ineffective assignment

ineffassign

This package is not in the latest version of its module.

Detect ineffectual assignments in Go code. An assignment is ineffectual if the variable assigned is not thereafter used.

This tool misses some cases because it does not consider any type information in its analysis. For example, assignments to struct fields are never marked as ineffectual. It should, however, never give any false positives.

For basic usage, run the following command from the root of your project:

Which will analyze all packages beneath the current directory.

ineffassign returns 1 if any problems were found in the checked files. It returns 3 if there were any invalid arguments.

Documentation ¶

There is no documentation for this package.

Source Files ¶

• ineffassign.go

Directories ¶

Keyboard shortcuts.

Ineffective Assignment to Field when trying to update a Struct in Go – Go

Quick Fix: In Go, struct fields are copied by value when passed to methods. To modify a struct field within a method, use a pointer receiver instead.

The Problem:

In Go, a function or method cannot directly modify a variable in the calling scope, but instead creates a copy of the variable. When trying to update a struct field using a method, the method receives a copy of the struct, so any changes made to the struct within the method are not reflected in the calling scope. This behavior is known as pass-by-value semantics and results in an "ineffective assignment to field" warning when attempting to update a struct field from within a method.

The Solutions:

Solution 1: use a pointer receiver.

To properly update the value of a field of a struct using a method, you should use a pointer receiver. A pointer receiver allows the method to modify the struct that it is attached to.

Here’s an example:

In this example, the LevelUp method has a pointer receiver, *Player . This means that the method can modify the Player struct that it is attached to. When you call player.LevelUp() , the method is able to update the Level field of the player struct.

Using a pointer receiver is the proper way to call a method that updates the value of a field of the struct this method is attached to.

[Fixed] java.lang.AssertionError: Content type not set while junit Spring MVC Controller? – Java

[Fixed] sqlite3.OperationalError: unrecognized token: "01T00" Python datestamp – Python

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Dev solutions

Solutions for development problems, ineffective assignment to field when trying to update a struct in go.

I’m getting the linting error

when I try to use a struct method LevelUp to update the struct’s value Player.Level :

p.Level also remains 0 after calling p.LevelUp() . What is the proper way to call a method that updates the value of a field of the struct this method is attached to?

>Solution :

Each parameter including the receiver is copied upon entering the function / method. When you return, the changes made to the copy are lost. That’s why you get a warning: you modify a field which you never use: you don’t use in in the method after the assignment, and you can’t possibly use it anywhere else, because after returning from the method, the effect of the assignment is lost.

If you need to retain the changes, you must use a pointer receiver ( p *Player ) and modify the pointed object ( p.Level++ will do just that).

This will output (try it on the Go Playground ):

See related:

My object is not updated even if I use the pointer to a type to update it

How to modify the value of a simple type through pointer receiver method in Go?

Why can't I append to a slice that's the property of a struct in golang?

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§ 9-406. DISCHARGE OF ACCOUNT DEBTOR; NOTIFICATION OF ASSIGNMENT; IDENTIFICATION AND PROOF OF ASSIGNMENT; RESTRICTIONS ON ASSIGNMENT OF ACCOUNTS, CHATTEL PAPER, PAYMENT INTANGIBLES, AND PROMISSORY NOTES INEFFECTIVE.

(a) [Discharge of account debtor; effect of notification.]

Subject to subsections (b) through (i), an account debtor on an account , chattel paper , or a payment intangible may discharge its obligation by paying the assignor until, but not after, the account debtor receives a notification, authenticated by the assignor or the assignee, that the amount due or to become due has been assigned and that payment is to be made to the assignee. After receipt of the notification, the account debtor may discharge its obligation by paying the assignee and may not discharge the obligation by paying the assignor.

(b) [When notification ineffective.]

Subject to subsection (h), notification is ineffective under subsection (a):

(1) if it does not reasonably identify the rights assigned;

(2) to the extent that an agreement between an account debtor and a seller of a payment intangible limits the account debtor's duty to pay a person other than the seller and the limitation is effective under law other than this article; or

(3) at the option of an account debtor, if the notification notifies the account debtor to make less than the full amount of any installment or other periodic payment to the assignee, even if:

(A) only a portion of the account , chattel paper , or payment intangible has been assigned to that assignee;

(B) a portion has been assigned to another assignee; or

(C) the account debtor knows that the assignment to that assignee is limited.

