education system in india after independence

Development of Education in India after Independence

After the Independence of India in 1947, the government established different education commissions to address the educational challenges and recommended comprehensive policies to improve the education system in India.

Table of Contents

Development of education under Five-Year Plans

In 1950, the Indian government appointed the Planning Commission to prepare Five-Year Plans for the development of different aspects of life, including education. The main objectives of these plans were:

to eradicate illiteracy,
to achieve universal elementary education,
to establish vocational and skill training programs,
to upgrade standards and modernise all stages of education,
to provide facilities for high-quality education in every district of the country.

Commissions and Reforms

In 1948, the Central Advisory Board of India decided to set up two commissions, one to deal with university education and the other for secondary education.

University Education Commission.
Mudaliar Commission.

University Education Commission (1948)

The University Education Commission was the first and foremost commission to be appointed in Independent India under the chairmanship of Dr S. Radhakrishnan . It was established to:

report on the status of university education in India,
propose improvements and extensions that would be desirable to suit the then and future requirements of the country,

The commission also aimed to set up universities that would provide the knowledge and wisdom for the inclusive development of the student’s personality. The report suggested the reconstruction of the education system in tune with the vision of the Constitution of India.

Mudaliar Commission (1952-53)

The recommendation of the Mudaliar Commission occupies a very significant place in the development of the secondary education system in Independent India. The commission emphasized the need of training Indians in the democratic way of life.

Based on the reports and recommendations of the Mudaliar Commission, some reforms were introduced in the Indian educational system. For instance, the introduction of the Higher Secondary Scheme, along with a three-year degree course and the opening of more vocational and technical schools and colleges. Education became the responsibility of both the Central and State governments.

Kothari Commission (1964-66)

The Mudaliar Commission was followed by the Kothari Commission. This education commission was appointed under the chairmanship of D. S. Kothari . It was mandated to deal with all aspects and sectors of education and advise the government on the development of the national education system. The report of the commission led to a resolution on a national policy for education.

Indian Education Policies

National education policy (1968).

Based on the recommendations of the Kothari Commission, the government led by Prime Minister Indra Gandhi formulated the National Policy on Education in 1968. The policy called for a “radical restructuring” and proposed equal educational opportunities in order to achieve national integration and greater cultural & economic development.

This 1968 policy emphasized the learning of regional languages, outlining the “ three-language formula ” to be implemented in secondary education – the instruction of the English language , the official language of the state where the school was based, and the Hindi language . The use of regional languages in secondary schools was encouraged to establish an effective relationship between teachers and students. The National Education Policy of 1968 called for education spending to increase to 6% of the national income.

National Policy on Education (1986)

In 1986, the Government of India, led by Rajiv Gandhi, introduced a new National Policy on Education (NPE). The new policy called for a “special focus on the removal of disparities” and to equalize educational opportunities, especially for women, Scheduled Castes (SC) and the Scheduled Caste (SC) communities. The policy emphasized expanding scholarships for the poor, adult education, recruiting teachers from the oppressed groups, developing new institutions and providing housing and services.

The National Education Policy provided a “ child-centred approach ” to primary education and launched “ Operation Blackboard ” to improve primary schools nationwide. The policy also laid the creation of the “rural university” model, based on the philosophy of Mahatama Gandhi, to encourage economic and social development at the grassroots level in rural India.

Operation Blackboard (1987)

In pursuance of the National Education Policy 1986, the Indian Government launched the “Operation Blackboard” in 1987-88 with the aim of improving the human and physical resources available in the primary schools of the country. The Scheme mainly consists of three components:

Providing at least two classrooms in each primary school, along with separate toilet facilities for boys and girls.
Providing at least two teachers in each primary school.
Providing essential teaching and learning equipment, including blackboards, maps, charts, toys, and games, to all primary schools bought under the scheme.

During the 8th Five-Year Plan, the Scheme was revised in 1993-94 and expanded to provide the third classrooms and third teacher to primary schools where the enrollment exceeds 100. It was also extended to cover upper primary schools as well.

Teacher Education Scheme (1987)

As envisaged in the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986, the Government launched a Centrally-Sponsored Scheme of Restructuring and Reorganization of Teacher Education in 1987. It aimed to create a sound institutional infrastructure for pre-service and in-service training of elementary and secondary school teachers. It also provided for the provision of academic resource support to elementary and secondary schools. The Scheme had the following components:

Setting up of District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) .
Strengthening of Secondary Teacher Education Institutions into Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) and Institutes of Advanced Study in Education (IASEs) .
Strengthening of State Councils of Education Research and Training (SCERTs) .

Under this Scheme, recurring and non-recurring Central assistance is provided to the State Governments as resource support to the DIETs, CTEs, IASEs, and SCERTs.

District Primary Education Program (1994)

In 1994, the Government launched the centrally-sponsored scheme of the District Primary Education Program (DPEP) as a major initiative to revitalize primary education and achieve the goal of universalization of primary education . In this program, 85% of the project cost is shared by the Government of India, while 15% by the concerned State. The Central share was funded by several external agencies, including the World Bank, UNICEF, and Department for International Development (DFID).

The program aims at providing access to primary education for all children by reducing the primary drop-out rates, increasing the learning achievement of primary school students and reducing the gap among gender and social groups.

Mid-Day Meal Scheme (1995)

The Government of India initiated the Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS) on 15 August 1995 under the name of “National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education” (NP-NSPE) . The objective of the programme is to help improve the nutritional status of primary school children.

Under this scheme, a cooked midday meal with 300 calories and 12 grams of protein is provided to all children enrolled in classes one to five. Initially, the programme was launched in 2408 blocks of the country. By 1997-98, the programme had been implemented across the country.

In October 2007, the NP-NSPE was renamed as “National Programme of Mid Day Meal in Schools”. The Scheme included students in upper primary classes of six to eight in 3479 educationally backward blocks in 2007.

In September 2021, this scheme was again renamed the “ Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM-POSHAN) ” scheme. The Central Government announced to include an additional 24 lakh students receiving pre-primary education at government and government-aided institutions under the POSHAN scheme by 2022. The Ministry of Education (MoE) is the nodal ministry for this scheme.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2001)

In 2001, the Government of India launched the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) to ensure education for children from 6 to 14 years. The roots of SSA go back to 1994 when the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was launched to achieve the objective of universal primary education.

SSA aimed to change the elementary education system in the country by providing useful-quality elementary education to all children of the age group of 6-14 years by 2010.

“ Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat “, launched in 2014, is a nationwide sub-programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. This sub-programme looks to improve the comprehensive early reading, writing and mathematic skills of children of classes I and II.

86th Constitutional Amendment Act (2002)

In 2002, the Indian Government introduced the 86th Amendment Act of 2002 to amend the Constitution of India, which:

Made elementary education a Fundamental Right by adding a new Article 21-A in Part III of the Constitution. Article 21-A laid out that the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of 6 to 14 years in such manner as the State may determine.
Changed the subject matter of Article 45 in Part IV (Directive Principles of State Policy) of the Constitution. Now, Article 45 laid out that State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of 6 years.
Included a new Fundamental Duty under Article 51-A , which laid out that it shall be the duty of every Indian citizen who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child between the age of 6 to 14 years.

Right to Education Act (2009)

The “ Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act “, also known as the “ Right to Education Act (RTE) “, is an Act of the Indian Parliament, enacted on 4 August 2009. The RTE describes the conditions of the importance of free and compulsory education for children in the age group of 6-14 years in India under Article 21-A of the Constitution. The RTE came into force on 1 April 2010. Following are the provisions of the Right to Education Act (RTE):

The Act makes education a fundamental right of every child between the age of 6 and 14 and specifies minimum standards in elementary schools.
It requires all the private schools (except the minority institutions) to reserve 25% of seats for the poor and other categories of children (to be reimbursed by the State as part of the public-private partnership plan).
Children are admitted into private schools based on caste-based reservation.
It laid out that no child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until the completion of elementary education.
The Act prohibits all unrecognised schools from practising.
It makes provisions for no donation or capitation fees and no interview of the child-parent for admission.
The Act also laid out a provision for special training for school drop-outs to bring them up to par with the students of the same age.
The Act made other provisions for improvements to school infrastructure and teacher-student ratio.

The Right to Education Act is the first legislation in the world that provided the Government with the responsibility of ensuring enrollment, attendance, and completion of education for children of age between 6 and 14 years.

National Education Policy (2020)

The Union Cabinet of India approved the National Education Policy of India 2020 (NEP 2020) on 29 July 2020. This new policy replaced the National Education Policy of 1986. NEP 2020 is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher education, including vocation training in both rural and urban India. The policy aims to transform the education system of India by 2040.

The National Education Policy 2020 will not force to study any particular language. Also, the medium of instruction will not be shifted from English to any regional language. The language policy in NEP 2020 is a broad guideline and advisory in nature. NEP 2020 has emphasized the use of “mother tongue” or local language as the medium of instruction till Class 5 while recommending its continuance till Class 8 and beyond.

The “10+2” structure will be replaced with the “5+3+3+4” model to optimize learning based on the cognitive development of children. The new model will be implemented as follow:

Foundation Stage: It includes 3 years of preschool, followed by Classes 1 and 2 in primary schools, covering the children of ages 3 to 8 years.
Preparatory Stage: This stage consists of Classes 3 to 5, covering the children of ages 8 to 10 years.
Middle Stage: It covers children between ages 11 and 13 years, studying in Classes 6 to 8.
Secondary Stage: It comprises Classes 9 to 12, covering the children of ages 14 to 18 years.

The National Education Policy 2020 discusses reducing the curriculum content to enhance essential learning, critical thinking, and more holistic experiential, analyses-based learning.

Related Policies on Education

National programme for education of girls at elementary level (2003).

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has limited financial provisions for girls’ education in the form of innovations at the district level. Thus, there was a need for an additional component.

Therefore, the Government of India launched the National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) in July 2003 as a significant component of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA). NP-EGEL is a focused intervention of the Indian Government to reach the “Hardest to Reach” girls, especially those not in school. The programme provides additional support for improving girls’ education over and above the investments for girls’ education through normal SSA Interventions.

The Indian Government formulated the NPEGEL for the education of underprivileged/disadvantaged girls from classes I to VIII as a separate & distinct gender component of the SSA. The objectives of the programme were as follows:

Reduction of the gender gap in the educational sector.
Improve the quality of education.
Ensure greater participation of women and girls in the field of education.
Emphasize the relevance and quality of girls’ education for their empowerment.

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme (2004-05)

The Indian Government launched the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) scheme in July 2004 for setting up the residential schools at the primary level for girls belonging predominantly to the Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), OBC and minority communities.

The scheme provides a minimum reservation of 75% of the seats for girls from SC, ST communities and priority for the remaining 25% is given to girls from families below the poverty line. It is being implemented in those Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBs), where the female rural literacy is below the national average, and the gender gap in literacy is above the national average.

During the 11th Five Year Plan, the KGBV scheme was merged with Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in 2008.

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (2009)

Rashtriya Madhyam Shiksha Abhiyan ( RMSA ) is a flagship scheme of the Government of India, launched in March 2009. It is a centrally sponsored scheme to enhance access to secondary education and improve its quality. It includes multidimensional research, technical consulting, and funding support.

The principal objective of the RMSA is to enhance the enrollment rate by providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of every home. The objectives of the Rashtriya Madhyam Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) are as follows:

To improve the quality of secondary education by making all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms.
To provide universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i.e., by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan .
To remove gender, socio-economic, and disability barriers.
To enhance and universalize retention of students by 2020.
The scheme is envisaged to achieve a gross enrollment ratio of 75% from 52.26% in 2005-06 for classes IX-X within five years of its implementation by providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of any habitation.

Saakshar Bharat (2009)

Saakshar Bharat is an initiative of the Indian Government to create a literate society through a variety of teaching-learning programmes for the non-literate and neo-literate of 15 years and above. The programme was launched in September 2009 as a centrally sponsored program . It aims to promote and strengthen adult learning, reaching out to those who missed the opportunity to access or complete formal education. It also covers vocational education and skill development, applied science and sports.

It was formulated to achieve an 80% literacy level at the national level by focusing on adult women’s literacy. The four broader objectives of the mission are:

Imparting functional literacy and numeracy to non-literates.
Acquiring equivalency to the formal education system.
Imparting relevant skill development programme.
Promote a learning society by offering opportunities for continuing education.

Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (2013)

Rashtriya Uchchatr Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) was launched in 2013 for the development of higher education in India. It is a centrally sponsored scheme which aims to work with State universities and their affiliated colleges to raise the bar of campus life. It aims at providing strategic funding to eligible State higher education institutions throughout the country.

The amount of funding from the Central Government will be in the ratio of 60:40 for general category States , meaning 60% of the total grants contributed by the Central Government and 40% will be contributed by the State as a matching share. However, for special category States , the amount of the Central Government funding will be in the ratio of 90:10 and 100% for the Union Territories .

Funds flow from the Central Ministry through the State Governments/Union Territories to the State Higher Education Councils before reaching the identified institutions. The funding to the States would be made based on the critical appraisal of State Higher Education Plans.

RUSA operates in a mission mode to achieve the aims of equality, access and excellence. The salient objectives of RUSA are as follows:

To improve the overall quality of state institutions by ensuring that all institutions conform to prescribed norms and standards and adopt accreditation as a mandatory quality assurance framework.
To ensure reforms in the affiliation, academic and examination systems.
To usher transformative reforms in the State higher education system by creating a facilitative institutional structure for planning and monitoring at the State Level, promoting autonomy in State Universities and improving governance in institutions.
To ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher educational institutions and promote capacity building at all levels of employment.
To create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to promote research and innovation.
To expand the institutional base by creating additional capacity in existing institutions and establishing new institutions to achieve higher enrollment.
To correct the regional imbalances in terms of access to higher education by setting up institutions in un-served and underserved areas of the country.
To improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities for higher education to SCs, STs, and socially & educationally backward classes, promote inclusion of women, minorities, and differently-abled persons.

Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (2018)

The Indian Government launched the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan in 2018 as an overarching programme for the school education sector extending from preschool to Class 12. The Scheme has been prepared with the broader goal of improving school effectiveness measured in terms of equal opportunities for schooling and equitable learning outcomes. It is a centrally sponsored scheme .

The Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan subsumes three schemes, which are:

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA),
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA),
Teacher Education (TE) .

The vision of the scheme is to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education from pre-school to senior secondary stage in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for Education.

( In detail: Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan )

Important Educational Organizations

All india council for technical education (aicte).

