what perspective is a research paper written in

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How to write a (great) Perspective article

Like many journals, Journal of Biogeography ( JBI ) provides a specific forum for researchers to put forward new ideas (or dismantle old ones). In JBI , this article type is the Perspective . Our Author Guidelines state that Perspective papers “should be stimulating and reflective essays providing personal perspectives on key research fields and issues within biogeography”.

Across the senior editorial board, we’re always a little surprised that we don’t get more Perspective submissions since most of the biogeographers we know are brimming with personal perspectives, many of which immediately spill out over a coffee, beer or zoom call. Of course, going from a good idea to a finished article is rarely straightforward and writing your first Perspective article can be a daunting prospect – even more so if English is not your native language.

The good news is that writing a Perspective can be exceedingly enjoyable and a refreshing change from the limitations of a standard research article. Moreover, it is not a ‘black box’; there are several general principles that can help you to craft ‘stimulating and reflective essays’. Like research articles, the best Perspectives have a clear U-shaped narrative (Figure 1) that start with a clear justification of why a research area/topic needs re-evaluating and finishing with the potential implications of your new perspective for the development of the field.

One of the best things about Perspective articles is you have enormous flexibility in how you write them. Nevertheless, when planning the article, we find it useful to divide the article into several basic components:

• The Introduction This ought to include an engaging explanation of the problem/challenge you are addressing (this can be conceptual, practical, methodological… anything really!). Generally speaking, the more important/fundamental the problem, the harder it is to convince the referees that your new perspective is valid! But the potential rewards are also greater, so give your best idea a go! Almost by default, you need to contrast your new perspective with the standard or alternative solution/model/explanation, i.e. the “text-book explanation” that most scientists would agree with. This standard explanation needs to be carefully layed-out without creating a ‘straw man’ (e.g. misrepresenting the alternative argument to make your argument look better)! Finally, introduce your new perspective and give a convincing explanation of why you think it is needed.
• Substantiating your new perspective It’s not enough to simply state your new perspective. You also need to provide convincing evidence in favour of, or at the very least consistent with, your argument, citing examples and demonstrating ways in which your new perspective can be applied. This does not need to be an exhaustive synthesis of relevant studies, but it should be sufficient to support your argument and to, at a minimum, demonstrate that existing approaches to the problem are insufficient.  Be careful to not cherry pick the literature such that you selectively ignore evidence contrary to your view. Instead, embrace challenging data, and use them to explore limitations and possibilities.
• Conclusions After discussing the evidence it is important to outline the relative strengths of your new perspective as compared to the standard/alternative perspective and to discuss the potential implications of your approach for future developments in the field.

And don’t forget your figures! It’s a decent estimate that a picture is worth a thousand words. A sweet graphic demonstrating the differences between the conventional and your new improved approach will also be worth a whole pile of citations. So, having made a compelling intellectual argument in the text, don’t sell your idea short visually. Design an eye-catching intuitive graphic that’ll get included in social media, in other people’s talks, as well as future papers and text-books. (Advice on preparing figures can be found at https://journalofbiogeographynews.org/2020/07/15/figures-the-art-of-science/ .)  

How to get started : When planning a Perspective paper (for any journal), consider starting with a simple plan, e.g. a bullet-pointed outline, that includes: (i) the problem; (ii) the standard approach; (iii) the new perspective; (iv) the key evidence, and; (v) the main conclusion. Of course, there are many other ways to structure an argument and experienced writers will often create a compelling narrative that doesn’t fit into a standard structure. The point is, a strong structure can be a huge help if you are unsure how to start, or to help organize your thoughts.  Another tip is, if you’re unsure about the merits of an idea, write to the editorial board.  Contact an associate editor in a closely allied field and write to the Reviews Editor, Richard Ladle, and/or the editor-in-chief Michael Dawson < contacts >.  We’ll be happy to give you preliminary feedback and guidance.

We hope the short explanation above has shown you that writing a Perspective article is not fiendishly difficult or the preserve of well-seasoned biogeographers with long academic records. A new Perspective is as much about novelty and disruption as it is about experience. Here at Journal of Biogeography we believe that debate and discussion, diverse viewpoints and challenges to orthodoxy are essential if the discipline of biogeography is going to maintain its vibrancy and societal relevance. In this respect we encourage submissions from all biogeographers, but especially early stage researchers and those working in regions of the world historically under-represented in biogeography.

Written by: Richard Ladle Research Highlights Editor

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7 thoughts on “ How to write a (great) Perspective article ”

Can I get to see a sample of perspective type news article, it will be a great help.

Thanks Pragya

Great Post!!! your article is very helpful for me . your ideas of worth are very useful and helpful for me.all the information for worth is very valid. Great post I must admit, keep sharing more…

Thank you for the writing tips.

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Thanks for your guidance of perspective. — from a fresh neuroscientist

Very Helpful for Newbie here! Thank you! Godspeed!

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Mastering The Art Of Writing A Perspective Article: A Step-By-Step Guide

Table of Contents

Importance of Perspective Articles in English Language Writing

Perspective articles play a crucial role in English language writing as they allow individuals to express their opinions and viewpoints on various topics. These articles provide a platform for writers to share their thoughts, insights, and analyses, contributing to a diverse range of perspectives in the literary world.

Writing perspective articles not only helps writers develop their critical thinking and analytical skills, but it also encourages them to engage in meaningful discussions and debates. By presenting different viewpoints, these articles foster a deeper understanding of complex issues and promote intellectual growth.

Purpose of the Blog Post: Providing a Step-by-Step Guide for Writing Perspective Articles

The purpose of this blog post is to provide a comprehensive step-by-step guide for writing perspective articles. Whether you are a beginner or an experienced writer, this guide will equip you with the necessary tools and techniques to craft compelling and impactful perspective articles.

Throughout this blog post, we will explore the definition and characteristics of perspective articles, discuss different types of perspective articles, and delve into the process of choosing a topic. We will also cover the importance of conducting thorough research, structuring the article effectively, and adopting an appropriate writing style and tone. Additionally, we will touch upon the crucial steps of editing, proofreading, publishing, and promoting your perspective article.

By the end of this guide, you will have a clear understanding of the key elements involved in writing a perspective article and be ready to embark on your own writing journey.

So, let’s dive in and explore the world of perspective articles, where your unique voice and perspective can make a significant impact!

Understanding Perspective Articles

Perspective articles are a common form of writing in the English language. They provide a platform for individuals to express their opinions and viewpoints on various topics. Understanding the characteristics and types of perspective articles is essential for anyone looking to write one.

Definition and Characteristics of Perspective Articles

A perspective article is a piece of writing that presents a particular viewpoint or opinion on a specific subject. It allows the writer to share their thoughts, insights, and arguments with the readers. Unlike objective articles that focus on presenting facts, perspective articles are subjective and aim to persuade or influence the audience.

Characteristics of perspective articles include:

Subjectivity : Perspective articles are subjective in nature as they reflect the writer’s personal opinions and beliefs. They are not based solely on factual evidence but also on the writer’s interpretation and analysis.

Argumentative : Perspective articles often present arguments and counterarguments to support the writer’s viewpoint. They aim to convince the readers of the validity and importance of the writer’s perspective.

Engaging : Perspective articles should captivate the readers’ attention from the beginning. They often use storytelling techniques, rhetorical devices, or thought-provoking questions to hook the audience and encourage them to continue reading.

Different Types of Perspective Articles

There are various types of perspective articles that writers can choose from, depending on their goals and the subject matter. Some common types include:

Opinion Pieces : These articles express the writer’s personal opinions on a particular topic. They often include personal anecdotes, experiences, or reflections to support the writer’s viewpoint.

Editorials : Editorials are opinion pieces written by the editorial board or a specific columnist of a newspaper or magazine. They often address current events, social issues, or political matters.

Commentaries : Commentaries provide a critical analysis of a specific topic or event. They offer the writer’s perspective while also considering different viewpoints and providing insights into the subject matter.

Reviews : Reviews are a form of perspective articles that evaluate and critique a product, service, or piece of art. They provide the writer’s opinion on the quality, value, and overall experience.

Thought Leadership Articles : These articles establish the writer as an expert or authority in a particular field. They offer unique insights, innovative ideas, and forward-thinking perspectives on industry-related topics.

Understanding the different types of perspective articles allows writers to choose the most suitable format for their intended message and target audience.

In conclusion, perspective articles are a valuable form of writing that allows individuals to express their opinions and viewpoints. They are subjective, argumentative, and engaging, aiming to persuade and influence the readers. By understanding the characteristics and types of perspective articles, writers can effectively convey their ideas and contribute to meaningful discussions.

Choosing a Topic

Choosing the right topic is a crucial step in writing a perspective article. It sets the foundation for the entire piece and determines the direction and focus of your arguments. Here are some key considerations to keep in mind when selecting a topic for your perspective article:

Identifying current and relevant issues

To grab the attention of your readers, it is important to choose a topic that is current and relevant. Look for issues that are being widely discussed or debated in society, politics, or your specific field of interest. This ensures that your perspective article will have a broader appeal and resonate with your target audience.

Stay updated with the latest news, trends, and developments in your chosen area. This can be done by following reputable news sources, subscribing to industry newsletters, or engaging in online forums and discussions. By staying informed, you can identify emerging issues that are worth exploring in your perspective article.

Narrowing down the topic to a specific perspective

Once you have identified a general topic, it is important to narrow it down to a specific perspective. This helps you provide a unique and focused viewpoint on the issue, making your article more compelling and informative.

Consider different angles, viewpoints, or aspects of the topic that you find interesting or have expertise in. For example, if you are writing about climate change, you could focus on the economic impact, the role of government policies, or the effects on a specific industry. Narrowing down the topic allows you to delve deeper into the subject matter and provide a more nuanced analysis.

Additionally, consider your target audience when choosing a perspective. Think about what would be most relevant and engaging to them. Tailoring your perspective to their interests and concerns will make your article more relatable and impactful.

Remember, choosing a topic and perspective that you are passionate about will make the writing process more enjoyable and help you convey your ideas more effectively. It is important to select a topic that aligns with your interests and expertise, as this will shine through in your writing.

In conclusion, choosing a topic for your perspective article involves identifying current and relevant issues and narrowing them down to a specific perspective. By staying informed and considering your target audience, you can select a topic that will captivate readers and allow you to provide a unique viewpoint. So, take your time, do your research, and choose a topic that you are passionate about. Happy writing!

Conducting Research

Conducting thorough research is a crucial step in writing perspective articles. It allows writers to gather information from credible sources and analyze different viewpoints on the chosen topic. Here are some key points to consider when conducting research for a perspective article:

Gathering information from credible sources

When conducting research, it is essential to gather information from reliable and credible sources. This ensures that the article is based on accurate and trustworthy information. Academic journals, reputable news outlets, and government publications are excellent sources to consider. These sources often provide well-researched and evidence-based information.

