research topic about child labor

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Introduction, methodology.

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Child labor and health: a systematic literature review of the impacts of child labor on child’s health in low- and middle-income countries

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Abdalla Ibrahim, Salma M Abdalla, Mohammed Jafer, Jihad Abdelgadir, Nanne de Vries, Child labor and health: a systematic literature review of the impacts of child labor on child’s health in low- and middle-income countries, Journal of Public Health , Volume 41, Issue 1, March 2019, Pages 18–26, https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy018

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To summarize current evidence on the impacts of child labor on physical and mental health.

We searched PubMed and ScienceDirect for studies that included participants aged 18 years or less, conducted in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and reported quantitative data. Two independent reviewers conducted data extraction and assessment of study quality.

A total of 25 studies were identified, the majority of which were cross-sectional. Child labor was found to be associated with a number of adverse health outcomes, including but not limited to poor growth, malnutrition, higher incidence of infectious and system-specific diseases, behavioral and emotional disorders, and decreased coping efficacy. Quality of included studies was rated as fair to good.

Child labor remains a major public health concern in LMICs, being associated with adverse physical and mental health outcomes. Current efforts against child labor need to be revisited, at least in LMICs. Further studies following a longitudinal design, and using common methods to assess the health impact of child labor in different country contexts would inform policy making.

For decades, child labor has been an important global issue associated with inadequate educational opportunities, poverty and gender inequality. 1 Not all types of work carried out by children are considered child labor. Engagement of children or adolescents in work with no influence on their health and schooling is usually regarded positive. The International Labor Organization (ILO) describes child labor as ‘work that deprives children of their childhood, potential and dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development’. 2 This definition includes types of work that are mentally, physically, socially or morally harmful to children; or disrupts schooling.

The topic gained scientific attention with the industrial revolution. Research conducted in the UK, because of adverse outcomes in children, resulted in acts for child labor in 18 02. 3 Many countries followed the UK, in recognition of the associated health risks. The ILO took its first stance in 1973 by setting the minimum age for work. 4 Nevertheless, the ILO and other international organizations that target the issue failed to achieve goals. Child labor was part of the Millennium Development Goals, adopted by 191 nations in 20 00 5 to be achieved by 2015. Subsequently, child labor was included in the Sustainable Development Goals, 6 which explicitly calls for eradication of child labor by 2030.

Despite the reported decline in child labor from 1995 to 2000, it remains a major concern. In 2016, it was estimated that ~150 million children under the age of 14 are engaged in labor worldwide, with most of them working under circumstances that denies them a playful childhood and jeopardize their health. 7 Most working children are 11–14 years, but around 60 million are 5–11 years old. 7 There are no exact numbers of the distribution of child labor globally; however, available statistics show that 96% of child workers are in Africa, Asia and Latin America. 1

Research into the impacts of child labor suggests several associations between child labor and adverse health outcomes. Parker 1 reported that child labor is associated with certain exposures like silica in industries, and HIV infection in prostitution. Additionally, as child labor is associated with maternal illiteracy and poverty, children who work are more susceptible to malnutrition, 1 which predisposes them to various diseases.

A meta-analysis on the topic was published in 20 07. 8 However, authors reported only an association of child labor with higher mortality and morbidity than in the general population, without reporting individual outcome specific effects. 8 Another meta-analysis investigated the effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), including child labor, on health. They reported that ACEs are risk factors for many adverse health outcomes. 9

To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review that attempts to summarize current evidence on the impacts of child labor on both physical and mental health, based on specific outcomes. We review the most recent evidence on the health impacts of child labor in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) according to the World Bank classification. We provide an informative summary of current studies of the impacts of child labor, and reflect upon the progress of anti-child labor policies and laws.

Search strategy

We searched PubMed and ScienceDirect databases. Search was restricted to publications from year 1997 onwards. Only studies written in English were considered. Our search algorithm was [(‘child labor’ OR ‘child labor’ OR ‘working children’ OR ‘occupational health’ OR ‘Adolescent work’ OR ‘working adolescents’) AND (Health OR medical)]. The first third of the algorithm was assigned to titles/abstracts to ensure relevance of the studies retrieved, while the rest of the terms were not. On PubMed, we added […AND (poverty OR ‘low income’ OR ‘developing countries’)] to increase the specificity of results; otherwise, the search results were ~60 times more, with the majority of studies being irrelevant.

Study selection

Studies that met the following criteria were considered eligible: sample age 18 years or less; study was conducted in LMICs; and quantitative data was reported.

Two authors reviewed the titles obtained, a.o. to exclude studies related to ‘medical child labor’ as in childbirth. Abstracts of papers retained were reviewed, and subsequently full studies were assessed for inclusion criteria. Two authors assessed the quality of studies using Downs and Black tool for quality assessment. 10 The tool includes 27 items, yet not all items fit every study. In such cases, we used only relevant items. Total score was the number of items positively evaluated. Studies were ranked accordingly (poor, fair, good) (Table 1 ).

Characteristics of studies included

* The quality is based on the percentage of Downs and Black 10 tool, < 50% = poor, 50–75% = fair, > 75% = good.

** BMI, body mass index.

*** HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus.

Data extraction and management

Two authors extracted the data using a standardized data extraction form. It included focus of study (i.e. physical and/or mental health), exposure (type of child labor), country of study, age group, gender, study design, reported measures (independent variables) and outcome measures (Table 1 ). The extraction form was piloted to ensure standardization of data collection. A third author then reviewed extracted data. Disagreements were solved by discussion.

Search results

A flow diagram (Fig. 1 ) shows the studies selection process. We retrieved 1050 studies on PubMed and 833 studies on Science Direct, with no duplicates in the search results. We also retrieved 23 studies through screening of the references, following the screening by title of retrieved studies. By reviewing title and abstract, 1879 studies were excluded. After full assessment of the remaining studies, 25 were included.

Study selection process.

Characteristics of included studies

Among the included studies ten documented only prevalence estimates of physical diseases, six documented mental and psychosocial health including abuse, and nine reported the prevalence of both mental and physical health impacts (Table 1 ). In total, 24 studies were conducted in one country; one study included data from the Living Standard Measurement Study of 83 LMIC. 8

In total, 12 studies compared outcomes between working children and a control group (Table 1 ). Concerning physical health, many studies reported the prevalence of general symptoms (fever, cough and stunting) or diseases (malnutrition, anemia and infectious diseases). Alternatively, some studies documented prevalence of illnesses or symptoms hypothesized to be associated with child labor (Table 1 ). The majority of studies focusing on physical health conducted clinical examination or collected blood samples.

Concerning mental and psychosocial health, the outcomes documented included abuse with its different forms, coping efficacy, emotional disturbances, mood and anxiety disorders. The outcomes were measured based on self-reporting and using validated measures, for example, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), in local languages.

The majority of studies were ranked as of ‘good quality’, with seven ranked ‘fair’ and one ranked ‘poor’ (Table 1 ). The majority of them also had mixed-gender samples, with only one study restricted to females. 24 In addition, valid measures were used in most studies (Table 1 ). Most studies did not examine the differences between genders.