The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) is a national-level council for technical education under the “ Department of Higher Education “. It was established in November 1945 as an advisory body. In 1987, AICTE was given statutory status by an Act of Parliament, the All India Council for Technical Education Act of 1987 .

As per the Act, AICTE is the statutory authority for proper planning, formulation and maintenance of standards, Quality assurance through school accreditation, monitoring and evaluation, maintaining parity of certifications and awards, and ensuring coordinated development and management of the technical education in India.

University Grants Commission (UGC)

Based on the recommendation made by the Univesity Education Commission of 1948, the Univesity Grants Commission (UGC) was set up on 28 December 1953. The government decided that all grants to universities and higher learning institutions should be handled by the UGC.

In November 1956, the UGC became the statutory body by enacting the “University Grants Commission Act of 1956” by the Indian Parliament. The headquarter of UGC is located in New Delhi. In 1994, the UGC decentralized its operations by setting up six regional offices in Bangalore, Bhopal, Hyderabad, Guwahati, Kolkata, and Pune.

UGC promotes and coordinates university education and determines & maintains standards of teaching, examination, and research in the universities. It provides recognization to universities in India and disbursements of funds to such recognized universities and colleges.

National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT)

The Government of India established the National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) on 27 July 1961 to assist and advise the Central and State governments on policies and programmes for qualitative improvement in school education. It is an autonomous organization that formally began operation on 1 September 1961. The Council was formed by merging seven existing seven national governmental institutions, namely:

Central Institute of Education,
Central Bureau of Educational and Vocational Guidance,
Central Bureau of Textbook Research,
National Institute of Basic Education,
National Fundamental Education Centre
National Institute of Audio-Visual Education,
Directorate of Extension Programmes for Secondary Education.

Development of Education in India after Independence

education system in india after independence

After the implementation of plans, efforts were made to spread education.

Government decided to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of 14. But this aim could not be achieved yet.

In First Five Year Plan 7.9% of total plan outlay was allocated for education. In Second and Third Plan, the allocations were 5.8% and 6.9% of the total plan outlay. In Ninth Plan only 3.5% of the total outlay was allocated for education.

To streamline the education, the Govt. implemented the recommendations of Kothari Commission under ‘National Policy on Education’ in 1968. The main recommendations were universal primary education. Introduction of new pattern of education, three language formula, introduction of regional language in higher education, development of agricultural and industrial education and adult education.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

To combat the changing socio-economic needs of the country, Govt. of India announced a new National Policy on Education in 1986. Universalisation of primary education, vocationalisation of secondary education and specialisation of higher education were the main features of this policy.

National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) at National level and State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) at State level were established to maintain the standard of education. University Grants Commission (UGC) was instituted to determine the standard of higher education.

The followi ng points explain the development of education in India after independence:

1. Expansion of General Education:

During the period of planning there has been expansion of general education. In 1951, the percentage of literacy was 19.3. In 2001 the literacy percentage increased to 65.4%. The enrolment ratio of children in the age group of 6-11 was 43% in 1951 and in it became 100% in 2001.

Primary education – been free and compulsory. Midday meal has been started in schools since 1995 to check drop-out rate. The number of primary schools has risen by three times from 2.10 lakh (1950-51) to 6.40 lakhs (2001-02). There were only 27 universities in 1950-51 which increased to 254 in 2000-01.

2. Development of Technical Education:

Besides general education, technical education plays important role in human capital formation. The Govt. has established several Industrial Training Institutes, Polytechnics, Engineering colleges and Medical and Dental colleges, Management institutes etc.

These are given below:

(a) Indian Institute of Technology:

For education and research in engineering and technology of international standard, seven institutes have been established at Mumbai, Delhi, Kanpur, Chennai, Khargpur, Roorkee and Gauhati, Technical education is imparted here both for graduation and post-graduation and doctorate level.

(b) National Institute of Technology (NIT):

These institutes impart education in engineering and technology. These were called Regional College of Engineering (REC). These are 17 in number throughout the country. There are other institutes in the country to teach engineering and technical education.

These institutes impart education in business management and administration. These institutes are located at Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore and Kozhikode.

(d) Medical education:

There were only 28 medical colleges in the country in 1950-51. There were 165 medical and 40 dental colleges in the country in 1998-99.

(e) Agricultural education:

Agricultural Universities have been started in almost all States to improve production and productivity of agriculture. These universities impart education and research in agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry and veterinary sciences etc.

3. Women education:

In India, literary among women was quite low. It was 52% according to 2001 census. While the literacy among men was 75.8%. Women education was given top priority in National Policy on Education. Many State Governments have exempted the tuition fee of girl’s up to university level. Separate schools and colleges have been established to raise level of literacy among women.

4. Vocational education:

National Policy of Education, 1986, aims at vocationalisation of secondary education. Central Govt. has been giving grants to State Governments to implement the programme since 1988. Agriculture, Pisciculture, diary, poultry, typing, electronics, mechanical and carpentry etc. had been included in higher secondary curriculum.

5. Growth of higher education:

In 1951, there were 27 universities. Their number increased to 254 in 2001. In Orissa state, there was only one university in 1951. Now there are 9 universities.

6. Non-formal education:

This scheme was launched on an experimental basis from the Sixth plan and on regular basis from Seventh plan. The aim was to achieve universal elementary education to all children in the age group of 6-14 years. The scheme was meant for those children who cannot attend schools regularly and for full time due to poverty and pre-occupation with other works.

The Central Govt. is providing assistance to State Govt. and voluntary organisation to implement the scheme. Non-formal education centres have been set up in remote rural areas, hilly and tribal areas and in slums. These impart education to children of 6-14 age group.

7. Encouragement to Indian Language and Culture:

After the adoption of National Policy of Education 1968, regional language became the medium of instruction in higher education. Syllabus on science and technology, dictionaries, books, and Question Papers are translated into regional languages. Indian history and culture have been included in school and college curriculum.

8. Adult education:

Simply speaking adult education refers to the education for the illiterate people belonging to the age group of 15-35 years. The National Board of Adult Education was established in the First Five Year Plan. The village level workers were assigned the job of providing adult education. The progress remained not too good.

The National Adult Education Programme was started in 1978. The programme is considered as a part of primary education. National Literary Mission was also started in 1988 to eradicate adult illiteracy particularly in rural areas.

The Centre gives assistance to states, voluntary organisations and some selected universities to implement this programme. There were 2.7 lakh adult education centres working in the country in 1990-91. This programme helped to raise the literacy rate to 65.38% in 2001.

9. Improvement of Science education:

Central Govt. started a scheme for the improvement of science education in schools in 1988. Financial assistance is given to provide science kits, up gradation of science laboratories, development of teaching material, and training of science and mathematics teachers. A Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) was set up in NCERT to purchase equipment for State Institutes of Educational Technology.

10. Education for all:

According to 93rd Amendment, education for all has been made compulsory. The elementary education is a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6-14 years. It is also free. To fulfill this obligation Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has been launched.

The above discussion makes it clear that a lot of development in education has been made in India after Independence. There is wide growth in general education and higher education. Efforts have been made to spread education among all sections and all regions of the country. Still our education system is ridden with problems.

State of Education in India on the Eve of Independence
Problems Faced in the Progress of Education in India
Progress of Health Services in India after Independence
Measures taken by Government of India for Family Planning

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75 years of independence: How India has progressed in field of education

Whether it was the literacy rate, growth of schools and universities or other indicators, India has progressed in leaps and bounds in the field of education ever-since it became independent in 1947

At the time of independence, India was lagging behind on a number of developmental indicators. The British government had not prioritised educating the general population. It was up to the leaders involved in the freedom struggle to deal with these challenges and come up with a way to make India a modern, educated and developed nation.

Despite several hurdles in their way, our leaders succeeded in their aims to a great extent. It was due to their efforts that India could progress from a mere 27 universities in 1950-51 to 1,043 in 2019-20.

Whether it was primary education, growth of schools and universities or other educational indicators, India has progressed in leaps and bounds since it became independent in 1947.

The establishment of the University Grants Commission, All India Council of Technical Education, Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Management and more in the decades after independence has helped India become a powerhouse of learning.

Here is the data on how the nation has progressed in the field of education in 75 years on independence:

Gender parity and gross enrolment ratio:

Female education was not given much importance at the time of independence. Most people in the country were extremely reluctant to send their girls to school.

However, the situation has changed. According to data by the Press Information Bureau, girls now outnumber boys in school education.

The wide gender gap in the field has been closed off for students in classes I to VIII. For primary school (class I to V) students, there are now 1.02 girls for every boy, a sharp jump from 0.41 girls in 1950-51. For upper primary (classes VI to VIII) the number is 1.01 girls per boy.

Literacy rate:

The literacy rate in India jumped from 18.3 percent in 1951 to 74.4 percent in 2018. Female literacy saw the most remarkable turnaround in the period, surging from 8.9 percent to 65.8 percent in the same period.

Number of schools and colleges:

Every government of independent India has focused on making educational facilities more available to the general public. The number of schools has increased to over ten times from 1.4 lakh at the time of independence to 15 lakh in 2020-21.

The number of colleges has also witnessed a steep rise. From 578 colleges in 1950-51, India now has 42,343 colleges. The number of universities in the same period surged from 27 to 1,043.

One significant sector that has seen a surge is medical education. The number of medical colleges has increased over 21 times in the last 70 years. From 28 medical colleges in 1951, the number has gone up to 612 colleges.

Another cornerstone of India’s education sector is the National Education Policy 2020 which has been brought out by the current Union government.

The policy aims to revolutionise education in India especially through regional language becoming a medium of instruction in schools.

The policy will also pave the way for an increased role for foreign universities in India.

The benefits of the National Education Policy 2020 will decide where the nation stands in the next few decades.

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School System and Education Policy in India

Charting the Contours

Reference work entry
First Online: 29 August 2021
Cite this reference work entry

Archana Mehendale 3 &
Rahul Mukhopadhyay 4

Part of the book series: Global Education Systems ((GES))

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India has had a long history of a larger institutionalized school system of more than 150 years, starting from the colonial times to the present. This system has not only been influenced by its colonial history but also been shaped by different sets of political, economic, and social changes ever since Independence.

This chapter aims to provide an overview of the above trajectory with a more detailed focus on the changes that have taken place in the school system over the last three decades. These decades have seen unprecedented expansion of the school system; emergence of newer complexities in the reshaping of relations between the state, market, and non-state actors in education and also a sharpening of tensions between values of social justice and equity; and a rights-based mandate of education as a public good on the one hand and market-based reforms on the other. The chapter outlines the nature of these changes and the continuing challenges faced by the school education system within a framework of the constitutional provisions and the policy mandates that have been the guiding blocks for educational reform agendas.

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Mehendale, A., Mukhopadhyay, R. (2021). School System and Education Policy in India. In: Sarangapani, P.M., Pappu, R. (eds) Handbook of Education Systems in South Asia. Global Education Systems. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0032-9_13

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Indian Education System: Around Independence And Thereafter – OpEd

By Dr. Rajkumar Singh

The Indian education system around the time of independence in 1947 underwent significant changes and reforms as the newly independent nation sought to modernize and improve its educational infrastructure but the antecedents of earlier period continued for long and it include:

a. Colonial Legacy: The Indian education system during colonial rule was primarily designed to serve the interests of the British Empire. It was hierarchical, elitist, and focused on producing a small class of clerks and administrators to serve the colonial administration. Education was often limited to a select few, especially in rural areas.

b. Universities and Technical Education: Prior to independence, India had a few prestigious universities such as the University of Calcutta, the University of Bombay, and the University of Madras. These institutions primarily offered courses in humanities and social sciences. Technical education was limited, and there was a dearth of engineering and medical colleges.

c. Efforts at Reform: Several educational reformists and leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore, advocated for a more holistic and indigenous education system that would promote self-reliance and the preservation of Indian culture.

d. Post-Independence Reforms: After gaining independence in 1947, India embarked on a series of educational reforms aimed at expanding access to education and promoting social justice. The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, laid down the principles of universal access to education and affirmative action through reservation policies.

e. National Policy on Education: The first National Policy on Education was formulated in 1968, and it aimed to promote a more comprehensive and equitable education system. This policy emphasized the importance of scientific and technical education, as well as the use of regional languages for instruction.

f. Expansion of Education: Post-independence, there was a significant expansion of educational institutions at all levels. New universities, colleges, and schools were established to cater to the growing demand for education.

g. Reservation Policies: To address historical social and economic disparities, the Indian government implemented reservation policies, providing quotas for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in educational institutions and government jobs.

h. English as a Second Language: Despite the emphasis on regional languages, English continued to be a significant medium of instruction, especially in higher education and in the pursuit of certain careers.

i. Challenges: The Indian education system continued to face challenges related to access, quality, and equity. Disparities between urban and rural education, inadequate infrastructure, and a need for curriculum reform remained key issues.

Causes of its decline

The decline of the British education system, particularly in the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st century, can be attributed to a combination of factors which are:

a. Lack of Investment: Over the years, there has been a perceived lack of sufficient investment in education, especially in public schools. A shortage of funds can lead to inadequate resources, outdated facilities, and lower teacher salaries, which can negatively impact the quality of education.

b. Inequality: Inequality in education has been a persistent issue and the socio-economic background of students can significantly affect their educational outcomes. Schools in disadvantaged areas often have fewer resources, less experienced teachers, and lower academic achievement levels.

c. Standardized Testing and Accountability: The emphasis on standardized testing and school performance metrics has led to a narrowing of the curriculum and a focus on “teaching to the test.” Critics argue that this approach does not adequately address the broader educational needs of students and stifles creativity in teaching.

d. Teacher Recruitment and Retention: Challenges in recruiting and retaining high-quality teachers have been a concern. Low pay, heavy workloads, and a lack of professional development opportunities can deter talented individuals from pursuing teaching careers or staying in them.

e. Curriculum Changes: Frequent changes in curriculum and examination systems can disrupt teaching and learning. Teachers often have to adapt to new educational policies and standards, which can be challenging to implement effectively.

f. Overcrowded Classrooms: Many schools face issues of overcrowded classrooms, which can lead to less individualized attention for students and make it harder for teachers to manage their classes effectively.

g. Teacher Training: Some critics argue that teacher training programs do not adequately prepare educators to handle diverse classrooms and the challenges of modern education. There’s a call for more comprehensive and practical teacher training.

h. Mental Health and Wellbeing: There is growing concern about the mental health and well-being of students. It is also said that the education system does not adequately address the mental health needs of students, leading to stress and burnout.

