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Introduction, methodology.

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Child labor and health: a systematic literature review of the impacts of child labor on child’s health in low- and middle-income countries

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Abdalla Ibrahim, Salma M Abdalla, Mohammed Jafer, Jihad Abdelgadir, Nanne de Vries, Child labor and health: a systematic literature review of the impacts of child labor on child’s health in low- and middle-income countries, Journal of Public Health , Volume 41, Issue 1, March 2019, Pages 18–26, https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy018

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To summarize current evidence on the impacts of child labor on physical and mental health.

We searched PubMed and ScienceDirect for studies that included participants aged 18 years or less, conducted in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and reported quantitative data. Two independent reviewers conducted data extraction and assessment of study quality.

A total of 25 studies were identified, the majority of which were cross-sectional. Child labor was found to be associated with a number of adverse health outcomes, including but not limited to poor growth, malnutrition, higher incidence of infectious and system-specific diseases, behavioral and emotional disorders, and decreased coping efficacy. Quality of included studies was rated as fair to good.

Child labor remains a major public health concern in LMICs, being associated with adverse physical and mental health outcomes. Current efforts against child labor need to be revisited, at least in LMICs. Further studies following a longitudinal design, and using common methods to assess the health impact of child labor in different country contexts would inform policy making.

For decades, child labor has been an important global issue associated with inadequate educational opportunities, poverty and gender inequality. 1 Not all types of work carried out by children are considered child labor. Engagement of children or adolescents in work with no influence on their health and schooling is usually regarded positive. The International Labor Organization (ILO) describes child labor as ‘work that deprives children of their childhood, potential and dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development’. 2 This definition includes types of work that are mentally, physically, socially or morally harmful to children; or disrupts schooling.

The topic gained scientific attention with the industrial revolution. Research conducted in the UK, because of adverse outcomes in children, resulted in acts for child labor in 18 02. 3 Many countries followed the UK, in recognition of the associated health risks. The ILO took its first stance in 1973 by setting the minimum age for work. 4 Nevertheless, the ILO and other international organizations that target the issue failed to achieve goals. Child labor was part of the Millennium Development Goals, adopted by 191 nations in 20 00 5 to be achieved by 2015. Subsequently, child labor was included in the Sustainable Development Goals, 6 which explicitly calls for eradication of child labor by 2030.

Despite the reported decline in child labor from 1995 to 2000, it remains a major concern. In 2016, it was estimated that ~150 million children under the age of 14 are engaged in labor worldwide, with most of them working under circumstances that denies them a playful childhood and jeopardize their health. 7 Most working children are 11–14 years, but around 60 million are 5–11 years old. 7 There are no exact numbers of the distribution of child labor globally; however, available statistics show that 96% of child workers are in Africa, Asia and Latin America. 1

Research into the impacts of child labor suggests several associations between child labor and adverse health outcomes. Parker 1 reported that child labor is associated with certain exposures like silica in industries, and HIV infection in prostitution. Additionally, as child labor is associated with maternal illiteracy and poverty, children who work are more susceptible to malnutrition, 1 which predisposes them to various diseases.

A meta-analysis on the topic was published in 20 07. 8 However, authors reported only an association of child labor with higher mortality and morbidity than in the general population, without reporting individual outcome specific effects. 8 Another meta-analysis investigated the effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), including child labor, on health. They reported that ACEs are risk factors for many adverse health outcomes. 9

To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review that attempts to summarize current evidence on the impacts of child labor on both physical and mental health, based on specific outcomes. We review the most recent evidence on the health impacts of child labor in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) according to the World Bank classification. We provide an informative summary of current studies of the impacts of child labor, and reflect upon the progress of anti-child labor policies and laws.

Search strategy

We searched PubMed and ScienceDirect databases. Search was restricted to publications from year 1997 onwards. Only studies written in English were considered. Our search algorithm was [(‘child labor’ OR ‘child labor’ OR ‘working children’ OR ‘occupational health’ OR ‘Adolescent work’ OR ‘working adolescents’) AND (Health OR medical)]. The first third of the algorithm was assigned to titles/abstracts to ensure relevance of the studies retrieved, while the rest of the terms were not. On PubMed, we added […AND (poverty OR ‘low income’ OR ‘developing countries’)] to increase the specificity of results; otherwise, the search results were ~60 times more, with the majority of studies being irrelevant.

Study selection

Studies that met the following criteria were considered eligible: sample age 18 years or less; study was conducted in LMICs; and quantitative data was reported.

Two authors reviewed the titles obtained, a.o. to exclude studies related to ‘medical child labor’ as in childbirth. Abstracts of papers retained were reviewed, and subsequently full studies were assessed for inclusion criteria. Two authors assessed the quality of studies using Downs and Black tool for quality assessment. 10 The tool includes 27 items, yet not all items fit every study. In such cases, we used only relevant items. Total score was the number of items positively evaluated. Studies were ranked accordingly (poor, fair, good) (Table 1 ).

Characteristics of studies included

* The quality is based on the percentage of Downs and Black 10 tool, < 50% = poor, 50–75% = fair, > 75% = good.

** BMI, body mass index.

*** HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus.

Data extraction and management

Two authors extracted the data using a standardized data extraction form. It included focus of study (i.e. physical and/or mental health), exposure (type of child labor), country of study, age group, gender, study design, reported measures (independent variables) and outcome measures (Table 1 ). The extraction form was piloted to ensure standardization of data collection. A third author then reviewed extracted data. Disagreements were solved by discussion.

Search results

A flow diagram (Fig. 1 ) shows the studies selection process. We retrieved 1050 studies on PubMed and 833 studies on Science Direct, with no duplicates in the search results. We also retrieved 23 studies through screening of the references, following the screening by title of retrieved studies. By reviewing title and abstract, 1879 studies were excluded. After full assessment of the remaining studies, 25 were included.

Study selection process.

Characteristics of included studies

Among the included studies ten documented only prevalence estimates of physical diseases, six documented mental and psychosocial health including abuse, and nine reported the prevalence of both mental and physical health impacts (Table 1 ). In total, 24 studies were conducted in one country; one study included data from the Living Standard Measurement Study of 83 LMIC. 8

In total, 12 studies compared outcomes between working children and a control group (Table 1 ). Concerning physical health, many studies reported the prevalence of general symptoms (fever, cough and stunting) or diseases (malnutrition, anemia and infectious diseases). Alternatively, some studies documented prevalence of illnesses or symptoms hypothesized to be associated with child labor (Table 1 ). The majority of studies focusing on physical health conducted clinical examination or collected blood samples.

Concerning mental and psychosocial health, the outcomes documented included abuse with its different forms, coping efficacy, emotional disturbances, mood and anxiety disorders. The outcomes were measured based on self-reporting and using validated measures, for example, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), in local languages.

The majority of studies were ranked as of ‘good quality’, with seven ranked ‘fair’ and one ranked ‘poor’ (Table 1 ). The majority of them also had mixed-gender samples, with only one study restricted to females. 24 In addition, valid measures were used in most studies (Table 1 ). Most studies did not examine the differences between genders.

Child labor and physical health

Fifteen studies examined physical health effects of child labor, including nutritional status, physical growth, work-related illnesses/symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, HIV infection, systematic symptoms, infectious diseases, tuberculosis and eyestrain. Eight studies measured physical health effects through clinical examination or blood samples, in addition to self-reported questionnaires. All studies in which a comparison group was used reported higher prevalence of physical diseases in the working children group.

Two studies were concerned with physical growth and development. A study conducted in Pakistan, 11 reported that child labor is associated with wasting, stunting and chronic malnutrition. A similar study conducted in India compared physical growth and genital development between working and non-working children and reported that child labor is associated with lower BMI, shorter stature and delayed genital development in working boys, while no significant differences were found among females. 12

Concerning work-related illnesses and injuries, a study conducted in Bangladesh reported that there is a statistically significant positive association between child labor and the probability to report any injury or illness, tiredness/exhaustion, body injury and other health problems. Number of hours worked and the probability of reporting injury and illness were positively correlated. Younger children were more likely to suffer from backaches and other health problems (infection, burns and lung diseases), while probability of reporting tiredness/exhaustion was greater in the oldest age group. Furthermore, the frequency of reporting any injury or illness increases with the number of hours worked, with significant variation across employment sectors. 13 A study in Iran reported that industrial workrooms were the most common place for injury (58.2%). Falling from heights or in horizontal surface was the most common mechanism of injury (44%). None of the patients was using a preventive device at the time of injury. Cuts (49.6%) were the most commonly reported injuries. 14

Other studies that investigated the prevalence of general symptoms in working children in Pakistan, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan and Indonesia reported that child labor is negatively associated with health. 15 – 19 Watery eyes, chronic cough and diarrhea were common findings, in addition to history of a major injury (permanent loss of an organ, hearing loss, bone fractures, permanent disability). 20 One study, conducted in India reported that working children suffered from anemia, gastrointestinal tract infections, vitamin deficiencies, respiratory tract infections, skin diseases and high prevalence of malnutrition. 21 Another study—of poor quality—in India reported that child labor was associated with higher incidence of infectious diseases compared to non-working children. 22

Only a few studies focused on specific diseases. A study in Brazil compared the prevalence of musculoskeletal pain between working and non-working children. Authors reported that the prevalence of pain in the neck, knee, wrist or hands, and upper back exceeded 15%. Workers in manufacturing had a significantly increased risk for musculoskeletal pain and back pain, while child workers in domestic services had 17% more musculoskeletal pain and 23% more back pain than non-workers. Awkward posture and heavy physical work were associated with musculoskeletal pain, while monotonous work, awkward posture and noise were associated with back pain. 23 A study in Nicaragua, which focused on children working in agriculture, reported that child labor in agriculture poses a serious threat to children’s health; specifically, acute pesticides poisoning. 24

A study conducted in India reported that the prevalence of eyestrain in child laborers was 25.9%, which was significantly more than the 12.4% prevalence in a comparison group. Prevalence was higher in boys and those who work more than 4 h daily. 25 Another study conducted in India documented that the difference between working and non-working children in the same area in respiratory morbidities (TB, hilar gland enlargement/calcification) was statistically significant. 26

A study in Iran explored the prevalence of viral infections (HIV, HCV and HBV) in working children. 27 The study reported that the prevalence among working street children was much higher than in general population. The 4.5% of children were HIV positive, 1.7% were hepatitis B positive and 2.6% hepatitis C positive. The likelihood of being HIV positive among working children of Tehran was increased by factors like having experience in trading sex, having parents who used drugs or parents infected with HCV.