Child labor and physical health

Fifteen studies examined physical health effects of child labor, including nutritional status, physical growth, work-related illnesses/symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, HIV infection, systematic symptoms, infectious diseases, tuberculosis and eyestrain. Eight studies measured physical health effects through clinical examination or blood samples, in addition to self-reported questionnaires. All studies in which a comparison group was used reported higher prevalence of physical diseases in the working children group.

Two studies were concerned with physical growth and development. A study conducted in Pakistan, 11 reported that child labor is associated with wasting, stunting and chronic malnutrition. A similar study conducted in India compared physical growth and genital development between working and non-working children and reported that child labor is associated with lower BMI, shorter stature and delayed genital development in working boys, while no significant differences were found among females. 12

Concerning work-related illnesses and injuries, a study conducted in Bangladesh reported that there is a statistically significant positive association between child labor and the probability to report any injury or illness, tiredness/exhaustion, body injury and other health problems. Number of hours worked and the probability of reporting injury and illness were positively correlated. Younger children were more likely to suffer from backaches and other health problems (infection, burns and lung diseases), while probability of reporting tiredness/exhaustion was greater in the oldest age group. Furthermore, the frequency of reporting any injury or illness increases with the number of hours worked, with significant variation across employment sectors. 13 A study in Iran reported that industrial workrooms were the most common place for injury (58.2%). Falling from heights or in horizontal surface was the most common mechanism of injury (44%). None of the patients was using a preventive device at the time of injury. Cuts (49.6%) were the most commonly reported injuries. 14

Other studies that investigated the prevalence of general symptoms in working children in Pakistan, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan and Indonesia reported that child labor is negatively associated with health. 15 – 19 Watery eyes, chronic cough and diarrhea were common findings, in addition to history of a major injury (permanent loss of an organ, hearing loss, bone fractures, permanent disability). 20 One study, conducted in India reported that working children suffered from anemia, gastrointestinal tract infections, vitamin deficiencies, respiratory tract infections, skin diseases and high prevalence of malnutrition. 21 Another study—of poor quality—in India reported that child labor was associated with higher incidence of infectious diseases compared to non-working children. 22

Only a few studies focused on specific diseases. A study in Brazil compared the prevalence of musculoskeletal pain between working and non-working children. Authors reported that the prevalence of pain in the neck, knee, wrist or hands, and upper back exceeded 15%. Workers in manufacturing had a significantly increased risk for musculoskeletal pain and back pain, while child workers in domestic services had 17% more musculoskeletal pain and 23% more back pain than non-workers. Awkward posture and heavy physical work were associated with musculoskeletal pain, while monotonous work, awkward posture and noise were associated with back pain. 23 A study in Nicaragua, which focused on children working in agriculture, reported that child labor in agriculture poses a serious threat to children’s health; specifically, acute pesticides poisoning. 24

A study conducted in India reported that the prevalence of eyestrain in child laborers was 25.9%, which was significantly more than the 12.4% prevalence in a comparison group. Prevalence was higher in boys and those who work more than 4 h daily. 25 Another study conducted in India documented that the difference between working and non-working children in the same area in respiratory morbidities (TB, hilar gland enlargement/calcification) was statistically significant. 26

A study in Iran explored the prevalence of viral infections (HIV, HCV and HBV) in working children. 27 The study reported that the prevalence among working street children was much higher than in general population. The 4.5% of children were HIV positive, 1.7% were hepatitis B positive and 2.6% hepatitis C positive. The likelihood of being HIV positive among working children of Tehran was increased by factors like having experience in trading sex, having parents who used drugs or parents infected with HCV.

Lastly, one study was a meta-analysis conducted on data of working children in 83 LMIC documented that child labor is significantly and positively related to adolescent mortality, to a population’s nutrition level, and to the presence of infectious diseases. 8

Child labor and mental health

Overall, all studies included, except one, 28 reported that child labor is associated with higher prevalence of mental and/or behavioral disorders. In addition, all studies concluded that child labor is associated with one or more forms of abuse.

A study conducted in Jordan reported a significant difference in the level of coping efficacy and psychosocial health between working non-schooled children, working school children and non-working school children. Non-working school children had a better performance on the SDQ scale. Coping efficacy of working non-schooled children was lower than that of the other groups. 29

A study conducted in Pakistan reported that the prevalence of behavioral problems among working children was 9.8%. Peer problems were most prevalent, followed by problems of conduct. 30 A study from Ethiopia 31 reported that emotional and behavioral disorders are more common among working children. However, another study in Ethiopia 28 reported a lower prevalence of mental/behavioral disorders in child laborers compared to non-working children. The stark difference between these two studies could be due to the explanation provided by Alem et al. , i.e. that their findings could have been tampered by selection bias or healthy worker effect.

A study concerned with child abuse in Bangladesh reported that the prevalence of abuse and child exploitation was widespread. Boys were more exposed. Physical assault was higher towards younger children while other types were higher towards older ones. 32 A similar study conducted in Turkey documented that 62.5% of the child laborers were subjected to abuse at their workplaces; 21.8% physical, 53.6% emotional and 25.2% sexual, 100% were subjected to physical neglect and 28.7% were subjected to emotional neglect. 33

One study focused on sexual assault among working females in Nigeria. They reported that the sexual assault rate was 77.7%. In 38.6% of assault cases, the assailant was a customer. Girls who were younger than 12 years, had no formal education, worked for more than 8 h/day, or had two or more jobs were more likely to experience sexual assault. 34

Main findings of this study

Through a comprehensive systematic review, we conclude that child labor continues to be a major public health challenge. Child labor continues to be negatively associated with the physical and psychological health of children involved. Although no cause–effect relation can be established, as all studies included are cross-sectional, studies documented higher prevalence of different health issues in working children compared to control groups or general population.

This reflects a failure of policies not only to eliminate child labor, but also to make it safer. Although there is a decline in the number of working children, the quality of life of those still engaged in child labor seems to remain low.

Children engaged in labor have poor health status, which could be precipitated or aggravated by labor. Malnutrition and poor growth were reported to be highly prevalent among working children. On top of malnutrition, the nature of labor has its effects on child’s health. Most of the studies adjusted for the daily working hours. Long working hours have been associated with poorer physical outcomes. 18 , 19 , 25 , 26 , 35 It was also reported that the likelihood of being sexually abused increased with increasing working hours. 34 The different types and sectors of labor were found to be associated with different health outcomes as well. 13 , 18 , 24 However, comparing between the different types of labor was not possible due to lack of data.

The majority of studies concluded that child labor is associated with higher prevalence of mental and behavioral disorders, as shown in the results. School attendance, family income and status, daily working hours and likelihood of abuse, in its different forms, were found to be associated with the mental health outcomes in working children. These findings are consistent with previous studies and research frameworks. 36

Child labor subjects children to abuse, whether verbally, physically or sexually which ultimately results in psychological disturbances and behavioral disorders. Moreover, peers and colleagues at work can affect the behavior of children, for example, smoking or drugs. The effects of child labor on psychological health can be long lasting and devastating to the future of children involved.