Additionally, peer-reviewed articles can offer valuable insights and perspectives from experts in the field. These articles undergo a rigorous review process by other experts in the same field, ensuring their credibility and reliability.

Analyzing different viewpoints on the topic

To write a well-rounded perspective article, it is crucial to consider and analyze different viewpoints on the chosen topic. This helps to provide a balanced and comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. Reading articles, opinion pieces, and research papers from various perspectives can help writers gain insights into different arguments and opinions.

When analyzing different viewpoints, it is important to critically evaluate the evidence and arguments presented. Look for logical fallacies, biases, and unsupported claims in the arguments. This will help in presenting a well-informed and objective perspective in the article.

Furthermore, engaging with experts, professionals, or individuals with diverse opinions can provide valuable insights and help writers develop a more nuanced understanding of the topic. This can be done through interviews, surveys, or participating in relevant online communities or forums.

By gathering information from credible sources and analyzing different viewpoints, writers can ensure that their perspective article is well-researched, balanced, and informative. This research process lays the foundation for presenting a compelling argument and engaging the readers.

Remember, conducting research is an ongoing process, and it is important to stay updated with the latest developments and discussions surrounding the chosen topic. This will help in providing fresh and relevant insights in the perspective article.

In the next section, we will discuss how to structure the perspective article effectively to present the gathered research and arguments in a logical and coherent manner.

Structuring the Article

Structuring your perspective article is crucial for effectively conveying your ideas and arguments to your readers. A well-organized article not only helps your readers follow your thought process but also enhances the overall readability and impact of your writing. In this section, we will explore the key components of structuring a perspective article.

The introduction of your perspective article serves as a gateway to capture your readers’ attention and introduce them to the topic at hand. It should be engaging, compelling, and concise. Here are two essential elements to include in your introduction:

Hooking the reader with an engaging opening : Start your article with a captivating anecdote, a thought-provoking question, or a surprising statistic. This will immediately grab your readers’ attention and make them want to continue reading.

Presenting the topic and the writer’s perspective : Clearly state the topic you will be discussing and present your perspective on it. This will set the tone for the rest of your article and give your readers a clear understanding of your stance.

The body of your perspective article is where you present your arguments, provide evidence, and address counterarguments. It is essential to organize your arguments logically and coherently to guide your readers through your thought process. Here are three key aspects to consider when structuring the body of your article:

Organizing arguments logically and coherently : Divide your article into paragraphs, each focusing on a specific argument or point. Start with your strongest argument and gradually build up to your weaker ones. This will create a logical flow and make your article more persuasive.

Supporting arguments with evidence and examples : Back up your arguments with credible evidence, such as research studies, expert opinions, or real-life examples. This will add credibility to your perspective and make your article more convincing.

Addressing counterarguments and providing rebuttals : Anticipate potential counterarguments and address them in your article. This shows that you have considered different viewpoints and strengthens your position. Provide rebuttals to counter these counterarguments and reinforce your perspective.

The conclusion of your perspective article is your final opportunity to leave a lasting impression on your readers. It should effectively summarize your main points and restate your perspective. Here are two essential elements to include in your conclusion:

Summarizing the main points : Briefly recap the main arguments you presented in the body of your article. This will remind your readers of the key takeaways and reinforce your perspective.

Restating the writer’s perspective and leaving a lasting impression : Clearly restate your perspective and end your article with a strong closing statement. This will leave a lasting impression on your readers and make them reflect on the topic even after finishing the article.

Structuring your perspective article in a clear and organized manner is crucial for effectively conveying your ideas and persuading your readers. By following these guidelines, you can create a well-structured article that engages your readers and leaves a lasting impact.

Writing Style and Tone

When it comes to writing perspective articles, the style and tone you use are crucial in effectively conveying your message and engaging your readers. Here are some key considerations to keep in mind:

Using clear and concise language

To ensure that your perspective article is easily understood by your audience, it is important to use clear and concise language . Avoid using jargon or technical terms that may confuse your readers. Instead, opt for simple and straightforward language that can be easily comprehended by a wide range of readers.

Additionally, avoid using overly complex sentence structures . Long and convoluted sentences can make your writing difficult to follow. Instead, break down your ideas into shorter sentences that are easier to digest. This will help maintain the flow of your article and keep your readers engaged.

Maintaining a formal tone while expressing opinions

While perspective articles allow you to express your opinions and viewpoints, it is important to maintain a formal tone throughout your writing. This helps establish credibility and professionalism in your work. Avoid using slang, colloquialisms, or informal language that may undermine the seriousness of your arguments.

However, this does not mean that your writing should be dry or devoid of personality. You can still inject your own voice and passion into your writing while maintaining a formal tone. Use strong and persuasive language to convey your ideas and engage your readers. Remember to back up your opinions with credible evidence to strengthen your arguments.

Avoiding biased language and fallacies

When writing perspective articles, it is crucial to present a balanced and fair view of the topic. Avoid using biased language that may alienate or offend certain readers. Instead, strive for objectivity and present multiple perspectives on the issue at hand.

Furthermore, be mindful of logical fallacies that can weaken your arguments. Fallacies such as ad hominem attacks or straw man arguments can undermine the credibility of your article. Instead, focus on presenting well-reasoned arguments supported by evidence and logical reasoning.

Mastering the art of writing perspective articles requires careful attention to writing style and tone . By using clear and concise language, maintaining a formal tone while expressing opinions, and avoiding biased language and fallacies, you can effectively engage your readers and convey your message. Remember, practice makes perfect, so keep honing your writing skills and refining your style. Happy writing!

Editing and Proofreading

Editing and proofreading are crucial steps in the writing process. They ensure that your perspective article is clear, coherent, and error-free. By carefully reviewing and refining your work, you can enhance its quality and effectiveness. Here are some essential tips for editing and proofreading your perspective article:

Reviewing the article for clarity and coherence

Read your article aloud : This technique helps you identify any awkward or unclear sentences. It allows you to hear how your writing flows and whether it makes sense to the reader.

Check the overall structure : Ensure that your article follows a logical progression from the introduction to the conclusion. Each paragraph should contribute to the main argument and be connected to the preceding and following paragraphs.

Eliminate unnecessary repetition : Look for redundant phrases or ideas that can be removed without affecting the clarity or impact of your article. Streamlining your writing will make it more concise and engaging.

Checking for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors

Use grammar and spell-check tools : Take advantage of software tools like Grammarly or Microsoft Word’s spell-check feature to catch common errors. However, remember that these tools are not foolproof, so manual proofreading is still necessary.

Proofread for grammar and punctuation : Pay attention to subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, punctuation marks, and sentence structure. Ensure that your writing is grammatically correct and follows the rules of punctuation.

Watch out for spelling mistakes : Carefully review your article for spelling errors, especially for words that are commonly misspelled. Double-check the spelling of names, technical terms, and any words that might be easily confused.

Seeking feedback from peers or professionals

Get a fresh pair of eyes : Ask a trusted friend, colleague, or mentor to review your article. They can provide valuable feedback on areas that need improvement, such as clarity, coherence, or any errors you may have missed.

Consider professional editing services : If you want a more comprehensive review, you can hire a professional editor. They can help refine your article, ensuring it meets high standards of clarity, coherence, and grammar.

Take feedback constructively : Be open to constructive criticism and use it as an opportunity to enhance your writing skills. Remember that feedback is meant to help you improve, so embrace it with a growth mindset.

By following these editing and proofreading tips, you can polish your perspective article and ensure that it effectively communicates your ideas. Remember, a well-edited and error-free article enhances your credibility as a writer and makes a positive impression on your readers.

Now that you have completed the editing and proofreading stage, you are ready to move on to the final section of the writing process: publishing and promoting your perspective article.

Publishing and Promoting the Article

Once you have written a compelling perspective article, the next step is to publish and promote it effectively. Publishing your article on the right platform and promoting it to reach a wider audience is crucial for gaining visibility and generating engagement. Here are some key steps to consider when publishing and promoting your perspective article:

Choosing the right platform for publication

Selecting the appropriate platform to publish your perspective article is essential. Consider platforms that align with your target audience and have a strong readership base. This could include reputable online magazines, blogs, or even your own website. Research different platforms and choose the one that best suits your content and goals.

Optimizing the article for search engines

To increase the visibility of your perspective article, optimize it for search engines. This involves incorporating relevant keywords throughout the article, including in the title, headings, and body. Additionally, ensure that your article has a clear and descriptive meta description, as this will appear in search engine results and entice readers to click on your article.

Sharing the article on social media and engaging with readers

Social media platforms are powerful tools for promoting your perspective article. Share your article on platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, and Instagram, depending on your target audience. Craft engaging captions and use relevant hashtags to attract attention. Encourage readers to share your article and engage with them by responding to comments and starting conversations.

Collaborating with influencers and thought leaders

Collaborating with influencers and thought leaders in your niche can significantly boost the visibility of your perspective article. Reach out to individuals who have a strong following and are known for their expertise in the subject matter of your article. Ask them to share your article with their audience or consider collaborating on a guest post. This can help you tap into their existing audience and gain credibility.

Engaging in online communities and forums

Participating in online communities and forums related to your article’s topic can help you reach a targeted audience. Join relevant groups on platforms like Reddit, Quora, or specialized forums, and contribute valuable insights. When appropriate, share your perspective article as a resource to provide further information and engage in discussions. However, be mindful of each platform’s rules and guidelines regarding self-promotion.

Utilizing email marketing

Email marketing is an effective way to promote your perspective article to a targeted audience. Build an email list of subscribers who are interested in your content and regularly send them newsletters or updates. Include a link to your article in these emails, along with a brief description or teaser to entice readers to click through and read the full article.

Monitoring and analyzing performance

Keep track of the performance of your perspective article by monitoring key metrics such as page views, engagement, and social shares. Use analytics tools to gain insights into your audience’s behavior and preferences. This data will help you understand what is resonating with your readers and guide your future publishing and promotion strategies.

By following these steps, you can effectively publish and promote your perspective article, increasing its visibility and reaching a wider audience. Remember to tailor your promotion strategies to your target audience and continuously refine your approach based on the feedback and data you receive. With persistence and strategic promotion, your perspective article can make a meaningful impact and contribute to the ongoing conversation in your field.