(c) [Proof of assignment.]

Subject to subsection (h), if requested by the account debtor , an assignee shall seasonably furnish reasonable proof that the assignment has been made. Unless the assignee complies, the account debtor may discharge its obligation by paying the assignor, even if the account debtor has received a notification under subsection (a).

(d) [Term restricting assignment generally ineffective.]

Except as otherwise provided in subsection (e) and Sections 2A-303 and 9-407 , and subject to subsection (h), a term in an agreement between an account debtor and an assignor or in a promissory note is ineffective to the extent that it:

(1) prohibits, restricts, or requires the consent of the account debtor or person obligated on the promissory note to the assignment or transfer of, or the creation, attachment, perfection, or enforcement of a security interest in, the account , chattel paper , payment intangible , or promissory note; or

(2) provides that the assignment or transfer or the creation, attachment, perfection, or enforcement of the security interest may give rise to a default, breach, right of recoupment, claim, defense, termination, right of termination, or remedy under the account , chattel paper , payment intangible , or promissory note .

(e) [Inapplicability of subsection (d) to certain sales.]

Subsection (d) does not apply to the sale of a payment intangible or promissory note .

(f) [Legal restrictions on assignment generally ineffective.]

Except as otherwise provided in Sections 2A-303 and 9-407 and subject to subsections (h)and (i), a rule of law, statute, or regulation that prohibits, restricts, or requires the consent of a government, governmental body or official, or account debtor to the assignment or transfer of, or creation of a security interest in, an account or chattel paper is ineffective to the extent that the rule of law, statute, or regulation:

(1) prohibits, restricts, or requires the consent of the government, governmental body or official, or account debtor to the assignment or transfer of, or the creation, attachment, perfection, or enforcement of a security interest in the account or chattel paper ; or

(2) provides that the creation, attachment, perfection, or enforcement of the security interest may give rise to a default, breach, right of recoupment, claim, defense, termination, right of termination, or remedy under the account or chattel paper .

(g) [Subsection (b)(3) not waivable.]

Subject to subsection (h), an account debtor may not waive or vary its option under subsection (b)(3).

(h) [Rule for individual under other law.]

This section is subject to law other than this article which establishes a different rule for an account debtor who is an individual and who incurred the obligation primarily for personal, family, or household purposes.

(i) [Inapplicability to health-care-insurance receivable.]

This section does not apply to an assignment of a health-care-insurance receivable .

(j) [Section prevails over specified inconsistent law.]

This section prevails over any inconsistent provisions of the following statutes, rules, and regulations:

[List here any statutes, rules, and regulations containing provisions inconsistent with this section.]

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Army starts no-penalty purge of ‘ineffective’ recruiters

As the military struggles to meet its recruiting targets, which the Army will miss again this year , the service’s recruiting chief issued a directive Friday standardizing recent changes to how it removes underperformers.

The memo from Army Recruiting Command’s Maj. Gen. Johnny Davis implemented recent changes to the Army regulation governing how recruiters are assigned to — and, if necessary, removed from — recruiting duty. Command officials did not immediately respond to emailed questions from Army Times about the memo, which has circulated on social media in recent days.

One of the biggest changes: the command will remove “ineffective” recruiters without giving them a negative evaluation, including both permanent 79R recruiters and those involuntarily selected by the Army for temporary tours. Under the previous regulation, recruiting commanders had the discretion to slap failed Army-selected recruiters with “relief for cause” evaluations that could torpedo the recipient’s career, regardless of their competence in their primary specialty.

The full U.S. Army Recruiting Command memo

The memo defined “ineffective recruiters” as those who have been assigned to the command for at least a year but have signed two or fewer recruits since October. Davis noted that each recruiter assigned to a production role, which comes with extra pay, is responsible for “at least” one contract per month.

Recruiting leaders must counsel and offer remedial training to substandard recruiters before tagging them as ineffective and involuntarily reassigning them, according to the regulation.