Lastly, one study was a meta-analysis conducted on data of working children in 83 LMIC documented that child labor is significantly and positively related to adolescent mortality, to a population’s nutrition level, and to the presence of infectious diseases. 8

Child labor and mental health

Overall, all studies included, except one, 28 reported that child labor is associated with higher prevalence of mental and/or behavioral disorders. In addition, all studies concluded that child labor is associated with one or more forms of abuse.

A study conducted in Jordan reported a significant difference in the level of coping efficacy and psychosocial health between working non-schooled children, working school children and non-working school children. Non-working school children had a better performance on the SDQ scale. Coping efficacy of working non-schooled children was lower than that of the other groups. 29

A study conducted in Pakistan reported that the prevalence of behavioral problems among working children was 9.8%. Peer problems were most prevalent, followed by problems of conduct. 30 A study from Ethiopia 31 reported that emotional and behavioral disorders are more common among working children. However, another study in Ethiopia 28 reported a lower prevalence of mental/behavioral disorders in child laborers compared to non-working children. The stark difference between these two studies could be due to the explanation provided by Alem et al. , i.e. that their findings could have been tampered by selection bias or healthy worker effect.

A study concerned with child abuse in Bangladesh reported that the prevalence of abuse and child exploitation was widespread. Boys were more exposed. Physical assault was higher towards younger children while other types were higher towards older ones. 32 A similar study conducted in Turkey documented that 62.5% of the child laborers were subjected to abuse at their workplaces; 21.8% physical, 53.6% emotional and 25.2% sexual, 100% were subjected to physical neglect and 28.7% were subjected to emotional neglect. 33

One study focused on sexual assault among working females in Nigeria. They reported that the sexual assault rate was 77.7%. In 38.6% of assault cases, the assailant was a customer. Girls who were younger than 12 years, had no formal education, worked for more than 8 h/day, or had two or more jobs were more likely to experience sexual assault. 34

Main findings of this study

Through a comprehensive systematic review, we conclude that child labor continues to be a major public health challenge. Child labor continues to be negatively associated with the physical and psychological health of children involved. Although no cause–effect relation can be established, as all studies included are cross-sectional, studies documented higher prevalence of different health issues in working children compared to control groups or general population.

This reflects a failure of policies not only to eliminate child labor, but also to make it safer. Although there is a decline in the number of working children, the quality of life of those still engaged in child labor seems to remain low.

Children engaged in labor have poor health status, which could be precipitated or aggravated by labor. Malnutrition and poor growth were reported to be highly prevalent among working children. On top of malnutrition, the nature of labor has its effects on child’s health. Most of the studies adjusted for the daily working hours. Long working hours have been associated with poorer physical outcomes. 18 , 19 , 25 , 26 , 35 It was also reported that the likelihood of being sexually abused increased with increasing working hours. 34 The different types and sectors of labor were found to be associated with different health outcomes as well. 13 , 18 , 24 However, comparing between the different types of labor was not possible due to lack of data.

The majority of studies concluded that child labor is associated with higher prevalence of mental and behavioral disorders, as shown in the results. School attendance, family income and status, daily working hours and likelihood of abuse, in its different forms, were found to be associated with the mental health outcomes in working children. These findings are consistent with previous studies and research frameworks. 36

Child labor subjects children to abuse, whether verbally, physically or sexually which ultimately results in psychological disturbances and behavioral disorders. Moreover, peers and colleagues at work can affect the behavior of children, for example, smoking or drugs. The effects of child labor on psychological health can be long lasting and devastating to the future of children involved.

What is already known on this topic

Previous reviews have described different adverse health impacts of child labor. However, there were no previous attempts to review the collective health impacts of child labor. Working children are subjected to different risk factors, and the impacts of child labor are usually not limited to one illness. Initial evidence of these impacts was published in the 1920s. Since then, an increasing number of studies have used similar methods to assess the health impacts of child labor. Additionally, most of the studies are confined to a single country.

What this study adds

To our knowledge, this is the first review that provides a comprehensive summary of both the physical and mental health impacts of child labor. Working children are subjected to higher levels of physical and mental stress compared to non-working children and adults performing the same type of work. Unfortunately, the results show that these children are at risk of developing short and long-term health complications, physically or mentally.

Though previous systematic reviews conducted on the topic in 19 97 1 and 20 07 8 reported outcomes in different measures, our findings reflect similar severity of the health impacts of child labor. This should be alarming to organizations that set child labor as a target. We have not reviewed the policies targeting child labor here, yet our findings show that regardless of policies in place, further action is needed.

Most of the current literature about child labor follow a cross-sectional design, which although can reflect the health status of working children, it cannot establish cause–effect associations. This in turn affects strategies and policies that target child labor.

In addition, comparing the impacts of different labor types in different countries will provide useful information on how to proceed. Further research following a common approach in assessing child labor impacts in different countries is needed.

Limitations of this study

First, we acknowledge that all systematic reviews are subject to publication bias. Moreover, the databases used might introduce bias as most of the studies indexed by them are from industrialized countries. However, these databases were used for their known quality and to allow reproduction of the data. Finally, despite our recognition of the added value of meta-analytic methods, it was not possible to conduct one due to lack of a common definition for child labor, differences in inclusion and exclusion criteria, different measurements and different outcome measures. Nevertheless, to minimize bias, we employed rigorous search methods including an extensive and comprehensive search, and data extraction by two independent reviewers.

Compliance with ethical standards

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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• developing countries
• mental health
• child labor

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• Volume 8, Issue 1
• Street and working children: perspectives on child labour and child work
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5868-4615 Jónína Einarsdóttir
• Faculty of Sociology, Anthropology and Folkloristics , University of Iceland School of Social Sciences , Reykjavik , Iceland
• Correspondence to Professor Jónína Einarsdóttir; je{at}hi.is

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• Anthropology
• Low and Middle Income Countries
• Social work
• Child Health
• Health Policy

The 2021 report from the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and UNICEF indicates a stagnation in progress towards eliminating child labour since 2016. 1 While prevalence has declined in Asia, the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has experienced an increase in both the number and percentage of labouring children since 2012, surpassing figures in other regions. Globally, agriculture accounts for the highest proportion of child labour (70%), particularly among younger workers. In SSA, the child labour prevalence among children aged 5–17 stands at 24%, encompassing nearly 87 million children. Moreover, the region exhibits the highest global share of child labourers in agriculture (82%) and the largest proportion of youngest labourers (5–11 years).

The differentiation between child labour and child work is fundamental to the current global approach aimed at eradicating child labour. UNICEF and the ILO define child work as light, age-appropriate tasks within the family context, including assistance with household chores, family businesses and, notably, agriculture. Such work is considered conducive to child development and socialisation without impeding education, health or well-being. Conversely, child labour is often characterised as exploitative and detrimental to children’s mental, physical, social or moral development. It deprives children of their childhood and impedes their educational progress. Child labour frequently involves full-time work at an inappropriately young age, in hazardous conditions or for extended periods. While child work is typically unpaid, child labour may involve remuneration. This distinction, guided by ILO Convention No. 138 on minimum age for employment and ILO Convention No. 182 on the worst forms of child labour, forms the foundation for efforts to eradicate all forms of child labour.

Eminent scholars in childhood studies have identified three dominant discourses on child labour in Africa and Asia, regions with high concentrations of labouring children. 2 The first is the work-free childhood perspective, which posits that childhood should be devoid of labour, emphasising education and play as the most appropriate activities for children. This perspective has significantly influenced international policies aimed at ending all child labour. The second, the sociocultural perspective, argues that children’s work must be understood within its specific cultural context. This approach recognises child work as an integral part of socialisation and the transition to adulthood. The third, the political economy perspective, contextualises child labour within broader economic and political transformations, examining the impacts of globalisation and macroeconomic policies, such as structural adjustment programmes, on children’s work.

The three perspectives of child labour in Africa and Asia are underpinned by distinct normative values and ideologies. 2 While the work-free childhood perspective tends to categorise children’s work as either destructive child labour or more acceptable child work, the sociocultural and political economy perspectives conceptualise child work as existing on a continuum. These latter perspectives emphasise the importance of the work context, its nature and its impact on children rather than applying predefined categorisations that reflect Western idealised notions of childhood. An additional emerging perspective, concerned with the local context of children’s lives, advocates for decolonising research on childhood and children’s experiences. 3 The decolonising perspective aims to challenge dominant Northern-centric ideologies, prevalent colonial assumptions, racial discrimination and adultism by incorporating indigenous, decolonial and postcolonial perspectives, particularly in Africa, Latin America and South Asia. It critiques international institutions’ efforts to protect the concept of a ‘global childhood’ through the dismissal of children’s labour as insignificant work and targeting it for elimination.