A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing Perspective Articles

A. Importance of perspective articles in English language writing B. Purpose of the blog post: to provide a step-by-step guide for writing perspective articles

A. Definition and characteristics of perspective articles B. Different types of perspective articles

A. Identifying current and relevant issues B. Narrowing down the topic to a specific perspective

A. Gathering information from credible sources B. Analyzing different viewpoints on the topic

A. Introduction 1. Hooking the reader with an engaging opening 2. Presenting the topic and the writer’s perspective B. Body 1. Organizing arguments logically and coherently 2. Supporting arguments with evidence and examples 3. Addressing counterarguments and providing rebuttals C. Conclusion 1. Summarizing the main points 2. Restating the writer’s perspective and leaving a lasting impression

A. Using clear and concise language B. Maintaining a formal tone while expressing opinions C. Avoiding biased language and fallacies

A. Reviewing the article for clarity and coherence B. Checking for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors C. Seeking feedback from peers or professionals

A. Choosing the right platform for publication B. Optimizing the article for search engines C. Sharing the article on social media and engaging with readers

A. Recap of the steps to master the art of writing a perspective article B. Encouragement to practice and refine writing skills in English language

Note: This outline provides a general structure for the blog post. The actual content and details can be adjusted and expanded based on the writer’s preferences and target audience.

Perspective articles are an essential part of English language writing, as they allow writers to express their opinions and provide insights on various topics. Whether you are a student, a professional, or simply someone who enjoys writing, mastering the art of writing perspective articles can greatly enhance your communication skills. In this step-by-step guide, we will explore the key elements of writing a compelling perspective article.

Before diving into the writing process, it is important to understand what perspective articles are and their characteristics. Perspective articles are pieces of writing that present a particular viewpoint or opinion on a specific topic. They aim to inform, persuade, or provoke thought in the reader. There are different types of perspective articles, including opinion pieces, editorials, and commentaries.

The first step in writing a perspective article is selecting a topic. It is crucial to choose a topic that is current and relevant to your target audience. Identify issues that are being discussed or debated in society, politics, or any field of interest. Once you have identified a broad topic, narrow it down to a specific perspective that you want to explore and present in your article.

To write a well-informed perspective article, thorough research is essential. Gather information from credible sources such as academic journals, reputable news outlets, and expert opinions. Analyze different viewpoints on the topic to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. This will enable you to present a balanced argument and address counterarguments effectively.

A well-structured perspective article consists of an introduction, body, and conclusion. In the introduction, hook the reader with an engaging opening and clearly present the topic and your perspective. The body of the article should be organized logically and coherently, with each paragraph focusing on a specific argument supported by evidence and examples. Address counterarguments and provide rebuttals to strengthen your position. Finally, in the conclusion, summarize the main points and restate your perspective, leaving a lasting impression on the reader.

When writing a perspective article, it is important to use clear and concise language. Avoid jargon or complex terminology that may confuse the reader. Maintain a formal tone while expressing your opinions, ensuring that your arguments are supported by evidence and logical reasoning. It is crucial to avoid biased language and fallacies, as they can weaken your argument and undermine your credibility.

After completing the initial draft, take the time to review and edit your article. Ensure that the content is clear, coherent, and flows smoothly. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors, as they can distract the reader and diminish the impact of your message. Consider seeking feedback from peers or professionals to gain valuable insights and improve the quality of your article.

Choosing the right platform for publication is crucial to reach your target audience. Consider submitting your article to relevant websites, blogs, or publications that align with your topic and audience. Optimize your article for search engines by incorporating relevant keywords and meta tags. Additionally, share your article on social media platforms to increase its visibility and engage with readers through comments and discussions.

Writing perspective articles is a valuable skill that can greatly enhance your ability to communicate effectively in English. By following this step-by-step guide, you can master the art of writing compelling perspective articles. Remember to choose relevant topics, conduct thorough research, structure your article effectively, and maintain a clear and concise writing style. With practice and refinement, you can become a proficient writer capable of expressing your perspectives with confidence and impact.

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Online Guide to Writing and Research

The research process, explore more of umgc.

• Online Guide to Writing

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

As a researcher and writer, your point of view, your thinking, and how you use sources in your writing are all related. Your point of view depends on the research question you posed. Take a look at the following thinking and writing categories discussed here.

Thinking and Writing Categories

Synthesizer.

In your role as synthesizer, you research the thinking of various experts and relay that information to your reader. Your job here becomes one of drawing together the opinions and positions of the experts under a specific theme or thesis. 

Here are some examples of research questions that might call for synthesizing :

According to the experts, what are the specific causes of global warming?

What is the current thinking on how high unemployment rates affect the minimum hourly wage? 

PROBLEM SOLVER

For this role, you play the detective, seeking information that will lead to a satisfactory answer to your research question. Sometimes you might find the answer in your reading. Other times, you might be required to analyze the information and draw conclusions about what the answers may be. 

The following research “problems” call for a detective to solve them:

What is the best solution to Fishtown’s groundwater pollution problem?

Who is the narrator in Coleridge’s “Kubla Khan”?

You may remember that much college writing involves analysis. That holds true for your research assignments as well. In your role as analyst, you might be called upon to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of a particular argument or to apply analysis to primary sources or other data. 

Here are a few examples of questions that require analysis:

In the controversy over the tobacco industry’s advertising, is the industry being treated unfairly? What are the issues?

How did Bell Atlantic’s corporate culture contribute to its breakup?

FIELD/LABORATORY RESEARCHER

Here, you pose a research question and then design and conduct a research study or an experiment to answer it. The research paper will then report the results in scientific format. 

Here are some examples: 

What is the value of family therapy in the treatment of teenage drug and alcohol addiction?

What is the demographic profile of your classmates?

REVIEWER OF CONTROVERSY OR ADVOCATE OF A POSITION

In a research assignment, you may be asked simply to report the facts about a controversy or to review a controversy and take a position. In the first case, you are asked to demonstrate that you understand the underlying controversy surrounding a particular topic. In this role, you would be asked to relate the issues in the controversy, giving a balanced view of each. You would include both the strengths and weaknesses of both sides.

What are the issues surrounding euthanasia for terminally ill patients?

What are the arguments for treating Microsoft as a monopoly?

In the advocate role, you would review the issues and then argue for the position you support.

Should forest habitats of endangered species be harvested?

Should the national deficit be paid off?

Key Takeaways

• Always keep in mind that your assignment instructions will guide you in which role you need to take for your research paper.
•  When in doubt, do not hesitate to reach out to your professor for guidance.  

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Thank you. payment completed., you will receive an email from us to confirm your registration, please click the link in the email to activate your account., there was error during payment, orcid profile found in public registry, download history, your point of view: writing perspective, opinion and commentary articles.

• Charlesworth Author Services
• 25 August, 2022

Academic writing isn’t just scientific; it can also be about expressing your views on a topic or field of interest. Journal articles that come in this category of ‘ viewpoint writing ’ include perspective articles, opinion articles and commentary (or simply, comment) articles. This article explains the nature of each article, along with some tips for writing each.

Perspective article explained

In an academic context, a perspective article is usually a scholarly response to recently published research , which could be research in the form of one or multiple articles from the last year or so, or a book, conference or debate. Ideally, a perspective article should offer new insights or put forward new directions along the lines of which the published research might, in future studies, be continued further in scope. It might also bring in new data or early research that the responding author has done to support their perspective. This type of article might also mention quite a few sources – either academic or other general media platforms, or possibly even both – on the issue.

Opinion article explained

An opinion article is also a response to previously published research and usually offers constructive criticism of existing work. An opinion article should therefore acknowledge both strengths and weaknesses and offer support for those assessments. As with other types of academic writing, opinion pieces are designed to provoke a discussion by challenging current understanding on a particular issue or topic.

Commentary article explained

A commentary article (popularly called a comment piece) is usually a commissioned response to a particular article. Often, the journal will initiate this ‘discussion’ by approaching an expert to write a commentary that offers a critique of the initial article. The original author is also then invited to write a ‘ rejoinder ’, which is a defence of their research or rebuttal on the commentary. All three pieces then appear in the same journal : the article towards the front, and the commentary and rejoinder at the back.

Viewpoint articles: Similarities and differences

• A perspective article is often longer than the others, spanning 2,000–4,000 words depending on the journal that publishes it. The title should also clearly indicate that this is a perspective article. The article nearly always includes an abstract and may be written by more than one author. It may draw on substantial literature and is therefore written by authors with considerable experience.
• An opinion article can be very similar to a perspective article and may also mention literature. However, it is usually shorter (around 2,000 words ) and often with a shorter abstract . It can sometimes be more ‘journalistic’ in its style than the other types.
• A commentary is usually even shorter (around 1,000 words ) and is focused on the initial article or an issue raised by that article. Hence, it usually does not have an abstract. The discussion it seeks to start can be quite provocative . This type of contribution is therefore written by well-established academics who are unafraid to express their assessment very openly and sometimes even quite aggressively.

Note : While these differences are illustrative, it can be difficult sometimes (especially in a practical sense, such as when reading such articles) to discern much difference between a perspective article and an opinion article.

Knowing your audience for viewpoint articles

These articles are often written with a broader audience in mind than what is typical for a journal article. They are therefore usually more reader-friendly and less technical . 

• A perspective article and an opinion piece are written with the understanding that their audience is possibly unfamiliar with the material presented. It is therefore necessary to provide sufficient context and information for the audience to engage with the ideas that are promoted within the piece.
• A commentary article is written with the understanding that the original article is usually also in the current (or recent) edition of the journal. The writer therefore does not need to devote a significant amount of space towards summarising the original but can go straight in with their opinion or commentary on a certain aspect or aspects within that article.

Understanding the journal requirements for viewpoint pieces

As with any academic article, each journal will have their own specific requirements for each of these types of articles.

• If you are writing a perspective article or an opinion piece, make sure you contact the journal beforehand (such as through a presubmission inquiry ) to see if they would be interested in publishing your proposed piece, and once you have a green signal from the journal, carefully check their requirements (such as through their Information for Authors section) before you commence your writing process.
• For a commentary article, as already mentioned, a journal usually reaches out to the author(s) to commission the piece.

Examples of viewpoint articles

• Perspective article: Find a short piece here .
• Opinion article: Read a rather long piece here .
• Commentary (and rejoinder): Read the original article, a number of comments and the author’s rejoinder here .

For ease of reference, here’s a table that outlines the essential differences among the three types of viewpoint articles.

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Writing an Abstract: Purpose and Tips

• How to write a research paper

Last updated

11 January 2024

Reviewed by

With proper planning, knowledge, and framework, completing a research paper can be a fulfilling and exciting experience. 

Though it might initially sound slightly intimidating, this guide will help you embrace the challenge. 

By documenting your findings, you can inspire others and make a difference in your field. Here's how you can make your research paper unique and comprehensive.

• What is a research paper?

Research papers allow you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. These papers are usually lengthier and more detailed than typical essays, requiring deeper insight into the chosen topic.

To write a research paper, you must first choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to the field of study. Once you’ve selected your topic, gathering as many relevant resources as possible, including books, scholarly articles, credible websites, and other academic materials, is essential. You must then read and analyze these sources, summarizing their key points and identifying gaps in the current research.

You can formulate your ideas and opinions once you thoroughly understand the existing research. To get there might involve conducting original research, gathering data, or analyzing existing data sets. It could also involve presenting an original argument or interpretation of the existing research.