What is already known on this topic

Previous reviews have described different adverse health impacts of child labor. However, there were no previous attempts to review the collective health impacts of child labor. Working children are subjected to different risk factors, and the impacts of child labor are usually not limited to one illness. Initial evidence of these impacts was published in the 1920s. Since then, an increasing number of studies have used similar methods to assess the health impacts of child labor. Additionally, most of the studies are confined to a single country.

What this study adds

To our knowledge, this is the first review that provides a comprehensive summary of both the physical and mental health impacts of child labor. Working children are subjected to higher levels of physical and mental stress compared to non-working children and adults performing the same type of work. Unfortunately, the results show that these children are at risk of developing short and long-term health complications, physically or mentally.

Though previous systematic reviews conducted on the topic in 19 97 1 and 20 07 8 reported outcomes in different measures, our findings reflect similar severity of the health impacts of child labor. This should be alarming to organizations that set child labor as a target. We have not reviewed the policies targeting child labor here, yet our findings show that regardless of policies in place, further action is needed.

Most of the current literature about child labor follow a cross-sectional design, which although can reflect the health status of working children, it cannot establish cause–effect associations. This in turn affects strategies and policies that target child labor.

In addition, comparing the impacts of different labor types in different countries will provide useful information on how to proceed. Further research following a common approach in assessing child labor impacts in different countries is needed.

Limitations of this study

First, we acknowledge that all systematic reviews are subject to publication bias. Moreover, the databases used might introduce bias as most of the studies indexed by them are from industrialized countries. However, these databases were used for their known quality and to allow reproduction of the data. Finally, despite our recognition of the added value of meta-analytic methods, it was not possible to conduct one due to lack of a common definition for child labor, differences in inclusion and exclusion criteria, different measurements and different outcome measures. Nevertheless, to minimize bias, we employed rigorous search methods including an extensive and comprehensive search, and data extraction by two independent reviewers.

Compliance with ethical standards

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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• mental health
• child labor

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Child Labor

The Economic Policy Institute’s child labor research examines the role of strong labor standards in ensuring equal economic and educational opportunity for all children. Our work, including ground-breaking research, thought leadership, and advocacy, is focused on assessing the strengths or weaknesses of existing state and federal child labor policies, documenting ongoing coordinated attacks on protections for young workers, and proposing reforms to advance children’s rights to safe, age-appropriate work and fair compensation. As part of this agenda, EPI works in close coordination with partners in the Economic Analysis and Research Network (EARN) and in national child labor coalitions, provides expert analysis to the media and other stakeholders, and seeks to raise awareness through public events.

Child labor remains a key state legislative issue in 2024

State lawmakers must seize opportunities to strengthen standards, resist ongoing attacks on child labor laws |  read the blog, thirty states have introduced bills to weaken child labor protections since 2021 : map of state legislation rolling back child labor protections, 2021–2024.

Note : "Enacted*" indicates that a state has enacted a bill, but other bills in that state have failed or are pending legislative action. "Mixed" indicates that a state has multiple bills at different stages of the legislative process, but none have been enacted. Map last updated March 25, 2024.

Source: EPI analysis of state legislative activity and news related to child labor legislation.

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Sixteen states have proposed measures to address weak and outdated child labor laws in 2024 alone : Map of state legislation strengthening child labor protections, 2021–2024

Notes : "Enacted*" indicates that a state has enacted a bill, but other bills in that state have failed or are pending legislative action. "Mixed" indicates that a state has multiple bills at different stages of the legislative process, but none have been enacted. Map last updated March 12, 2024.

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New Research by Shefali Milczarek-Desai is the First to Analyze the Current Migrant Child Labor Crisis in the United States

Desai's new research explores the interplay between employment and labor laws, immigration law and policy, and the vulnerability of migrant children

While the topic of child labor in the United States has been discussed in legal literature, Associate Professor of Law and Co-Chair of the Bacon Immigration Law and Policy Program Shefali Milczarek-Desai's new paper is the first to analyze the current migrant child labor crisis.  

“ (Hidden) in Plain Sight: Migrant Child Labor and the New Economy of Exploitation ,” set to be published in the June issue of the Arkansas Law Review , sheds light on the challenges faced by migrant children at the intersection of employment and labor law, and immigration law and policy.  

“Like many Americans, I started reading about the current migrant child labor crisis in which kids, some as young as thirteen, work in extremely dangerous and exploitative jobs, when Hannah Dreier, a New York Times investigative journalist, began writing stories about these children a little over a year ago,” said Desai.” These stories were really hard to read – they detailed the tragic and sometimes horrific conditions that hundreds of migrant children, most of whom are unaccompanied minors, work in throughout the United States so that the rest of us can enjoy beloved products like Lucky Charms, Cheerios, Fritos, Tyson Chicken, Ben & Jerry's ice-cream . . . the list goes on and on.”  

Dreier’s exposés reveal that approximately 200,000 migrant children currently work in extremely harmful and hazardous workplaces across the United States – in clear violation of federal and state laws. Dreier’s reporting also demonstrates how although some of America’s most popular brands do not directly hire children, they often benefit from cheap migrant child labor practices engaged in by contractors and subcontractors.  

“When I looked at these kids, I couldn't help but think of my own two teenaged sons. If not for an accident of birth, they could be in the same awful and precarious predicament as these migrant child workers. I felt like I couldn't just sit there and do nothing, so I did what I know how to do: I thoroughly researched the issue, including delving into the history of our child labor laws, to try and figure out why these laws weren't helping these kids and what might be done about this colossal legal failure,” said Desai, whose current  scholarship topics employ critical legal frameworks to analyze im/migrant workers’ access to paid sick leave and other employment protections.   

Her research lays out the tumultuous history of child labor regulation in the U.S. and transitions to the current legal landscape surrounding child labor laws, including these laws’ failure to protect migrant children.   

Currently, child labor laws at both the federal and state level restrict children from working in hazardous jobs. But an increase in the number of unaccompanied minors entering the country, mostly from Central American, has led to a rise in unlawful child labor practices.   

“These kids come here with the express purpose of working so they can send money back to desperate families back home who cannot survive without their support. What these kids don't realize, however, is how expensive it is just to pay for rent and food in the United States – and from what we know, many of these kids have to support themselves once they get here,” said Desai.   

When current child labor laws are enforced, employers terminate all minors working in violation of the law, either to later re-hire them once the enforcement storm has passed, or leading them to find equally, if not more dangerous work less likely to be regulated by child labor laws.   