The decline in the British education system is not universal, and there are still many outstanding schools in India. However, the education systems around the world face similar challenges, and addressing them often requires a combination of policy changes, increased investment, and a focus on the evolving needs of students and society.

Movements for reform

In the context of India, there have been several significant movements for educational reforms aimed at addressing various challenges and improving the quality and accessibility of education whose key aspects include:

a. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, often referred to as the “Father of the Indian Renaissance,” played a pivotal role in advocating for modern, Western-style education in India. He emphasized the importance of scientific and rational education and founded schools based on these principles.

b. The Wood’s Dispatch (1854): The Wood’s Dispatch, also known as the Magna Carta of English Education in India, was a significant policy document that laid the foundation for modern education. It recommended the establishment of a network of government schools and colleges and emphasized the need for education in vernacular languages.

c. The Aligarh Movement (late 19th century): Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a key figure in the Aligarh Movement, which aimed to promote modern education, particularly among Muslims in India. He founded the Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), which became a center for modern education.

d. Gandhian Approach to Education (early 20th century): Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of education was rooted in his vision of holistic development and self-sufficiency. He advocated for education that emphasized the development of character, physical fitness, and vocational skills.

e. The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, also known as the Government of India Act 1919, provided for the expansion of education in India and devolved some educational responsibilities to provincial governments, allowing for greater autonomy and control over educational institutions.

f. The Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937): This scheme was developed under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi and sought to provide a comprehensive and practical education system that integrated traditional and vocational education, emphasizing the development of skills and values.

← Pakistan: Rising Tide Of Political Radicalization – OpEd
Thirty Two Thousand Orthodox Jews Travel To Ukraine For New Year Pilgrimage Despite Wartime Warnings – OpEd →

Dr. Rajkumar Singh

Dr. Rajkumar Singh is a University Professor for the last 20 years and presently Head of the P.G. Department of Political Science, B.N. Mandal University, West Campus, P.G. Centre,Saharsa (Bihar), India. In addition to 17 books published so far there are over 250 articles to his credit out of which above 100 are from 30 foreign countries. His recent published books include Transformation of modern Pak Society-Foundation, Militarisation, Islamisation and Terrorism (Germany, 2017),and New Surroundings of Pak Nuclear Bomb (Mauritius, 2018). He is an authority on Indian Politics and its relations with foreign countries.

Education in India – A Detailed Analysis

Last updated on March 23, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

This article is a detailed analysis of the Education System of India.

The post covers various aspects of the problems faced by the Indian Education sector, the Constitutional provisions related to education, and the education policies adopted by modern India.

History of Education in India

India has a rich tradition of imparting knowledge.

The ‘gurukul’ was a type of education system in ancient India with shishya (students) living with the guru in the same house. Nalanda has the oldest university system of education in the world. Students from across the world were attracted to Indian knowledge systems.

Many branches of the knowledge system had their origin in India. Education was considered a higher virtue in ancient India.

However, the renaissance and scientific thinking as happened in Europe didn’t happen in India at that time.

The British who took control of the Indian affairs by that time had different priorities. Education in British India initially lagged a lot.

However, later, the British established the modern education system still followed in India. They replaced age-old systems of education in the country with English ways .

Still, the education system in India needs a lot of reforms.

Current Status of Education in India: Data from Census 2011

Literacy rate in India as per Census 2011: 74%.
Literacy rate: Male: 82.1%; Female: 65.5%
Kerala tops the rankings, followed by Delhi, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
Bihar is the lowest among states, followed by Arunachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, etc., however, they are improving their position.
Bihar has a literacy rate of 63.8%, and that of women is 53.3%.
Literacy rates for both adults as well as youths have increased, still, the absolute number of illiterates in India is as much as India’s population was at the time of independence.
The gender gap in terms of literacy began to narrow first in 1991 and the pace has accelerated, however still lags far behind the global female literacy rate of 7% (UNESCO 2015).
There are large state variations in the gender gap.
However, during 2001 – 2011, the male literacy rate increased by 6 percentage points but female literacy increased by nearly 12 percentage points. Achievement in female literacy in Bihar is noteworthy: from 33% in 2001 to 53% in 2011.
Be that as it may, India is still lagging behind the world literacy rate of 86.3%(UNESCO 2015). A major group of states lies in the average rank i.e. just above the national level of 64.8 percent.

Indian Education System: The Present Pyramidal Structure

The Indian education system can broadly be considered as a pyramidal structure:

Pre-primary level: 5-6 years of age.
Primary (elementary) level: 6-14 years of age. Elementary-level education is guaranteed by our constitution under Article 21 A . For this level, the government has introduced Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) under the Right To Education(RTE) Act.
Secondary level: Age group between 14-18. For this level, the government has extended SSA to secondary education in the form of the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan .
Higher education: generally of three levels: UG→ PG→ MPhil/PhD. To cater to the requirements of higher education, the government has introduced Rashtriya Uchhattar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA).

Read: Examination System in India

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) related to Education

Goal 4 of SDG : Education for all – ensures equitable, inclusive, and quality education along with the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030.

Provisions in the Indian Constitution related to Education

Under Article 45 in DPSP , it was mentioned that the government should provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years within 10 years from the commencement of the Constitution. As this was not achieved, Article 21A was introduced by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2002 , making elementary education a fundamental right rather than a directive principle. Article 45 was amended to provide for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years.
To implement Article 21A, the government legislated the RTE Act. Under this act, SSA – Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan – got a further impetus. SSA aims to provide Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) in a time-bound manner.
SSA has been operational since 2000-2001. Its roots go back to 1993-1994 when the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was launched. However, under the RTE Act, it got legal backing.

RTE Act 2009

86th Amendment Act 2002 introduced Article 21-A, which provides for free and compulsory education of all children in the age group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act was enacted to implement this fundamental right.

Provisions of the RTE Act

‘Compulsory education’ means an obligation of the government to provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance, and completion of elementary education.
Provision for a non-admitted child to be admitted to an age-appropriate class.
Rational deployment of teachers, ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in their postings.
Prohibition of deployment of teachers for non-educational work, other than services like decennial census, elections, etc.
It prohibits (a) physical punishment and mental harassment (b) screening procedures for admission of children (c) capitation fees (d) private tuition by teachers (e) running of schools without recognition.
Development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the constitution, ensuring all-around development of the child, building a system of child-friendly and child-centered learning.
To further inclusiveness, 25% reservation is provided for disadvantaged students in private schools.

Criticisms of the RTE Act

Even though the RTE + SSA have increased access to schools, resulting in a high enrollment rate, dropout rates increased in tandem. However, there is inadequate attention given to this scenario.
There is a fear of financial burden on the government for teacher recruitment and training.
The grey area of teacher transfer is also not helping the cause.
Since all state holidays are not relevant for all localities, such a calendar preparation by local authorities can increase attendance and can also encourage local panchayats to take ownership of schools.
RTE students in private schools are paying extra fees as the schools claim that the government fund provided for the same is not adequate.
Most private schools treat RTE as charity and demand that the onus of universalizing education should be on the government’s head rather than putting pressure on them.
70% of students are in government schools. So it must be fixed in priority, by providing infrastructure , teacher quality , and targeted learning for children from disadvantaged groups to provide an equitable education system.
Under the RTE Act, till class 8, students should not be failed in exams. This is called the No detention policy. It had reduced dropout rates.
There is growing criticism of the policy resulting in reducing the quality of elementary education. Hence the RTE Act was amended to scrap the policy.
RTE Act prioritized schooling of children only from the age of 6, thus ignoring pre-school education. Kothari Commission had recommended the establishment of a center for the development of pre-primary education in each district.
District Information System for Education (DISE) report states that 30% of primary and 15% of upper primary schools have higher PTRs.
According to the Economic Survey 2018-19, the PTR at the national level for primary schools is 23 and 27 for secondary schools. Thus PTR appears to be satisfactory, as there are sufficient teachers. However, the main issue is a balanced deployment of teachers based on student strength.
Even though the Student-Classroom ratio (SCR) improved in almost all of the States, there is disparity across the country.

Modern Education in India: The Evolution of the System through various policies

The British government had introduced modern education in India. From Macaulay’s minutes to Wood’s dispatch to several commissions like the Sadler Commission, 1904 Indian education policy, etc. built the foundation of the Indian education system during the colonial period.

Radhakrishnan committee

In 1948-49, the University Education Commission was constituted under Radhakrishnan . It molded the education system based on the needs of an independent India. The pre-Independent Indian education value system was catering to colonial masters. There was a need to replace Macaulayism with the Indian value system. ( Macaulayism is the policy of eliminating indigenous culture through the planned substitution of the alien culture of a colonizing power via the education system). Some of the values mentioned in the commission were:

Wisdom and Knowledge
Aims of the Social Order : the desired social order for which youths are being educated.
Love for higher values in life
Training for Leadership

The Independent Indian education system developed along the lines of this value framework. In the present times, where there are imminent threats of political ideologies hijacking the pedagogy of education and commercialization of education eroding value systems, it is appreciable to dust off the values promulgated by the commission. A recent controversial circular by the Central University of Kerala (CUK), directing that research topics for Ph.D. students must be by ‘national priorities’, and research in ‘irrelevant topics’ and ‘privilege areas’ must be discouraged, is a case in point.

Kothari commission

If the Radhakrishnan committee charted out the value system of the Indian education system, it was the Kothari Commission that provided the basic framework of the same. The commission provided for:

Standardization of educational system on 10+2+3 pattern.
Emphasized the need to make work experience and social/national service an integral part of education.
Linking of colleges to several schools in the neighborhood.
Equalization of opportunities to all and to achieve social and national integration .
Neighborhood school system without social or religious segregation and a s chool complex system integrating primary and secondary levels of education.
Establishment of Indian Education Service.
On-the-job training of the teaching staff and efforts to raise the status of the teachers to attract talents into the profession.
To raise expenditure on education from 2.9% of the GDP to 6% by 1985.

This committee report paved the way for the National Educational Policy 1968 which provided the base and roadmap for further development of the education system in India.

National Educational Policy 1968

The policy provided for “radical restructuring” and equalization of educational opportunities to achieve national integration and greater cultural and economic development.
Increase public expenditure on education to 6% of GDP.
Provide for better training and qualification of teachers.
Three-language formula : state governments should implement the study of a modern Indian language, preferably one of the southern languages, apart from Hindi and English in the Hindi-speaking states, and of Hindi along with the regional language and English in the non-Hindi-speaking states. Hindi was encouraged uniformly to promote a common language for all Indians.

National Educational Policy 1985

The policy aimed at the removal of disparities and to equalize educational opportunities, especially for women, SC and ST.
Launching of “Operation Blackboard” to improve primary schools nationwide.
IGNOU, the Open University, was formed.
Adoption of the “rural university” model , based on the philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, to promote economic and social development at the grassroots level in rural India.

T.S.R.Subramanium committee report

ECCE is inconsistent across states. So all government schools should have facilities for pre-primary education, which would facilitate pre-school education by the government instead of the private sector.
The policy of no detention should be upheld only till class five and not till class eight.
There is a steep rise in teacher shortage, absenteeism, and grievances.
Need to constitute an Autonomous Teacher Recruitment Board.
Four years integrated B.Ed. the course should be introduced.
There is an inadequate integration of information technology (IT) and the education sector.
The National Skills Qualification Framework should be scaled up.
The choice of vocational courses should be in line with local opportunities and resources .
Bringing formal certification for vocational education at par with conventional education certificates.
All India Education Service.
Existing separate laws governing individual regulators in higher education should be replaced by the said act.
The role of existing regulatory bodies like UGC and AICTE should be revised.
National Accreditation Board (NAB) subsuming the existing accreditation bodies.

Kasturirangan Report On School Education (Draft National Education Policy)

For restructuring the education system in India, the government is preparing to roll out a New Education Policy that will cater to Indian needs in the 4th Industrial Revolution by making use of its demographic dividend. Committee for Draft National Education Policy (chaired by Dr. K. Kasturirangan) submitted its report on May 31, 2019.

You can read about the National Education Policy 2020 in detail here .

School Education:

Low accessibility.
The curriculum doesn’t meet the developmental needs of children.
Lack of qualified and trained teachers.
Substandard pedagogy.
Currently, most early childhood education is delivered through anganwadis and private preschools. However, there has been less focus on the educational aspects of early childhood.
Guidelines for up to three-year-old children.
Educational framework for three to eight-year-old children.
This would be implemented by improving and expanding the Anganwadi system and co-locating anganwadis with primary schools.
Expanding the ambit of the Act to all children between the ages of three to 18 years, thus including early childhood education and secondary school education.
There should be no detention of children till class eight. Instead, schools must ensure that children are achieving age-appropriate learning levels.
The current structure of school education is to be restructured based on the development needs of students.
10+2+3 structure to be replaced by 5-3-3-4 design comprising: (i) five years of foundational stage (three years of pre-primary school and classes one and two), (ii) three years of preparatory stage (classes three to five), (iii) three years of middle stage (classes six to eight), and (iv) four years of secondary stage (classes nine to 12).
The current education system solely focuses on rote learning. The curriculum load should be reduced to its essential core content.
Force students to concentrate only on a few subjects.
Do not test learning in a formative manner.
Cause stress among students.
To track students’ progress throughout their school experience, State Census Examinations in classes three, five, and eight should be established.
Restructure the board examinations to test only the core concept. These board examinations will be on a range of subjects. The students can choose their subjects and the semester when they want to take these board exams. The in-school final examinations may be replaced by these board examinations.
Although establishing primary schools in every habitation has increased access to education, it has led to the development of very small schools making it operationally complex. Hence the multiple public schools should be brought together to form a school complex .
A complex will consist of one secondary school (classes nine to twelve) and all the public schools in its neighborhood that offer education from pre-primary to class eight.
These will also include anganwadis, vocational education facilities, and an adult education center.
Each school complex will be a semi-autonomous unit providing integrated education across all stages from early childhood to secondary education.
This will ensure that resources such as infrastructure and trained teachers can be efficiently shared across a school complex.
A steep rise in a teacher shortage, lack of professionally qualified teachers, and deployment of teachers for non-educational purposes have plagued the system.
Teachers should be deployed with a particular school complex for at least five to seven years.
They will not be allowed to participate in any non-teaching activities during school hours.
Existing B.Ed. the program will be replaced by a four-year integrated B.Ed. program that combines high-quality content, pedagogy, and practical training. An integrated continuous professional development will also be developed for all subjects.
Separating the regulation of schools from aspects such as policymaking, school operations, and academic development.
Independent State School Regulatory Authority for each state will prescribe basic uniform standards for public and private schools.
The Department of Education of the State will formulate policy and conduct monitoring and supervision.