Writing a successful research paper involves presenting your findings clearly and engagingly, which might involve using charts, graphs, or other visual aids to present your data and using concise language to explain your findings. You must also ensure your paper adheres to relevant academic formatting guidelines, including proper citations and references.

Overall, writing a research paper requires a significant amount of time, effort, and attention to detail. However, it is also an enriching experience that allows you to delve deeply into a subject that interests you and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in your chosen field.

• How long should a research paper be?

Research papers are deep dives into a topic. Therefore, they tend to be longer pieces of work than essays or opinion pieces. 

However, a suitable length depends on the complexity of the topic and your level of expertise. For instance, are you a first-year college student or an experienced professional? 

Also, remember that the best research papers provide valuable information for the benefit of others. Therefore, the quality of information matters most, not necessarily the length. Being concise is valuable.

Following these best practice steps will help keep your process simple and productive:

1. Gaining a deep understanding of any expectations

Before diving into your intended topic or beginning the research phase, take some time to orient yourself. Suppose there’s a specific topic assigned to you. In that case, it’s essential to deeply understand the question and organize your planning and approach in response. Pay attention to the key requirements and ensure you align your writing accordingly. 

This preparation step entails

Deeply understanding the task or assignment

Being clear about the expected format and length

Familiarizing yourself with the citation and referencing requirements 

Understanding any defined limits for your research contribution

Where applicable, speaking to your professor or research supervisor for further clarification

2. Choose your research topic

Select a research topic that aligns with both your interests and available resources. Ideally, focus on a field where you possess significant experience and analytical skills. In crafting your research paper, it's crucial to go beyond summarizing existing data and contribute fresh insights to the chosen area.

Consider narrowing your focus to a specific aspect of the topic. For example, if exploring the link between technology and mental health, delve into how social media use during the pandemic impacts the well-being of college students. Conducting interviews and surveys with students could provide firsthand data and unique perspectives, adding substantial value to the existing knowledge.

When finalizing your topic, adhere to legal and ethical norms in the relevant area (this ensures the integrity of your research, protects participants' rights, upholds intellectual property standards, and ensures transparency and accountability). Following these principles not only maintains the credibility of your work but also builds trust within your academic or professional community.

For instance, in writing about medical research, consider legal and ethical norms, including patient confidentiality laws and informed consent requirements. Similarly, if analyzing user data on social media platforms, be mindful of data privacy regulations, ensuring compliance with laws governing personal information collection and use. Aligning with legal and ethical standards not only avoids potential issues but also underscores the responsible conduct of your research.

3. Gather preliminary research

Once you’ve landed on your topic, it’s time to explore it further. You’ll want to discover more about available resources and existing research relevant to your assignment at this stage. 

This exploratory phase is vital as you may discover issues with your original idea or realize you have insufficient resources to explore the topic effectively. This key bit of groundwork allows you to redirect your research topic in a different, more feasible, or more relevant direction if necessary. 

Spending ample time at this stage ensures you gather everything you need, learn as much as you can about the topic, and discover gaps where the topic has yet to be sufficiently covered, offering an opportunity to research it further. 

4. Define your research question

To produce a well-structured and focused paper, it is imperative to formulate a clear and precise research question that will guide your work. Your research question must be informed by the existing literature and tailored to the scope and objectives of your project. By refining your focus, you can produce a thoughtful and engaging paper that effectively communicates your ideas to your readers.

5. Write a thesis statement

A thesis statement is a one-to-two-sentence summary of your research paper's main argument or direction. It serves as an overall guide to summarize the overall intent of the research paper for you and anyone wanting to know more about the research.

A strong thesis statement is:

Concise and clear: Explain your case in simple sentences (avoid covering multiple ideas). It might help to think of this section as an elevator pitch.

Specific: Ensure that there is no ambiguity in your statement and that your summary covers the points argued in the paper.

Debatable: A thesis statement puts forward a specific argument––it is not merely a statement but a debatable point that can be analyzed and discussed.

Here are three thesis statement examples from different disciplines:

Psychology thesis example: "We're studying adults aged 25-40 to see if taking short breaks for mindfulness can help with stress. Our goal is to find practical ways to manage anxiety better."

Environmental science thesis example: "This research paper looks into how having more city parks might make the air cleaner and keep people healthier. I want to find out if more green spaces means breathing fewer carcinogens in big cities."

UX research thesis example: "This study focuses on improving mobile banking for older adults using ethnographic research, eye-tracking analysis, and interactive prototyping. We investigate the usefulness of eye-tracking analysis with older individuals, aiming to spark debate and offer fresh perspectives on UX design and digital inclusivity for the aging population."

6. Conduct in-depth research

A research paper doesn’t just include research that you’ve uncovered from other papers and studies but your fresh insights, too. You will seek to become an expert on your topic––understanding the nuances in the current leading theories. You will analyze existing research and add your thinking and discoveries.  It's crucial to conduct well-designed research that is rigorous, robust, and based on reliable sources. Suppose a research paper lacks evidence or is biased. In that case, it won't benefit the academic community or the general public. Therefore, examining the topic thoroughly and furthering its understanding through high-quality research is essential. That usually means conducting new research. Depending on the area under investigation, you may conduct surveys, interviews, diary studies, or observational research to uncover new insights or bolster current claims.

7. Determine supporting evidence

Not every piece of research you’ve discovered will be relevant to your research paper. It’s important to categorize the most meaningful evidence to include alongside your discoveries. It's important to include evidence that doesn't support your claims to avoid exclusion bias and ensure a fair research paper.

8. Write a research paper outline

Before diving in and writing the whole paper, start with an outline. It will help you to see if more research is needed, and it will provide a framework by which to write a more compelling paper. Your supervisor may even request an outline to approve before beginning to write the first draft of the full paper. An outline will include your topic, thesis statement, key headings, short summaries of the research, and your arguments.

9. Write your first draft

Once you feel confident about your outline and sources, it’s time to write your first draft. While penning a long piece of content can be intimidating, if you’ve laid the groundwork, you will have a structure to help you move steadily through each section. To keep up motivation and inspiration, it’s often best to keep the pace quick. Stopping for long periods can interrupt your flow and make jumping back in harder than writing when things are fresh in your mind.

10. Cite your sources correctly

It's always a good practice to give credit where it's due, and the same goes for citing any works that have influenced your paper. Building your arguments on credible references adds value and authenticity to your research. In the formatting guidelines section, you’ll find an overview of different citation styles (MLA, CMOS, or APA), which will help you meet any publishing or academic requirements and strengthen your paper's credibility. It is essential to follow the guidelines provided by your school or the publication you are submitting to ensure the accuracy and relevance of your citations.

11. Ensure your work is original

It is crucial to ensure the originality of your paper, as plagiarism can lead to serious consequences. To avoid plagiarism, you should use proper paraphrasing and quoting techniques. Paraphrasing is rewriting a text in your own words while maintaining the original meaning. Quoting involves directly citing the source. Giving credit to the original author or source is essential whenever you borrow their ideas or words. You can also use plagiarism detection tools such as Scribbr or Grammarly to check the originality of your paper. These tools compare your draft writing to a vast database of online sources. If you find any accidental plagiarism, you should correct it immediately by rephrasing or citing the source.

12. Revise, edit, and proofread

One of the essential qualities of excellent writers is their ability to understand the importance of editing and proofreading. Even though it's tempting to call it a day once you've finished your writing, editing your work can significantly improve its quality. It's natural to overlook the weaker areas when you've just finished writing a paper. Therefore, it's best to take a break of a day or two, or even up to a week, to refresh your mind. This way, you can return to your work with a new perspective. After some breathing room, you can spot any inconsistencies, spelling and grammar errors, typos, or missing citations and correct them. 

• The best research paper format 

The format of your research paper should align with the requirements set forth by your college, school, or target publication. 

There is no one “best” format, per se. Depending on the stated requirements, you may need to include the following elements:

Title page: The title page of a research paper typically includes the title, author's name, and institutional affiliation and may include additional information such as a course name or instructor's name. 

Table of contents: Include a table of contents to make it easy for readers to find specific sections of your paper.

Abstract: The abstract is a summary of the purpose of the paper.

Methods : In this section, describe the research methods used. This may include collecting data, conducting interviews, or doing field research.

Results: Summarize the conclusions you drew from your research in this section.

Discussion: In this section, discuss the implications of your research. Be sure to mention any significant limitations to your approach and suggest areas for further research.

Tables, charts, and illustrations: Use tables, charts, and illustrations to help convey your research findings and make them easier to understand.

Works cited or reference page: Include a works cited or reference page to give credit to the sources that you used to conduct your research.

Bibliography: Provide a list of all the sources you consulted while conducting your research.

Dedication and acknowledgments : Optionally, you may include a dedication and acknowledgments section to thank individuals who helped you with your research.

• General style and formatting guidelines

Formatting your research paper means you can submit it to your college, journal, or other publications in compliance with their criteria.

Research papers tend to follow the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), or Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) guidelines.

Here’s how each style guide is typically used:

Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS):

CMOS is a versatile style guide used for various types of writing. It's known for its flexibility and use in the humanities. CMOS provides guidelines for citations, formatting, and overall writing style. It allows for both footnotes and in-text citations, giving writers options based on their preferences or publication requirements.

American Psychological Association (APA):

APA is common in the social sciences. It’s hailed for its clarity and emphasis on precision. It has specific rules for citing sources, creating references, and formatting papers. APA style uses in-text citations with an accompanying reference list. It's designed to convey information efficiently and is widely used in academic and scientific writing.

Modern Language Association (MLA):

MLA is widely used in the humanities, especially literature and language studies. It emphasizes the author-page format for in-text citations and provides guidelines for creating a "Works Cited" page. MLA is known for its focus on the author's name and the literary works cited. It’s frequently used in disciplines that prioritize literary analysis and critical thinking.

To confirm you're using the latest style guide, check the official website or publisher's site for updates, consult academic resources, and verify the guide's publication date. Online platforms and educational resources may also provide summaries and alerts about any revisions or additions to the style guide.

Citing sources

When working on your research paper, it's important to cite the sources you used properly. Your citation style will guide you through this process. Generally, there are three parts to citing sources in your research paper: 

First, provide a brief citation in the body of your essay. This is also known as a parenthetical or in-text citation. 

Second, include a full citation in the Reference list at the end of your paper. Different types of citations include in-text citations, footnotes, and reference lists. 

In-text citations include the author's surname and the date of the citation. 

Footnotes appear at the bottom of each page of your research paper. They may also be summarized within a reference list at the end of the paper. 

A reference list includes all of the research used within the paper at the end of the document. It should include the author, date, paper title, and publisher listed in the order that aligns with your citation style.

10 research paper writing tips:

Following some best practices is essential to writing a research paper that contributes to your field of study and creates a positive impact.