Davis said that over the next 90 days, the command will “immediately” reassign ineffective recruiters who received the required counseling and training but haven’t improved. Army-selected recruiters who haven’t received the paperwork necessary to justify the ineffective designation “will be offered voluntary reassignment outside of the [recruiting] command, without a negative [evaluation],” he added.

Recruiters who haven’t produced contracts “through no fault of their own” won’t face reassignment, the memo said. Such reasons could include non-recruiting temporary duty assignments, medical leave, parental leave or holding a role that requires voluminous administrative work such as commanding a large recruiting station.

The move to boot non-performers off recruiting duty comes amid efforts to transform how the service selects, trains and assigns recruiting personnel.

One effort is a special assignment battery that can help officials assess whether a noncommissioned officer is a better fit for recruiting duty or drill sergeant duty, two of the main involuntary assignments that many staff sergeants find themselves selected for.

But the new regulation also eased some assignment eligibility qualifications, reducing the required general technical (GT) and skilled-technical test score requirements from 95 points to 90 points. Soldiers who have a GED rather than a high school diploma are now also eligible for recruiting duty, regardless of college credits.

The top general for Training and Doctrine Command, Gen. Gary Brito, told Army Times in March that the Army’s recruiting school is undergoing an “overhaul” and has changed its curriculum to include an expanded real-world exercise and lessons about the practical implications of living farther away from a military installation.

New recruiters may be better aligned with places they and their families are comfortable living and working, Davis said in recent remarks at an Association of the U.S. Army event.

“We want [recruiters] to be allowed to be part of the assignment process of where they go,” the recruiting general said. “We want the families to be involved.”

Davis Winkie covers the Army for Military Times. He studied history at Vanderbilt and UNC-Chapel Hill, and served five years in the Army Guard. His investigations earned the Society of Professional Journalists' 2023 Sunshine Award and consecutive Military Reporters and Editors honors, among others. Davis was also a 2022 Livingston Awards finalist.

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The Government restricts bans on assignment

United Kingdom |  Publication |  November 2018

Legislation now in force preventing parties from prohibiting the assignment of receivables under certain contracts.

At the moment, a contract can prohibit or restrict the parties’ ability to assign or transfer rights created under the contract. The extent of the restriction is a matter of interpretation of the clause concerned. If one of the parties to the contract attempts to assign the benefit of the contract in breach of the restriction, the purported assignment is ineffective.

One of the key assets of any business is its receivables, and restrictions on assignment can prevent the parties from factoring receivables or otherwise raising finance on them. The Government has decided that it should be easier for businesses to raise finance on their receivables. Accordingly the Small Business, Enterprise and Employment Act 2015 allows regulations to be made to invalidate restrictions on the assignment of receivables in particular types of contract. The regulations have now been made. They are contained in The Business Contract Terms (Assignment of Receivables) Regulations 2018. Draft regulations published in July, have been approved by both Houses of Parliament and are now in force.

What types of contracts do the Regulations apply to?

The Regulations apply to contracts for the supply of goods, services or intangible assets under which the supplier is entitled to be paid money. But there are a number of important exclusions from their application, including the following:

• They only apply to contracts entered into on or after 31 December 2018.
• They only apply where the person who supplies the goods, services or intangible assets concerned, and is therefore entitled to the receivable, is a small or medium-sized enterprise which is not a special purpose vehicle. Whether or not an entity qualifies in any particular case requires a detailed examination of the precise wording of the
• Regulations. Counter-intuitively, the test is not applied at the time the contract is entered into, but at the time the assignment takes place.
• There is a specific exemption for contracts “for, or entered into in connection with, prescribed financial services”: These are widely defined to include “any service of a financial nature”.
• There are specific exclusions for particular types of contract, including certain commodities, project finance, energy, land, share purchase and business purchase contracts and operating leases.
• As a general rule, it would seem that the Regulations only apply to contracts governed by English law or the law of Northern Ireland, but they prevent the parties from choosing a foreign law if it can be established that the purpose of doing so was to evade the Regulations.
• The Regulations do not apply if none of the parties to the contract has entered into it in the course of carrying on a business in the United Kingdom.