Higher Education

According to the All India Survey on Higher Education , the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in higher education in India has increased from 20.8% in 2011-12 to 25.8% in 2017-18. Lack of access is a major reason behind the low intake of higher education. The policy aims to increase GER to 50% by 2035.
Multiple regulators with overlapping mandates reduce the autonomy of higher educational institutions and create an environment of dependency and centralized decision-making.
The National Higher Education Regulatory Authority (NHERA) should replace the existing individual regulators in higher education. Thus the role of all professional councils such as AICTE would be limited to setting standards for professional practice. The role of the UGC will be limited to providing grants.
Separate the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) from the UGC into an independent and autonomous body. It will function as the top-level accreditor and will issue licenses to different accreditation institutions. All existing higher education institutions should be accredited by 2030.
Replacing the current system of establishing higher educational institutions by Parliament or state legislatures. Instead, institutions can be set up through a Higher Education Institution Charter from NHERA.
Research universities focus equally on research and teaching.
Universities focus primarily on teaching.
Colleges focus only on teaching at undergraduate levels.
All such institutions will gradually move towards full autonomy.
Total investment in research and innovation in India has declined from 0.84% of GDP in 2008 to 0.69% in 2014. India also lags behind many nations in the number of researchers, patents, and publications.
NRF will act as an autonomous body for funding, mentoring, and building the capacity for quality research.
Undergraduate programs should be made interdisciplinary by redesigning their curriculum to include: a common core curriculum; and one/two area(s) of specialization.
Introduce four-year undergraduate programs in Liberal Arts.
By the next five years, five Indian Institutes of Liberal Arts must be set up as model multidisciplinary liberal arts institutions.
Poor service conditions and heavy teaching loads, augmented by a lack of autonomy and no clear career progression system, have resulted in low faculty motivation.
Introduction of a Continuous Professional Development program and permanent employment track system for faculty in all higher education institutions by 2030.
The student-teacher ratio of not more than 30:1 must be ensured.
All higher education institutions must have complete autonomy on curricular, pedagogical, and resource-related matters.

Read: Institutions of Eminence Scheme

Additional Key Focus Areas:

Additional key focus areas are (1) Technology in Education (2) Vocational Education (3) Adult Education and (4) the Promotion of Indian Languages.

Technology in Education

Improving the classroom process of teaching, learning, and evaluation
Aiding teacher training.
Improving access to education.
Improving the overall planning, administration, and management of the entire education system.
Electrification of all educational institutions paves the way for technology induction.
An autonomous body, the National Education Technology Forum, set up under the Mission, will facilitate decision-making on the use of technology.
Single online digital repository to make available copyright-free educational resources in multiple languages.

Vocational Education

Less than 5% of the workforce in the age group of 19-24 receives vocational education in India, in contrast to 52% in the USA, 75% in Germany and 96% in South Korea.
Vocational courses : All school students must receive vocational education in at least one vocation in grades 9 to 12.
Higher Education Institutions must offer vocational courses that are integrated into undergraduate education programs.
The draft Policy targets to offer vocational education to up to 50% of the total enrolment in higher education institutions by 2025, up from the present level of enrolment of below 10%.
National Committee for the Integration of Vocational Education for charting out plans for the above objectives.

Adult Education

As per Census 2011, India had a total of 26.5 crore adult non-literate (15 years and above).

Establishing an autonomous Central Institute of Adult Education as a constituent unit of NCERT. It will develop a National Curriculum Framework for adult education.
Adult Education Centers will be included within the school complexes.
Relevant courses are made available at the National Institute of Open Schooling.
National Adult Tutors Programme to build a cadre of adult education instructors and managers.

Education and Indian Languages

The medium of instruction must be the mother tongue until grade 5, and preferably until grade 8.
3 language formula be continued and flexibility in the implementation of the formula should be provided. Implementation of the formula needs to be strengthened, particularly in Hindi-speaking states. Schools in Hindi-speaking areas should also teach Indian languages from other parts of India for national integration.
To promote Indian languages, a National Institute for Pali, Persian, and Prakrit will be set up.
The mandate of the Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology will be expanded to include all fields and disciplines to strengthen vocabulary in Indian languages.

Transforming Education

The policy talked about the synergistic functioning of India’s education system, to deliver equity and excellence at all levels, from vision to implementation, led by a new Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog.

Education Governance

Revitalize education governance by bringing in synergy and coordination among the different ministries, departments, and agencies.

Constitute the National Education Commission or Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog, as an apex body for education headed by the Prime Minister. It would be responsible for developing, implementing, evaluating, and revising the vision of education and overseeing the implementation and functioning of bodies including the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), National Higher Education Regulatory Authority, and National Research Foundation.
The Ministry of Human Resources and Development must be renamed the Ministry of Education to bring the focus back on education.

Financing Education

The Draft Policy reaffirmed the commitment to spending 6% of GDP as a public investment in education.
The draft Policy seeks to double the public investment in education from the current 10% of total public expenditure to 20% in the next 10 years. 5% will be utilized for higher education, 2% in school education, and 1.4% for early childhood care and education.
There should be optimal and timely utilization of funds through the institutional development plans and by plugging loopholes in the disbursement of funds.

Criticism of the New Education Policy of India

The New Education Policy lacks operational details.
It is not clear from where the funding will be sourced.
Enough importance is not given to innovation, startup culture or economic principles to be added to the curriculum.
One-size-fits for all states can’t be a solution as each state in India is diverse in its educational needs. Controversy on NEET has shown this.
With technological advancement and the democratization of knowledge, the policy should have focused more on how to teach rather than what to teach.
Economic Survey 2017-18 mentioned the perils of the distinction between research institutions and universities in higher education. The policy recommendation of three distinct higher education institutions of research universities, teaching universities, and teaching colleges will further augment the gap between research and universities.
The draft policy is silent on the Institutions of Eminence and agencies like the Higher Education Funding Agency.
The role of Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog should be defined clearly. What would be its role vis-a-vis existing regulators? Also, there are criticisms from some quarters that RSA will open the door to the politicization of education.
Earlier the 3-language formula proposed by the draft policy made Hindi compulsory in non-Hindi speaking states. However, after the furor, the proposal was removed.
Even though the policy talks about bringing “unrepresented groups” into school and focusing on educationally lagging “ special education zones” , it doesn’t comprehensively address the inequalities prevalent in the system. It misses methods to bridge the gaps between rich and poor children.
The policy proposes to remove the provision mandating that primary schools be within stipulated distance from students’ homes and common minimum infrastructure and facility standards that should be met by all schools. If a common minimum standard is not specified, it will create an environment where quality in some schools will fall further thus augmenting the inequalities between schools across the country.

India’s education history is rich with ambitious policies failing at the altar of inadequate implementation of the same. In the absence of a handholding mechanism for states to embark on the path-breaking reforms mentioned in the policy and that too in a short time, will be too much to ask.

Funding requirements and governance architecture pose major challenges in the implementation of the policy. Political commitment is required to increase funding. RTE Act expansion to include preschool should keep in mind the present infrastructure inadequacies and teacher vacancies.

Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog may face administrative problems and turf battles. Also, it will raise questions on the role of new bodies like the National Medical Council.

The recent controversy on 3 language formula shows the sensitivity of language education in India and care should be taken to appreciate the emotional overtures while implementing the same.

Politically acceptability, social desirability, technological feasibility, financial viability, administratively doability, and judicially tenability are 6 pillars that will impact the implementation of the policy.

Be that as it may, the new education policy aims to address the challenges of (i) access, (ii) equity, (iii) quality, (iv) affordability, and (v) accountability faced by the current education system. It aims to revitalize and equip the education system to meet the challenges of the 21st century and 4th industrial revolution rather than catering to 19th and 20th century needs of industrialization. Also, India is on the cusp of a demographic dividend, rather than entered into this phase. So the education system catering to these needs is not a luxury that we hope for but rather a dire need at this moment in Indian history.

The Problems associated with the Education System in India

HRD ministry: Over 1.4 million schools and 50,000 higher educational institutions are operating in India. Out of 907 universities, there are 399 state universities, 126 deemed-to-be universities, 48 central and 334 private universities.

Even after more than a hundred years of “ Gokhale’s Bill”1911, where universal primary education was originally mooted, India is yet to achieve this goal.
China had achieved it in the 1970s. As per Census 2011, over 26% of India’s population is still illiterate, compared to 4% in China. About 50% of India’s population has only primary education or less, compared to 38% in China. The 13% of the population with tertiary education at the upper end in India is comparable with China.
Progress has been made in respect of female participation up to secondary level and GER for girls has exceeded that of boys.
But the girl’s enrollment rate is lower than that of boys at the higher education level.
A gap is visible across social categories in terms of enrollment rate at the higher education level.
According to NSSO’s 71st round (2014), drop-out rates are very high for boys at the secondary school level. Reasons for the same are economic activities, lack of interest in education, and financial constraints.
The transition rate from secondary school to senior secondary and further to higher education is very low.

Despite these highly ambitious education policies and elaborate deliberations on the same, the outcomes are rather shaky. Major criticisms and shortcomings of these policies and their implementations are:

Half the population is crowded at the bottom, either illiterate or with only primary education. Meanwhile, a disproportionately large segment is at the upper end with tertiary education.
The 2015 Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) reflects this deteriorating quality. The report opines that deficits in foundational reading and arithmetic skills are cumulative, which leaves students grossly handicapped for further education .
India had fared poorly in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) test in 2008, and 09.
Education policies in India are focused on inputs rather than on learning outcomes.
Teacher shortages.
Local politics.
Corruption in teacher appointment.
Defects in teacher training.
Socio-cultural factors like caste division, and cynical attitude towards the teaching profession.
There is no accountability, as there is a guaranteed lifetime job independent of performance.
From 1952-2012 , education expenditure as a percentage of total government expenditure increased from 7.92 to 11.7, and as a percentage of GDP increased from 0.64 to 3.31. But it has still not reached 6% of GDP, as was recommended by the Kothari Commission way back in 1964.
Expenditure by the government on elementary education is more than tertiary level, but expenditure per student is more in tertiary. So there is a need to increase expenditure in all segments.
All India survey on higher education has shown that in West Bengal Muslim students in universities are very low. Lack of education at the primary and secondary levels is said to be the main reason.
Even though Article 15(4),(5) provides reservations for SC, ST, and OBC in higher education institutions , the Economic Survey 2018-19 points out their inadequate representation in these institutions.
The suicide of Rohit Vemula, a Ph.D. scholar at the University of Hyderabad, in 2016 had brought forward the discrimination still existing in these institutions.
Also, the representation of teachers at these levels is skewed against the backward class in spite of reservations. Article 16(4) provides for reservations of backward class in jobs.
At the school level, poor children are primarily concentrated in government schools. The poor quality of government schools thus disproportionately affects these children and creates a vicious cycle of illiteracy.
At the higher education level, the situation is more critical. One reason for the introduction of the National Medical Commission Bill is to curb the exorbitant fees charged by medical colleges.
Youths coming out of the higher education system in India are not employable, as they lack relevant industry-level skills.
India’s long-standing neglect of primary and secondary education has limited access to quality basic education. No skill development program can succeed without an underlying foundation of basic education.
National Policy on Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 2015 (PMKVY) has shown disappointing results.
Budget 2019-20 stated that the government enables about 10 million youth to take up industry-relevant skill training through the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY). The Budget has also increased focus on ‘new-age skills’ like Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data, 3D Printing, Virtual Reality, and Robotic.
Currently, B Tech courses in AI are offered mostly in premier institutions only.
The budget 2019-20 proposed the National Sports Education Board for the development of sportspersons under the Khelo India program (2017).

Now we will look at each rung of the education ladder in India.

Early childhood education

Early childhood education (ECE) is needed for cognitive development in the early stage.
Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) has a component for providing ECE through Anganwadis . But lack of effective regulation in this sector is eroding the quality of ECE.
There is a National Early Childhood Care and Education Policy 2013 . However, the policy has not been properly implemented.
There are multiple service providers but there is no clarity in the types of services provided.
The sprawling of an unregulated private channel, both organized and unorganized, which is also spreading to rural areas, has led to inequitable access, uneven quality, and commercialization of ECE.
Both Anganwadis and private schools focus on reading, writing, and arithmetic rather than cognitive and conceptual development.
There is a decline in the quality and training of teachers.
S.R. Subramanian’s committee report has brought focus to the quality deterioration in this sector.

Primary level

There is an increasing trend of parents choosing private schools for the primary level. However, there is variable quality in private schools. Also, fees vary from school to school and are on the higher side.
Eschew rigid curricula and make them more cognitive and flexible. There should be a broader cognitive approach than rote learning.
There is a need for activity-based learning. Teachers should teach at the right level, rather than teaching for the average learner.
The government has launched Padhe Bharat Bade Bharat – targeting early reading and writing. The twin-track approach of comprehension and math is the main focus.
There is a supply-side problem . The government is pumping funds through government schools thus increasing the number of schools and thus enrollment. However, quality and inclusiveness have dropped and dropout rates increased. These lead to poor learning outcomes.

School Complex

RTE and SSA have resulted in over-access but low-quality primary-level education. Now the aim should be to integrate these into school complexes, as mentioned by the Kasturirangan committee report, thus rationalizing the number of schools in an area.
The ‘Adarsh’ integrated school system of Rajasthan is an example of a school complex system . Here one school provides classes from l to XII under one principal. There is one such school in every gram panchayat.
This is an efficient way to solve teacher shortages and also to address the shortages of secondary schools. It can also address the problem of resource scarcity by integrating and rationalizing resources.
Inclusive learning can be furthered through school.
Also, these complexes can act as a pivot around which new reforms in education can be implemented.

Secondary level

ASER Rural 2017: In 2017, ASER changed the age group of the survey from primary level to secondary level. The report mentions the following:

Enrollment is low in this age group. There is a high digital divide at this level. Low quality also persists at this level. There is a high amount of absenteeism as well.
There is a need to expand RTE to cover the 14-18 age groups.
To realize the demographic dividend, skill education for these groups is necessary.

Economic Survey 2018-19 points out that Indian demography is changing and it requires more quality secondary education system rather than merely an increasing number of primary-level schools.