These tactics will help you structure your argument effectively and ensure your work benefits others:

Clear and precise language:  Ensure your language is unambiguous. Use academic language appropriately, but keep it simple. Also, provide clear takeaways for your audience.

Effective idea separation:  Organize the vast amount of information and sources in your paper with paragraphs and titles. Create easily digestible sections for your readers to navigate through.

Compelling intro:  Craft an engaging introduction that captures your reader's interest. Hook your audience and motivate them to continue reading.

Thorough revision and editing:  Take the time to review and edit your paper comprehensively. Use tools like Grammarly to detect and correct small, overlooked errors.

Thesis precision:  Develop a clear and concise thesis statement that guides your paper. Ensure that your thesis aligns with your research's overall purpose and contribution.

Logical flow of ideas:  Maintain a logical progression throughout the paper. Use transitions effectively to connect different sections and maintain coherence.

Critical evaluation of sources:  Evaluate and critically assess the relevance and reliability of your sources. Ensure that your research is based on credible and up-to-date information.

Thematic consistency:  Maintain a consistent theme throughout the paper. Ensure that all sections contribute cohesively to the overall argument.

Relevant supporting evidence:  Provide concise and relevant evidence to support your arguments. Avoid unnecessary details that may distract from the main points.

Embrace counterarguments:  Acknowledge and address opposing views to strengthen your position. Show that you have considered alternative arguments in your field.

7 research tips 

If you want your paper to not only be well-written but also contribute to the progress of human knowledge, consider these tips to take your paper to the next level:

Selecting the appropriate topic: The topic you select should align with your area of expertise, comply with the requirements of your project, and have sufficient resources for a comprehensive investigation.

Use academic databases: Academic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and JSTOR offer a wealth of research papers that can help you discover everything you need to know about your chosen topic.

Critically evaluate sources: It is important not to accept research findings at face value. Instead, it is crucial to critically analyze the information to avoid jumping to conclusions or overlooking important details. A well-written research paper requires a critical analysis with thorough reasoning to support claims.

Diversify your sources: Expand your research horizons by exploring a variety of sources beyond the standard databases. Utilize books, conference proceedings, and interviews to gather diverse perspectives and enrich your understanding of the topic.

Take detailed notes: Detailed note-taking is crucial during research and can help you form the outline and body of your paper.

Stay up on trends: Keep abreast of the latest developments in your field by regularly checking for recent publications. Subscribe to newsletters, follow relevant journals, and attend conferences to stay informed about emerging trends and advancements. 

Engage in peer review: Seek feedback from peers or mentors to ensure the rigor and validity of your research. Peer review helps identify potential weaknesses in your methodology and strengthens the overall credibility of your findings.

• The real-world impact of research papers

Writing a research paper is more than an academic or business exercise. The experience provides an opportunity to explore a subject in-depth, broaden one's understanding, and arrive at meaningful conclusions. With careful planning, dedication, and hard work, writing a research paper can be a fulfilling and enriching experience contributing to advancing knowledge.

How do I publish my research paper? 

Many academics wish to publish their research papers. While challenging, your paper might get traction if it covers new and well-written information. To publish your research paper, find a target publication, thoroughly read their guidelines, format your paper accordingly, and send it to them per their instructions. You may need to include a cover letter, too. After submission, your paper may be peer-reviewed by experts to assess its legitimacy, quality, originality, and methodology. Following review, you will be informed by the publication whether they have accepted or rejected your paper. 

What is a good opening sentence for a research paper? 

Beginning your research paper with a compelling introduction can ensure readers are interested in going further. A relevant quote, a compelling statistic, or a bold argument can start the paper and hook your reader. Remember, though, that the most important aspect of a research paper is the quality of the information––not necessarily your ability to storytell, so ensure anything you write aligns with your goals.

Research paper vs. a research proposal—what’s the difference?

While some may confuse research papers and proposals, they are different documents. 

A research proposal comes before a research paper. It is a detailed document that outlines an intended area of exploration. It includes the research topic, methodology, timeline, sources, and potential conclusions. Research proposals are often required when seeking approval to conduct research. 

A research paper is a summary of research findings. A research paper follows a structured format to present those findings and construct an argument or conclusion.

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Doing Research in the Real World

Student resources, chapter 2: theoretical perspectives and research methodologies.

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Scholarly Voice: First-Person Point of View

First-person point of view.

Since 2007, Walden academic leadership has endorsed the APA manual guidance on appropriate use of the first-person singular pronoun "I," allowing the use of this pronoun in all Walden academic writing except doctoral capstone abstracts, which should not contain first person pronouns.

In addition to the pointers below, APA 7, Section 4.16 provides information on the appropriate use of first person in scholarly writing.

Inappropriate Uses:   I feel that eating white bread causes cancer. The author feels that eating white bread causes cancer. I found several sources (Marks, 2011; Isaac, 2006; Stuart, in press) that showed a link between white bread consumption and cancer.   Appropriate Use:   I surveyed 2,900 adults who consumed white bread regularly. In this chapter, I present a literature review on research about how seasonal light changes affect depression.

Confusing Sentence:   The researcher found that the authors had been accurate in their study of helium, which the researcher had hypothesized from the beginning of their project.   Revision:   I found that Johnson et al. (2011) had been accurate in their study of helium, which I had hypothesized since I began my project.

Passive voice:   The surveys were distributed and the results were compiled after they were collected.   Revision:   I distributed the surveys, and then I collected and compiled the results.

Appropriate use of first person we and our :   Two other nurses and I worked together to create a qualitative survey to measure patient satisfaction. Upon completion, we presented the results to our supervisor.

Make assumptions about your readers by putting them in a group to which they may not belong by using first person plural pronouns. Inappropriate use of first person "we" and "our":

• We can stop obesity in our society by changing our lifestyles.
• We need to help our patients recover faster.

In the first sentence above, the readers would not necessarily know who "we" are, and using a phrase such as "our society " can immediately exclude readers from outside your social group. In the second sentence, the author assumes that the reader is a nurse or medical professional, which may not be the case, and the sentence expresses the opinion of the author.

To write with more precision and clarity, hallmarks of scholarly writing, revise these sentences without the use of "we" and "our."

• Moderate activity can reduce the risk of obesity (Hu et al., 2003).
• Staff members in the health care industry can help improve the recovery rate for patients (Matthews, 2013).

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Perspective, Opinion, and Commentary Pieces

It is important for researchers to decide the type of research article they are going to write and publish. The paper you write will depend mainly on the type of study conducted. It will also depend on the intended audience and the guidelines from the journal to which the work will be submitted.

The objective of any research is to add to the existing knowledge in the field of study. The paper must thus present research and results in a clear and concise manner.  It also ensures that your paper is comprehensible and other researchers, who may want to reproduce your results, are able to do so. You can also contribute to your field of interest by sharing your expertise or views in the form of a review of a research area or a related policy. Several formats allow you to provide your personal take on many topics that influence your field of interest. We present here a description of three such formats—perspective, opinion, and commentary—to help you decide which type fit with your intended audience and outcome.

Perspective Pieces

A perspective “piece” is a personal opinion in writing that is a review of a certain topic.  Usually, these are short essays that are intended to review concepts in a particular field based on writer’s own assessment.  For instance, Nature often publishes peer-reviewed essays that discuss research models and concepts to help raise awareness of new ideas in the field and develop new study methods.

Perspective pieces also provide information on key findings and the latest developments in that discipline. The writers (often more than one) are experts in their field of study and discuss the latest research and its implications. They also provide highlights from relevant conferences and seminars. These pieces include an abstract, reference list, and figures (if necessary).

When considering writing a perspective piece, make sure that the reviews are of concepts and not of the research studies and focused on the message you want to convey. These essays can be anywhere from 2,000 to 5,000 words depending on the journal.

Opinion Pieces

An opinion piece is a short article that conveys the author’s viewpoint on a research study. It presents a personal review of, for example, the methods and analyses done in the study. It also provides the author’s viewpoint on the researcher’s hypothesis and its shortcomings (if any). These pieces are meant to provide constructive criticism. Although they are personal observations, evidence should be available to support the author’s critique of the study.

Some journals consider and welcome opinions from readers as short correspondence. In some cases, the editors will solicit a longer opinion piece to publish it as an article. Although reader’s comments are accepted, unsolicited opinion articles are not. Moreover, some journals refer to opinion pieces as short editorials. They invite these editorials from the readers and encourage discussion on an issue that is critical to research community. Most opinion pieces or editorials are no more than 1,000 words, with no abstract and no more than five references. Tables and figures are usually not part of these pieces.

Commentaries

A commentary is a more in-depth analysis written to draw attention to a work already published. Commentaries are somewhat like “reviews” in that the author presents his or her analysis of a work and why it would be of interest to a specific audience. Depending on the journal, commentaries can differ in scope and length from 1500 to 3000 words . Some journals may have req uirements that are more specific.  They may expect writers to analyze other subjects, such as funding, political issues, and career opportunities, that would be of interest to those in that research area. Most commentaries are subject to formal peer review.

Which Should You Chose?

Which format is best for you depends on a few factors to consider. Who is your audience? What do you hope to accomplish? Were you commissioned to write the piece?

If you wish to submit an unsolicited piece, you must remember that journal submission rules vary. Some journals do not accept any such pieces and others will publish only those that are peer reviewed.

It can be to your advantage to offer to write any of these papers. As a researcher, your opinion should matter to your colleagues, especially if you have already published original research. In addition, if you are commissioned or solicited by the editors of a particular journal to write a piece, it validates your expertise and respect from those within your field of study and can help further your career.

Several journals provide detailed information about these and other types of articles. Be sure to check your sources for detailed information.

Have you published any of three types of research articles? Please share your thoughts with us by posting in the comment section!

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Understanding different research perspectives

Introduction

In this free course, Understanding different research perspectives , you will explore the development of the research process and focus on the steps you need to follow in order to plan and design a HR research project.

The course comprises three parts:

• The first part (Sections 1 and 2) discusses the different perspectives from which an issue or phenomenon can be investigated and outlines how each of these perspectives generates different kinds of knowledge about the issue. It is thus concerned with what it means to ‘know’ in research terms.
• The second part (Sections 3 to 7) identifies the different elements (e.g. methodologies, ethics) of a business research project. In order to produce an effective project, these different elements need to be integrated into a research strategy. The research strategy is your plan of action and will include choices regarding research perspectives and methodologies.
• The third part (Sections 8 to 10) highlights the main methodologies that can be used to investigate a business issue.

This overview of the research perspectives will enable you to take the first steps to develop a work-based project – namely, identifying a research problem and developing the research question(s) you want to investigate.

By the end of this course you should have developed a clear idea of what you want to investigate; in which context you want to do this (e.g. in your organisation, in another organisation, with workers from different organisations); and what are the specific questions you want to address.

This OpenLearn course is an adapted extract from the Open University course B865 Managing research in the workplace .