“This is because even when child labor laws are enforced – and that only occurs a very tiny percentage of the time due to grossly under-resourced employment and labor agencies – the result is that these children lose their sole means of survival. Because they and their families back home are desperate, migrant child workers eventually go back to the same or similar dangerous jobs once agency action is over or worse, some go into even more dangerous work deeper in the underground, shadow economy where legal regulation is even less likely. In the end, enforcing the child labor laws we have on the books today does not help these kids,” says Desai.   

“ (Hidden) in Plain Sight: Migrant Child Labor and the New Economy of Exploitation ” offers a different legal framework—one that centers migrant children’s experiences as children, migrants and workers—to chart a multi-faceted course that might realistically address the challenges faced by migrant child workers who are precariously perched at the intersection of migration and labor.  

One solution offered is to require mandatory workers’ rights education for all high school students so that kids who are working in hazardous jobs receive basic occupational safety and health information. Another is to create jobs programs for this population to help them obtain less dangerous work while simultaneously filling the gaps brought on by labor shortages throughout the country.   

 “The best idea, of course, is to increase legal pathways for their parents to come here to work so that the kids don't have to work in these types of jobs at all,” said Desai “This is a win-win for everyone because the U.S. is in dire need of workers, especially in industries like long-term care where there is already a shortage of nearly half a million workers. If we allowed migrant children's parents to legally work in the United States, these children would not be subjected to the horrors detailed in Dreier's reporting and might actually have a shot at the kind of childhood my teenagers have.”  

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Good Child Labour Project Topics

• Intermittent Child Labor and Its Implications for Child Labor Estimates
• Beyond the Standard Economic Assumption of Monetary Poverty, Understanding Child Labor
• Vulnerability to Climate Change, Community Resilience, and Child Labor
• The Industrial Revolution and Child Labor
• Child Labor Is Not Always Harmful to Society
• An Examination of Child Labor in Nineteenth-Century England
• Child Labor and Its Impact on Children and Families
• An Overview of Child Labor in Third-World Countries
• Child Labor Ban in Developing Countries
• Child Labor and International Migration in Developing Countries
• Child Labor: A Historical Role with Implications for the Future

Interesting Child Labour Essay Topics

• The Trade-Off Between Child Labor and Schooling in India
• The Role of Trade and Offshoring in Child Labor Determination
• Human Rights Concerning Child Labor
• Mortality, Education, and Child Labor
• The Role of Education, Poverty, and Birth Order in Child Labor in Developing Countries
• Child Labor Education Programme
• Breaking Conventional Wisdom: Legalizing Child Labor
• The Intriguing Relationship Between Adult Minimum Wage and Child Labor
• Microfinance’s Unintended Consequences: An Increase in Child Labor in Some Contexts
• Child Labor, School Attendance, and Academic Achievement
• Child Labor in Victorian England
• Child Labor is a Violation of Human Rights
• Essay on Child Labor and Its Impact on Children
• Agricultural Dualism, Child Labor, and Subsidy Policies
• Voting with Your Children: A Pro-Child Labor Law Analysis
• Taking Children Out of the Hands of Child Labor
• Child Labor in the Nineteenth Century
• Child Labor and Trade Liberalization in a Developing Economy
• Impact of Trade vs Non-Trade Policies on Child Labor Incidence
• Child Labor and Social Responsibility

Research Questions on Child Labour

• What Is Child Labor and How Can It Be Prevented?
• Does Globalization Boost Child Labor?
• Why Would Prohibiting the Worst Forms of Child Labor Harm Poor Countries?
• Was There Child Labor in Victorian England?
• Child Labor’s Income Elasticity: Do Cash Transfers Help the Poorest Children?
• Is Fair Trade Labeling Effective in Combating Child Labor?
• How Can We Find a Balance Between Child Labor and Human Capital Formation?
• Is There Still Child Labor Today?
• Is Child Labor Required During the Industrial Revolution?
• What Is Child Labor and How Does It Occur?
• What Is the Relationship Between Child Labor and Mother’s Work?
• Is There a Child Labor Force Underground?
• What Do You Need to Know About Child Labor?
• Can WTO Members Rely on Citizen Concerns to Prevent Corporations from Importing Child Labor-Made Goods?
• Who Should We Ask About Child Labor Measurement?
• What Is the Most Commonly Accepted Reason for Child Labor?
• What Exactly Is Child Labor?
• Should Child Labor Be Outlawed Worldwide?
• What Are the Costs of Human Capital and Child Labor?
• Does Child Labor Displace Education?
• Why Did Child Labor Decline in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries?
• What Exactly Was Child Labor?
• Is Health Insurance Effective in Reducing Child Labor and Educational Gaps?
• What Is the Impact of Child Labor on Academic Achievement?
• Is Overpopulation is the Primary Cause of Child Labor?
• Is Child Labor Harmful to Children’s Education and Health?
• Is Child Labor Affecting School Attendance and Performance?
• What Is the Relationship Between Child Labor and Trade Liberalization?
• What are the United Nations Preventive Measures Against Child Labor?
• Child Labor, Core Labour Standards, and FDI: Friends or Foes?

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81 Child Labor Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best child labor topic ideas & essay examples, 💡 interesting topics to write about child labor, 📑 good research topics about child labor.