Upholding children’s voices, ensuring their participation and safeguarding their well-being are central tenets of children’s rights. Working children’s movements in Latin America began to emerge in the late 1970s, with corresponding movements established in Africa and Asia in the 1990s. 4 Their stance aligns with the sociocultural and political economy perspectives outlined above. These movements’ pragmatic agenda reflects their lived experience and opposes one-size-fits-all global policies. They advocate for improved working environments, including safety measures and fair wages, while recognising and opposing exploitation. They argue that appropriate legal frameworks should protect working children’s rights rather than criminalising their work. The working children’s movements call for access to education that allows children to balance work and schooling, professional training tailored to their circumstances and quality healthcare. They demand participation in decisions affecting them locally, nationally and internationally. Instead of criminalising their work and boycotting their products, they argue that the root causes of working children’s situations should be addressed, particularly poverty. Acknowledging that child labour is most prevalent in agriculture, they advocate for enhancing the living conditions of rural children.

The recently published volume ‘Children’s Work in African Agriculture: The Harmful and the Harmless’ challenges conventional approaches to eliminating child labour. 5 It argues for a contextual, relational understanding of children’s work by delineating the diversity of their tasks, economic realities and cultural context. While protection from exploitation remains necessary, the authors contend that, at times, blanket interventions to eliminate child labour cause collateral damage. Furthermore, the current global approach to child labour too often disregards children’s valuable financial contribution to survival and education. For instance, child labour frequently finances school attendance in SSA, a region with the highest number of out-of-school children. Paying particular attention to the concept of harm, the ever-changing, context-dependent line between harm and benefit is highlighted. The volume posits that work in SSA is a normative aspect of rural childhood, imparting vital skills for adult life; however, it concludes that the harmful work of children in African agriculture is not an unavoidable consequence of rural poverty. In line with working children’s movements, the authors advocate for a context-sensitive approach to mitigating harmful work and providing localised child protection, appropriate education, and quality health services.

Considering the high proportion of children in labour in SSA, global policies and interventions to eliminate child labour in recent decades have not been successful. 1 Obviously, age and ability matter in allocating tasks; there is a significant difference between a 6–year-old child and a 16–year-old teenager. However, criminalising working children’s survival strategies and, at times, subjecting their communities to derogatory and demeaning discourses about ‘lost childhoods’ and ‘ingrained cultural traditions and attitudes’ is doomed to fail. It is imperative to adopt alternative approaches against exploitation and harmful conditions for working children while simultaneously enhancing their well-being and future prospects. These must be guided by respect for the communities to which the children belong and children’s rights, not least the right to have a voice and participate in decisions that affect them.

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• ProNATs - Association in support of working children and youth
• Sumberg J ,
• Sabates-Wheeler R

Collaborators This is a personal Viewpoint.

Contributors Imti Choonara, BMJ Paediatrics Open Commissioning Editor (in collaboration with Shanti Raman, PhD, Editor in Chief BMJ Paeds Open) invited me to submit a Viewpoint for Topic Collection: Health and Wellbeing of Street and Working Children in collaboration with the International Society for Social Pediatrics and Child Health (ISSOP). I used Grammarly to enhance the English language.

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests No, there are no competing interests.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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Child Labor: History, Process, and Consequences

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 24 April 2020
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Md Nurul Momen 8  

Part of the book series: Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals ((ENUNSDG))

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Child labor ; Child rights ; International Labor Organization (ILO) ; United Nations (UN)

Generally, child labor refers to the working child.

Child labor is a synonym for employed or working child who has been engaged for income generation.

Child labor refers to exploitation of children from enjoying their basic human rights.

Introduction

Child labor is a contesting topic in social science research. The topic has strong implications for promoting children’s well-being, as earlier research concluded that child labor creates serious consequences on physical, social, and psychological development of children. Child labor affects access to educational institutions and academic performance; thus, it has negative consequences on the cognitive development of children. It is further added that these results may last for a long time. At micro level, these devastating effects on children affect their welfare at household level (Tang et al. 2016 ). At the macro level, child labor...

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Md Nurul Momen

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Pinar Gökcin Özuyar

HAW Hamburg, Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

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International Centre for Thriving, University of Chester, Chester, UK

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Momen, M.N. (2020). Child Labor: History, Process, and Consequences. In: Leal Filho, W., Azul, A., Brandli, L., Özuyar, P., Lange Salvia, A., Wall, T. (eds) No Poverty. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69625-6_30-1

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Advancing social justice, promoting decent work ILO is a specialized agency of the United Nations

Child labour remains a persistent problem in the world today. It is a complex phenomenon as not all work done by children can be regarded as child labour . A distinction must be made between child labour, on the one hand, and children’s activities considered part of a natural socialisation process, on the other hand. Children in child labour are those entering the labour market, or those taking on too much work and too many duties at too early an age.

Numbers on the extent, characteristics and determinants of child labour are provided by the Research and Evaluation Unit of the ILO’s Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work Branch (FUNDAMENTALS). FUNDAMENTALS assists countries in the collection, documentation, processing and analysis of child labour statistics and provides manuals, tools and training materials accordingly.

Main figures on child labour

Latest global estimates on child labour.

Child Labour: Global estimates 2020, trends and the road forward

This report takes stock of where we stand in the global effort to end child labour and describes the scale and key characteristics of child labour today, and changes over time. What the report tells us is alarming. Global progress against child labour has stalled for the first time since we began producing global estimates two decades ago. These results constitute an important reality check in meeting the international commitment to end child labour by 2025. If we do not muster the will and resources to act now on an unprecedented scale, the timeline for ending child labour will stretch many years into the future.

• Full report (pdf)
• Executive Summary (pdf)
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Methodology of the 2020 Global Estimates of Child Labour (pdf)

Country reports

• Rapid assessment on child labour in agriculture in Kosovo
• Nepal Child Labour Report 2021
• Viet Nam National Child Labour Survey 2018
• Rapid Assessment on Child Domestic Work in Myanmar

Research reports

• Meta-analysis of the effects of interventions on child labour
• Understanding informality and child labour in sub-Saharan Africa
• Understanding and addressing child labour across the Humanitarian-Development-Peace Nexus
• Issue paper on child labour and climate change

Manuals, guidelines and tools

• Ethical guidelines for research on child labour
• Model questionnaire for child labour modular surveys
• Model questionnaire for child labour stand-alone surveys
• Research for Policy Guidance
• Evidence Gap Map on Child Labour
• Interactive tools in sampling with household-based child labour surveys

ICLS and child labour

The International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) is the authoritative body to set global standards in labour statistics. Its 18th session in 2008, adopted the Resolution concerning statistics on child labour setting standards for child labour statistics. In 2018, the 20th ICLS adopted amendments to the 2008 Resolution concerning statistics on child labour to harmonize it with the international statistical standards on work and employment adopted by the 19th ICLS (2013). The ICLS resolution aims to set standards for the collection, compilation and analysis of national child labour statistics, to guide countries in updating their existing statistical system in this field or to establish such a system. The standards should also help to facilitate the international comparability of child labour statistics by minimizing methodological differences across countries.

• Resolution to amend the 18th ICLS resolutions concerning statistics of child labour - 20th ICLS 2018
• Report III - Child labour statistics - 18th ICLS 2008

77 Child Labour Essay Topics & Examples

Researching the subject of child labour for an essay, you will see that it’s quite challenging to write about. That’s why we’ve listed useful topics here.

🏆 Best Child Labour Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

🎓 good child labour project topics, 👍 interesting child labour essay topics, ❓ research questions on child labour.

Even today, in our progressive world, this is a pressing issue that you can discuss in detail, relying on region and global statistics. We would love to facilitate this task for you by providing good child labour essay topics. Our experts have collected this list on the causes, solutions, and other aspects of the issue. So, check our essay ideas and research questions on child labour and start writing!