Learning outcomes

After studying this course, you should be able to:

understand the different perspectives from which a problem can be investigated

consider the researcher’s involvement in the research process as insider and/or outsider

reflect on the importance of ethical processes in research

understand the development of a research strategy and how this is translated into a research design

identify a research problem to be investigated.

1 Objective and subjective research perspectives

Research in social science requires the collection of data in order to understand a phenomenon. This can be done in a number of ways, and will depend on the state of existing knowledge of the topic area. The researcher can:

• Explore a little known issue. The researcher has an idea or has observed something and seeks to understand more about it (exploratory research).
• Connect ideas to understand the relationships between the different aspects of an issue, i.e. explain what is going on (explanatory research).
• Describe what is happening in more detail and expand the initial understanding (explicatory or descriptive research).

Exploratory research is often done through observation and other methods such as interviews or surveys that allow the researcher to gather preliminary information.

Explanatory research, on the other hand, generally tests hypotheses about cause and effect relationships. Hypotheses are statements developed by the researcher that will be tested during the research. The distinction between exploratory and explanatory research is linked to the distinction between inductive and deductive research. Explanatory research tends to be deductive and exploratory research tends to be inductive. This is not always the case but, for simplicity, we shall not explore the exceptions here.

Descriptive research may support an explanatory or exploratory study. On its own, descriptive research is not sufficient for an academic project. Academic research is aimed at progressing current knowledge.

The perspective taken by the researcher also depends on whether the researcher believes that there is an objective world out there that can be objectively known; for example, profit can be viewed as an objective measure of business performance. Alternatively the researcher may believe that concepts such as ‘culture’, ‘motivation’, ‘leadership’, ‘performance’ result from human categorisation of the world and that their ‘meaning’ can change depending on the circumstances. For example, performance can mean different things to different people. For one it may refer to a hard measure such as levels of sales. For another it may include good relationships with customers. According to this latter view, a researcher can only take a subjective perspective because the nature of these concepts is the result of human processes. Subjective research generally refers to the subjective experiences of research participants and to the fact that the researcher’s perspective is embedded within the research process, rather than seen as fully detached from it.

On the other hand, objective research claims to describe a true and correct reality, which is independent of those involved in the research process. Although this is a simplified view of the way in which research can be approached, it is an important distinction to think about. Whether you think about your research topic in objective or subjective terms will determine the development of the research questions, the type of data collected, the methods of data collection and analysis you adopt and the conclusions that you draw. This is why it is important to consider your own perspective when planning your project.

Subjective research is generally referred to as phenomenological research. This is because it is concerned with the study of experiences from the perspective of an individual, and emphasises the importance of personal perspectives and interpretations. Subjective research is generally based on data derived from observations of events as they take place or from unstructured or semi-structured interviews. In unstructured interviews the questions emerged from the discussion between the interviewer and the interviewee. In semi-structured interviews the interviewer prepares an outline of the interview topics or general questions, adding more as needs emerged during the interview. Structured interviews include the full list of questions. Interviewers do not deviate from this list. Subjective research can also be based on examinations of documents. The researcher will attribute personal interpretations of the experiences and phenomena during the process of both collecting and analysing data. This approach is also referred to as interpretivist research. Interpretivists believe that in order to understand and explain specific management and HR situations, one needs to focus on the viewpoints, experiences, feelings and interpretations of the people involved in the specific situation.

Conversely, objective research tends to be modelled on the methods of the natural sciences such as experiments or large scale surveys. Objective research seeks to establish law-like generalisations which can be applied to the same phenomenon in different contexts. This perspective, which privileges objectivity, is called positivism and is based on data that can be subject to statistical analysis and generalisation. Positivist researchers use quantitative methodologies, which are based on measurement and numbers, to collect and analyse data. Interpretivists are more concerned with language and other forms of qualitative data, which are based on words or images. Having said that, researchers using objectivist and positivist assumptions sometimes use qualitative data while interpretivists sometimes use quantitative data. (Quantitative and qualitative methodologies will be discussed in more detail in the final part of this course.) The key is to understand the perspective you intend to adopt and realise the limitations and opportunities it offers. Table 1 compares and contrasts the perspectives of positivism and interpretivism.

Some textbooks include the realist perspective or discuss constructivism, but, for the purpose of your work-based project, you do not need to engage with these other perspectives. This course keeps the discussion of research perspectives to a basic level.

Search and identify two articles that are based on your research topic. Ideally you may want to identify one article based on quantitative and one based on qualitative methodologies.

Now answer the following questions:

• In what ways are the two studies different (excluding the research focus)?
• Which research perspective do the author/s in article 1 take in their study (i.e. subjective or objective or in other words, phenomenological/interpretivist or positivist)?
• What elements (e.g. specific words, sentences, research questions) in the introduction reveal the approach taken by the authors?
• Which research perspective do the author/s in article 2 take in their study (i.e. subjective or objective, phenomenological/interpretivist or positivist)?
• What elements (e.g. specific words, sentences, research questions) in the introduction and research questions sections reveal the approach taken by the authors?

This activity has helped you to distinguish between objective and subjective research by recognising the type of language and the different ways in which objectivists/positivists and subjectivists/interpretivists may formulate their research aims. It should also support the development of your personal preference on objective or subjective research.

2 The researcher as an outsider or an insider

The researcher’s perspective is not only related to philosophical questions of subjectivity and objectivity but also to the researcher’s position with respect to the subject researched. This is particularly relevant for work-based projects where researchers are looking at their own organisation, group or community. In relation to the researcher’s position, s/he can be an insider or an outsider. Here the term ‘insider’ will include the semi-insider position, and the term ‘outsider’ will include the semi-outsider position. If you belong to the group you want to study, you become an ‘insider-researcher’. For example, if you want to conduct your research project with HR managers and you are a HR manager yourself you will have a common language and a common understanding of the issues associated with doing the same job. While, on one hand, the insider perspective allows special sensitivity, empathy and understanding of the matters, which may not be so clear to an outsider, it may also lead to greater bias or to a research direction that is more important to the researcher. On the other hand, an outsider-researcher would be more detached, less personal, but also less well-informed.

Rabe (2003) suggests that once outsider and insider perspectives in research are examined, three concepts can lead to a better understanding. First, the outsider and insider can be understood by considering the concept of power : there is power involved in the relationship between the researcher and the people and organisations participating in the research. As researchers are gathering data from the research participants, they have the power to represent those participants in any way they choose. The research participants have less power, although they can choose what to say to the researchers. This has different implications for insiders and outsiders. It is obvious that in the case of work-based projects conducted in your organisation, the ways in which you choose to represent your colleagues and your organisation places you in a position of power.

Second, insider and outsider perspectives can be understood in the context of knowledge : the insider has inside knowledge that the outsider does not have. If you conduct research in your organisation, institution or profession you will have access to inside knowledge that an outsider will not be able to gain.

The third way in which the insider/outsider concept can be understood is by considering the role of the researcher in the field of anthropology . In fact, anthropologists approach those being studied (e.g. remote cultures, tribes, social groups) as outsiders. As researchers experience the life of those studied by living with them, they acquire an insider’s perspective. The goal is to obtain both insider and outsider knowledge and to maintain the appropriate detachment. This approach applies to participatory research in general, not only anthropology.

Figure 1 reports the various stages you are expected to follow in order to complete and write up your research report.

3 Deciding what to research

Selecting an appropriate research topic is the first step towards a satisfactory project. For some people, choosing the topic is easy because they have a very specific interest in an area. For example, you might be interested in studying training and development systems in multinational companies (MNCs), or you might have a pressing work issue you want to address, like why the career progression of women in the construction industry is slower than that of men in the same industry. Alternatively, your sponsoring organisation might like you to carry out a specific project that will benefit the organisation itself, for example, it might need a specific HR policy to be developed.

While you may be among those who already have clear ideas, for other learners the process of choosing the research topic can be daunting and frustrating. So how can you generate research ideas? Where should you start? It is easiest to start from your organisational context, if you are currently in employment or if you are volunteering. Is there anything that is bothering you, your colleagues or your department? Is there a HR issue that could be addressed or further developed? Talking about your project with colleagues and family may also help as they may have suggestions that you have not considered.

The following case study describes a process that might help you to identify opportunities in your daily activities that could lead to a suitable topic.

Lucy works as a HR assistant manager for a large manufacturer of confectionery that operates at a national level. The company has three factories and a head office. While the company has a centralised HR function based at the head office, Lucy is based at one of the factories (the largest of the three) that employs 176 workers. The HR department at the factory comprises three HR experts: the manager and two assistants. Their focus is mainly concerned with the training and development of the on-site staff, with the recruitment of factory workers, grievances, disciplinary and day-to-day HR management. It excludes general issues such as salaries, benefits, pensions, recruitment and development of managerial staff and more centralised aspects that are managed by the HR function at head office level.

For some time, Lucy has received feedback through the appraisal system and exit interviews that shop floor workers are dissatisfied by the lack of progression to supervisory level positions within the company. In fact, the company had no career progression plans nor a structured assessment of training needs for factory workers, who make up the majority of employees. Training was provided on-site by supervisors, managers and HR managers and off-site by external consultants when a specific skill or knowledge was needed. Equally employees could request to attend a course by choosing from a list of courses provided on a yearly basis. However, although the company was keen for employees to attend training courses, these were not systematically recorded on the employee file nor did they fit in a wider career plan.

Lucy is doing a part-time postgraduate diploma in HRM at The Open University and she has to complete a research project in order to gain CIPD membership. She has fully considered this issue and thought that it could become a good project. It did not come to her mind immediately but was the result of talks with her HR colleagues and her partner who helped her to see an opportunity where she could not see it.

Lucy talked to supervisors and factory workers and she analysed the organisational documents (appraisal records and exit interview records). Having searched the literature on blue-collar worker career development and training she compiled a loose structure (semi-structured) for interviews to be conducted with shop floor employees. At the end of her course she submitted a project which included the development of an online programme that managed a record system for each employee. The system brought together all the training courses completed as well as the performance records of each employee. It became much easier for managers and supervisors to identify the training courses attended by each employee as well as future training needs.

When people are employed in a job, or on a placement, and are undertaking research in the employing organisation they can be defined as (insider) practitioner–researchers. While the position of insider brings advantages in terms of knowledge and access to information and resources, there may be political issues to consider in undertaking and writing up the project. For example, a controversial or sensitive issue might emerge in the collection of data and the insider researcher has to consider carefully how to present it in their writing. Furthermore, while the organisation or some of its members may initially be willing to collaborate, resistance to full participation may be experienced during some stages of the project. If you are carrying out research in your own organisation it is therefore important to consider, in addition to its feasibility, any political issues likely to emerge and whether your status may affect the process of undertaking the research (Anderson, 2013).