What is the effect of the Regulations?

The Regulations provide that “a term in a contract has no effect to the extent that it prohibits or imposes a condition, or other restriction , on the assignment of a receivable arising under that contract or any other contract between the same parties.”

A receivable is the right to be paid any amount under a contract for the supply of goods, services, or intangible assets. The Regulations do not prevent the parties from restricting the assignment of other contract rights.

More difficult is to establish what is meant by assignment. Receivables are transferred in various ways in practice. Sometimes the transfer is outright (for instance by way of sale); and sometimes it is by way of security (for instance to secure a loan). The transfer may be effected by a statutory assignment, an equitable assignment, a charge or a trust. “Assignment” is not defined in the Regulations, and so there is some doubt as to which of these transactions are covered.

Although charges are not expressly referred to, they might be covered by the expression “assignment” if it is given a broad interpretation. But because of the uncertainty, the best course is to take an assignment by way of security over a receivable where there is, or might be, a restriction. That way, it is clear that the Regulations do apply.

Non-assignment clauses come in a variety of forms. They will be covered by the Regulations if they prohibit or impose a condition , or other restriction on the assignment of a receivable. The Regulations expressly invalidate terms which prevent the assignee from determining the validity or value of the receivable or their ability to enforce it. Whether or not the Regulations apply in any particular case will require an analysis of the precise terms of the restriction.

The Regulations will be of particular importance to businesses involved in the financing of receivables. And they will also be of concern to buyers because they will override their contractual protections.

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Why Do We Continue to Use Ineffective Assessments?

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In the U.S. public school system, there is a lot of talk of “accountability.” Teachers are held accountable for what their students do, or do not, know. Administrators are taken to task if standardized test scores are too low, or drop from one year to the next. State lawmakers are asked to correct any “crisis” of underperforming students through legislation. When it comes to the progress and success of our K-12 students, the ball is constantly being passed, and passed back again, until some course of action is put in place that will presumably fix whatever academic woe is perceived in a particular school, district or state.

One major way that this accountability is enforced is through standardized testing . By applying the same requirements to each teacher, and each student within a state, the general theory is that accountability for student success will be upheld. Truly understanding what our students are learning is more complicated than that, though. The state of today’s K-12 assessments is a sad one and is one of the biggest reasons our public schools are failing their students.

There are other ways that we measure the success of K-12 systems in the U.S., both public and private. One way is through graduation rates, and another is through college acceptance and graduation numbers. These only tell part of the story, though. Presumably, handing someone a diploma means that person has mastered the required material and “knows” what is needed to earn the graduation distinction. Research has shown us, however, that this conclusion is an oversimplification.

We know that American students lag behind other developed countries when it comes to math and science achievement. Students in countries like South Korea and Singapore consistently outrank U.S. students when it comes to basic and advanced math and science course achievements . Survey after survey of business leaders bemoan the lack of basic writing and communication skills their employees possess, and on the 2011 National Assessment of Educational Progress, only 27 percent of 12th graders were proficient in writing .

Waiting until students are done with K-12 learning is simply too long to figure out if they are learning what they need to know. A student who falls behind on subject matter in a particular grade, for example, will struggle in the next grade to succeed. So it becomes impossible to base the success and improvement rates of students on the end results alone. Assessments throughout the K-12 journey are necessary -- but how those assessments are administered is one of the most hotly contested issues surrounding the K-12 system today.

The bane of every K-12 educators’ existence is the “teaching to the test” mentality. Even teachers who are strongly opposed to such a narrow way of educating students find that staying within a narrow realm of material becomes a necessity of contemporary classroom assessment culture. Increasingly, the worth of teachers is placed solely on student performance results , specifically when it comes to standardized testing.

The entire value of what a teacher does in a classroom during a given year, and how the teachers performed in the prior years, often boils down to what a statewide blanket test spits out in the way of student results. While benchmarks for grade levels have merit, the way that assessments are administered and weighted in today’s K-12 public schools are ineffective and unfair to the teachers who must adhere to them.

