, and frameworks to structure effective cross-disciplinary working groups. I have refined each of these through connections made via the Mercury Project, with benefits for myself and the field.

Everyone wants to build bridges—but you really need a dedicated person to do it. Through my new networks, I connected with the University of Johannesburg Department of Psychology. South Africa is an important setting for research into race and health inequities and I am excited about the opportunity. To ensure that new insights and applied results emerge from our engagement, the University of Johannesburg offered me a research associate role, which my institution, Rutgers, approved. 

Bridges that span disciplines and methods are a critical piece of the infrastructure necessary for research to achieve maximum impact. In Bellagio I met a Mercury Project colleague, Lisa Fazio of Vanderbilt University. Since meeting, we have launched pilot studies on how group resiliency—and despair—influence susceptibility to misinformation. Rather than focus on the producers and spreaders of misinformation, we share an interest in those who are vulnerable to it, including racial minority groups who have been deliberately targeted with misinformation . Through her connections, I recently presented our work at a conference of social psychologists, who are outside the networks I’d usually interact with, and who helped to cross-pollinate my emerging research with insights from outside my fields. Building bridges is hard; maintaining them is harder. Interdisciplinary working groups are, in theory, a promising way to sustain bridges. But many more are formed than are effective. I have gained key tips from yet another Mercury Project colleague I wouldn’t have otherwise met, Neil Lewis Jr. of Cornell University. Like me, Neil is a social scientist who convenes interdisciplinary teams. Based on insights he provided in building his Action Research Collaborative , I led the creation of the Health, Humanities, Communication, Informatics (HHCI) working group , which spans Rutgers’ Library and Information Science, Communication, Journalism, and Applied and Clinical Psychology Departments.

Investing in Infrastructure: Funding Research Consortia Amplifies Impact

Funders should understand the amplifying effect their funds can have on researchers, and consequently, our teams, as we push the limits of what research can elucidate and achieve. These types of multidisciplinary cross-cultural research collaborations require strong personal connections to sustain them. The Mercury Project convenings—both virtual (monthly) and in-person (annual)—have enabled these relationships. In this moment in which trust in institutions globally is diminishing, the need for personal connections between the individuals who represent these institutions has never been more vital.

The Mercury Project grant award is the largest I have had as a PI or Co-PI. But the value goes far beyond direct research funding. The grant has further expanded my research questions and networks outside my home disciplines, and even outside my continent and cultural context. The projects I’m now pursuing won’t be funded by the Mercury Project—but would never have materialized without it. The kinds of questions I’ll be exploring for the foreseeable future look vastly different from what I would have been doing had I never been part of this network.

The Mercury Project showcases the value of convening teams of cross-disciplinary researchers working collaboratively to produce and disseminate new knowledge that can affect social change. Well-selected teams of talented individuals and thoughtfully designed convenings enable new collaborations that would not emerge from isolated individual grants. The Mercury Project facilitates the new network connections that are vital to designing compelling multidisciplinary studies that are well-positioned for funding and impact, and to providing the social support essential to persist in designing, executing, and disseminating this important work. 

Charles Senteio is an associate professor in the Department of Library and Information Science at Rutgers University, who studies how to improve health of vulnerable populations, particularly by improving access to information. He holds a PhD in health informatics, an MBA, a Master’s degree in social work and is a practicing therapist.

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13 Jul 2024  ·  Oscar Pastor , Mmatshuene Anna Segooa , Jose Ignacio Panach · Edit social preview