Another way that can help you to identify a topic of investigation is through reading a HR magazine (such as People Management , Personnel Today or HR Magazine ), a journal article or even a newspaper. What topics do they include? Are you interested in any of them? Would the topic appeal to your organisation? Could it be developed into a feasible project?

If you develop an idea, however rudimentary, it is worth writing down the topic and a short sentence that captures some aspects of the topic. For example if the topic is ‘diversity in organisations’, you might want to write a note such as ‘relationship between diversity policy and practices’. From here you can start to develop a map of ideas that will help to identify keywords that can be used to do a more in-depth search of the literature. Figure 2 shows the first step in developing the idea.

The figure shows three general approaches that you might take in developing a research project on diversity in organisations. You may decide to focus on one of these aspects and you could brainstorm it and add elements such as relationships with the various other aspects, national and organisational context, organisational sector, legislation, and aspects of diversity (e.g. age, gender, sexuality, race, etc.). Obviously this is an example but you can apply this process to any topic.

If you have an idea of a topic for your project, take five minutes to think about the possible perspectives from which it can be investigated. Having done this, take a sheet of paper and write the topic in the middle of the page. Alternatively, if you are still uncertain about the topic you want to investigate, you might want to think about the role of the HR practitioner and the various activities associated with this role. As you consider the various aspects of the role of HR practitioner, you may realise that one of these can become your chosen topic.

Starting from this core idea, now draw a mind map or a spider plan focusing on your chosen topic.

Mind mapping gives you a way to illustrate the various elements of an issue or topic and helps to clarify how these elements are linked to each other. A map is a good way to visualise, structure and organise ideas.

Now that you have identified your research topic you can move on to work on the research focus. Activity 3 will help you with this.

Develop a research statement of approximately 600 words explaining your chosen topic, the research problem and how you are thinking of investigating it.

You could start by using the mind map you developed in Activity 2. If you wished, you could do some online research around your topic to get a clearer focus on your own project. You might also read a few sources such as newspaper or magazine articles that are particularly relevant to your topic. These sources may yield some additional aspects for you to investigate. If your topic has been widely researched, try not to feel overwhelmed by the amount of existing information. Focus on one or two articles that appear more closely related to your topic and try to identify the specific area you want to focus on.

Once you have researched the topic, consider the research problem and how this can be investigated. Would you need to interview specific people? Would a questionnaire be more appropriate if you need to access a large number of individuals? Would you need to observe work practices in a specific organisation?

Your statement is a draft research proposal and should include:

• an overview of the topic area with an explanation of why you think this needs to be researched
• the focus of the research and the problem it addresses (and possibly the research questions if you have a clear idea of them at this stage, however, this is not essential if you are still developing the focus of your research)
• how the problem can be investigated (i.e. questionnaire, interviews, secondary data).

You may want to show this proposal to colleagues and other contacts who may be interested in order to gain their feedback about the focus and feasibility.

There is no feedback on this activity.

The next section discusses the ethical issues that need to be considered when doing a research project.

4 Research ethics

Ethics is a fundamental aspect of research and of professional work. Ethics refers to the science of morals and rules of behaviour. It is concerned with the concept of right and wrong conduct in all stages of doing research. However, while the idea of right and wrong conduct may seem straightforward, on reflection you will realise how complex ethics is. Ethics is obviously applied to many aspects of life, not just research, and, in business, topics such as ethics and social responsibility and ethical trading are often brought to people’s attention by the media.

As the meaning of what is ethical behaviour is often subjective and may have controversial elements, think about the following questions and make some notes:

• What does ethics in research mean for you?
• Why is ethical behaviour important for you?
• Why should ethics matter in research?

Research ethics is concerned with the prevention of any harm which may occur during the course of research. This is particularly important if your research involves human participants. Harm refers to psychological as well as physical harm. Human rights and the law must be respected by researchers with regard to the safety and wellbeing of their participants at all times. Research ethics is also concerned with identifying high standards of research conduct and putting them into practice. Cameron and Price (2009) suggest that researcher conduct is guided by a number of different obligations:

• Legal obligations which apply not only to the country in which researchers conduct the project, but also where they collect and store data.
• Professional obligations which are established by professional bodies (e.g. British Psychological Society, The Law Society, CIPD) to guide the conduct of its members.
• Cultural obligations which refer to informal rules regulating the behaviours of people within the society in which they live.
• Personal obligations which include the behavioural choices that individuals make of their own will.

In planning and carrying out a research project researchers should consider their responsibilities to the participants and respondents, to those sponsoring the research, and to the wider research community (Cameron and Price, 2009, p. 121). Before embarking on a research project it is worth identifying all stakeholders and considering your responsibilities towards them.

Generally universities and professional bodies have a list of principles or a code of ethics conduct that governs the research process. The principles to be followed in conducting research with human participants, and which you must follow when collecting data for your research project, are outlined below:

• Informed consent : Potential participants should always be informed in advance, and in understandable terms, of any potential benefits, risks, inconvenience or obligations associated with the research that might reasonably be expected to influence their willingness to participate. This should normally involve the use of an information sheet about the research and what participation will involve, and a signed consent form. Sufficient time shall be allowed for a potential participant to consider their decision from receiving the information sheet to giving their consent. In the case of children (individuals under 16 years of age) informed consent should be given by parents or guardians. An incentive to participate (e.g. a prize or a small payment) should be offered only after consent has been given. Participants should be informed clearly that they have a right to withdraw their consent at any time, that any data that they have provided will be destroyed if they so request and that there will be no resultant adverse consequences.
• Openness and integrity : Researchers should be open and honest about the purpose and content of their research and behave in a professional manner at all times. Covert collection of data should only take place where it is essential to achieve the research results required, where the research objective has strong scientific merit and where there is an appropriate risk management and harm alleviation strategy. Participants should be given opportunities to access the outcomes of research in which they have participated and debriefed, if appropriate, after they have provided data.
• Protection from harm : Researchers must make every effort to minimise the risks of any harm, either physical or psychological. Researchers shall comply with the requirements of the UK Data Protection Act 1998, the Freedom of Information Act 2000 and any other relevant legal frameworks governing the management of personal information in the UK or in any other country in which the research may be conducted. Where research involves children or other vulnerable groups, an appropriate level of disclosure should be obtained from the Disclosure and Barring Service for all researchers in contact with participants.
• Confidentiality : Except where explicit written consent is given, researchers should respect and preserve the confidentiality of participants’ identities and data at all times. The procedures by which this is to be achieved should be specified in the research protocol (an outline of the research topic and strategy).
• Professional codes of practice and ethics : Where the subject of a research project falls within the domain of a professional body with a published code of practice and ethical guidelines, researchers should explicitly state their intention to comply with the code and guidelines in the project protocol. Research within the UK NHS should always be conducted in compliance with an ethical protocol approved by the appropriate NHS Research Ethics Committee.

This guidance has been adapted from, and reflects the principles of, the Open University Research Ethics Guideline. The CIPD’s Code of Professional Conduct provides more information on professional standards in the field of HR.

Look at your research topic mind map and the research statement you wrote for Activity 3. Did you consider ethics? Regardless of whether or not you included ethics in your earlier outline of your research topic, consider what ethical factors could prevent you from conducting a research project on the chosen topic. Write your notes in the space provided below.

Describe at least two types of risks that could be encountered in HR research.

What is informed consent? What factors would you want to know before agreeing to participate in a research study? What should be included in an informed consent form?

This activity added the ethical dimension to the research topic, which was likely to be missed out in a previous outline of the project topic and aim(s). It also compels you to reflect on the specific ethical risks of HR research. There are risks associated with most HR research (e.g. stress can be induced by an interview or questionnaire questions) and it is important to consider them before finalising the research proposal. The activity also encouraged you to consider the elements that should be included in the informed consent form.

The next section considers the research question.

5 Developing research questions

By now you should have a clear direction for your research project. It is now necessary to think about the sorts of questions that you need to formulate in order to define your research project. Will they be ‘what’, ‘how’ or ‘why’ type questions? An important point to bear in mind, as discussed above, is that the wording of a question can be central in defining the scope and direction of the study, including the methodology. Your research question(s) do not necessarily have to be expressed as question(s); they can be statements of purpose. The research question is so called because it is a problem or issue that needs to be solved or addressed. Here are some examples of research questions that focus on different areas of HR. They are expressed as questions but they can easily be changed to research statements if the researcher prefers to present them in that way.

• How do the personal experiences and stories of career development processes among HR professionals in the UK and in Romania differ?
• To what extent do NHS managers engage with age diversity?
• How are organisational recruitment and selection practices influenced by the size of the organisation (e.g. small and medium-sized organisations, large national companies, multinational corporations)?
• In what ways, and for what reasons, does the internal perception of the organisational culture vary in relation to the culture that the organisation portrays in official documents?
• How are absenteeism levels linked to employees’ performance?

The process of producing clearly defined and focused research questions is likely to take some time. You will continue to tweak your research questions in the next few weeks even after you have written your research proposal, read the relevant literature and processed the information. The research questions above are very different but they also have common elements. The next activity invites you to think about research questions, both those in the examples above and your own, which may still be very tentative.

Make notes on the following questions:

• What constitutes a research question?
• What are the main pieces of information that a research question needs to contain?

This activity helped you to focus further on your research aims. What you wrote will guide you towards the development of your research questions. Figure 4 shows that research questions can contain a number of elements.

You should now note down possible research questions for your project. You might have only one question or possibly two. You do not need too many questions because you need to be realistic about what you can achieve in the project’s time frame. At the end of this course you will come back to your question(s) and finalise them.

6 Research strategy

A research strategy introduces the main components of a research project such as the research topic area and focus, the research perspective (see Sections 1 and 2), the research design, and the research methods (these are discussed below). It refers to how you propose to answer the research questions set and how you will implement the methodology.

In the first part of this course, you started to identify your research topic, to develop your research statement and you thought about possible research question(s). While you might already have clear research questions or objectives, it is possible that, at this stage, you are uncertain about the most appropriate strategy to implement in order to address those questions. This section looks briefly at a few research strategies you are likely to adopt.

Figure 5 shows the four main types of research strategy: case study, qualitative interviews, quantitative survey and action-oriented research. It is likely that you will use one of the first three; you are less likely to use action-oriented research.