Private fees

The vagueness in the judgment regarding ‘reasonable surplus’ and ‘commercialization’ of education has watered down the outcome of the judgment.
There are state laws for capping fees. However, implementation problems and litigation make them ineffective.
CAG report mentioned misreporting and mismanagement by private schools. So laws should address this problem through stricter inspection, penalties, etc.

Higher education

There is an increasing number of higher education institutions but their quality is questionable, effectively making ‘islands of excellence amidst the sea of mediocrity. Increased accessibility to a low-quality higher education system has made democratization of mediocrity.

Raghuram Rajan, the ex-RBI governor, argued that India needs idea factories and universities by leveraging India’s inherent strengths like tolerance, diversity, etc. He said that there is a need for strong accreditation agencies and continuing education.

Problems of the higher education system in India

There is a dual problem of both quality and quantity. The gross enrollment ratio (GER) in higher education is only 24.5.
Even though education policy had an elitist bias in favor of higher education, the state of the same is much worse than the state of school education. Unlike school education, there is no national survey of the learning levels of college students.
The desired levels of research and internationalization of Indian campuses remain weak points.
Also, there is a low philanthropic investment in this sector. This creates an exclusive dependency on government funding by universities. This, in turn, reduces the autonomy and vision of these universities.
Privatization of higher education has not been led by philanthropy but the commercial interest that does not have a symbiotic relationship with the vision of universities.
These have led to inadequate human capacity, shoddy infrastructure, and weak institutions. Recommendations of the Narayana Murthy committee, on the role of the corporate sector in higher education, have not been implemented and thus channeling of CSR funds to higher education remains inadequate.
Banks and financial institutions are not giving adequate attention to this area. Giving PSL status to these institutions can be considered.
Indian higher education system is of a linear model with very little focus on specialization.
UGC and AICTE act more as controllers of education than facilitators.
Due to the mushrooming of colleges at a higher rate since the 1980s , there is a regulatory sprawl in higher education.
Poor governance , with mindless over-regulation , is widespread in this sector. Educational institutions responded to this with claims of academic and institutional autonomy for themselves, which was mostly a smokescreen for a culture of sloth in these institutions.
There is a concentration of powers, as these regulatory institutions control all aspects like accreditation, curriculum setting, professional standard-setting, funding, etc.
Compartmentalization and fragmentation of the knowledge system.
Disconnect with society.
Overemphasis on entrance tests.
Absence of innovation in learning methods.
Corrosion of autonomy of universities.
For long basic disciplines across the physical and social sciences and humanities were ignored.
However, the Economic Survey 2017-18 mentioned that there is an increase in Ph.D. enrolment in India in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) due to efforts by the government to increase the number and quantum of fellowships. However, there are still fewer researchers in India in comparison to other countries.
Budget 2019-20 proposes ‘Study in India’ with a focus on bringing foreign students to higher educational institutions in India to make India a “hub of higher education.”
Higher education institutions are used as rewards for loyalists and channels of graft by political parties in power.
Indian higher education system is plagued by unregulated and shoddy coaching institutions. The coaching industry makes around Rs. 24000 crores a year in India. Proper regulation of the same is required.

Research and development (R&D)

Economic Survey 2017-18 stated: “To transform from net consumer to net producer of knowledge, India should invest in educating its youth in science and mathematics, reform the way R&D is conducted, engage the private sector and the Indian diaspora, and take a more mission-driven approach in areas such as dark matter, genomics, energy storage, agriculture, and mathematics and cyber-physical systems”.

Although Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) is consistently increasing, as a fraction of GDP it has been stagnant between 0.6-0.7 percent of GDP over the past two decades.
The universities play a relatively small role in the research activities in India. There is a disconnection between research institutes and universities. This results in the compartmentalization of research activities and teaching into two separate silos.
The separation of research from teaching leads to a situation where universities have students but need additional faculty support, while research institutes have qualified faculty but are starved of young students.
India was, at one point, spending more on R&D as a percentage of GDP than countries like China – but currently, India under-spends on R&D.
Doubling of R&D spending is necessary and much of the increase should come from the private sector and universities.

The need of the hour

It is imperative to improve math and cognitive skills at the school level to make a difference at a higher level.
There is a need to expand R&D in India and to go beyond paper presentations and patents to a broader contribution of providing value for society.
There is also a need to encourage Investigator-led Research for funding science research. Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) 2008, a statutory body of DST, is a step in the right direction.
50:50 partnerships with SERB for industry-relevant research under the Ucchatar Avishkar Yojana (UAY) is the right way to go forward.
It would strengthen state universities and provide knowledge in areas specific to a state.
National Research Foundation, to fund, coordinate, and promote research at the college level, is proposed by the Kasturirangan report. It is reiterated in Budget 2019-20 : NRF will ensure the overall research ecosystem in the country is strengthened with a focus on areas relevant to national priorities without duplication of effort and expenditure. The funds available with all Ministries will be integrated into NRF.
Link national labs to universities and create new knowledge ecosystems. Together they can link up with the commercial sectors and help develop industrial clusters.
National Mission on Dark Matter
National Mission on Genomics
National Mission on Energy Storage Systems
National Mission on Mathematics
National Mission on Cyber-Physical Systems
National Mission on Agriculture
Ramanujan Fellowship Scheme.
Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research ( INSPIRE ) Faculty Scheme.
Ramalingaswami Re-entry Fellowship.
Visiting Advanced Joint Research Faculty Scheme ( VAJRA ).
Improve the culture of research thus ‘ ease of doing research’. There is a need for less hierarchical governance systems that encourage risk-taking and curiosity in the pursuit of excellence.
Greater public engagement of the science and research establishment is needed. A greater effort at science communication is needed.

Government initiatives on higher education

The government is trying to revitalize the Indian higher education system and for this many initiatives have been launched. Let’s discuss the importance of them.

National Testing Agency (NTA) 2017

NTA was set up for conducting entrance exams in higher educational institutions. It is based on the recommendations of the Ashok Mishra committee on IIT entrance 2015.
It will conduct JEE, NEET, National Eligibility Test (NET), Common Management Admission Test (CMAT), and Graduate Pharmacy Aptitude Test (GPAT).
It will provide diversity and plurality in higher education. It will also ensure independence and transparency in conducting the exams.
However, it should be ensured that the computer-based test should not lead to further exploitation of rural students.
NEET stands for National Eligibility cum Entrance Test . It is for admissions in medical courses by replacing a plethora of medical entrance tests with one national-level test.
Supreme Court had said that NEET should be the sole basis for admission to medical courses.
There is a controversy about whether urban and CBSE students will dominate NEET. The government should pay heed to this criticism.
In Tamil Nadu doctors serving in rural areas get weightage in PG admission. NEET will effectively dislodge this system.
This controversy brought forward the conflict between the fair and transparent system of admission to curb the commercialization of medical education and the socioeconomic goals of the state, which in the case of Tamil Nadu includes ensuring enough doctors for rural areas.
Controversy on NEET has brought the following question to the limelight: should uniformity be thrust upon a country with such vast disparity and diversity? The political leadership should iron out the differences and produce a suitable admission policy. This task should not be left to the judiciary.
Be that as it may, states can’t remain insulated from the need to upgrade their education standard.

RUSA: Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan 2013

About 94 % of students in higher education study in 369 State universities, whereas less than 6% of students study in 150 Centrally-funded institutions.
11th 5-year plan (2007-12) opined that the center’s bias towards premier central institutions had skewed funding for these institutions mainly and thus neglected state-level institutions.
State investment in higher education was declining. UGC’s system of direct release of funds to State institutions bypassing State governments also leads to a sense of alienation for the states.
RUSA tried to correct this bias. The scheme aims at financing state institutions concerning their governance and performance.
RUSA has shown the result in increasing the performance of state institutions and changing the way regulators function for the good. State Higher Education Council(SHEC) made medium-long-term state perspective plans.
Cabinet in 2018 decided to continue the scheme. A renewed focus by the center on RUSA will be a success only if it is impartially administered and states are willing to heed the advice of SHEC.

HECI: Higher Education Commission of India bill

On the recommendation of the Yashpal Committee 2010 for renovation and rejuvenation of higher education, the National Commission on Higher Education and Research bill was introduced but was not passed.
HECI was proposed to act as an overarching regulator of higher education by replacing UGC, which will maintain academic standards, approve new educational institutions, etc. but with no funding powers.
Draft Higher Education Commission of India (Repeal of University Grants Commission Act) Bill, 2018 was introduced in 2018. Budget 2019-20 proposed to bring a bill on HECI this year.
The draft bill had separated funding and placed it under MHRD. This was criticized for the fear of increasing political control and reducing the autonomy of universities.

IoE: Institutions of Eminence 2017

Around 2005, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings and the QS World University Rankings started, and in 2009 the Academic Ranking of World Universities started. From India, only the Indian Institute of Science was included in the top 500 every year. This prompted the government to introduce NIRF and IoE.
Under IoE, UGC was tasked to select 10 government universities and 10 private ones as IoE. These would be given autonomy in operations.
Selected government institutions would be provided with ₹1,000 crore over five years.
The IoE tag is expected to help them achieve the world’s top 500 higher education institutions in a decade and later into the top 100.
Institutes among the top 50 in the National Institute Ranking Framework rankings or in the top 500 in international ratings were eligible.
The model for the sector remains dependent on state patronage.
Entry into the global education race could now become an overriding concern when many systemic issues are plaguing the sector.
Funding only for public institutions is discriminatory.
Humanities institutions were neglected.
Transparency in the selection process, and the public sharing of benchmarks and guidelines. The furor over the selection of Jio Institute, even before it functioned, had attracted many eyeballs and criticisms.
Separate category to include sectoral institutions like IIM.

National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) 2015

NIRF is a methodology adopted by the MHRD to rank higher education institutions in India.

NIRF is common for public and private institutions as well as state and central institutions. Comparison of state-level colleges with central and private colleges may lead to a vicious cycle of low funding, poor performance, and low ranks among state-level institutions because of the resource gap.
So performance index values should be normalized concerning investments and resources that have gone into that institution. Also should consider making another ranking system for state-level institutions.

HEFA: Higher Education Financing Agency 2018

Introduced in Budget 2018-19, HEFA is a joint venture of MHRD and Canara Bank

With an initial capital base of Rs 1,000 crores, it will act as a not-for-profit organization that will leverage funds from the market and supplement them with donations and CSR funds. These funds will be used to finance improvement in infrastructure in top institutions.
It has been tasked with raising ₹1 lakh crore to finance infrastructure improvements in higher education by 2022.

Foreign Education Providers Bill 2013

There is no account of programs delivered by foreign universities in India. Inadequate regulation has led to low-quality courses offered in this sector.
The foreign Institution bill was not been able to pass in Parliament. However,

EQUIP report has mentioned the revival of this bill.

There are many other schemes and initiatives like SWAYAM, which offers open online courses from Class IX to post-graduation free of cost, GIAN and IMPRINT which are primarily focused on elite institutes like IITs and IISc.

APAAR: One Nation One Student ID Card

The Automated Permanent Academic Account Registry (APAAR) is a transformative initiative introduced in alignment with the National Education Policy (NEP) of 2020 and the National Credit and Qualifications Framework (NCrF).

It aims to provide a unified and accessible academic experience for students across India by assigning a unique and permanent 12-digit ID to every student, consolidating their academic achievements in one place.

Other Major Issues connected with the Education sector in India

The Indian education sector is also affected by other issues like the politicization of campuses, gender parity problems, poor-quality standards, etc.

Politicization of campuses

JP movement had provided an impetus to the politicization of students.
In Indian higher education institutions, university politics has become a launchpad for political ambitions.
Though campus politics is vital for democracy, as it makes students better citizens, the negative side of the politicization of campuses has been visible across Indian campuses. Recent incidents at Kerala University are a case in point.
One of the most important problems of student politics in India is that it acts as an appendage to political parties without having an independent identity or autonomy.

Gender Parity

By parents → who send boys to private and girls to government schools. Economic Survey 2018-19: enrollment of girls is higher than that of boys in government schools but the pattern gets reversed in private schools. The gender gap in enrollment in private schools has consistently increased across age groups.
By teachers → who reinforced the belief that boys are quick learners.
Girls are eased out of school to work on home chores or get married.
Economic Survey 2018-19 opines that BBBP has been a success and proposes to extend the cause of Gender equality by coining the slogan of BADLAV (Beti Aapki Dhan Lakshmi Aur Vijay-Lakshmi) to enhance the contribution of women in the workforce and the economy.
For ranking states based on gender disparity, Digital Gender Atlas for Advancing Girl’s Education was launched by MHRD.
In higher education, gender disparities still prevail in enrollment.
Efforts by the Government through programs like Beti Padhao, and Beti Bachao, the GPI has improved substantially at the primary and secondary levels of enrolment.

Quality of education

Learning outcomes are not assessed in India as numerical outcomes. The 12th Five-Year Plan noted the need for measuring and improving learning outcomes.

Children of illiterate parents can’t supplement school studies at home and also can’t afford expensive tuition, leading to a vicious cycle of illiteracy.
From 2014 to 2018, there was a gradual improvement in both basic literacy and numeracy for Class III students but only a quarter of them are at grade level (ability to read and do basic operations like subtraction of Class II level).
The report also shows that 1 out of 4 children leaving Class VIII are without basic reading skills (ability to read at least a Class II level).

Government initiatives

Central Rules under the RTE Act were amended in February 2017 to include the defined class-wise and subject-wise learning outcomes.
Nationwide sub-program of SSA to improve comprehensive early reading, writing, and early mathematics programs for children in Classes I and II.

Teacher Training

Teachers play the most critical role in a student’s achievement.
The need is for better incentives for teachers, investments in teacher capacity through stronger training programs, and addressing the problems in the teaching-learning process.
However, teachers in India, especially in government schools, are considered a cog in the way to efficient governance. There is an inadequate focus on their motivation and skill updation.
NCERT study shows that there is no systematic incorporation of teacher feedback into designing pieces of training. Also, there is no mechanism to check whether this training is translated into classroom performance.
These results in de-professionalizing the teaching profession and curb a teacher’s “internal responsibility” — the sense of duty to the job.
World Development Report on Education (2018) opined that both teaching skills and motivation matter. Individually targeted continued training is important. In line with this, MHRD and the National Council for Teacher Education launched the National Teacher Platform, or Diksha in 2017 . It is a one-stop solution to address teacher competency gaps.
However, the current training through Diksha follows a one-size-fits-all approach. Even though the platform is designed to democratize both access to and creation of content by teachers, its real benefits are in the ability to provide continuous professional development which complements existing physical training.
This technology-enabled platform allows training to become a continuous activity rather than an annual event and also creates a feedback loop ensuring the effectiveness of the material.
Diksha has the potential to re-engineer in-service teacher training in India. It is important to create good content and also to ensure technology consumption by teachers, the role of headmasters in promoting teachers’ professional development, etc.