• Causes and Effects of Child Labor According to van Wormer and Link, it is necessary to distinguish between the two variations above, and the second type of child labor is a severe problem both for developed and developing states.
• Child Labor in Victorian and Romantic Literature During the 18th and 19th centuries, the problem of child labor was reflected in poetry and fiction as one of the main social issues. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Samsung’s Ethical Dilemma of Child Labor The paper will critically analyze the ethical dimensions of the dilemma from the perspective of the utilitarian ethical theory. It will be argued that according to the fundamental principles of the theory, the company’s behavior […]
• Child Slave Labor in Cadbury Chocolate Company The accusations of slave and child labor in the cocoa chain negative impacted the Cadbury Company significantly. Justice for the employees should be paid instead of enslavement and impartiality by Cadbury and the company should […]
• Nestle Company’s Child Labor and Business Ethics The researchers observed that the company was embracing the use of child labor. The important issue to consider when analyzing the validity of this moral concern is the rights of young children.
• Criminal Law: Child Protection from Pornography and Labor There is a need for the involvement of the community and organization of goodwill, in the alleviation of poverty and suffering of children.
• Child Labor in the Fast Fashion Industry To free girls from this choice and reduce the presence of kids in factories, it is necessary to combat poverty in rural areas actively.
• Problem of Child Labor in Modern Society According to the International Labor Organization, these are the worst forms of child labor. There are emerging cases of child labor in the third world nations.
• Child Labor in Brazil and Related Issues Around the globe, the participation of young children in work has become detrimental to their development and inhibiting the attainment of their potential. As aforementioned the cheap source of labor is exploited in the production […]
• Addressing Child Labor and Exploitation Issues There is not enough food for all children in the family, and the responsibility for survival is on the child instead of their parents. The second root of the problem is the level of the […]
• The Injustice of Child Labor in Charles Dickens’s Novels Rapid industrialization and urbanization, which occurred due to the population explosion, led to the creation of a dirty and noisy city, which was a hard place to live in for the poor.
• Child Labor From the United States Perspective United Nations Organization and the International Labor Organization regard child labor as the form of exploitation, and stipulated the following thesis in article 32 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
• The Law Attitude of Child Labor According to the United States Department of Labor, child labor affects those under the age of 18 in a variety of occupations. The National Child Labor Committee, an organization dedicated to the abolition of all […]
• USA and India: The Education and Child Labor The cause of a high number of child labour in the USA was boosted by the poor living standards of those people that worked as casual labours in the plantations and industries. This helped to […]
• Examining Street-Based Child Labor Amongst Syrian Refugees in Lebanon The research aims at answering the following question, “What are the legal and social improvements that should be made to improve the situation of Syrian refugee children working on the streets of Lebanon via the […]
• Tackling Child Labor as the CEO of H&M Even though in its vision, H&M claims that it supports and fosters self-autonomy and sustainability in suppliers, the company has generated a number of controversies regarding child labor.
• Child Labor: Decreasing Negative Effects To achieve this goal, it is essential to discuss particular approaches for decreasing the negative effects of child labor found in the scholarly literature on the topic.
• Child Labor Controversy and Regulations Therefore, it would be impossible for an executive to neglect the situation without the risk of putting the corporate image of the organization at risk.
• Child Labor in the United Kingdom: Sadler’s Report Sadler used the hearing to educate the members of the House of Commons on how these children were treated at work.
• Child Labor in India, Nigeria and the Philippines Ali and Khan fail to critically approach the notion of institutionalization of child labor in India, merely stating that the phenomenon is widespread.
• Child Labor Protection and Solutions In the situation when there is no chance to get a high-quality education, sometimes a work may help children to acquire skills necessary to succeed in the future.
• Unethical Child Labor on Sugarcane Plantations This situation leads to a high percentage of the illiterate population in the Philippines and consequently creates obstacles for the development of the country in terms of culture and technologies.
• Long Hours, Meager Wages: Child Labor Continues in Myanmar The purpose of this paper is to summarize the key points of the article and provide the economic analysis of the issue presented in Saberi’s article with the focus on major economic models related to […]
• Child Labor, Great Depression and World War II in Photographs The impression is of isolation and yearning for daylight, freedom, and a childhood foregone, in the midst of a machine-dominated world.
• Child Labor Issue According to the Human Rights The International Labor Organization defines child labor as “work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development”1 Being a United Nations agency, ILO […]
• Child Labor in Turkish Cotton Industry The global initiatives pertaining to child labor have been successful to a great extent in reducing the instances of child labor in the developing countries. Among the workers who work in the fields, the percentage […]
• Child Labor and U.S. Industrialization Improvements to labor laws and an intensified focus on the human rights issue that child labor represents in more recent years have diminished the prevalence of child labor somewhat.
• Child Labor in Workhouses and Mines in England At the same time, in the mills and workhouses young children were exposed to long hours of physically hard labor and experienced severe lack of rest and sleep.
• Child Labor in Poor and Developing Nations They are forced to depend on manual jobs for the rest of their lives, ultimately leading to child labor in each generation, more poor children and more communities with undercutting wages.
• Globalization and the Economics of Child Labor In his article “Globalization and the Economics of Child Labor”, Edmond Eric advances that globalization has resulted in a significant reduction in child labor throughout the world.
• Labor Economics: Child Labor In another observation, Chau believes that the practice may be developed by the myth that children’s’ way of doing things better than adults would make them the appropriate substitute in the labor market.
• Abstinence From Child Labor and Profit Seeking
• Why Child Labor Should Be Stopped
• Child Labor and Conflict: Evidence From Afghanistan
• Physical and Psychological Implications of Risky Child Labor
• Challenges That Activists Face When Campaigning Against Child Labor
• The Impact of Child Labor and School Quality on Academic Achievement
• Globalization and the Economics of Child Labor
• Child Labor: Lessons From the Historical Experience of Today’s Industrial Economies
• Child Labor in American-Based Companies
• Fair Trade Labels: Is It Effective Against Child Labor?
• Child Labor and Slavery in the Chocolate Industry
• Pros and Cons of Child Labor in the Globalized World
• Business Ethics: Child Labor at Wal-Mart
• Child Labor Across the Developing World: Patterns & Correlations
• Cross-Cultural Ethics and the Child Labor Problem
• Does Child Labor Reduce Youth Crime?
• Child Labor and Physical Punishment in Victorian England
• IKEA Global Sourcing Challenge: Indian Rugs and Child Labor
• Child Labor and Schooling: Consequences of Child Work on Educational Attainment
• Corporate Social Responsibility to Eliminate Child Labor
• Demand for Child Labor in a Dynamic North-South Trade Model
• United Nation’s Preventive Measures Against Child Labor
• Child Labor and the Family Economy During the Industrial Revolution
• When Will Child Labor Cease to Exist?
• Child Labor: Exploited and Abused Youth at Work
• Child Labor and the Social Disease of Poverty
• Long-Term Health and Socioeconomic Consequences of Child Labor
• Educational Attainment and Child Labor: Do Subsidies Work?
• Child Labor: Causes, Consequences, and the Cure
• How Child Labor Affects the Demand for Adult Labor
• Fighting the Child Labor: An Economic Perspective
• Industrialization and Child Labor: The Case of Cocoa in West Africa
• U.S. Trade and Other Policy Options and Programs to Deter Foreign Exploitation of Child Labor
• Parental Attitudes Toward Children and Child Labor
• Labor Market Reform and Incidence of Child Labor in a Developing Economy
• School Attendance and Child Labor: A Model of Collective Behavior
• It’s Not Child Labor – It’s Child Abuse!
• Prostitution and Child Labor in the Philippines and India
• Rising Child Labor as a Symptom of Capitalist Sickness
• Why Children Enter Child Labor
• Moral and Ethical Issues Surrounding the Use of Child Labor in the Global Economy
• It Starts With Consumers: Tackling Child Labor
• The Horrors of Child Labor in the Mining Industry
• Global Child Labor Problem: What Do We Know and What Can We Do
• Rescuing Children From the Hands of Child Labor
• Child Labor in the 19th Century: Were American Parents Selfish?
• Victoria’s Little Secret: Addressing Child Labor
• Employment and Working Conditions of Child Labor
• Globalization & Consumerism Impact on Child Labor Incidence
• Trade Sanctions in Reducing Child Labor: The Role of Credit Markets
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• Child labour

Nearly 1 in 10 children are subjected to child labour worldwide, with some forced into hazardous work through trafficking.

Economic hardship exacts a toll on millions of families worldwide – and in some places, it comes at the price of a child’s safety.

Roughly  160 million children were subjected to child labour at the beginning of 2020, with 9 million additional children at risk due to the impact of COVID-19. This accounts for nearly 1 in 10 children worldwide. Almost half of them are in hazardous work that directly endangers their health and development.