• Arguments for and Against Banning All Forms of Child Labour It is essential to examine the border between safe and dangerous labor and compare arguments for and against the prohibition of all forms of child labor in manufacturing.
• Nestlé Company and Child Labour Exploitation In the following 15 years, the issue of child labour on African cocoa farms would become a cause celebre and Nestle would struggle to improve its image amid constant child labour scandals.
• Business Ethics and Child Labour According to the case, business ethics is the observance of rules and regulations that have been put in place. Child labour is one of the serious ethical issues that businesses have to deal with in […]
• Problem of Child Labor in Modern Society According to the International Labor Organization, these are the worst forms of child labor. There are emerging cases of child labor in the third world nations.
• Child Labour: Ethical Aspects of Employment In spite of its rich history, the question of child labour cannot be answered in a proper way; a number of issues like personal desire, necessity, and living conditions have to be taken into consideration; […]
• Child Labour in India and Intervention Measures The Union government of India need to earnestly take the initiative of conducting civic education, particularly for the Indian scheduled castes and Tribes as these categories provide wellspring for the vulnerable and susceptible Gender.
• Globalization and the Economics of Child Labor In his article “Globalization and the Economics of Child Labor”, Edmond Eric advances that globalization has resulted in a significant reduction in child labor throughout the world.
• Businesses Engaging in Child Labour They claimed that child labor practices were against the precepts of their company and international labor laws. Fairtrade International admitted that they were informed of the allegations of child labor in the cotton farms.
• Child Labour in the Late 1800s to the Early 1900s The children of the poor families were forced to find out the livelihood for their families and were deprived of education, his sweet adolescence and other necessities of the world.
• A Review of the Child Labour, Its Perspectives Child labour can be described any form of economic improving activity for children under the age of 12 depending on the individual state that compromises the child’s right to health, quality education and all work […]
• Child Labour and Rights in the United Kingdom From child labor to child abuse, there are certainly different government and non-government agencies all over the world that support and are keenly watching the child’s rights and protection programs of every country. The cases […]
• Child Labour: An Illegal Practise This paper seeks to elaborate the reasons behind the use of child labour in some corporations and the general ways child labour affects the conditions of the children involved.
• Child Labour Policies in Business While the US and many other European nations accept that the banning of any illegal form of child labour is vital for enhancing observance of the rights for children, some nations, especially in the developing […]
• Role of Codes of Conduct in Child Labour Practice As it will be observed in the following case, the issue of child labour is among the many challenges that have continued to affect the management of modern global supply chains.
• Labor Economics: Child Labor In another observation, Chau believes that the practice may be developed by the myth that children’s’ way of doing things better than adults would make them the appropriate substitute in the labor market.
• Intermittent Child Employment and Its Implications for Estimates of Child Labour
• Understanding Child Labour Beyond the Standard Economic Assumption of Monetary Poverty
• Climate Vulnerability, Communities’ Resilience and Child Labour
• Child Labour and the Industrial Revolution
• Child Labour Is Not Always Bad for Society
• An Analysis of the Child Labour in the Nineteenth Century England
• Child Labour and Its Effects on Children and Their Families
• An Introduction to the Child Labour in Third World Countries
• Banning Child Labour in Developing Countries
• International Migration and Child labour in Developing Countries
• Child Labour: A Historically Important Role with Future Repercussions
• International Migration and Child Labour in Developing Countries
• The Trade-Off Between Child Labour and Schooling in India
• The Role of Trade and Offshoring in the Determination of Child Labour
• Human Rights for Child Labour
• Mortality Risks, Education and Child Labour
• Child Labour in Developing Countries: The Role of Education, Poverty and Birth Order
• Educational Programme for Child Labour
• Breaking Mainstream Thinking: Legalizing Child Labour
• The Intriguing Relation Between Adult Minimum Wage and Child Labour
• Unintended Effects of Microfinance: An Increase in Child Labour in Some Contexts
• Child Labour, School Attendance and Performance
• Victorian England Child Labour
• Child Labour Is a Human Rights Violation
• Child Labour and Its Effect on Children Essay
• Agricultural Dualism, Incidence of Child Labour and Subsidy Policies
• Voting with Your Children: A Positive Analysis of Child Labour Laws
• Rescuing Children from the Hands of Child Labour
• An Overview of Child Labour in the 19th Century
• Child Labour and Trade Liberalization in a Developing Economy
• Impact of Trade Vs. Non-trade Policies on the Incidence of Child Labour
• Social Responsibility and Child Labour
• What Are Child Labour and Possible Prevention?
• Does Globalisation Increase Child Labour?
• Why Banning the Worst Forms of Child Labour Would Hurt Poor Countries?
• Was Victorian England Child Labour?
• The Income Elasticity of Child Labour: Do Cash Transfers Impact on the Poorest Children?
• Are Fair Trade Labels Effective Against Child Labour?
• How to Find the Trade-Off Between Child Labour and Human Capital Formation?
• Does Child Labour Still Exist Today?
• Was Child Labour Necessary During the Industrial Revolution?
• Child Labour and How Does It Happen?
• What Is the Connection Between Child Labour and Mothers’ Work?
• Is There Subterranean Child Labour Force?
• What Should You Know About Child Labour?
• Can the WTO Member States Rely on Citizen Concerns to Prevent Corporations from Importing Goods Made from Child Labour?
• Child Labour Measurement: Whom Should We Ask?
• What Is the Universally Acceptable Reason for Child Labour?
• Child Labour and What Is It?
• Should Child Labour Be Banned Globally?
• What Are the Trade-Off Between Human Capital and Child Labour?
• Does Child Labour Displace Schooling?
• Why Did Child Labour Decline in Britain in the 19th and 20th Centuries
• What Was the Child Labour?
• Does Health Insurance Reduce Child Labour and Education Gaps?
• What Is the Effect of Child Labour on Learning Achievement?
• Is Overpopulation the Main Cause of Child Labour?
• Does Child Labour Harm Child Education and Health?
• Does Child Labour Affect School Attendance and School Performance?
• What Is the Connection Between Child Labour and Trade Liberalization?
• What are the Un’s Preventative Measures Against Child Labour?
• Child Labour: Core Labour Standards and FDI: Friends or Foes?
• Financial Crisis Paper Topics
• Childcare Research Topics
• Employment Law Paper Topics
• Socioeconomic Status Paper Topics
• Work Environment Research Topics
• Social Justice Essay Ideas
• Inequality Titles
• Human Rights Essay Ideas
• Chicago (A-D)
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IvyPanda. (2023, October 26). 77 Child Labour Essay Topics & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/child-labour-essay-examples/

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IvyPanda . "77 Child Labour Essay Topics & Examples." October 26, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/child-labour-essay-examples/.

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Teaching students about organic form, teaching students about justinian and theodora, michael williams, u.n.c. reports declines in black and hispanic enrollment, educationusa higher education fair 2024, internationalisation experts debate approaches to war in gaza, campus sustainability, research and teaching excellence, smart space optimization, good child labor essay topics.

Good Child Labour Project Topics

• Intermittent Child Labor and Its Implications for Child Labor Estimates
• Beyond the Standard Economic Assumption of Monetary Poverty, Understanding Child Labor
• Vulnerability to Climate Change, Community Resilience, and Child Labor
• The Industrial Revolution and Child Labor
• Child Labor Is Not Always Harmful to Society
• An Examination of Child Labor in Nineteenth-Century England
• Child Labor and Its Impact on Children and Families
• An Overview of Child Labor in Third-World Countries
• Child Labor Ban in Developing Countries
• Child Labor and International Migration in Developing Countries
• Child Labor: A Historical Role with Implications for the Future

Interesting Child Labour Essay Topics

• The Trade-Off Between Child Labor and Schooling in India
• The Role of Trade and Offshoring in Child Labor Determination
• Human Rights Concerning Child Labor
• Mortality, Education, and Child Labor
• The Role of Education, Poverty, and Birth Order in Child Labor in Developing Countries
• Child Labor Education Programme
• Breaking Conventional Wisdom: Legalizing Child Labor
• The Intriguing Relationship Between Adult Minimum Wage and Child Labor
• Microfinance’s Unintended Consequences: An Increase in Child Labor in Some Contexts
• Child Labor, School Attendance, and Academic Achievement
• Child Labor in Victorian England
• Child Labor is a Violation of Human Rights
• Essay on Child Labor and Its Impact on Children
• Agricultural Dualism, Child Labor, and Subsidy Policies
• Voting with Your Children: A Pro-Child Labor Law Analysis
• Taking Children Out of the Hands of Child Labor
• Child Labor in the Nineteenth Century
• Child Labor and Trade Liberalization in a Developing Economy
• Impact of Trade vs Non-Trade Policies on Child Labor Incidence
• Child Labor and Social Responsibility

Research Questions on Child Labour

• What Is Child Labor and How Can It Be Prevented?
• Does Globalization Boost Child Labor?
• Why Would Prohibiting the Worst Forms of Child Labor Harm Poor Countries?
• Was There Child Labor in Victorian England?
• Child Labor’s Income Elasticity: Do Cash Transfers Help the Poorest Children?
• Is Fair Trade Labeling Effective in Combating Child Labor?
• How Can We Find a Balance Between Child Labor and Human Capital Formation?
• Is There Still Child Labor Today?
• Is Child Labor Required During the Industrial Revolution?
• What Is Child Labor and How Does It Occur?
• What Is the Relationship Between Child Labor and Mother’s Work?
• Is There a Child Labor Force Underground?
• What Do You Need to Know About Child Labor?
• Can WTO Members Rely on Citizen Concerns to Prevent Corporations from Importing Child Labor-Made Goods?
• Who Should We Ask About Child Labor Measurement?
• What Is the Most Commonly Accepted Reason for Child Labor?
• What Exactly Is Child Labor?
• Should Child Labor Be Outlawed Worldwide?
• What Are the Costs of Human Capital and Child Labor?
• Does Child Labor Displace Education?
• Why Did Child Labor Decline in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries?
• What Exactly Was Child Labor?
• Is Health Insurance Effective in Reducing Child Labor and Educational Gaps?
• What Is the Impact of Child Labor on Academic Achievement?
• Is Overpopulation is the Primary Cause of Child Labor?
• Is Child Labor Harmful to Children’s Education and Health?
• Is Child Labor Affecting School Attendance and Performance?
• What Is the Relationship Between Child Labor and Trade Liberalization?
• What are the United Nations Preventive Measures Against Child Labor?
• Child Labor, Core Labour Standards, and FDI: Friends or Foes?

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Review Protocol

• Child Labor Review Protocol

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Child Labor

The child labor evidence review examines the existing causal evidence on child labor and child work targeted for elimination. Child labor refers to the engagement of children in prohibited work. While the definition of child labor is guided by International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions and resolutions, there is no single definition across nations. Moreover, definitions may change over time, and the terminology and concepts used to categorize child labor (and to distinguish from working children) may be inconsistent in published studies and research reports. CLEAR acknowledges differing definitions of child labor by country but does not validate the definition of child labor or assess the validity of authors’ constructs within individual studies for the country in which the program or intervention being examined occurs. For each study in the review, CLEAR assesses the quality of the causal evidence and summarizes its approach, findings, and the intervention examined.

Synthesis Reports

Synthesis reports look at the research evidence across studies within a topic area. They also highlight gaps in the literature, and suggest areas in which further research is needed.

Child Labor Synthesis

Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) reduced child work/child labor and improved school participation outcomes but the effectiveness differed by child characteristics and outcomes.

Unconditional cash transfers (UCT) reduced child work/child labor and improved school participation.

Training/TA programs may decrease child work/child labor and increase school participation.

Food programs had mixed impacts on child work/child labor outcomes but favorable school participation outcomes.

Only one high-rated study of a scholarship program had favorable impacts on child work/child labor and school participation outcomes.

The only high-rated study of an “other” intervention found improved child labor and school participation outcomes.

• Recent Research

Recently Added

CLEAR searches the existing literature for research relevant to this topic area's focus. Browse the most recently reviewed research below.