As India participates in the PISA in 2021, it is to be made sure that we recognize the importance of teachers and their role in education outcomes.

Private Schools vs Public Schools: The Big Debate in Education

At least 30% of students between the 6-14 age groups are in the private sector.

There is an increasing perception that the quality of teaching in private schools is better than that of public schools. Thus there is a clamour for increasing the number of private schools and simultaneously limiting public spending on government schools.
However, the claim on the quality of private schools is debatable as there is a wide disparity of the same among these schools.

Research paper by Geeta Gandhi Kingdon, professor of education and international development at the Institute of Education, London, offers insights into private-public school education in India:

The paper points out that between 2010-11 and 2015-16, the average enrolment in government schools declined from 122 to 108 students per school, while in private schools it rose from 202 to 208.
Nevertheless, according to the District Information System for Education (DISE), 65% of all school-going children, 113 million, get their education from government schools.
The study points out that the migration to private schools is due to the belief among parents that these schools offer better value for money in terms of quality.
IndiaSpend, in 2016, reported that despite the Rs 1.16 lakh crore spent on SSA, the quality of learning declined between 2009 and 2014. It also points out that less than one in five elementary school teachers in India are trained. Also, the contractual teachers, who are high in number in government schools, are likely to be less motivated and accountable.
Preference for private school tutoring is there.
The quality of schools varies between states. In 2016, in Kerala, the proportion of children enrolled in primary government schools increased from 40.6% in 2014 to 49.9% according to ASER 2016.
States with better-functioning government schools have more expensive private schools as there is no market for the ‘low-fee’ budget private schools. Around 80% of private schools in India are ‘low’ fee schools.
ASER 2016 has shown small improvements in learning outcomes in government schools.
Between 2010-11 and 2015-16, the number of private schools grew by 35% – to 0.30 million. On the other hand, the number of government schools grew only by 1%, to 1.04 million. The migration out of government schools has left many of these economically unviable.
Government teachers in India earn four times that of China but don’t perform as well. Up to 80% of India’s public expenditure on education is spent on teachers. There is a need to link teacher salaries to their accountability.
However, the salary of private teachers is very low compared to their government counterparts. This is due to the “bureaucratically-set high ‘minimum wage’, which is being influenced by strong unions of government school teachers.
Another reason for the low salary of private school teachers is that the private education sector offers salaries based on market factors of demand and supply. Since 10.5% of graduates are unemployed in India, there is a high supply of teachers.
Rather than merely increasing the budget outlay for education, the need is to revise the Education policy for better accountability and monitoring mechanisms.
Gandhi argued that a Public-private partnership (PPP) model may be the solution, with public sector funding and private resources for education, since reforming the present system may not be politically feasible.

Rather than debating about private versus public schools, the focus should be to enable the private sector to set up more schools under the scrutiny of regulatory authorities. There is no point in driving off the private initiative in schooling given the limited resources of the states. Private investment should be encouraged but made accountable for quality and conduct.

The above discussion showed the challenges of the Indian education system. A workforce that India wants to create in this digital age requires reforms in education at all levels. UNESCO’s Global Education Monitoring (GEM) Report 2016 opined that India is expected to achieve universal primary education in 2050. India is 50 years late in achieving its global education commitments. If the nation wants fundamental changes in the education system, it has to meet the 2030 SDG targets on education. There is an urgent requirement for greater evolution in education in India.

Education Quality Upgradation and Inclusion Programme (EQUIP): How to transform Education in India?

EQUIP is a five-year vision plan on education, released by MHRD, by the Prime Minister’s decision to create a five-year vision plan for each Ministry.

The EQUIP project is crafted by ten expert groups led by experts within and outside the government:

Group 1: Strategies for expanding access
Group 2: Towards global best teaching/learning process
Group 3: Promoting Excellence
Group 4: Governance reforms
Group 5: Assessment, Accreditation, and Ranking Systems
Group 6: Promotion of research and innovation
Group 7: Employability and Entrepreneurship
Group 8: Using Technology for Better Reach
Group 9: Internationalisation
Group 10: Financing Higher Education

The groups have suggested initiatives to transform the education system completely. The goals set by the groups are:

Double GER in higher education and resolve the geographically and socially skewed access to higher education institutions.
Upgrade the quality of education to global standards.
Position at least 50 Indian institutions among the top 1000 global universities.
Introduce governance reforms in higher education for well-administered campuses.
Accreditation of all institutions as an assurance of quality.
Promote Research and Innovation ecosystems for positioning India in the top three countries in the world in matters of knowledge creation.
Double the employability of the students passing out of higher education.
Harness education technology for expanding the reach and improving pedagogy.
Promote India as a global study destination.
Achieve a quantum increase in investment in higher education.

We can see that each of the above goals has been known to us for a long time. The problem is its implementation. The political class and all other stakeholders should come together to achieve these goals. The plethora of government initiatives on higher education is a sure sign of the importance given by the political class in the reform of the education system of India. Let’s hope that a new dawn of Indian education is around the corner which will bring back the glory of ancient times when India was the centre of knowledge production.

As the Economic Survey 2016-17 points out, lack of health, malnourishment, etc. affects the cognitive ability of children. This will, in turn, have a detrimental effect on their future educational prospects. This leads to a vicious cycle of inter-generational illiteracy, poor health, and ultimately poverty. So education and health are complementary to each other and reforms in one sector should invariably be preceded and followed by reforms in other sectors. Human development as a whole can be considered as a wholesome development and we must appreciate the interlinkages of each section of human capital formation, be it health, education, digital literacy, skills, etc.

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Reader Interactions

November 27, 2019 at 10:33 pm

Wow what the largest matter of education is?. Very nice thank u sir

November 28, 2019 at 12:09 pm

Nice article but it is too long we need around 400 words which explains education in india,challenges,way forward only It is very hard to remember and segrate from given imp because all points look like imp please try to make it around 400 words only

November 28, 2019 at 2:00 pm

@MKM – The aim was to cover almost everything about Education in India as a comprehensive post. The post covers: (a) History of Education in India (b) Current Status of Education in India: Data from Census 2011 (c) RTE Act (d) Various Educational Policies in the past (e) The New National Educational Policy (NEP) (f) The Problems associated with the Education System in India (g) Education Quality Upgradation and Inclusion Programme (EQUIP): How to transform Education in India?

Though ClearIAS prefers short and crisp articles, for important areas like Education, we felt a detailed write-up would be useful.

Thank you for your feedback. We will continue to create concise articles as well.

November 28, 2019 at 12:35 pm

Good Source thank you Team.

November 28, 2019 at 1:56 pm

November 28, 2019 at 2:41 pm

November 29, 2019 at 7:45 am

This is a very nice and comprehensive information on education.

November 29, 2019 at 2:21 pm

Such a nice article sir thank you..

December 16, 2019 at 5:31 pm

March 30, 2020 at 12:48 pm

Sir,a small corrrection regarding literacy rate ranking, Kerala (93%)tops its followed by Lakshadweep(92 %), Mizoram (91 %) , Tripura (87.7 %) and Goa (87.4 %) as 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th places repectively according to 2011 census.

June 16, 2020 at 12:20 am

Excellent Work

August 31, 2020 at 1:14 pm

Thank you vry much team.🤗 You provide excellent data ,analysis,facts,etc…evrything at one doc.

November 16, 2020 at 10:47 pm

Absolutely amazing stuff. Can’t believe.. Thanks from the bottom of my heart ❤️❤️

May 27, 2021 at 12:38 pm

Great article about Education very informative thanks for sharing

May 31, 2021 at 11:55 pm

Well and easy to understand…thank u for the team

September 12, 2021 at 10:37 am

Very good and such a broad information thank u 💖.. Lots of love

December 16, 2021 at 11:10 am

Need to update with current data eg how much percentage of school/ children get access of online education in pandemic Era COVID challanges others family support etc thank

January 28, 2022 at 10:32 am

Thank you so much for your birthday support

February 27, 2022 at 5:33 pm

good information

June 10, 2022 at 3:00 pm

Nice article very informative…traditional classroom study should be changed into a smart classroom online

July 14, 2022 at 8:55 pm

December 18, 2022 at 1:05 am

Absolute coverage article, Kindly keep it up for your determined spectators.

May 28, 2023 at 9:10 pm

desserstation on education/slums/miagration par hindi me pdf mil sakta hai

January 23, 2024 at 8:06 pm

The analysis provides a comprehensive overview of India’s education system, highlighting its pyramid structure and alignment with Sustainable Development Goals. Constitutional provisions like Article 21A and the RTE Act aim for universal education. However, the RTE Act faces criticism. To enhance educational outcomes, addressing these concerns and ensuring effective implementation are imperative. Schools in Pataudi Gurgaon focus on quality, inclusivity, and overcoming criticisms can lead Indian education to new heights. Thank You Samriddhi Sharma

February 7, 2024 at 7:44 pm

It’s crucial to delve into the challenges confronting the Indian education sector and understand the constitutional framework and policies guiding it. Exploring these aspects sheds light on the complexities and opportunities within the system. However, it’s equally important to consider how these discussions translate into action at the grassroots level, especially in local communities like Rajajinagar, Bangalore. How are schools in rajajinagar bangaloreaddressing these systemic issues and implementing reforms to ensure quality education for all students? This intersection of policy discourse and on-the-ground realities is where meaningful change happens.

March 8, 2024 at 6:22 am

Is there any data on how many states provide free education to girls till grade X and how many provide it till grade XII?

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Evolution of Education in India (Post Independence)

Over the course of 7 decades after Independence, the education system of India has evolved gradually yet phenomenally. From a literacy rate of 18% in 1951, we have moved up to 73% as of 2011. Currently, the education system in India is the strongest and largest in the world hosting more than 315 million students.

The modern education system was introduced to India in 1830 during the British rule by Lord Thomas Babington, who brought English language syllabus to the country. The syllabus was then limited to common subjects like language, science and maths. Classroom teaching became prominent and the relation between a teacher and student evolved.

In the following years, the education system started getting influenced by various institutions. During the late nineteenth century, the Theosophical Society of India and Rama Krishna Mission started to merge the western ideals of education with the Indian roots to inspire the students and make them accepted universally. Intellectuals of various nationalities came together and helped shape the education system.

Also Read: What is the Online Learning System?

Indian Education System post-Independence

Post India gained its independence from the British colonial rule, the Indian education system, previously accessible only to the elite, became available for the entire society. The government’s Central Advisory Board established two committees – one for higher education and one for secondary education – to address the challenges of education, formulate comprehensive education policies and improve the overall education landscape of the country. Currently, Indian School System consists of four levels – pre-primary, primary, secondary and higher secondary.

Admissions and Educational Institutions

As of 2019, India has the most number of students in a country. Compared to the tragic situation of 1947 when the country had merely 400 schools, 19 universities with a little over 5000 students, we have come a long way. Currently, India boasts of 1.5 million plus schools, 751 universities and 35 thousand plus colleges.

The Modern Learning Approach

To modernise the knowledge delivery ways according to the needs of the 21st century generation, schools and universities are adopting various unique practices. These methodologies and innovative pedagogies enable educational institutions to develop the skills of the learners in such a manner that they are able to become self-dependent and ambitious achievers. Some of these new age methods are:

• Experiential Learning: As it is evident by the name, experiential learning is the process of learning through doing or experience, and is more specifically defined as “learning through reflection on doing. Learning only produces good results when learners have the desire to absorb the knowledge. Therefore, experiential learning comprises a hands-on approach to education that goes beyond the theoretical aspect and a classroom and strives to bring a more involved way of learning.

Also Read: Present & Future of Online Education in India

• Peer Learning: Peer learning has become a part of an active learning strategy in a lot of Universities and B-Schools. This form of pedagogy encourages students to interact with their classmates/peers and learn from each other beyond classroom without any supervising authority. This creates an environment of open communication which is highly crucial for learning. Research has shown that students, who engage in an environment of free communication, perform better academically.

• The Rise of Ed-Tech: Starting from the past decade, the new generation of learner is looking for courses which are experiential and interactive in nature and facilitate authentic skill development . This is where the Edtech is making its mark. According to a report by Google & KPMG, Online education has the potential to touch $1.96 billion by 2021 as everyone, from school going students to MBA aspirants to CXOs of multinational corporations and entrepreneurs, is a potential learner.

Let us consider the examples of two distinct Edtech start-ups. One of the app based Edtech company has moved in the direction of making learning fun for school going children. On the other end of the spectrum, Edtech startups in higher-education arena are partnering with premium Indian and international B-Schools bringing quality learning within the reach of working professionals.

The evolution of communication, cheaper internet, gamification, AI & ML powered learning platforms are some of the reasons behind the changing face education in the country and globally. The smartphone revolution has also provided wings for the Edtech to fly. Educators are now using smartphones as a significant tool for imparting knowledge.

Conclusion:

The education landscape of India has evolved considerably since we achieved our Independence. The intervention of technology has made it easier and much more insightful than it ever was. The benefits of imparting relevant education have been understood by the governments which have done their bit to boost the existing system for all sections of the society.

More Information:

Benefits of Online Education

Online Learning vs. Classroom Learning

Present & Future of Online Education in India

Scope & Opportunities for Online Learning in India

Different Technical Requirements for Online Learning

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Development of Education In India

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Home » Economy » Infrastructure » Social Infrastructure » Development of Education In India

History after Independence

In First Five Year Plan 7.9% of total plan outlay was allocated for education.

In Second and Third Plan , the allocations were 5.8% and 6.9% of the total plan outlay.

In Ninth Plan only 3.5% of the total outlay was allocated for education.

To streamline the education, the Govt. implemented the recommendations of Kothari Commission under ‘National Policy on Education’ in 1968. The main recommendations were

universal primary education.
Introduction of new pattern of education,
three language formula,
introduction of regional language in higher education,
development of agricultural and industrial education and
adult education.

To combat the changing socio-economic needs of the country, Govt. of India announced a new National Policy on Education in 1986. Main features :-

Universalisation of primary education,
vocationalisation of secondary education and
specialisation of higher education were the main features of this policy.