Children may be driven into work for various reasons. Most often, child labour occurs when families face financial challenges or uncertainty – whether due to poverty, sudden illness of a caregiver, or job loss of a primary wage earner.

The consequences are staggering. Child labour can result in extreme bodily and mental harm, and even death. It can lead to slavery and sexual or economic exploitation. And in nearly every case, it cuts children off from schooling and health care, restricting their fundamental rights.

Migrant and refugee children – many of whom have been uprooted by conflict, disaster or poverty – also risk being forced into work and even trafficked, especially if they are migrating alone or taking irregular routes with their families.

Trafficked children are often subjected to violence, abuse and other human rights violations. For girls, the threat of sexual exploitation looms large, while boys may be exploited by armed forces or groups .

Whatever the cause, child labour compounds social inequality and discrimination. Unlike activities that help children develop, such as contributing to light housework or taking on a job during school holidays, child labour limits access to education and harms a child’s physical, mental and social growth. Especially for girls, the “triple burden” of school, work and household chores heightens their risk of falling behind, making them even more vulnerable to poverty and exclusion.

UNICEF works to prevent and respond to child labour, especially by strengthening the social service workforce . Social service workers play a key role in recognizing, preventing and managing risks that can lead to child labour. Our efforts develop and support the workforce to respond to potential situations of child labour through case management and social protection services, including early identification, registration and interim rehabilitation and referral services.

We also focus on strengthening parenting and community education initiatives to address harmful social norms that perpetuate child labour, while partnering with national and local governments to prevent violence, exploitation and abuse.

With the International Labour Organization (ILO), we help to collect data that make child labour visible to decision makers. These efforts complement our work to strengthen birth registration systems, ensuring that all children possess birth certificates that prove they are under the legal age to work.

Children removed from labour must also be safely returned to school or training. UNICEF supports increased access to quality education and provides comprehensive social services to keep children protected and with their families.

To address child trafficking, we work with United Nations partners and the European Union on initiatives that reach 13 countries across Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe and Latin America.

Learn more about child labour

COVID-19 and child labour

A time of crisis, a time to act

Child labour and responsible business conduct

Guidance to businesses, policy makers and other stakeholders to advance progress towards SDG Target 8.7 on eradicating child labour by 2025

UNICEF Executive Director Catherine Russell's remarks at the World Day Against Child Labour High-Level Side Event

Charting the course

Embedding children's rights in responsible business conduct

Related resources

Action against child labour | case studies, child labour: global estimates 2020, trends and the road forward, child labour: unicef data, inter-agency coordination group against trafficking in persons, unicef child protection advocacy brief: child labour, iom handbook for protection and assistance for migrants vulnerable to violence, exploitation and abuse, guidelines to strengthen the social service workforce for child protection.

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Child labour issues and challenges

Kalpana srivastava.

Editor, IPJ

“ There can be no keener revelation of a society's soul than the way in which it treats its children .” – Nelson Mandela

Children are future citizens of the Nation and their adequate development is utmost priority of the country. Unfortunately, child labor engulfs children across the world. The world is home to 1.2 billion individuals aged 10-19 years. However, despite its menace in various forms, the data shows variation in prevalence of child labor across the globe and the statistical figures about child labor are very alarming. There are an estimated 186 million child laborers worldwide. The 2001 national census of India estimated total number of child labor aged 5–14 to be at 12.6 million.[ 1 ] Small-scale and community-based studies have found estimated prevalence of 12.6 million children engaged in hazardous occupations. Many children are “hidden workers” working in homes or in the underground economy.[ 2 ] Although the Constitution of India guarantees free and compulsory education to children between the age of 6 to 14 and prohibits employment of children younger than 14 in 18 hazardous occupations, child labor is still prevalent in the informal sectors of the Indian economy.[ 3 ] Child labor violates human rights, and is in contravention of the International Labor Organization (Article 32, Convention Rights of the Child). About one-third of children of the developing world are failing to complete even 4 years of education.[ 4 ] Indian population has more than 17.5 million working children in different industries, and incidentally maximum are in agricultural sector, leather industry, mining and match-making industries, etc.[ 5 ]

The term “child labor” is often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical-mental development. It refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children, and interferes with their schooling by depriving them of the opportunity to attend school, obliging them to leave school prematurely or requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long and heavy work. The statistical figures about child workers in the world have variation because of the differences in defining categories of age group and engagement of children in formal and informal sector.[ 6 ]

Child labor continues to be a great concern in many parts of the world. In 2008, some 60% of the 215 million boys and girls were estimated to be child laborers worldwide. Major engagement was in agriculture sector, followed by fisheries, aquaculture, livestock and forestry. In addition to work that interferes with schooling and is harmful to personal development, many of these children work in hazardous occupations or activities that are harmful.[ 7 ] Incidentally, 96% of the child workers are in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and South America. With respect to the child workers between the ages of 5 and 14, Asia makes up 61% of child workers in developing countries, while Africa has 32% and Latin America 7%. Further, while Asia has the highest number of child workers, Africa has the highest prevalence of child labor (40%).[ 8 ]

LAW AND CHILD LABOR

The policy curbing child labor exists but lack of enforcement of labor restrictions perpetuates child labor. This is manifested in variation in minimum age restriction in different types of employment. The International Labor Office reports that children work the longest hours and are the worst paid of all laborers. In India, the Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986 and Rules state that no child shall be employed or permitted to work in any of the occupations set forth in Part A of the Schedule or in any workshop wherein any of the processes set forth in Part B of the Schedule is carried on. For this purpose, “child” means a person who has not completed his 14 th year of age. The Act prohibits employment of children in certain specified hazardous occupations and processes and regulates the working conditions in others. The list of hazardous occupations and processes is progressively being expanded on the recommendation of the Child Labor Technical Advisory Committee constituted under the Act.[ 9 ]

FORMS OF CHILD LABOR

Children are employed in both formal and informal sectors. Among the occupations wherein children are engaged in work are construction work, domestic work and small-scale industries. Incidentally, agriculture is not only the oldest but also the most common child occupation worldwide. Some of the industries that depend on child labor are bangle-making, beedi-making, power looms and manufacturing processes. These industries use toxic metals and substances such as lead, mercury, manganese, chromium, cadmium, benzene, pesticides and asbestos. Child labor is very harmful and wholehearted efforts to eliminate this should be done.[ 10 ]

THE CONSEQUENCES OF CHILD LABOR

The negative impact on the physiological and psychological levels of children includes specific concerns of child labor and its consequences on mental health. It is worth noting that one-third of children of the developing world are failing to complete even 4 years of education.[ 6 ] The analysis of factors leading to engagement of children in hazardous factors elucidated socioeconomic factors as one of the important determinants. Poverty is considered as one of the contributory factors in child labor.[ 11 ]

Mental well being is less frequently researched in child labor.[ 12 ] A retrospective cohort study in Morocco randomly examined 200 children working in the handicraft sector and found a high prevalence of respiratory, digestive and skin conditions, as well as mental health presentations such as migraines, insomnia, irritability, enuresis and asthenia.[ 13 ]