Applying Design Science Research (DSR) methodology is becoming a popular working resource for most Information Systems (IS) and Software engineering studies. The research and/or practical design problems that must be faced aim to answer the question of how to create or investigate an artifact in a given context. Precisely characterizing both artifact and context is essential for effective research development. While various design science guidelines and frameworks have been created by experts in IS engineering, emerging researchers and postgraduate students still find it challenging to apply this research methodology correctly. There is limited literature and materials that guide and support teaching novice researchers about the types of artifacts that can be developed to address a particular problem and decision-making in DSR. To address this gap in DSR, in this chapter, we explore DSR from an educational perspective, explaining both the concept of DSR and an effective method for teaching it. This chapter includes examples of DSR, a teaching methodology, learning objectives, and recommendations. Moreover, we have created a survey artifact intended to gather data on the experiences of design science users. The goal is to discover insights into contemporary issues and needs for DSR best practices (and, in consequence, evaluate the methodology we aim to teach). Our survey results offer a comprehensive overview of participants' experiences with DSR in the SE and IS Engineering domain, highlighting broad engagement primarily initiated during PhD studies and driven by supervisory guidance and research problems. We finally disclose the artifact to the community so that it can be used by other educators as a preparation when planning to teach DSR in tune with the experiences of their target audience.

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Key facts about Americans and guns

Guns are deeply ingrained in American society and the nation’s political debates.

The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the right to bear arms, and about a third of U.S. adults say they personally own a gun. At the same time, in response to concerns such as  rising gun death rates  and  mass shootings , the U.S. surgeon general has taken the unprecedented step of declaring gun violence a public health crisis .

Here are some key findings about Americans’ views of gun ownership, gun policy and other subjects, drawn from Pew Research Center surveys. 

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to summarize key facts about Americans’ relationships with guns. We used data from recent Center surveys to provide insights into Americans’ views on gun policy and how those views have changed over time, as well as to examine the proportion of adults who own guns and their reasons for doing so.

The Center survey questions used in this analysis, and more information about the surveys’ methodologies, and can be found at the links in the text.

Measuring gun ownership in the United States comes with unique challenges. Unlike many demographic measures, there is not a definitive data source from the government or elsewhere on how many American adults own guns.

The Pew Research Center survey conducted June 5-11, 2023, on the Center’s American Trends Panel, used two separate questions to measure personal and household ownership. About a third of adults (32%) say they own a gun, while another 10% say they do not personally own a gun but someone else in their household does. These shares have changed little from surveys conducted in  2021  and  2017 . In each of those surveys, 30% reported they owned a gun.

These numbers are largely consistent with  rates of gun ownership reported by Gallup and those reported by  NORC’s General Social Survey .  

The FBI maintains data on background checks on individuals attempting to purchase firearms in the United States. The FBI reported  a surge in background checks  in 2020 and 2021, during the coronavirus pandemic, but FBI statistics show that the number of federal background checks declined in 2022 and 2023. This pattern seems to be continuing so far in 2024. As of June, fewer background checks have been conducted than at the same point in 2023, according to FBI statistics.

About   four-in-ten U.S. adults say they live in a household with a gun, including 32% who say they personally own one,  according to  a Center survey conducted in June 2023 . These numbers are virtually unchanged since the last time we asked this question in 2021.

There are differences in gun ownership rates by political affiliation, gender, community type and other factors.

• Party: 45% of Republicans and GOP-leaning independents say they personally own a gun, compared with 20% of Democrats and Democratic leaners.
• Gender: 40% of men say they own a gun, versus 25% of women.
• Community type: 47% of adults living in rural areas report owning a firearm, as do smaller shares of those who live in suburbs (30%) or urban areas (20%).
• Race and ethnicity: 38% of White Americans own a gun, compared with smaller shares of Black (24%), Hispanic (20%) and Asian (10%) Americans.

Personal protection tops the list of reasons gun owners give for having a firearm.  About seven-in-ten gun owners (72%) say protection is a major reason they own a gun. Considerably smaller shares say that a major reason they own a gun is for hunting (32%), for sport shooting (30%), as part of a gun collection (15%) or for their job (7%). 

Americans’ reasons behind gun ownership have changed only modestly since we fielded a separate survey  about these topics in spring 2017. At that time, 67% of gun owners cited protection as a major reason they had a firearm.

Gun owners tend to have much more positive feelings about having a gun in the house than nonowners who live with them do.  For instance, 71% of gun owners say they enjoy owning a gun – but just 31% of nonowners living in a household with a gun say they enjoy having one in the home. And while 81% of gun owners say owning a gun makes them feel safer, a narrower majority of nonowners in gun households (57%) say the same. Nonowners are also more likely than owners to worry about having a gun at home (27% vs. 12%).