Program Keluarga Harapan: Main findings from the impact evaluation of Indonesia’s pilot household conditional cash transfer program (World Bank 2011)

Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis

Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence

Productive safety net program and children’s time use between work and schooling in Ethiopia (Woldehanna 2010)

Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence

Educational and child labour impacts of two food-for-education schemes: Evidence from a randomised trial in rural Burkina Faso (Kazianga et al. 2012)

Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence

Impact evaluation: Combating worst forms of child labor by reinforcing policy response and promoting sustainable livelihoods and educational opportunities in Egypt, 2011-2012 (ICF International 2013)

The impact of Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program on schooling and child labor (Hoddinott, Gilligan, and Taffessee 2009)

The impact of Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program on schooling and child labor (Hoddinott et al. 2009)

CLEAR Icon Key

Below is a key for icons used to indicate important details about a study, such as its type, evidence rating, and outcome findings.

High Causal Evidence

Strong evidence the effects are caused by the examined intervention.

Moderate Causal Evidence

Evidence that the effects are caused to some degree by the examined intervention.

Low Causal Evidence

Little evidence that the effects are caused by the examined intervention.

Causal Impact Analysis

Uses quantitative methods to assess the effectiveness of a program, policy, or intervention.

Descriptive Analysis

Describes a program, policy, or intervention using qualitative or quantitative methods.

Implementation Analysis

Examines the implementation of a program, policy, or intervention.

The study found at least one favorable impact in the outcome domain, and no unfavorable impacts.

The study found some favorable and some unfavorable impacts in the outcome domain.

The study found no statistically significant impacts in the outcome domain.

Unfavorable

The study found at least one unfavorable impact in the outcome domain, and no favorable impacts.

Not applicable

Not applicable because no outcomes were examined in the outcome domain.

Favorable - low evidence

The study found at least one favorable impact in the outcome domain, and no unfavorable impacts. The study received a low causal evidence ratings so these findings should be interpreted with caution.

Mixed - low evidence

The study found some favorable and some unfavorable impacts in the outcome domain. The study received a low causal evidence ratings so these findings should be interpreted with caution.

None - low evidence

The study found no statistically significant impacts in the outcome domain. The study received a low causal evidence ratings so these findings should be interpreted with caution.

Unfavorable - low evidence

The study found at least one unfavorable impact in the outcome domain, and no favorable impacts. The study received a low causal evidence ratings so these findings should be interpreted with caution.

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Child labour issues and challenges

Kalpana srivastava.

Editor, IPJ

“ There can be no keener revelation of a society's soul than the way in which it treats its children .” – Nelson Mandela

Children are future citizens of the Nation and their adequate development is utmost priority of the country. Unfortunately, child labor engulfs children across the world. The world is home to 1.2 billion individuals aged 10-19 years. However, despite its menace in various forms, the data shows variation in prevalence of child labor across the globe and the statistical figures about child labor are very alarming. There are an estimated 186 million child laborers worldwide. The 2001 national census of India estimated total number of child labor aged 5–14 to be at 12.6 million.[ 1 ] Small-scale and community-based studies have found estimated prevalence of 12.6 million children engaged in hazardous occupations. Many children are “hidden workers” working in homes or in the underground economy.[ 2 ] Although the Constitution of India guarantees free and compulsory education to children between the age of 6 to 14 and prohibits employment of children younger than 14 in 18 hazardous occupations, child labor is still prevalent in the informal sectors of the Indian economy.[ 3 ] Child labor violates human rights, and is in contravention of the International Labor Organization (Article 32, Convention Rights of the Child). About one-third of children of the developing world are failing to complete even 4 years of education.[ 4 ] Indian population has more than 17.5 million working children in different industries, and incidentally maximum are in agricultural sector, leather industry, mining and match-making industries, etc.[ 5 ]

The term “child labor” is often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical-mental development. It refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children, and interferes with their schooling by depriving them of the opportunity to attend school, obliging them to leave school prematurely or requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long and heavy work. The statistical figures about child workers in the world have variation because of the differences in defining categories of age group and engagement of children in formal and informal sector.[ 6 ]

Child labor continues to be a great concern in many parts of the world. In 2008, some 60% of the 215 million boys and girls were estimated to be child laborers worldwide. Major engagement was in agriculture sector, followed by fisheries, aquaculture, livestock and forestry. In addition to work that interferes with schooling and is harmful to personal development, many of these children work in hazardous occupations or activities that are harmful.[ 7 ] Incidentally, 96% of the child workers are in the developing countries of Africa, Asia and South America. With respect to the child workers between the ages of 5 and 14, Asia makes up 61% of child workers in developing countries, while Africa has 32% and Latin America 7%. Further, while Asia has the highest number of child workers, Africa has the highest prevalence of child labor (40%).[ 8 ]

LAW AND CHILD LABOR

The policy curbing child labor exists but lack of enforcement of labor restrictions perpetuates child labor. This is manifested in variation in minimum age restriction in different types of employment. The International Labor Office reports that children work the longest hours and are the worst paid of all laborers. In India, the Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986 and Rules state that no child shall be employed or permitted to work in any of the occupations set forth in Part A of the Schedule or in any workshop wherein any of the processes set forth in Part B of the Schedule is carried on. For this purpose, “child” means a person who has not completed his 14 th year of age. The Act prohibits employment of children in certain specified hazardous occupations and processes and regulates the working conditions in others. The list of hazardous occupations and processes is progressively being expanded on the recommendation of the Child Labor Technical Advisory Committee constituted under the Act.[ 9 ]

FORMS OF CHILD LABOR

Children are employed in both formal and informal sectors. Among the occupations wherein children are engaged in work are construction work, domestic work and small-scale industries. Incidentally, agriculture is not only the oldest but also the most common child occupation worldwide. Some of the industries that depend on child labor are bangle-making, beedi-making, power looms and manufacturing processes. These industries use toxic metals and substances such as lead, mercury, manganese, chromium, cadmium, benzene, pesticides and asbestos. Child labor is very harmful and wholehearted efforts to eliminate this should be done.[ 10 ]

THE CONSEQUENCES OF CHILD LABOR

The negative impact on the physiological and psychological levels of children includes specific concerns of child labor and its consequences on mental health. It is worth noting that one-third of children of the developing world are failing to complete even 4 years of education.[ 6 ] The analysis of factors leading to engagement of children in hazardous factors elucidated socioeconomic factors as one of the important determinants. Poverty is considered as one of the contributory factors in child labor.[ 11 ]

Mental well being is less frequently researched in child labor.[ 12 ] A retrospective cohort study in Morocco randomly examined 200 children working in the handicraft sector and found a high prevalence of respiratory, digestive and skin conditions, as well as mental health presentations such as migraines, insomnia, irritability, enuresis and asthenia.[ 13 ]

In a cross-sectional survey, urban Lebanese children aged 10–17, working full-time in small industrial shops, were compared with non-working matched school children. Majority of them had poor physical health, predominantly marked with skin lesions or ear complaints and social care needs.[ 14 ] Similarly, authors aimed to find out consequences in children in Lebanon exposed to solvents, and found significantly higher rates of lightheadedness, fatigue, impaired memory and depression compared with a non-exposed group.[ 15 ] A cross-sectional study in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, used diagnostic interviews to assess prevalence of mental disorders in 528 child laborers and street workers, child domestics and private enterprise workers aged between 5 and 15 years. The prevalence of mental disorders was noted to be as high as 20.1% compared with 12.5% in the general population.[ 16 ] Further study to establish the association between labor-related variables and mental health problems was carried out among 780 children engaged in labor (aged 9–18 years) in the Gaza Strip. Mental health problems of children in labor were likely to be associated with socioeconomic determinants as well as factors related to their underage employment.[ 17 ]

The physical and social consequences are deliberated by researchers; however, mental health area has not been explored so much. Studies are lacking even in Indian scenario regarding impact of child labor on mental health.

INTERVENTION AND CHILD LABOR

Education is a very important part of development. Children who are drawn to child labor are basically driven because of economic deprivation, lack of schooling and engagement of family for daily needs. Studies have found low enrollment with increased rates of child employment. Schools are the platform for early intervention against child labor, as it restricts their participation in menial jobs. Hurdles in this approach are economic reasons. Unless economic change is brought about, the children will not be able to attend the school. Child labor can be controlled by economic development increasing awareness and making education affordable across all levels, and enforcement of anti child labor laws.[ 18 ]

The Government of India has taken certain initiatives to control child labor. The National Child Labor Project (NCLP) Scheme was launched in 9 districts of high child labor endemicity in the country. Under the scheme, funds are given to the District Collectors for running special schools for child labor. Most of these schools are run by the NGOs in the district. Under the scheme, these children are provided formal/informal education along with vocational training, and a stipend of Rs. 100 per month. Health check-up is also done for them.

Poverty is one of the important factors for this problem. Hence, enforcement alone cannot help solve it. The Government has been laying a lot of emphasis on the rehabilitation of these children and on improving the economic conditions of their families.

Many NGOs like CARE India, Child Rights and You, Global March Against Child Labor, etc., have been working to eradicate child labor in India. The child labor can be stopped when knowledge is translated into legislation and action, moving good intention and ideas into protecting the health of the children. The endurance of young children is higher and they cannot protest against discrimination. Focusing on grassroots strategies to mobilize communities against child labor and reintegration of child workers into their homes and schools has proven crucial to breaking the cycle of child labor. A multidisciplinary approach involving specialists with medical, psychological and socio-anthropological level is needed to curb this evil.[ 19 ]

It is in this context that we have to take a relook at the landmark passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act 2009, which marks a historic moment for the children of India. For the first time in India's history, children will be guaranteed their right to quality elementary education by the state with the help of families and communities. The world cannot reach its goal to have every child complete primary school by 2015 without India. Although there have been significant improvements in the proportion of children from socially disadvantaged groups in school, gaps still remain. Girls are still less likely to enroll in school than boys; in 2005, for upper primary school (Grades 6–8) girls’ enrollment was still 8.8 points lower than boys, for Scheduled Tribes (ST) the gender gap was 12.6 points and it was 16 points for Scheduled Castes (SC). RTE provides a ripe platform to reach the unreached, with specific provisions for disadvantaged groups such as child laborers, migrant children, children with special needs, or those who have a “disadvantage owing to social, cultural economical, geographical, linguistic, gender or such other factors.” Bringing 8 million out-of-school children into classes at the age-appropriate level with the support to stay in school and succeed poses a major challenge. Substantial efforts are essential to eliminate disparities and ensure quality with equity. Successful implementation of the Act would certainly go a long way in eradicating child labor in India.