In a cross-sectional survey, urban Lebanese children aged 10–17, working full-time in small industrial shops, were compared with non-working matched school children. Majority of them had poor physical health, predominantly marked with skin lesions or ear complaints and social care needs.[ 14 ] Similarly, authors aimed to find out consequences in children in Lebanon exposed to solvents, and found significantly higher rates of lightheadedness, fatigue, impaired memory and depression compared with a non-exposed group.[ 15 ] A cross-sectional study in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, used diagnostic interviews to assess prevalence of mental disorders in 528 child laborers and street workers, child domestics and private enterprise workers aged between 5 and 15 years. The prevalence of mental disorders was noted to be as high as 20.1% compared with 12.5% in the general population.[ 16 ] Further study to establish the association between labor-related variables and mental health problems was carried out among 780 children engaged in labor (aged 9–18 years) in the Gaza Strip. Mental health problems of children in labor were likely to be associated with socioeconomic determinants as well as factors related to their underage employment.[ 17 ]

The physical and social consequences are deliberated by researchers; however, mental health area has not been explored so much. Studies are lacking even in Indian scenario regarding impact of child labor on mental health.

INTERVENTION AND CHILD LABOR

Education is a very important part of development. Children who are drawn to child labor are basically driven because of economic deprivation, lack of schooling and engagement of family for daily needs. Studies have found low enrollment with increased rates of child employment. Schools are the platform for early intervention against child labor, as it restricts their participation in menial jobs. Hurdles in this approach are economic reasons. Unless economic change is brought about, the children will not be able to attend the school. Child labor can be controlled by economic development increasing awareness and making education affordable across all levels, and enforcement of anti child labor laws.[ 18 ]

The Government of India has taken certain initiatives to control child labor. The National Child Labor Project (NCLP) Scheme was launched in 9 districts of high child labor endemicity in the country. Under the scheme, funds are given to the District Collectors for running special schools for child labor. Most of these schools are run by the NGOs in the district. Under the scheme, these children are provided formal/informal education along with vocational training, and a stipend of Rs. 100 per month. Health check-up is also done for them.

Poverty is one of the important factors for this problem. Hence, enforcement alone cannot help solve it. The Government has been laying a lot of emphasis on the rehabilitation of these children and on improving the economic conditions of their families.

Many NGOs like CARE India, Child Rights and You, Global March Against Child Labor, etc., have been working to eradicate child labor in India. The child labor can be stopped when knowledge is translated into legislation and action, moving good intention and ideas into protecting the health of the children. The endurance of young children is higher and they cannot protest against discrimination. Focusing on grassroots strategies to mobilize communities against child labor and reintegration of child workers into their homes and schools has proven crucial to breaking the cycle of child labor. A multidisciplinary approach involving specialists with medical, psychological and socio-anthropological level is needed to curb this evil.[ 19 ]

It is in this context that we have to take a relook at the landmark passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act 2009, which marks a historic moment for the children of India. For the first time in India's history, children will be guaranteed their right to quality elementary education by the state with the help of families and communities. The world cannot reach its goal to have every child complete primary school by 2015 without India. Although there have been significant improvements in the proportion of children from socially disadvantaged groups in school, gaps still remain. Girls are still less likely to enroll in school than boys; in 2005, for upper primary school (Grades 6–8) girls’ enrollment was still 8.8 points lower than boys, for Scheduled Tribes (ST) the gender gap was 12.6 points and it was 16 points for Scheduled Castes (SC). RTE provides a ripe platform to reach the unreached, with specific provisions for disadvantaged groups such as child laborers, migrant children, children with special needs, or those who have a “disadvantage owing to social, cultural economical, geographical, linguistic, gender or such other factors.” Bringing 8 million out-of-school children into classes at the age-appropriate level with the support to stay in school and succeed poses a major challenge. Substantial efforts are essential to eliminate disparities and ensure quality with equity. Successful implementation of the Act would certainly go a long way in eradicating child labor in India.

Child Labor: History, Process, and Consequences

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United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2014) Child labor and UNICEF in action: children at the centre. UNICEF, May 2014. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/protection/files/Child_Labor_and_UNICEF_in_Action.pdf

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2017) Child labor. December 2017. Retrieved from https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/child-Labor/

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Department of Public Administration, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

Md Nurul Momen

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European School of Sustainability, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Walter Leal Filho

Center for Neuroscience & Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

Anabela Marisa Azul

Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Passo Fundo University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Passo Fundo, Brazil

Luciana Brandli

Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey

Pinar Gökcin Özuyar

HAW Hamburg, Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Amanda Lange Salvia

International Centre for Thriving, University of Chester, Chester, UK

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Pinar Gökçin Özuyar

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Momen, M.N. (2020). Child Labor: History, Process, and Consequences. In: Leal Filho, W., Azul, A., Brandli, L., Özuyar, P., Lange Salvia, A., Wall, T. (eds) No Poverty. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69625-6_30-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69625-6_30-1

Received : 27 November 2019

Accepted : 22 December 2019

Published : 24 April 2020

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-319-69625-6

Online ISBN : 978-3-319-69625-6

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Child Labor

The child labor evidence review examines the existing causal evidence on child labor and child work targeted for elimination. Child labor refers to the engagement of children in prohibited work. While the definition of child labor is guided by International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions and resolutions, there is no single definition across nations. Moreover, definitions may change over time, and the terminology and concepts used to categorize child labor (and to distinguish from working children) may be inconsistent in published studies and research reports. CLEAR acknowledges differing definitions of child labor by country but does not validate the definition of child labor or assess the validity of authors’ constructs within individual studies for the country in which the program or intervention being examined occurs. For each study in the review, CLEAR assesses the quality of the causal evidence and summarizes its approach, findings, and the intervention examined.

Synthesis Reports

Synthesis reports look at the research evidence across studies within a topic area. They also highlight gaps in the literature, and suggest areas in which further research is needed.

Child Labor Synthesis

Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) reduced child work/child labor and improved school participation outcomes but the effectiveness differed by child characteristics and outcomes.

Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) reduced child work/child labor and improved school participation.

Training/TA programs may decrease child work/child labor and increase school participation.

Food programs had mixed impacts on child work/child labor outcomes but favorable school participation outcomes.

Only one high-rated study of a scholarship program had favorable impacts on child work/child labor and school participation outcomes.

The only high-rated study of an “other” intervention found improved child labor and school participation outcomes.

• Recent Research

Recently Added

CLEAR searches the existing literature for research relevant to this topic area's focus. Browse the most recently reviewed research below.