Feelings about gun ownership also differ by political affiliation, even among those who personally own a firearm. Republican gun owners are more likely than Democratic owners to say owning one gives them feelings of safety and enjoyment, while Democratic owners are more likely to say they worry about having a gun in the home.

Non-gun owners are split on whether they see themselves owning a firearm in the future.  About half of Americans who don’t own a gun (52%) say they could never see themselves owning one, while nearly as many (47%) could imagine themselves as gun owners in the future.

Among those who currently do not own a gun, attitudes about owning one in the future differ by party and other factors.

• Party: 61% of Republicans who don’t own a gun say they could see themselves owning one in the future, compared with 40% of Democrats.
• Gender: 56% of men who don’t own a gun say they could see themselves owning one someday; 40% of women nonowners say the same.
• Race and ethnicity: 56% of Black nonowners say they could see themselves owning a gun one day, compared with smaller shares of White (48%), Hispanic (40%) and Asian (38%) nonowners.

A majority of Americans (61%) say it is too easy to legally obtain a gun in this country, according to the June 2023 survey. Far fewer (9%) say it is too hard, while another 30% say it’s about right.

Non-gun owners are nearly twice as likely as gun owners to say it is too easy to legally obtain a gun (73% vs. 38%). Gun owners, in turn, are more than twice as likely as nonowners to say the ease of obtaining a gun is about right (48% vs. 20%).

There are differences by party and community type on this question, too. While 86% of Democrats say it is too easy to obtain a gun legally, far fewer Republicans (34%) say the same. Most urban (72%) and suburban (63%) residents say it’s too easy to legally obtain a gun, but rural residents are more divided: 47% say it is too easy, 41% say it is about right and 11% say it is too hard.

About six-in-ten U.S. adults (58%) favor stricter gun laws. Another 26% say that U.S. gun laws are about right, while 15% favor less strict gun laws.

There   is broad partisan agreement on some gun policy proposals, but most are politically divisive. Majorities of U.S. adults in both partisan coalitions somewhat or strongly favor two policies that would restrict gun access: preventing those with mental illnesses from purchasing guns (88% of Republicans and 89% of Democrats support this) and increasing the minimum age for buying guns to 21 years old (69% of Republicans, 90% of Democrats). Majorities in both parties also  oppose  allowing people to carry concealed firearms without a permit (60% of Republicans and 91% of Democrats oppose this).

Republicans and Democrats differ on several other proposals. While 85% of Democrats favor banning both assault-style weapons and high-capacity ammunition magazines that hold more than 10 rounds, majorities of Republicans oppose  these proposals (57% and 54%, respectively).

Most Republicans, on the other hand, support allowing teachers and school officials to carry guns in K-12 schools (74%) and allowing people to carry concealed guns in more places (71%). These proposals are supported by just 27% and 19% of Democrats, respectively.

The public remains closely divided over whether it’s more important to protect gun rights or control gun ownership, according to an April 2024 survey . Overall, 51% of U.S. adults say it’s more important to protect the right of Americans to own guns, while a similar share (48%) say controlling gun ownership is more important.

Views have shifted slightly since 2022, when we last asked this question. That year, 47% of adults prioritized protecting Americans’ rights to own guns, while 52% said controlling gun ownership was more important.

Views on this topic differ sharply by party. In the most recent survey, 83% of Republicans say protecting gun rights is more important, while 79% of Democrats prioritize controlling gun ownership.

Americans are slightly more likely to say gun ownership does more to increase safety than to decrease it.  Around half of Americans (52%) say gun ownership does more to increase safety by allowing law-abiding citizens to protect themselves, while a slightly smaller share (47%) say gun ownership does more to reduce safety by giving too many people access to firearms and increasing misuse. Views were evenly divided (49% vs. 49%) when we last asked in 2023.

Republicans and Democrats differ widely on this question: 81% of Republicans say gun ownership does more to increase safety, while 74% of Democrats say it does more to reduce safety.