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56 Child Labor Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on child labor, 🎓 most interesting child labor research titles, 💡 simple child labor essay ideas.

• Child Labor and Social Worker Interventions
• Samsung and Child Labor: Business Ethics Case
• Child Labor Laws and Its Effectiveness
• Child Labor in Fashion Industry
• The Sadler Report: Child Labor in the United Kingdom
• What Nestle Could Have Done to Address the Child Labor Issue in 2015
• Child Labor’s Negative Impact on Human Development
• Ethics in Business: Child Labor in Chocolate Industry
• International Economics: Tariffs in Argentina and Child Labor
• Massive Industrialization and Child Labor Nowadays
• The Analyze of Child Labor Research
• Child Labor in Ghanaian and Bangladeshi Industries
• Child Labor, Its Forms, and Disputable Issues
• Child Labor Role in the Global Economy
• Child Labor Role in Westernization and Globalization
• Children Labor in Sweatshops
• Ending Child Labor Through Education
• Private Sector Strategies to Prevent & Eradicate Child Labor
• Evolution of Child Labor Rate in Brazilian States
• Child Labour in Agriculture: A Hazardous but Common Practice Worldwide
• Understanding Child Labour Beyond the Standard Economic Assumption of Monetary Poverty
• Challenges and Perspectives of Child Labor
• Child Labor: Forms, Causes, and How to Combat It
• Economic Growth and Child Labor in Low-Income Economies
• Unveiling the Dark Realities of Child Labor in Fast Fashion
• Effects of Public Policy on Child Labor
• The Dangerous Demand for Child Labor
• Small Hands Should Play, Not Work: A Theoretical Analysis of Interventions in Child Labor
• Combating Child Labor Within and Beyond Our Borders
• Child Labour: A Shameful Reality in the 21st Century
• Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor
• Human Capital Investment in the Presence of Child Labor
• Technology’s Role in Eradicating Child Labor
• List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor
• The Political Economy of Child Labor and Its Impacts on International Business
• Child Labor: What Are the Health and Social Implications?
• The Effects of Public Policy on Child Labor
• Child Labour: Psychological and Behavioral Challenges
• The History of Child Labor in America
• Child Labor and Conflict: Evidence From Afghanistan
• The Socio-Economic Deprivation of the Child Laborer
• The Determinants of Child Labor: Theory and Evidence
• Child Labor Laws and the Employment Act of 1946
• Eliminating Child Labor: U.S. and International Initiatives
• Credit Access Cuts Child Labor in Developing Countries
• Effects of Climate Change and Environmental Degradation on Child Labour
• Characteristics of Child Labour and Their Health Problems
• Western Policies on Child Labor Abroad
• Child Labor Laws in the U.S and Its Global Supply Chains
• Lost Children: Child Labor in Colombia
• The Child Labor in Developing Countries: A Challenge to Millennium Development Goals
• History, Facts, and Statistics of Child Labour
• Children’s Labor Force Participation in the World System
• The Effects of Gender Inequality on Child Labour
• Child Labor and Slavery in the Chocolate Industry
• The Psychological Impact of Child Labor in North Korea

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New global child and forced labor reporting: 3 takeaways

The Bureau of International Labor Affairs’ 2024 “List of Goods Produced with Child Labor or Forced Labor,” released today, provides a sobering glimpse into global labor exploitation, which affects millions and intersects with pressing global issues. Three key trends emerge:

1. The expanding global footprint of labor exploitation

Since 2022, our list has grown from 159 goods in 78 countries to 204 goods in 82 countries and areas. We've added 72 new items across industries, including consumer goods, electronics, garments, textiles and manufacturing. This expansion highlights that current efforts to address labor exploitation are not keeping pace with evolving global manufacturing trends.

Today’s global supply chains are complex and ever-changing, spanning countries and regions and involving multiple layers. This obscures visibility into labor practices, particularly at the production level. Combined with consumer demand for cheap products, pressure to keep costs low, and the drive for higher profit margins, this creates conditions where exploitative labor practices persist. In our research, we’re not looking at isolated incidents of labor violations, but rather at the big picture – the whole of the supply chain.

2. The growing list of critical minerals

The listed number of critical minerals produced by child or forced labor has grown to 12, and many are vital for green technologies, such as solar products and electric cars. Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia and Bolivia mine cobalt, lithium and other crucial minerals. Forced labor taints aluminum and polysilicon from China, nickel from Indonesia and cobalt from the DRC. 

This trend presents a growing challenge that we don’t have the luxury of ignoring: meeting our need for clean energy while also protecting vulnerable workers. As demand for critical minerals accelerates, so does the urgency to address labor exploitation. Delay means more children in hazardous mines, more workers exploited, and more entrenched labor abuses in these supply chains.

3. Labor exploitation driving China's global production dominance

Since 2016, the Chinese government has subjected Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities in Xinjiang to state-imposed forced labor. This year we added six more goods produced by forced labor in China to the list – caustic soda, metallurgical grade silicon, polyvinyl chloride, aluminum, jujubes and squid – which means tainted goods are infiltrating an increasing number of global supply chains, from electronics to renewable energy technologies.

While these trends are sobering, there are signs of progress. Four goods have been removed from the list – blueberries from Argentina, salt from Cambodia, shrimp from Thailand and fluorspar from Mongolia – based on evidence that child labor has been eliminated beyond isolated incidents. However, progress in corporate responsibility and governmental efforts to combat child labor remains slow. Our latest "Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor" report offers valuable insights into where governments are falling short. For example, 60% of our recommendations for governments relate to strengthening laws and regulations and their enforcement.

A call for decisive action

To address these persistent issues, we need immediate and concerted efforts from governments and businesses:

• Governments must strengthen and enforce labor laws, implement social programs addressing poverty and ensure access to quality education.
• Companies need to monitor their entire supply chains, increase transparency, collaborate with stakeholders and enforce accountability.
• Both should support workers' rights, ensuring that workers have a voice and the power to bargain collectively for better wages and working conditions.

The complexity of global supply chains is not an excuse for inaction. Instead, it's a call for more innovative, comprehensive and collaborative approaches to ensuring ethical labor practices worldwide.

For more insights, explore our latest reports .

Marcia Eugenio is the director of the Office of Child Labor, Forced Labor and Human Trafficking in the Bureau of International Labor Affairs. Follow ILAB on X/Twitter at @ILAB_DOL and on LinkedIn .

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The Global State of Child and Forced Labor

FPC Briefing

Thea Lee, Deputy Undersecretary for International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor

Marcia Eugenio, Director of the Office of Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking (OCFT)

Thursday, September 5, 2024, 1:00 p.m. ET

Washington D.C.

September 5, 2024

Deputy Undersecretary of Labor Thea Lee and Director of the Office of Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking (OCFT) Marcia Eugenio, brief on the updated list of the goods and products produced through the use of child or forced labor, the industries where chi l dren are exploited , and guidance on how government s can combat these abuses.

List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor | U.S. Department of Labor (dol.gov)

Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor | U.S. Department of Labor (dol.gov)

THE WASHINGTON FOREIGN PRESS CENTER, WASHINGTON, D.C.

MODERATOR:   (In progress) and welcome to the Washington Foreign Press Center.  My name is Zina Wolfington, and I’m the moderator of today’s briefing.  Today, it is my pleasure to introduce Thea Lee, Deputy Undersecretary for International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor, and Marcia Eugenio, Director of the Office of Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking.

Deputy Undersecretary Lee and Director Eugenio will brief on the updated list of the goods and products produced through the use of child or forced labor, the industries where children are exploited, and guidance on how governments can combat these abuses.

A reminder that this discussion is on the record and the briefing transcript and video will be posted online later today at fpc.state.gov.

And with that, I will turn it over to Thea to begin with her opening remarks.

MS LEE:   Thank you very much, Zina, and many thanks to the Foreign Press Center for hosting today’s briefing.

Good afternoon and thanks to all of you for joining us today.  I’m very pleased to share our latest Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor report and the List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor.  We released these two flagship reports today at 10:00 a.m.  You all should have an electronic copy, or you can find one on our website – dol.gov/ilab.

I’m going to focus first on our biennial list of goods, which provides an overview of global labor exploitation worldwide, affecting tens of millions of lives and intersecting with some of the most pressing issues of our time.  Our findings underscore the need for more focused work to address labor exploitation, with implications for workers’ rights, government policy, and corporate accountability.  Our list includes goods produced directly with child labor or forced labor, as well as downstream goods, which incorporate inputs produced by child labor or forced labor.

There are many ways to unpack this information, but today I want to focus on three troubling trends.  First is the expanding global footprint of forced labor and child labor.  Since 2022, our list has grown from 159 goods in 78 countries to 204 goods in 82 countries and areas.  We’ve added 72 goods, including consumer goods, electronics, garments, textiles, and manufacturing.  This is consistent with global statistics from the International Labor Organization, which also shows that both child labor and forced labor are on the rise in the aggregate since 2016.

The expansion highlights that current public and private sector efforts to address labor exploitation are not keeping pace with evolving global manufacturing trends that put workers at risk – at risk of unsafe working conditions, of exploitative child labor, of forced labor, or repression for trying to organize a union.

Today’s global supply chains are complex and ever-changing, involving multiple layers from smallholder farms and agricultural laborers through processors, manufacturers, wholesalers, and ultimately retailers.  This complexity can obscure visibility into labor practices.  In fact, in some cases it is designed to obscure visibility into labor practices.  The lack of transparency, combined with consumer demand for cheap products, pressure to keep costs low, and the drive for higher profit margins creates conditions where exploitative labor practices persist.