Program Keluarga Harapan: Main findings from the impact evaluation of Indonesia’s pilot household conditional cash transfer program (World Bank 2011)

Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis

Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence

Productive safety net program and children’s time use between work and schooling in Ethiopia (Woldehanna 2010)

Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence

Educational and child labour impacts of two food-for-education schemes: Evidence from a randomised trial in rural Burkina Faso (Kazianga et al. 2012)

Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence

Impact evaluation: Combating worst forms of child labor by reinforcing policy response and promoting sustainable livelihoods and educational opportunities in Egypt, 2011-2012 (ICF International 2013)

The impact of Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program on schooling and child labor (Hoddinott, Gilligan, and Taffessee 2009)

The impact of Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program on schooling and child labor (Hoddinott et al. 2009)

CLEAR Icon Key

Below is a key for icons used to indicate important details about a study, such as its type, evidence rating, and outcome findings.

High Causal Evidence

Strong evidence the effects are caused by the examined intervention.

Moderate Causal Evidence

Evidence that the effects are caused to some degree by the examined intervention.

Low Causal Evidence

Little evidence that the effects are caused by the examined intervention.

Causal Impact Analysis

Uses quantitative methods to assess the effectiveness of a program, policy, or intervention.

Descriptive Analysis

Describes a program, policy, or intervention using qualitative or quantitative methods.

Implementation Analysis

Examines the implementation of a program, policy, or intervention.

The study found at least one favorable impact in the outcome domain, and no unfavorable impacts.

The study found some favorable and some unfavorable impacts in the outcome domain.

The study found no statistically significant impacts in the outcome domain.

Unfavorable

The study found at least one unfavorable impact in the outcome domain, and no favorable impacts.

Not applicable

Not applicable because no outcomes were examined in the outcome domain.

Favorable - low evidence

The study found at least one favorable impact in the outcome domain, and no unfavorable impacts. The study received a low causal evidence ratings so these findings should be interpreted with caution.

Mixed - low evidence

The study found some favorable and some unfavorable impacts in the outcome domain. The study received a low causal evidence ratings so these findings should be interpreted with caution.

None - low evidence

The study found no statistically significant impacts in the outcome domain. The study received a low causal evidence ratings so these findings should be interpreted with caution.

Unfavorable - low evidence

The study found at least one unfavorable impact in the outcome domain, and no favorable impacts. The study received a low causal evidence ratings so these findings should be interpreted with caution.

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Child Labor

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 24, 2022 | Original: October 27, 2009

Child labor, or the use of children as workers, servants and apprentices, has been practiced throughout most of human history, but reached its zenith during the Industrial Revolution. Miserable working conditions including crowded and unclean factories, a lack of safety codes and long hours were the norm. Children could be paid less and were less likely to organize into unions. Working children were typically unable to attend school, creating a cycle of poverty that was difficult to break. Nineteenth century reformers and labor organizers sought to restrict child labor and improve working conditions to uplift the masses, but it took the Great Depression—a time when Americans were desperate for employment—to shake long-held practices of child labor in the United States.

Child Labor in the United States

The Puritan work ethic of the 13 colonies and their founders valued hard work over idleness, and this ethos applied to children as well. Through the first half of the 1800s, child labor was an essential part of the agricultural and handicraft economy of the United States. Children worked on family farms and as indentured servants for others. To learn a trade, boys often began their apprenticeships between the ages of ten and fourteen.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution saw the rise of factories and mines in need of workers. Children were ideal employees because they could be paid less, were often of smaller size so could attend to tasks in tight spaces and were less likely to organize and strike against their pitiable working conditions.

Before the Civil War , women and children played a critical role in American manufacturing, though it was still a relatively small part of the economy. Advances in manufacturing techniques after the war increased the number of jobs—and therefore increased the number of child laborers.

Did you know? In 1900, 18 percent of all American workers were under the age of 16.

Immigration and Child Labor

Immigration to the United States coincidentally peaked during the Industrial Revolution and led to a new source of labor—and child labor. When the Irish Potato Famine struck in the 1840s, Irish immigrants moved to fill lower-level factory jobs.

In the 1880s, groups from southern and eastern Europe arrived, provided a new pool of child workers. The trend continues today, as many immigrant children work in agriculture, which is exempt from certain labor laws.

National Child Labor Committee

Educational reformers of the mid-nineteenth century attempted to convince the public that a primary school education was a necessity if the nation were to advance as a whole. Several states established a minimum wage for labor and requirements for school attendance—though many of these laws were full of loopholes that were readily exploited by employers hungry for cheap labor.

Beginning in 1900, efforts to regulate or eliminate child labor became central to social reform in the United States. The National Child Labor Committee , organized in 1904, and state child labor committees led the charge.

These organizations employed flexible methods in the face of slow progress. They pioneered tactics like investigations by experts; the use of photographs of child laborers to spark outrage at the poor conditions of children at work, and persuasive lobbying efforts. They used written pamphlets, leaflets and mass mailings to reach the public.

From 1902 to 1915, child labor committees emphasized reform through state legislatures. Many laws restricting child labor were passed as part of the Progressive Era reform movement . But many Southern states resisted, leading to the decision to work for a federal child labor law. While Congress passed such laws in 1916 and 1918, the Supreme Court declared them unconstitutional.

The supporters of child labor laws sought a constitutional amendment authorizing federal child labor legislation and it passed in 1924, though states were not keen to ratify it; the conservative political climate of the 1920s, together with opposition from farm and church organizations fearing increased federal power over children, acted as roadblocks.

Depression-Era Child Labor

The Great Depression left thousands of Americans without jobs and led to sweeping reforms under the New Deal programs of Franklin Delano Roosevelt . These focused on increasing federal oversight of the workplace and giving out-of-work adults jobs—thereby creating a powerful motive to remove children from the workforce.

Almost all of the codes developed under the National Industrial Recovery Act served to reduce child labor. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set a national minimum wage for the first time, a maximum number of hour for workers in interstate commerce—and placed limitations on child labor. In effect, the employment of children under sixteen years of age was prohibited in manufacturing and mining.

Automatization and Education

Changing attitudes toward work and social reform weren’t the only factors reducing child labor; the invention of improved machinery that mechanized many of the repetitive tasks previously given to children led to a decrease of children in the workforce. Semiskilled adults took their place for more complex tasks.

Education underwent reforms, too. Many states increasing the number of years of schooling required to hold certain jobs, lengthened the school year and began to more strictly enforce truancy laws. In 1949, Congress amended the child labor law to include businesses not covered in 1938 like transportation, communications and public utilities.

Does Child Labor Exist Today?

Although child labor has been significantly stalled in the United States, it lingers in certain areas of the economy like agriculture, where migrant workers are more difficult to regulate. Since 1938, federal laws have excluded child farm workers from labor protections provided to other working children. For example, children 12 and younger can legally work in farm fields, despite the risks posed by exposure to pesticides and farm machinery.

Employers in the garment industry have turned to the children of illegal immigrants in an effort to compete with imports from low-wage nations. Despite laws limiting the number of hours of work for children and teens still attending school, the increasing cost of education means many are working longer hours to make ends meet. State-by-state enforcement of child labor laws varies to this day.

Child Labor in U.S. History. The University of Iowa . History of Child Labor in the United States. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics . Children in the Fields. National Farm Worker Ministry .

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