Some of the biggest arguments surrounding the use of standardized assessments to determine student success and teacher capability include:

• Inadequate sampling of material being tested.
• Indirect, rather than direct, observation of what a student is truly learning.
• Too narrow a scope of knowledge.
• Not enough exceptions made for regionalisms or cultural differences within a state.
• Too many lasting inferences made about the students taking the tests that are based on very little merit.
• Too much emphasis on a punishment mentality, and not enough on what can be improved.
• No accounting for socioeconomic or disadvantaged barriers that hinder a teacher’s potential.

Despite the qualms with the basics of standardized testing, many educators view them as necessary evils of the improvement process. More cynical educators view it as a completely useless process that is never a true indicator of what students know. Proponents of K-12 assessments say that without them, there is no adequate way to enforce educator accountability and to truly know if students are learning what they should know at each level.

Critics say that assessments put too much focus on a narrow span of information and force teachers to teach “to the test,” thus leading to rampant anti-intellectualism. Is rote memorization a true test of the knowledge of students? If teachers are given too much freedom, will students learn the basic things they need to know? These are just two of the many questions swirling around the K-12 assessment system in the U.S. and ones that need to be addressed and answered in order to build a stronger student body.

The opinions expressed in Education Futures: Emerging Trends in K-12 are strictly those of the author(s) and do not reflect the opinions or endorsement of Editorial Projects in Education, or any of its publications.

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2021 Tennessee Code Title 43 - Agriculture and Horticulture Chapter 38 - Tennessee Processing Cooperative Law Part 5 - Membership § 43-38-504. Assignment of Governance Rights — Consequence of Ineffective Assignment

• A member may assign the member's full membership interest only by assigning all of the member's governance rights coupled with an assignment to the same assignee of all the member's financial rights. A member's governance rights are assignable only as provided in this section. A member or holder of a financial right has no power to assign all or any part of the member's membership interest or financial rights, except as provided in § 43-38-503 and this section.
• Except as otherwise provided in the articles or the bylaws, a member may, without the consent of any other member, assign governance rights to another member.
• Except as provided in subdivisions (b)(2)(B) and (b)(2)(C), any other assignment of any governance rights is effective only if all the directors, other than the director who is also a member seeking to make the assignment, approve the assignment by unanimous consent or otherwise if the articles or bylaws so permit. The consent may be evidenced in any manner specified in the articles or bylaws, but in the absence of specification, consent shall be evidenced by a written instrument, dated and signed by the person. The giving of consent is at the discretion of the consenting party and may be unreasonably withheld.
• If the articles or bylaws so provide, the directors who are members may approve, by a majority or greater in number of the nonassigning directors who are members, the assignment of governance rights to a nonmember. In the event there are no nonassigning governors who are members, the assignment must be approved by unanimous consent of the governors, or, if the articles or bylaws so permit, the assignment shall be approved by at least a majority vote of the members, exclusive of the member seeking to make the assignment.
• If permitted in the articles or bylaws, the governance rights associated with membership interests or classes of membership interests may be assigned without the consent of the members or the directors who are members.
• The assignee becomes a member, if not already a member; and
• An assignee who has become a member has, to the extent assigned, the rights and powers and is subject to the restrictions and liabilities, of a member under the articles, any bylaws and this chapter.
• The assignee is liable for any obligations of the assignor existing at the time of transfer, except to the extent that, at the time the assignee became a member, the liability was unknown to the assignee, and could not be ascertained from the required records of the cooperative;
• Notwithstanding subdivision (d)(1), the assignee shall not be liable for the obligations of the assignor under § 43-38-904; and
• The assignor is not released from liability to the cooperative for obligations of the assignor existing at the time of transfer, except as provided in subdivision (d)(1).
• Unless otherwise provided in the articles or bylaws, the pledge or granting of a security interest, lien or other encumbrance in or against any or all of the membership interest of a member is not an assignment and shall not cause the member to cease to be a member or to cease to have the power to exercise any rights or powers of a member.
• The purported or attempted assignment is ineffective in its entirety; and
• Any assignment of financial rights that accompanied the purported or attempted assignment of governance rights is void.