University Grants Commission (UGC) was instituted to determine the standard of higher education

Expansion of General Education:

During the period of planning there has been expansion of general education.

Primary education – been free and compulsory.

Midday meal has been started in schools since 1995 to check drop-out rate.

Development of Technical Education:

These are given below:

(a) Indian Institute of Technology:

(b) National Institute of Technology (NIT):

These institutes impart education in business management and administration. These institutes are located at Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore and Kozhikode.

(d) Medical education:

There were only 28 medical colleges in the country in 1950-51. There were 165 medical and 40 dental colleges in the country in 1998-99.

(e) Agricultural education:

Women education:

In India, literary among women was quite low. It was 52% according to 2001 census. While the literacy among men was 75.8%.

Women education was given top priority in National Policy on Education. Many State Governments have exempted the tuition fee of girl’s up to university level. Separate schools and colleges have been established to raise level of literacy among women.

Vocational education:

Growth of higher education:

In 1951, there were 27 universities. Their number increased to 254 in 2001.

Non-formal education:

Encouragement to Indian Language and Culture:

Adult education:

Adult education refers to the education for the illiterate people belonging to the age group of 15-35 years.

The National Board of Adult Education was established in the First Five Year Plan. The village level workers were assigned the job of providing adult education. The progress remained not too good.

Improvement of Science education:

Education for all:

Schemes for Elementary Education

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
Mid Day Meal
Mahila Samakhya
Strengthening for providing quality education in Madrassas ( SPQEM)

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is implemented as India’s main Programme for universalizing elementary education. Its overall goals include universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in education and enhancement of learning levels of children.

Mid-Day Meal Scheme

Launched in 1995 as centrally sponsored scheme as the National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE). Its objective was to enhance enrolment, retention and attendance and simultaneously improving nutritional levels among children,

Schemes for Secondary Education

Secondary Education is the most significant stage in the educational hierarchy as it prepares the students for higher education and the world of work. The policy at present is to make secondary education of good quality available, accessible and affordable to all young persons in the age group of 14-18. At present, the following schemes targeted at secondary stage (i.e. class IX to XII) are being implemented in the form of Centrally Sponsored Schemes:

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
Girls Hostel Scheme
National Scheme of Incentives to Girls for Secondary Education
Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage
Scheme of Vocational Education
National Merit-cum-Means Scholarship Scheme
Scheme for construction and running of Girls’ Hostel for students of secondary and higher secondary schools
Scholarship schemes for Minority students
National Scholarships

The National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT) promotes educational development both in quantitative and qualitative terms and makes special efforts to remove disparities and equalize educational opportunities for all students.

NCERT acknowledges and appreciates educational brilliance in students through the National Talent Search Scheme. It also seeks to applaud artistic distinction through the Chacha Nehru Scholarships – for artistic and innovative excellence. The National Bal Bhawan has instituted a system of honouring talented children in different age groups in the year 1995 through the Bal Shree scheme.

Schemes for Higher Education

Higher Education is the shared responsibility of both the Centre and the States. The coordination and determination of standards in institutions is the constitutional obligation of the Central Government. The Central Government provides grants to UGC and establishes Central Universities in the country. Meritorious students, from families with or without necessary means, need an incentive or encouragement to keep on working hard in their studies and go to the next level of education in their academic career. This is where the scholarships and education loans play a crucial role.

Following are some significant fellowship schemes/scholarships awarded by the various institutions:

Scheme of Apprenticeship Training
Post-Doctoral Research Fellow (Scheme)
Junior Research Fellowships for biomedical sciences
All India Council for Technical Education Scholarships
Department of Science and Technology grants and fellowships
DST’s Scholarship Scheme for Women Scientists and Technologists
Biotechnology fellowships for doctoral and postdoctoral studies by DBT
Scholarships /Awards at Undergraduate & Postgraduate level in various science courses at the University of Delhi
Fellowships/Scholarships/Awards by the Jawaharlal Nehru University
Sports Authority of India promotional schemes
Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities – Schemes/Programmes
Scholarship Schemes for ST Students by Ministry of Tribal Affairs
Post-matric Scholarships for SC /ST students
Scholarships for Minority Students

Important Issues in Indian Education System

1. Lack of infrastructure Approximately 95.2 per cent of schools are not yet compliant with the complete set of RTE infrastructure indicators according to survey conducted in 2010.They lacks drinking water facilities, a functional common toilet, and do not have separate toilets for girls. Number of boards causes non uniformity of curriculum throughout India so maintenance of quality standard is quite difficult.

2. Poor global ranking of institutes Only 4 universities are featured in first 400 .This is largely because of high faculty-student ratio and lack of research capacity

3. System of education Education is information based rather than knowledge based. The whole focus is on cramming information rather than understanding it and analyzing it.

4. Gap between education provided and industry required education Industry faces a problem to find suitable employee as education provided is not suitable for directly working in industry so before that a company is required to spend large amount on providing training for employee.

5. Gender issues Traditional Indian society suffers from many kind of discrimination so there are many hurdles in education of unprivileged sections of society like women, SC, ST and minority

6. Costly higher education Very minimal amount of subsidy is provided for higher education so if student seeks to get chances of higher education still he misses out because of lack of economical resources

7. Inadequate government Funding The demand for financial resources far exceeds the supply. Very small amount is available for innovative programs and ideas.

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Opinion Front

Development of the Education System in India After Independence

Since independence in 1947, India has come a long way in terms of its literacy rate. With more universities and educational institutions, Indian students have a much better infrastructure for learning today. This piece tracks India's progress in the education sector since its independence.

Since independence in 1947, India has come a long way in terms of its literacy rate. With more universities and educational institutions, Indian students have a much better infrastructure for learning today. This piece tracks India’s progress in the education sector since its independence.

Did You Know?

In ancient India, the ‘gurukul’ system was practiced. In this system, all the students lived under the same roof with their ‘guru’ (teacher), irrespective of their social standards, and followed a strict routine that was devoid of any pleasure or entertainment.

India, a culturally rich and diverse country, is one of the fastest growing economies with a potential for a bright future. Ruled by the British Raj for almost 100 years, India finally gained freedom on August 15th, 1947. As such, a lot of laws and systems in India are influenced by the British system, and the education system is no exception to it.

India, before independence, was divided on the lines of the caste system. Even today, there is a lot of caste discrimination prevalent. Moreover, only the elite were allowed to learn in older times, and those who performed menial jobs had no education. Predominantly being an agricultural country, most of the population is settled in rural areas. However, the education system in urban areas is much better. The efforts of the government has brought about a sea change in the scenario, as compared to earlier times.

Let’s check out the development of the education system in India after independence, with the help of some statistics and information about the government’s initiatives.

Important Statistics in India’s Literacy Rates After Independence

The literacy rate in india: 1951 to 2011.

Note that, since 1991, only those above the age of seven years are classified as literate or illiterate.

Literacy Performance of States As Per 2011 Census

Highest Performing States Kerala: 93.91% Lakshadweep: 92.28% Mizoram: 91.58%

Lowest Performing States Bihar: 63.82% Arunachal Pradesh: 66.95% Rajasthan: 67.06 %

Conclusion: These statistics indicate that, since 1947, India has been making steady progress. Moreover, there is a large disparity in the literacy rates between different states, and also between both genders.

Latest News on the Block According to the latest National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) survey, released on June 30th, 2015, based on a small sample consisting of 4,577 villages and 3,720 urban blocks, conducted during January to June 2014, as a part of the survey on ‘Social Consumption: Education’ ―

The literacy rate in India is 75% (for citizens above 7 years of age), with urban areas having 86%, and rural areas having 71% literacy rate.

Initiatives Taken by the Government for the Development of Education

✦ Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) for children from 6 to 14 years old was launched in 2000-2001, to impart compulsory elementary education to all. The SSA program aims at ensuring availability of schools, infrastructure, especially in the rural areas, with special focus on girl-students.

✦ Saakshar Bharat Mission is an initiative by the Government of India, which imparts education to adults who do not have formal education. The ‘National Literacy Mission’, one of the programs of the mission, targets adults in the age group of 15 – 35 years.

✦ Mid-Day Meal Scheme: This scheme was introduced to increase the number of students attending school, and to provide nutrition to them at a nominal rate, in government-aided institutions.

✦ India’s traditional family system places boys at a higher place than girls. Hence, during the pre-independence period, there were very less women who were educated. However, as a result of the government’s efforts, there has been a large improvement in this regard. The ‘Mahila Samakhya Programme’ was launched in 1989 with an aim at giving quality education to women, that can boost their confidence, and enable them to make valuable contributions to the Indian economy.

Development of Physical Education

✦ The ‘Central Advisory Board of Physical Education and Recreation’ was set up in 1950 to promote physical education in schools, and also train teachers.

✦ The National Discipline Scheme was started in July 1954 to impart disciplinarian training, and instill in the minds of students the feeling of serving the nation.

✦ ‘Physical Education’ is a compulsory subject for students up to class X.

Governing Authorities

✦ The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) and State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) is responsible for the development of the education system on a national and state level, respectively.

✦ University Grants Commission (UGC): In India, the UGC has been conferred the right to disburse grants to universities and colleges, and also act as a regulator for university education. It was formally established in November 1956.

All these trends show, that despite considerable improvement, India has a potential to do much better. There are many who do not complete secondary education, especially in rural areas. Poverty and a huge population are also the contributing factors for India’s low literacy rate. Yet, with efforts from both, the citizens and the government, things are looking good and set to improve even further.

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TEACHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

2019, journal of The Gujarat Research Society

Teacher education refers to the policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip teachers with necessary knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills. They need to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school and wider community. The teacher educators prepare quality teachers who in turn improve the quality of school education and also enhance the learning level of children. Every concerned person talks about quality education and it is not possible without the proper training of the teachers. Thus the growth and progress of teacher educating systems are very much important. For this, there have been reforms for preparing quality teachers. Programs, plans, and policies have been devised to achieve quality. In India, teacher education has always been recognized as one of the most crucial means of social and national development. This view has been reflected by several commissions and committees after independence. The Government of India set up many commissions and committees from time to time for addressing different issues of general education as well as teacher education. After independence efforts were made to tackle the emerging problem of access, quality and relevance of the teacher education system in the country. This paper elaborates the growth and progress of the teacher education system and reviews related reforms in India after independence.

Related Papers

Indus Foundation International Journals UGC Approved

Education plays a significant role in nation's development and the development of the standard of education is closely connected with the question of teacher education. A teacher should prepare himself for this special task before accepting the responsibility of teaching. The teachers' training institution helps a lot to do this task. In the education policy the quality and importance of the teachers' training is admitted for a long time. A lot of planning and resources has been spent for improving the quality of teacher education. New technologies have been introduced in the field of education. But still our teacher-education could not raise upto the expected level. This paper presents about the teacher education in India by focusing on problems and related concerns.

IJARW Research Publication

Teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and in-service components are complimentary to each other. Education is instrumental in the preparation of teachers who can in their practice ensure transformative learning, where teacher and learner, learner and learner are co-constructors of knowledge. The aim of the present paper is to improve the teacher education quality in India by focusing on the problems & related concerns. The present structure of teacher education is supported by a network of national, provincial and district level resource institutions working together to enhance the quality and effectiveness of teacher preparation programs at the pre-service level and also through in-service programs for serving teachers throughout the country. Importantly, the teacher education and training institutions must take up the charge of educating policy makers and the general public about what it actually takes to teach effectively both in terms of knowledge and skills that are needed and in terms of the school contexts that must be created to allow teachers to develop and use what they know on behalf of their students. Now teacher has to perform various roles like encouraging, supporting and facilitating in teaching-learning situations which enables learners to discover their talents, to realize their physical and intellectual potentialities to the fullest, to develop character and desirable social and human values to function as responsible citizens. Teacher and his education are very significant aspects of any nation. The education gives a new shape to the individual and the nation as well. It is a well known saying that teacher is the nation builder. The quality of teacher education programme needs to be up graded. Teacher education has not come up to the requisite standards. Teachers are not able to think critically and solve the issue related to teaching methods, content, organisation etc. teacher education programme needs a comprehensive reform and restructuring curriculum of teacher-education programme needs to be revised according to changing needs of society. In the research paper I will discuses the problems of teacher education and provide the some Suggestions of teacher education.

Mrinal Sharma

It is well known that the quality and extent of learner achievement are determined primarily by teacher competence, sensitivity and teacher motivation. The National Council for Teacher Education has defined teacher education as a programme of education, research and training of persons to teach from pre primary to higher education level. The community establishes schools for preservation, progress and enrichment of its traditions and conventions. Teacher education programme is a must in order to have efficient and really capable teachers. Teacher education programme starts moulding from the ancient education system and till the present system of education taking shape according to the global and local needs of the Indian society. The National Policy on Education 1986 emphasize: "The status of the teacher reflects the socio-cultural ethos of the society; it is said that no people can rise above the level of its teachers". The Education Commission (1964-66) professed; "The destiny of India is now being shaped in her classrooms" thus this paper focuses on the historical aspects of teacher education since its inception.

Subhasree Pal

Teacher is considered as the backbone of the society, without them no society can survive. Quality and excellence of teacher assures the quality and excellence of input service in man making process. Teacher's quality is the key factor in the three tier education system that is teacher, student and society. In the 21st century the field of education is not limited with printed black letters but it has broadened its outlook in various horizons. It now not only demands the amalgamation of brain and heart but also along with them the understanding with adventurous outlook, assimilation and accommodation of new ideas and experiences and equilibrating those ventures to create something unique which can be tuned with those emerging universal needs and demands. To cope up with those changing circumstances, it is the alarming hour to make teacher education programs upgraded and suitable to accommodate with 21st century's classroom. Teacher education programs comprise of both pre-service and in-service components which are complementary to each other. It is necessary to make teacher education programs apt as efficient teacher can only build an efficient nation. As a blunt knife can't sharply cut a thing, an inefficient teacher makes an inefficient student for nation. Emphasis should be given on teacher education programs so that a teacher can make himself solely appropriate before accepting the responsibility of nation making through moulding his students. Therefore teacher education programs needs high priority in a nation's plan of progress. The education gives a new shape to the teacher as well as the nation. Teacher education programs need a comprehensive reform, an appropriate evaluation and reshaping the curriculum according to the needs of changing classroom and society. The intention of the present paper is to indicate the flaws and gaps of teacher education programs and to suggest possible recommendations to make the programme excellent in quality and appropriate according to the needs of 21st century. For this purpose previous data regarding teacher education programme and different references are analyzed to get the view about the present scenario of teacher education programme about its lapses. The prescribed suggestions will be helpful to educationalists, policy makers, NCTE, RCE etc. to improve the quality and standards of teacher education programs.