Rural and urban Americans also have starkly different views. Among adults who live in rural areas, 64% say gun ownership increases safety, while among those in urban areas, 57% say it  reduces  safety. Those living in the suburbs are about evenly split in their views.

More than half of U.S. adults say an increase in the number of guns in the country is bad for society, according to the April 2024 survey. Some 54% say, generally, this is very or somewhat bad for society. Another 21% say it is very or somewhat good for society, and a quarter say it is neither good nor bad for society.

About half of Americans (49%) see gun violence as a major problem,  according to a May 2024 survey. This is down from 60% in June 2023, but roughly on par with views in previous years. In the more recent survey, 27% say gun violence is a moderately big problem, and about a quarter say it is either a small problem (19%) or not a problem at all (4%).

A majority of public K-12 teachers (59%) say they are at least somewhat worried about the possibility of a shooting ever happening at their school, including 18% who are very or extremely worried, according to a fall 2023 Center survey of teachers . A smaller share of teachers (39%) say they are not too or not at all worried about a shooting occurring at their school.

School shootings are a concern for K-12 parents as well: 32% say they are very or extremely worried about a shooting ever happening at their children’s school, while 37% are somewhat worried, according to  a fall 2022 Center survey of parents with at least one child younger than 18 who is not homeschooled. Another 31% of K-12 parents say they are not too or not at all worried about this.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on Jan. 5, 2016 .

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Katherine Schaeffer is a research analyst at Pew Research Center .

Americans’ Extreme Weather Policy Views and Personal Experiences

U.s. adults under 30 have different foreign policy priorities than older adults, many adults in east and southeast asia support free speech, are open to societal change, nato seen favorably in member states; confidence in zelenskyy down in europe, u.s., same-sex marriage around the world, most popular.

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Research Highlights

Increasing the reproducibility and replicability of supervised ai/ml in the earth systems science by leveraging social science methods.

Supervised machine learning requires labeled data to train. While this labeled data can be defined mathematically (e.g., indices or anomalies), other times, these labels are created by manually categorizing samples (e.g., labeling samples by hand). However, when a supervised machine learning approach requires hand labeling, there is often no thorough documentation behind the process used to assign these labels nor measure of how consistent the labelers are across samples. Not documenting this process can cause difficulty when research teams attempt to add more labeled samples or attempt to reproduce results. To address these issues, this work introduces and demonstrates a method called Quantitative Content Analysis (QCA). QCA is a method from the social sciences that aims to objectively categorize data through documentation (a codebook) of the decision-making process used to classify samples along with a reliability assessment to evaluate the consistency among labelers who use the codebook. Until the reliability tests are successful, the codebook is iteratively updated to address inconsistencies. This thorough and documented process provides an opportunity for more methodologically transparent supervised machine learning applications.

This work demonstrates how supervised machine learning applications in the Earth System Sciences can leverage social science methods, such as QCA, to improve the reproducibility and replicability of hand labeling tasks (e.g. labeling atmospheric rivers or fronts). As machine learning continues to grow in popularity and is applied to a variety of different data sets (e.g. observations, CESM, and E3SM), it is important to use these tools to ensure results can be reproduced and replicated.

We introduce a social science method known as Quantitative Content Analysis (QCA) to the Earth System Sciences to help improve the reproducibility and replicability of hand labeling data for supervised machine learning tasks. We further provide a case study as an example of its successful application for labeling meteorological-related road conditions.

Increasing the Reproducibility and Replicability of Supervised AI/ML in the Earth Systems Science by Leveraging Social Science Methods Wirz, Christopher D., Carly Sutter, Julie L. Demuth, Kirsten J. Mayer, William E. Chapman, Mariana Goodall Cains, Jacob Radford, et al . 2024 . “Increasing The Reproducibility And Replicability Of Supervised Ai/Ml In The Earth Systems Science By Leveraging Social Science Methods” . Earth And Space Science 11 (7). American Geophysical Union (AGU) . doi:10.1029/2023ea003364.