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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Survey: Companies Fail to Train Managers for Overseas Assignments

The increasing number of international assignments requires professionals who are skilled in global operations; yet a recent survey found that as many as two in five managers fail when they’re sent abroad.

Only 58 percent of overseas assignments are judged successful, according to the 202 CEOs and senior HR professionals surveyed by workforce solutions provider Right Management.

“This has to be one of the most disappointing findings of our survey on global leadership development,” said Bram Lowsky, group executive vice president of the Americas at Right Management. “Given the investments being made in bringing along a new generation of leaders and their growing need to be able to think and operate globally, for 42 percent to fail when they’re sent abroad is hard to fathom.”

Europe, the Middle East and Africa reported the greatest level of success, with 63 percent of executives completing assignments abroad, compared with 54 percent in Asia Pacific and 57 percent in the Americas.

Why Do They Fail?

The survey found disparities in the preparation that managers were given before an assignment. Respondents revealed that the most common methods of preparing employees for foreign assignments are giving an overview of cultural differences and providing language training (particularly in Europe, the Middle East and Asia Pacific). The Americas are more likely than other regions to provide little or no training, the survey found.

Twenty-five percent of the organizations surveyed provide language training. While only 18 percent of North American employers offer language lessons, 33 percent of European, African and Middle Eastern companies does so. An average of 16 percent of companies worldwide give minimal or no preparation at all to employees going on an international assignment. And “22 percent of North American employers do virtually nothing,” said Lowsky. “No wonder so many people don’t perform well outside their home country.”

According to Lowsky, language or cultural training alone is not adequate. “The latest research suggests that the best companies utilize a comprehensive battery of assessments with the candidate to determine whether or not an expatriate assignment will actually work. Being aware of potential derailers that could stand in the way of success is critical to understanding and adjusting to an international role.”

According to Bridget Beattie, regional general manager at Right Management in India, Australia and New Zealand, many organizations make the mistake of assuming that a successful leader in one part of the world will find the same success in another. “Before considering whether a leader is ready for an overseas assignment or a role with global responsibility, organizations need to do more than simply provide cultural awareness and language training,” she said in the report. Companies should make sure individuals have developed a global mindset, she explained.

Organizations are advised to conduct a thorough assessment of the candidate and his or her family to determine if an expatriate assignment will work, the report said. International assignments affect the family members of the expatriate employee, and they need to be prepared and supported, too.

Developing a Global Mindset

Raphaele Gauducheau, general manager of the Mediterranean region at Right Management, noted that in Europe, the Middle East and Africa, putting leaders into cross-functional or cross-business-unit roles helps prepare them for future global assignments. “It forces leaders to get out of their comfort zone and think differently with fresh perspectives,” she said in the report.

Establishing a selection process that includes screening for key competencies—such as the ability to adapt socially and cultural fluency—and setting up a local, on-the-ground network to prepare and ease expatriates into their new role are additional ways to bring about successful overseas assignments.

Ron Pilenzo, president & CEO of The Global HR Consultancy, based in Hobe Sound, Fla., and former president of the Society for Human Resource Management, agreed that the lack of attention to the cultural differences in the expat selection process is critical. Most U.S. companies simply try and match skills and pay little attention to the economic, political and cultural differences in an overseas assignment, he said. "Most expat failures are attributed to a mismatch of the individual's spouse, or family members and believe that pre-assignment training and counseling will fix the problem. But the most critical mismatches of an expat with wide differences in values, beliefs, managerial style and team orientation in a different cultural setting will blow up the assignment and leave a wake of destruction behind," he said. "All the training and preparation in the world cannot fix the wrong person going into the wrong country or region where the diffierences are so huge that they cannot be overcome by preparation before or during an assignment."

Roy Maurer is an online editor/manager for SHRM.

Follow him at @SHRMRoy

Related Articles:

Job Security Top Incentive for Expatriate Employees , SHRM Online Global HR, June 2013

International Assignments Expected to Increase in 2013 , SHRM Online Global HR, May 2013

New York Maintains Rank as Lowest-Risk City for Business Worldwide , SHRM Online Global HR, April 2013

Be Careful When Drawing Up Expatriate Agreements , SHRM Online Global HR, March 2013

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