The second trend I want to highlight is the growing number of critical minerals that are produced with child labor or forced labor.  There are now 12 on the list.  Children in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Bolivia are mining critical minerals like cobalt, copper, lithium, manganese, tantalum, tin, tungsten, and zinc.  They toil in poorly regulated artisanal and small-scale mines, performing dangerous tasks such as digging tunnels, carrying heavy loads, and handling toxic substances.

Forced labor taints the supply chain of other crucial minerals, including aluminum and polysilicon from China, nickel from Indonesia, and again cobalt, tantalum, and tin from the DRC.  Workers face abuses like excessive and involuntary overtime, unsafe work, unpaid wages, fines, dismissal, threats of violence, and debt bondage.

Many of these materials are vital in the production of green technologies.  Cobalt and lithium are essential for electric vehicle batteries.  Polysilicon captures solar energy, and indium brightens up our LED lights.  This underscores a growing challenge that we do not have the luxury of ignoring.  How do we balance our urgent need for clean energy with the imperative to protect vulnerable workers?  Can we ensure that our path to a more sustainable future isn’t paved with labor exploitation?

As the green energy revolution accelerates, so does the demand for critical minerals.  The longer we hesitate, the more children will be forced into hazardous mines, the more workers will endure exploitation, and the more entrenched labor abuses will become in critical mineral supply chains.  This is why, as we seek to accelerate the development of clean energy supply chains, we must simultaneously put in place enforceable worker protections.  We must locate new clean energy investment in countries that are committed to respect for fundamental workers’ rights.  We must consistently and transparently enforce our trade provisions that require adherence to workers’ rights as a condition for market access.  And we must coordinate with likeminded countries to ensure that we are not isolated in this work.

Acting Labor Secretary Julie Su and the Biden-Harris administration have made workers’ rights in global clean energy supply chains a top priority, and I’m proud to do that work.

The third trend worth noting is the labor exploitation driving China’s global production dominance.  Since at least 2016, the Government of the People’s Republic of China has subjected Uyghurs and members of other predominately Muslim ethnic minority groups in Xinjiang to genocide, state-imposed forced labor, and crimes against humanity.  Since 2020, we have identified six goods produced by Uyghur forced labor in China, and this year we added six more, including caustic soda, metallurgical-grade silicon, polyvinyl chloride, squid, jujubes, and aluminum.

This escalation is deeply concerning, as China is a leading – if not the leading – global exporter of almost all of these metals.  These tainted goods – materials.  These tainted goods are integral components in electronics, construction, automotive, and renewable energy technologies, and the pervasive nature of these exports makes it increasingly challenging for international businesses to ensure that their supply chains are free from products produced with forced labor, underscoring the urgent need for heightened scrutiny and ethical sourcing practices.

A couple of new items this year in our child labor report that I wanted to bring your attention to.  One is that we have highlighted freedom of association and collective bargaining in several countries, and that is because we know that if we’re going to address child labor, we need to make sure that the parents, the adults in the families of these children, have access to decent work, are able to form and join unions of their choosing.  And so we know that these issues are inextricably intertwined.

We also have a special section looking at vulnerable populations in particular countries, because this is what we’ve seen – that there are patterns, whether it’s migrant workers or ethnic minorities in particular countries, or even internal migrants that tend to be more subject, more vulnerable to child labor.

And the last thing we’ve done is we’ve – we have added a sentence – a section that highlights survivors’ voices and their reflections, and that is something that we’re proud of, that we want to make sure that our work is always informed by what we know from survivors.

And with that, I’m very happy to turn over the podium to my esteemed colleague, Marcia Eugenio.

MS EUGENIO:   Good afternoon.  As Thea mentioned, the trends paint a sobering picture of ongoing labor exploitation.  However, there are also signs of meaningful progress.

I’m pleased to report that we have removed four goods from the list of goods based on evidence that child labor has been eliminated in their production beyond isolated incidents.  These are blueberries from Argentina, salt from Cambodia, shrimp from Thailand, and fluorspar from Mongolia.  Of course, the ideal scenario is one where we remove more goods than we add, but to make this happen, decisive action is essential across the full spectrum of stakeholders.

Our annual reports or our Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor , also released today, assesses countries’ progress towards eliminating child labor.  Of the 131 countries evaluated, only six achieved the highest assessment of significant advancement, and these countries are Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Moldova.  While 47 countries received an assessment of minimal advancement, most countries received moderate advancement assessment.

Nations or countries are making meaningful efforts to address child labor and other forms of labor exploitation, but the pace of progress remains too slow.  The report offers valuable insights into where governments are falling short.  Sixty percent of recommendations relate to improving laws and regulations and their enforcement, including holder – holding employers and companies accountable when they violate labor laws.

Countries also need to bolster social programs to address poverty, primarily – which is the primary driver of child labor.  In many countries, children still face significant barriers to education such as school fees and lack of access to quality education.

Companies need to establish robust corporate due diligence and accountability measures to protect workers throughout their entire supply chain.  Glossy reports and complex corporate processes are not enough to address systematic labor abuses.  Companies must implement robust on-the-ground monitoring with workers and unions at the center of the process, collaborate with local stakeholders, and enforce strict accountability measures throughout their entire supply chain.

When workers have a voice and the power to bargain collectively, they can win better wages and better working conditions through participation in democratic and independent unions or other worker-led organizations.  Workers should not face retaliation when they raise grievances or concerns about their working conditions.

And of course, we – all of us – need to play a part, including you, the people sitting in this room today and people joining us online.  Journalists and the media play a key role in highlighting and raising awareness about this issue and keeping the issue at the forefront of the public eye and holding stakeholders accountable.

Thank you, and we welcome your questions.

MODERATOR:   Thank you.  We’ll now take questions.  And for those of you in the room, if you have a question, please raise your hand and wait to be called on.  State your name and media outlet and please speak up.  For journalists joining us via Zoom, please be sure your screenname includes your name, outlet, and country.  We will take questions first from journalists in the room.

QUESTION:   My name is Zulfiqar Kazmi and I represent Discover Pakistan Television.  First of all, I would like to thank you to the Labor Department for bringing all these facts to us, and definitely there are some concerns about the countries, including (inaudible) countries.  I represent Pakistan, and Pakistan have a history about that one.

And about Pakistan, as you have categorized in three items, there’s a child labor, forced labor, and forced child labor, and there are certain departments in Labor that’s how children are being abused, and the report is very clear about that fact.  But my concern is about one thing, that in Pakistan, when we talk about Pakistan child labor and forced labor and other things, we should see the facts as well, that how a country is going, how the economy, how it would help them, because more than 26 million children are out of schools, and because – the reason is poverty.  And until we are not eliminating the poverty and not changing the situation in the country, the reports can tell us the facts, but we have to see the solutions.

And solution is that we should – I respect that United States of America is giving the Fulbright scholarships at a level, but we are ignoring somewhere that is a basic education for the children, because of school.  Why they are – why the children are compelled to work – we have to see the facts and situation.  This is very important.  And I would like to remind the history as well, because it’s a very interesting – I was 50 years back, even 60 years back, in – during my academic years when I was a child, United States was helping the schools, even for the nutrition.

Basic thing is poverty.  Why these children are being compelled to work in the carpet – there are so many things – I guess bricks —

MODERATOR:   So Fiqar, we have limited time for – can you ask your question, please?

QUESTION:   And meanwhile I would like to thank you that – that’s a young man (inaudible) department just honored, United States just honored.  And it’s a big honor for those children who they are sacrificing their life for a cause, to bring up the children.  So thank you very much, and Ms. Lee, beyond your position, you are doing a lot.  I was going through your profile and your personality and everything – so wonderful job that you are doing.  Thank you so much.

MS EUGENIO:   Thank you so much, and I couldn’t agree more with your praise for Deputy Undersecretary Thea Lee and the work that the Department of Labor has been doing on raising awareness about labor exploitation, increasing transparency, trying to increase transparency in supply chain, and accountability for those that must have it.

The situation that you’re describing in Pakistan – unfortunately, it is a situation that we see in many other countries, and you’re absolutely right.  I mean, poverty is a main driver of child labor and forced labor and other abuses, but so is lack of a proper legislation, ineffective enforcement of those legislation, and holding accountable those that actually exploit other workers.  So increases to the minimum wage, improving the labor inspectorate, increasing social protection programs in the country – those are all recommendations that we’ve included in our report.

We also are partnering with stakeholders in Pakistan to actually implement some projects that we think could be useful, including traceability projects for the cotton supply chain, as well as a project that focuses on forced labor and trying to build capacity for legislation and policies and programs.  These are not easy issues to address, but we think that there are certain things that government should be doing to really improve the conditions of living for their population, and that that will really help to improve the accessibility for children to be able to go to school and not have to rely on child labor.

MS LEE:   Thank you, Marcia, for that answer.  And I would just add one thing, which is that the point you raise is obvious.  You – we’re not going to solve child labor just by pointing it out if there is extreme poverty.  Parents don’t bring their children to work or send them to work because they want to.  They do because they’re desperate and they don’t have other resources.  But one of – that’s one of the reasons for us that the corporate accountability is a big part of what we’re doing, to the extent that big, wealthy multinational corporations are at the top of the global supply chain.  Those companies have the resources, they have the knowledge to address this problem if they choose to do so.  They haven’t had to do so.  It has not been their problem.  We’re trying to make it their problem.

So that’s – supply chain tracing, the whole point for us of having more transparency and accountability is to also say – and also to use our trade measures, because what we want to say is when governments compete to sell in the United States of America, we don’t want them to compete on the backs of children.  We want them to compete with technology and innovation and hard work, but not – we don’t want to reward governments that are undercutting fundamental labor rights.  And so that’s one of the reasons that we use trade measures so that we can have a level playing field so that two governments, two countries that are neighbors to each other that are both fighting for a share of international markets, we will – we want to advantage the good player there.  So that’s, I think, a quick answer to what – some of the bigger picture of how we see this.