International Journal of Research in Informative Science Application & Techniques (IJRISAT)

Rizwan Ahmad Shah

Teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and inservice components are complimentary to each other. Education is instrumental in the preparation of teachers who can in their practice ensure transformative learning,where teacher and learner, learner and learner are co constructors of knowledge. The intent of the present paper is to enhance the teacher education quality in India by focusing on the emerging issues & related concerns. Various issues of teacher education namely, institutional inertia, brand inequity, quality crisis, overgrowing establishment, rare humane and professional teachers, poor integration of skills, alienated and incompatible modes of teacher education, little contribution to higher education, domain pedagogy mismatches, identity crisis, rare innovations, stake holders' non-alignment, inadequate technology infusion, little choice base, poor research scenario, vision and vision mismatches, non-scientific manpower planning, illusive laborat...

Dr. Sanjay Kumar , Akhilesh Kumar

It's truly said by the great western philosopher and German educationist Pestalozzi, " Education is the natural, harmonious progressive development of man's innate powers. " It has strong association with culture and traditions of society. It is one of the significant factors instrumental to the development of a country. Teacher is the role model, guide, well-wisher and builder of a great realm. Today our way of Teacher Education is completely governed by the people those who have not any vision for its quality except to make it money worthy. The unplanned expansion of Teacher Education opportunities, spiraling trends of the trained teacher unemployed commercialization of Teacher Education, the imbalance of quantity with quality, ignorance equity and excellence are some of the pertinent cases in point which pose continuous threats to Teacher Education of India. In this light, the new reforms in Teacher Education to come must address all the above concerns in it. To meet the futuristic prospects of Indian Teacher Education, Teacher Educators should not be spared in such meaningful reforms since they provide with the best trained manpower for a nation. It is therefore, Teacher Educators too should be empowered as a part of reforms for Indian Teacher Education. It should be transformed to the need of time and changing scenario of the blue globe. In this Research Paper, it is tried to discuss by the researcher to highlights of the " Present Scenario and Future Prospects of Teacher Education in India. "

int. j. res.

Edupedia Publications

The intent of the present paper is to enhance the teacher education quality in India by focusing on the emerging issues & related concerns. Various issues of teacher education namely, institutional inertia, brand inequity, quality crisis, overgrowing establishment, rare humane and professional teachers, poor integration of skills, alienated and incompatible modes of teacher education, little contribution to higher education, domain pedagogy mismatches, identity crisis, rare innovations, stake holders' non-alignment, inadequate technology infusion, little choice base, poor research scenario, vision and vision mismatches, non-scientific manpower planning, illusive laboratories, over activism of distance/open universities, invalid recognition and accreditation and no teacher education policy have been dealt on in this paper. The paper concludes that teacher education system in India that calls for revolutionary changes.

IOSR Journals

Quality and excellence in teacher education is one of the major initiatives of the government of India. To achieve the better outcomes at all levels of education, government of India has been focusing on quality and excellence in teacher education. Because the quality of the outcomes of education is depends upon the quality of its teachers. Different studies are conducted in this perspectives and most of the studies reveled that there is a positive correlation exist between the quality of the outcomes of education and quality of its teachers. But now a day in India the quality of teacher education was decreased day by day due to some problems. If these problems are resolved in the field of teacher education, then maybe we can reach our determined goal. Through this research, the researchers trying to discuss the problems of teacher education and discuss its possible solution.

International Journal of Peace, Education and Development

Parsuram Pradhan

Transstellar Journals

TJPRC Publication

A teacher education is a program which includes some specific pedagogical issues. Teacher education program generates the solution regarding how good teaching is performed and how teaching work and practicals are managed. Teacher's education programs are very closely related to theory and its practicals. A teacher can become a good teacher by working continuously with learned and experienced teachers in a traditional classroom or virtual classroom on internet and enhances the knowledge. Teachers' proficiency and competence can be enhanced by facing current challenges in the educational system. Now days, the education of teachers should not be limited with only contents of books. It should be broadened in different new areas, innovations, techniques etc. The main aim of this article is to indicate main changes in teacher's educational system in India and also give an overall view of current trends, innovations, new techniques and reforms in educational system. In educational system, it is need to discuss the current needs of teacher's education and teacher education program including new innovative ideas and various practices. The teacher education program should be shaped and altered in such a way that a teacher could be enabled to face the new challenges, current trends and problems in the field of education and can help in national development.

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India's Modi Warns of 'Black Money' in Political Funding After Old System Scrapped by Court

Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi looks on during an event to launch the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party's (BJP) election manifesto for the general election, in New Delhi, India, April 14, 2024. REUTERS/Adnan Abidi

NEW DELHI (Reuters) - A Supreme Court decision to scrap a controversial political funding system has pushed contributions to parties towards "black money", or illegal funds, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi said in remarks broadcast on Monday.

India's top court in February scrapped as unconstitutional a seven-year-old election funding system through instruments called "electoral bonds" that allowed individuals and companies to make unlimited and anonymous donations to political parties.

Corporate funding of political parties is a sensitive matter in India and, while there is no suggestion that the funds from the bonds scheme were improper, opposition parties allege that Modi's Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) used its powers to coerce funding.

In his most detailed defence of the scrapped system days before India begins voting in a general election, Modi denied the accusations and said companies had also donated to the opposition.

He said the system was more transparent than previous ones, but added that there was room for policy improvement.

"In decision-making, we learn and improve. It is very possible to improve in this too. But today we have completely pushed the country towards black money," Modi said in an interview to news agency ANI, in which Reuters has a minority stake.

"And that is why I say everyone will regret it. When they will think honestly, everyone will regret it."

Data released on orders of the Supreme Court in March showed Modi's BJP was the largest beneficiary of the scrapped system.

The BJP received half of the total bonds sold worth 165 billion rupees ($1.98 billion) between January 2018 and February 2024, the data showed.

Modi also rubbished allegations that his party uses agencies such as the Enforcement Directorate (ED), India's financial crime-fighting agency, to target opposition leaders for political gains in elections.

"The country should understand that political leaders are involved in only 3% of the ED cases and 97% of cases are registered against the ones who do not belong to politics," he said. "Shouldn't we let the ED work independently when it is supposed to do so?"

(Reporting by Shivam Patel; Editing by YP Rajesh and Alex Richardson)

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Development of the Education System in India After Independence
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Development of Education in India after Independence
The Union Cabinet of India approved the National Education Policy of India 2020 (NEP 2020) on 29 July 2020. This new policy replaced the National Education Policy of 1986. NEP 2020 is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher education, including vocation training in both rural and urban India.
Education
Education - Postindependence India: India and Pakistan were partitioned and given independence in 1947, after which there was remarkable improvement in scientific and technological education and research; illiteracy, however, remained high. The new constitution adopted by India did not change the overall administrative policy of the country. Education continued to be the prime responsibility ...
Development of Education in India after Independence
The following points explain the development of education in India after independence: 1. Expansion of General Education: ADVERTISEMENTS: During the period of planning there has been expansion of general education. In 1951, the percentage of literacy was 19.3. In 2001 the literacy percentage increased to 65.4%.
History of education in the Indian subcontinent
Literacy in India grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991-2001 period. ... 1854 the Wood's despatch to the then Governor General Dalhousie stipulated a number of reforms be made to the Companies Education system, in British India.
Education in early postcolonial India: expansion, experimentation and
After independence India's leaders committed the country to democracy with universal franchise and to pursuing a socialistic pattern of society. As part of these interlocking projects, it was widely recognised that India's educational systems needed reform. ... 5 S. Irfan Habib, 'Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and His Ideas about the National ...
75 years of independence: How India has progressed in field of education
Here is the data on how the nation has progressed in the field of education in 75 years on independence: Advertisement. Gender parity and gross enrolment ratio: Female education was not given much importance at the time of independence. Most people in the country were extremely reluctant to send their girls to school.
PDF Development of Education in India: 1947-2012
It is only after Independence in 1947 that a more comprehensive system of education for all people in different regions came into being. A separate Department of Education (later on changed to Human Resources Department, HRD) was formed at the Centre and Departments of Education were formed in each State to serve Development of Education in India:
Education in India
Education in India is primarily managed by the state-run public education system, which falls under the command of the government at three levels: central, state and local.Under various articles of the Indian Constitution and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, free and compulsory education is provided as a fundamental right to children aged 6 to 14.
School System and Education Policy in India
National System of Education. Even after India gained independence from the British in 1947, there was no standardized system of education in the country, and education was structured differently across states. ... As compared to the early decades after Independence, school education in India has seen a considerable amount of progress and ...
The education system in India: promises to keep
The education system in India: promises to keep. Kiran Bhatty Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi, ... 13,600 middle schools and 7416 higher secondary schools across the country at the time of independence (Census of India, Citation 1951, 2011). 2. From, Sadgopal (Citation 2019).
Indian Education System: Around Independence And Thereafter
Post-Independence Reforms: After gaining independence in 1947, India embarked on a series of educational reforms aimed at expanding access to education and promoting social justice.
Education in India
Nevertheless, it is the various education policies, charted out since Independence, which led to the historical evolution of the education system in India. The results of these policies can be said to be mixed. There is still a lot of room for improvement. There are various government initiatives targeting each level of the education system in ...
PDF 1 TEXT
The Government of India initiated the National Policy on Education in 1986. Its major objective was to provide education to all sections of society, with a particular focus on scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes and women, who were deprived of educational opportunities for centuries.
PDF Indian Education Policy: A Journey after Independence
written form and hence, as the time changes, this education system had been knock-out and English education system had been spread widely, in 18th thand 19 century during the British Raj in India [4][5],[6],[7]. The first education policy, after independence was formed in 1968 there later on in 1986 with small
PDF Unit 5 Education Commissions and Policies Since Independence
5.3.1 University Education Commission (1948-49) University Education Commission (1 948-49) was the first Commission on education after Independence. Its major emphasis was on higher education but it also touched upon the issues related to school education. The Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishan, a great ...
Evolution of Education in India (Post Independence)
Education. Over the course of 7 decades after Independence, the education system of India has evolved gradually yet phenomenally. From a literacy rate of 18% in 1951, we have moved up to 73% as of 2011. Currently, the education system in India is the strongest and largest in the world hosting more than 315 million students.
PDF School Education System in India before and after Independence
According to S. K. Kochhar, the total enrolment of in the age group 6-11 was 141 lakhs, which meant hardly 35% in this age group in the primary school. There were 5000 secondary schools with enrolment of 870000 or 4% of the children of the 14-17 age groups. The 19 universities and 400 colleges had an enrolment 250000.
PDF 10 India After Independence
Fig. 1 - Mahatma Gandhi's ashes being immersed in Allahabad, February 1948 Less than six months after independence the nation was in mourning. On 30 January 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by a fanatic, Nathuram Godse, because he disagreed with Gandhiji's conviction that Hindus and Muslims should live together in harmony.
PDF Higher Education in India after Independence: Issues and Challenges
discussion on Indian higher education system after independence and its issues and challenges. This paper will also suggest to resolve these challenges of Indian higher education system. ... After independence, India had 20 Universities and 500 Colleges. India had 2,23,000 enrolling student in 1950. The number has rapidly increased 1043 ...
Development of Education In India
History after Independence. In First Five Year Plan 7.9% of total plan outlay was allocated for education.. In Second and Third Plan, the allocations were 5.8% and 6.9% of the total plan outlay.. In Ninth Plan only 3.5% of the total outlay was allocated for education.. To streamline the education, the Govt. implemented the recommendations of Kothari Commission under 'National Policy on ...
Synopsis of Indian Education System after Independence
by The Asian Chronicle August 20, 2021 0. 3. Indian education system has made great strides since independence. Its scenario is far different than what it used to be decades back. India has come a long way in terms of literacy rates with an augmenting number of institutions and universities. Indian education system now meets global standards.
Development of the Education System in India After Independence
Ruled by the British Raj for almost 100 years, India finally gained freedom on August 15th, 1947. As such, a lot of laws and systems in India are influenced by the British system, and the education system is no exception to it. India, before independence, was divided on the lines of the caste system. Even today, there is a lot of caste ...
TEACHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
After independence efforts were made to tackle the emerging problem of access, quality and relevance of the teacher education system in the country. This paper elaborates the growth and progress of the teacher education system and reviews related reforms in India after independence. See Full PDF. Download PDF.
India's Modi Warns of 'Black Money' in Political Funding After Old
India's top court in February scrapped as unconstitutional a seven-year-old election funding system through instruments called "electoral bonds" that allowed individuals and companies to make ...

Development of Education in India after Independence

Development of education under Five-Year Plans

Commissions and Reforms

University Education Commission (1948)

Mudaliar Commission (1952-53)

Kothari Commission (1964-66)

Indian Education Policies

National Policy on Education (1986)

Operation Blackboard (1987)

Teacher Education Scheme (1987)

District Primary Education Program (1994)

Mid-Day Meal Scheme (1995)

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2001)

86th Constitutional Amendment Act (2002)

Right to Education Act (2009)

National Education Policy (2020)

Related Policies on Education

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme (2004-05)

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (2009)

Saakshar Bharat (2009)

Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (2013)

Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (2018)

Important Educational Organizations

University Grants Commission (UGC)

National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT)

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Development of Education in India after Independence

75 years of independence: How India has progressed in field of education

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School System and Education Policy in India

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Eurasia Review

Indian Education System: Around Independence And Thereafter – OpEd

Causes of its decline

Movements for reform

Dr. Rajkumar Singh

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Education in India – A Detailed Analysis

History of Education in India

Current Status of Education in India: Data from Census 2011

Indian Education System: The Present Pyramidal Structure

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) related to Education

Provisions in the Indian Constitution related to Education

RTE Act 2009

Provisions of the RTE Act

Criticisms of the RTE Act

Modern Education in India: The Evolution of the System through various policies

Radhakrishnan committee

Kothari commission

National Educational Policy 1968

National Educational Policy 1985

T.S.R.Subramanium committee report

Kasturirangan Report On School Education (Draft National Education Policy)

School Education:

Higher Education

Additional Key Focus Areas:

Technology in Education

Vocational Education

Adult Education

Education and Indian Languages

Transforming Education

Education Governance

Financing Education

Criticism of the New Education Policy of India

The Problems associated with the Education System in India

Early childhood education