MODERATOR:  Please next question.

QUESTION:   I’m Anil Takalkar.  I’m from India and I represent Pudhari newspaper as well as Pudhari News TV channel.  My questions are India specific.  I do not know whether you have some details about that.  So the first question is about what is the estimated number of child laborers in India, and what percentage work in hazardous industries like firecrackers, especially in Tamil Nadu, Sivakasi?  There are lots of child laborers who are working there, and they are working in a very hazardous atmosphere.  And what are the main causes of child labor in India, and how can they be addressed?  And the third point is what laws and policies exist to prevent child labor in India, and how effectively are they imposed?

MS EUGENIO:  Sure.  Let me start, and I may call on one of my colleagues who focuses specifically on India to perhaps add more detail.  But we – unfortunately, we don’t have great statistics on the number of children – total number of children or percentage of children working in India.  And the statistics kind of range so there’s a big range of statistics.

In terms of the number of products of goods of the areas where we see children working, we actually have a fairly long list of goods that are included in our List of Goods Produced with Child Labor and Forced Labor, including bidis, brassware, bricks, carpets, cooking oil, cotton, fireworks, footwear, garments, gems.  So the list is fairly long.  And we do realize that this is something that the Indian Government and many, many other stakeholders in India recognize that they are issues related to child labor and forced labor.

In terms of what can be done of what some of the solutions are, again, we have a list of recommended actions that, again, focuses on improving legislation, improving enforcement, increasing social protection.  But as Deputy Undersecretary Thea Lee just mentioned, this all comes back to the accountability and holding those that are actually doing the exploitation accountable.  In many cases, that is companies that are actually benefiting from the exploitation of children and vulnerable adults.

MS AL-DAYEL:   Hi, good afternoon.  My name is Nadia Al-Dayel.  I’m a division chief in the same office.  I’ll just provide a little bit more information.  In our report this year, we do have specific details on children at higher risk in the countries.  And for India especially, we did notice that we have migrant children, low caste children, and religious minorities are especially vulnerable to child labor.  So that hopefully answers some of the issues of child labor prevalence in the country.

We also added for child labor recovered metals, electronic waste this year to our List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor.  We noticed that there is a high number of children that are working in e-waste in India, and we have reports that thousands of children below the age of 18 are engaged in this type of recycled e-waste process.  This is particularly prevalent in the informal e-waste processing centers.  So we do push for more regulation and more inspections in these informal areas to help address the child labor issue.

MODERATOR:  Thank you.

QUESTION:   Are you pretty sure (inaudible) case that is one of the worst cases in India – firecrackers industry?

MS AL-DAYEL:  Fireworks.  I might need to just take a moment to get information on that.

MODERATOR:  Should we take meanwhile another question?

MS AL-DAYEL:  Please, yes.

MODERATOR:   Please, go ahead.

MS EUGENIO:  And (inaudible) follow up with you with more information about fireworks and some of the actors.  We’ll take your information.

QUESTION:   Thank you.

MODERATOR:  Please.

QUESTION:   Thank you.  I’m Balazs Naray.  I’m from Hungarian television, radio and news agency.  I have three questions.  One is that – who – which organizations and countries are the main counterparts for the U.S. collaborating and tackling these issues.

The second one is:  What are the main conclusions in the report?  So why is it profitable for employers to employee children?  Certainly, low wages could be one aspect; but on the other hand, there should be lower productivity.  So what are the main considerations in this regards?  And whether the employers are smaller companies or bigger companies of children and the forced labor.

And the third one is:  Is this problem limited to mainly developing countries or even the developed countries?  And there has been recently a report in the U.S. that there is some 300,000 unaccounted minors who arrived in the country.  And if you have some informations, additional informations on them.  What are the main concerns in this regard?

MS LEE:   Okay.  I’ll start, and then maybe hand it over to Marcia.  Thank you very much for that question.  Which organizations are our main counterparts?  I would say the International Labor Organization is a key interlocutor for us.  They sometimes are implementing some of our technical assistance projects.  The ILO, as I think people know, is the only UN agency that is tripartite in nature; it has employers, workers, and governments from 190 or so countries.  And they really set the standards, and that is where we get all of the definition of the worst forms of child labor and forced labor indicators and so on.  So that is, I would say, one of the most important.

But we work with governments, we work with private sector, we work with unions, we work with journalists and civil society.  So we really do benefit, as Marcia said, from all the work that is done out there.  Our team can bring together all that research, but they really rely on some really strong partners outside.

In terms of the conclusions, why is it profitable to employ children?  That is a really good question.  It shouldn’t be, because, as you say, children are not all that productive.  And certainly from the point of view of a government, it’s a terrible idea, because this is your future.  And if your children are wasting their childhood, they’re not getting an education, they are in many cases ruining their health permanently, they’re going to be a burden.  So it’s very short-sighted.  And yet I think when we talk about conditions of desperation, of poverty, a lot of the child labor we see is in agriculture – I think 70 percent.  And so you can imagine sometimes it is as simple as parents not having child care options.  They live in rural areas, they don’t have a nice day care center where they can drop their children, so they bring the children.  And if they’re being paid by piecework, sometimes it’s better to have many small hands picking a few extra blueberries or tobacco leaves or whatever it is, even if it’s not a good thing.

So part of what we want to do is make it unprofitable.  We want to use our trade measures so that governments that don’t enforce or legislate to protect child labor find that they have less access; companies that are careless, that don’t look into that, also might find that their goods are blocked that they are producing in countries.  So that is part of our job, is to make it less profitable for companies.  We don’t want violators.  We want to help the good players, the companies and the countries that are doing the most.

It is not limited to developing countries.  And as you note, the United States has seen a resurgence in child labor, unfortunately.  Some of it has to do with the unaccompanied minors who are here, who are very vulnerable, who are – some of them have – come because they want to work and send money home to their families.  But it’s not okay to have a 13-year-old kid in a meat-packing factory working in the middle of the night, cleaning the kill floor.

So our Wage and Hour Division is working really hard and – to enforce our child labor laws in the United States, but I think it’s an important point, that even a wealthy country like the United States can fall victim to that, where there are labor supply companies that are unscrupulous; that they make money because they might take a 13-year-old kid, give him a fake ID, and send him off to work and take a piece of his salary.  This is unconscionable, and the Labor Department is really focused, has made it a very, very high priority.  And we have imposed I think it is $8 million in penalties for child labor violations just in Fiscal Year 2023.  So we’re very serious about taking care of this.

Do you want to add something?  I know there’s a lot of questions.

MS EUGENIO:   (Laughter.)  Those were great questions.  And the only thing that I want to add is that child labor and forced labor is not just a question of developing countries.  It’s not just happening in developing countries.  It manifests itself in developed countries.  And not just like it’s happening here in the United States, where you may end up having some children working in agriculture, in – on a factory floor.  But also countries are benefiting through their supply chain from the exploitation of children and adults.  So if you’re a country and you actually are importing goods made with child labor and forced labor, companies are importing them, then you are also benefiting from child labor or forced labor, even though that violation, that exploitation is not actually happening in your country.

So when we talk about this issue, we want to talk about it in a sense that is not just pointing a finger at one country or another, but rather talking about it from the point of view of what we can all do together to increase accountability, to make sure that we’re using all the tools that we have – whether our trade tools, that, like, the USMCA, the United States-Mexico trade agreement, and the rapid response mechanism in that agreement; or the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act; or the Section 307 of the Tariff Act that says we will not be importing goods made with forced labor into the United States; or other legislation that is being developed in Europe, for example, to address child labor and forced labor and due diligence.  Thank you.

MODERATOR:   Thank you.  Yes, one more question.  All right, one more question, anybody?  Let me – before – I’ll double-check.  We do have one presubmitted question and it is related to what you just answered.  It comes from Spain, El Independiente, from Alba Dominguez asking about the child labor in the U.S.:  “Is there any evidence that it happens?  If so, has it increased or decreased during the last few years?  What are the numbers?  Where does it happen?  How is it being confronted?  In case it does not, which are the companies related to those goods the department believes are produced by child labor?  Thanks.”

MS LEE:   Okay, so I gave part of the answer, but I would say since 2019 the U.S. Department of Labor has seen an 88 percent increase in the number of children employed in violation of federal child labor laws.  For Fiscal Year 2023 our Wage and Hour Division identified 955 cases of child labor violations involving 5,792 children, and that is where I said they assessed $8 million in penalties for child labor violations.

So we are using every tool available, including litigation, civil money penalties, and the use of hot goods provisions and also disgorgement of profits.  So this goes back to the point that I was making before about trying to take the profit out of violations.  So here’s an example:  Investigators found that a Tennessee power equipment parts manufacturer subjected children to oppressive child labor and illegally employed children to operate a power-driven lifting apparatus.  We required the employer to set aside $1.5 million as disgorgement of 30 days of profit related to its use of child labor in addition to paying $300,000 in civil money penalties.

So these are the kind of tools that we have.  We are trying to – we are pulling every tool out of the toolbox.  And we are also encouraging the countries that we work with – and I think that’s a big part of our child labor report is about 2,000 recommendations for governments about policies, legislation, enforcement budgets that they need to put in place.  So we’re trying to be very concrete and proactive in helping countries come into better compliance and do a better job.

MODERATOR:   Thank you.  This concludes today’s Q&A portion.  If you have any questions left, please feel free to send it my way and we’ll try to follow up with you with an answer.  I want to give a special thanks to our briefers for sharing their time with us today and to all the journalists who joined us today.  Thank you.  This concludes today’s briefing.

U.S. Department of State

The lessons of 1989: freedom and our future.