Here is what each of these strategies entails:

• Case Study : This focuses on an in-depth investigation of a single case (e.g. one organisation) or a small number of cases. In case study research generally, information is sought from different sources and through the use of different types of data such as observations, survey, interviews and analysis of documents. Data can be qualitative, quantitative or a mix of both. Case study research allows a composite and multifaceted investigation of the issue or problem.
• Qualitative interviews : There are different types of qualitative interviews (e.g. structured, semi-structured, unstructured) and this is the most widely used method for gathering data. Interviews allow access to rich information. They require extensive planning concerning the development of the structure, decisions about who to interview and how, whether to conduct individual or group interviews, and how to record and analyse them. Interviewees need a wide range of skills, including good social skills, listening skills and communication skills. Interviews are also time-consuming to conduct and they are prone to problems and biases that need to be minimised during the design stage.
• Quantitative survey : This is a widely used method in business research and allows access to significantly high numbers of participants. The availability of online sites enables the wide and cheap distribution of surveys and the organisation of the responses. Although the development of questions may appear easy, to develop a meaningful questionnaire that allows the answering of research questions is difficult. Questionnaires need to appeal to respondents, cannot be too long, too intrusive or too difficult to understand. They also need to measure accurately the issue under investigation. For these reasons it is also advisable, when possible, to use questionnaires that are available on the market and have already been thoroughly validated. This is highly recommended for projects such as the one you need to carry out for this course. When using questionnaires decisions have to be made about the size of the sample and whether and when this is representative of the whole population studied. Surveys can be administered to the whole population (census), for example to all employees of a specific organisation.
• Action-oriented research : This refers to practical business research which is directed towards a change or the production of recommendations for change. Action-oriented research is a participatory process which brings together theory and practice, action and reflection. The project is often carried out by insiders. This is because it is grounded in the need to actively involve participants in order for them to develop ownership of the project. After the project, participants will have to implement the change.

Action-oriented research is not exactly action research, even though they are both grounded in the same assumptions (e.g. to produce change). Action research is a highly complex approach to research, reflection and change which is not always achievable in practice (Cameron and Price, 2009). Furthermore action researchers have to be highly skilled and it is unlikely that for this specific project you will be involved in action research. For these reasons this overview focuses on the less pure action-oriented research strategy. If you are interested in exploring this strategy and action research further, you might want to read Chapter 14 of Cameron and Price (2009).

It is possible for you to choose a strategy that includes the use of secondary data. Secondary data is data that has been collected by other people (e.g. employee surveys, market research data, census). Using secondary data for your research project needs to be justified in that it meets the requirements of the research questions. The use of secondary data has obvious benefits in terms of saving money and time. However, it is important to ascertain the quality of the data and how it was collected; for example, data collected by government agencies would be good quality but it may not necessary meet the needs of your project.

It is important to note that there should be consistency between the perspective (subjective or objective) and the methodology employed. This means that the type of strategy adopted needs to be coherent and that its various elements need to fit in with each other, whether the research is grounded on primary or secondary data.

Now watch this video clip in which Dr Rebecca Hewett, Prof Mark Saunders, Prof Gillian Symon and Prof David Guest discuss the importance of setting the right research question, what strategy they adopted to come up with specific research questions for their projects, and how they refined these initial research questions to focus their research.

Make notes on how you might apply some of these strategies to develop your own research question.

7 Research design

In planning your project you need to think about how you will design and conduct the study as well as how you will present and write up the findings. The design is highly dependent upon the research strategy. It refers to the practical choices regarding how the strategy is implemented in practice. You need to think about what type of data (evidence) would best address the research questions; for example, when considering case study research, questions of design will address the choice of the specific methods of data collection, e.g. if observation, what to observe and how to record it? For how long? Which department or work environment to observe? If interviews are chosen, you need to ask yourself what type? How many? With whom? How long should they be? How will I record them? Where will they be conducted?

The following list (adapted from Cameron and Price, 2009) shows some of the different types of data, or sources of evidence, available to draw on:

• observations
• conversations
• statistics (e.g. government)
• focus groups
• organisational records
• documents (e.g. organisational policies)
• secondary data.

8 Research methodology

The most important methodological choice researchers make is based on the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data. As mentioned previously, qualitative data takes the form of descriptions based on language or images, while quantitative data takes the form of numbers.

Qualitative data is richer and is generally grounded in a subjective and interpretivist perspective. However, while this is generally the case, it is not always so. Qualitative research supports an in-depth understanding of the situation investigated and, due to time constraints, it generally involves a small sample of participants. For this reason the findings are limited to the sample studied and cannot be generalised to other contexts or to the wider population. Popular methods based on qualitative data include semi-structured or unstructured interviews, participant observations and document analysis. Qualitative analysis is generally more time-consuming than quantitative analysis.

Quantitative data, on the other hand, might be easier to collect and analyse and it is based on a large sample of participants. Quantitative methods are based on data that can be ‘objectively’ measured with numbers. The data is analysed through numerical comparisons and statistical analysis. For this reason it appears more ‘scientific’ and may appeal to people who seek clear answers to specific causal questions. Quantitative analysis is often quicker to carry out as it involves the use of software. Owing to the large number of respondents it allows generalisation to a wider group than the research sample. Popular methods based on quantitative data include questionnaires and organisational statistical records among others.

The choice of which methodology to use will depend on your research questions, the formulation of which is consequently informed by your research perspective. Generally, unstructured or semi-structured interviews produce qualitative data and questionnaires produce quantitative data, but such a distinction is not always applicable. In fact, language-based data can often be translated into numbers; for example, by reporting the frequency of certain key words. Questionnaires can produce quantitative as well as qualitative data; for example, multiple choice questions produce quantitative data, while open questions produce qualitative data.

Go back to the two papers you started reading in Activity 1 and read the methodology sections (they may be called methods or something similar) of both papers.

Now answer the following questions.

• What type of method(s) have the author/s in article 1 used to collect data?
• What method of analysis have these author/s used?
• What type of method(s) have the author/s in article 2 used to collect data?
• What methods of analysis have these author/s used?
• How do you think the methods used in both papers address the initial research aims or questions?
• Why do you think the methods used in both papers are appropriate to address these initial research aims or questions?

If you have chosen two papers based on different methodologies, you should reflect on the link between the ways in which the purposes of the studies were developed and the specific methods that the authors chose to address those questions. In the articles there should be a fit between research questions and methodology for collecting and analysing the data. The activity should have helped you to familiarise yourself with processes of planning a research methodology that fits the research question.

This course so far has given you an overview of the research strategy, design and possible methodologies for collecting data. What you have learned should be enough for you to have developed a clear idea of the general research strategy you want to adopt before you move on to develop your methodology for collecting data and review the methods in detail so that you are clear about the benefits and limitations of each before you collect your data.

9 Further development of your research questions

Before you embark on collecting data for your project, it is necessary to have a clear and specific focus for your research – i.e. the research aim, purpose or question(s). Section 5 gave you some examples of research questions. As a research question does not necessarily need to be expressed as a question (it is called a question because it is a problem to be solved), a study can have one general research aim or question and a few secondary aims or questions. It may also have only one research aim or question. In the case of quantitative studies, a few hypotheses might be developed. These will emerge from gaps in the literature but would have to derive from, and be linked to, an overall research purpose. Section 10 discusses research hypotheses.

The clear development of one or more research questions will guide the development of your data collection process and the tool(s) or instrument(s) you will use. Your research question should emerge from a specific need to acquire greater knowledge about a phenomenon or a situation. Such need may be a personal one as well as a contextual and organisational need. Box 1 gives an example of this.

Box 1 An example of how to develop a research question

As a consequence of government cuts, your arts organisation has to re-structure and this is causing stress and tension among staff. You are involved in the planning of the change initiative and want to develop an organisational change programme that minimises stress and conflict. In order to do so you need to know more about people’s views, at the various organisational levels.

What type of questions would help you to:

• understand the context
• demonstrate to the various research stakeholders (e.g. organisational members and research participants or supervisor, etc.) what you intend to do.

Perhaps you would like to make some notes of your initial ideas and think about how you could apply this process to developing your own research question.

Reading around the topic will help you to achieve greater focus, as will discussing your initial questions with colleagues or supervisor. In the example above, assuming the literature has been searched and several articles on change management and business restructuring have been read, you are likely to have developed clearer ideas about what you want to investigate and how you want to investigate it. Figure 6 shows what the main research question and the sub-questions or objectives might be:

This example is very well developed and would constitute a much larger project than the work-based project you might be doing. However the development of a general question and more specific questions focusing on different aspects should give you an idea of the relationship between the main question and the sub-questions.

In developing your research questions you also need to be concerned with issues of feasibility in terms of access and time. You do not need to be over ambitious but you need to realistically evaluate how difficult it would be to get the data you are planning in the time you have available before submitting the project at the end of the course. You need to plan a project that is neither too broad nor too narrow in scope and one that can be carried out in the available time.

Revisit your research topic and look back at the notes you have made about the topic (including the mind map you developed earlier in the course). Expand and amend where you need to.

Now think about what you need to do to re-write your statement as a research question and write the question in the space provided below.

Write a maximum of four sub-questions or research objectives that will help you to answer the main research question given above. In formulating the sub-questions make sure you consider the scope and the feasibility of the project. Write your questions in the space provided below.

10 Research hypotheses

For quantitative studies a research question can be further focused into a hypothesis. This is not universally the case – especially in exploratory research when little is known and so it is difficult to develop hypotheses – however it is generally the case in explanatory projects. A hypothesis usually makes a short statement concerning the relationship between two or more aspects or variables; the research thus aims to verify the hypothesis through investigation. According to Verma and Beard (1981, p. 184) ‘in many cases hypotheses are hunches that the researcher has about the existence of relationships between variables’. A hypothesis differs from a research question in several ways. The main difference is that a question is specific and asks about the relationship between different aspects of a problem or issue, whereas a hypothesis suggests a possible answer to the problem, which can then be tested empirically. You will now see how a research question (RQ) may be formulated as a research hypothesis (RH).

• RQ: Does motivation affect employees’ performance?

This is a well-defined research question; it explores the contribution of motivation to the work performance of employees. The question omits other possible causes, such as organisational resources and market conditions. This question could be turned into a research hypothesis by simply changing the emphasis:

• RH: Work motivation is positively related to employees’ performance.

The key elements of a hypothesis are:

• The variables used in a hypothesis must all be empirically measurable (e.g. you need to be able to measure motivation and performance objectively).
• A hypothesis should provide an answer (albeit tentatively) to the question raised by the problem statement.
• A hypothesis should be as simple as possible.

If you are planning to do an explanatory quantitative study, you will need to develop hypotheses. You will develop your hypotheses once you have read and reviewed the literature and have become familiar with previous knowledge about the topic.

In this free course, Understanding different research perspectives , the various perspectives (subjective/objective and interpretivist/positivist) that a researcher can take in investigating a problem have been discussed, as well as the issues that need to be considered in planning the project (ethics, research design, research strategy and research methodology). This fits with the first two stages of the overall research process as shown in Table 2.

The activities in this course have guided you through these first two processes.

Acknowledgements

This free course was written by Cinzia Priola.

Except for third party materials and otherwise stated (see terms and conditions ), this content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 Licence .

The material acknowledged below is Proprietary and used under licence (not subject to Creative Commons Licence). Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this free course:

Course Image: © Kristian Sekulic/iStockphoto.com

Figure 2: © Yuri/iStockphoto.com

4. Research Ethics: CIPD’s Code of Professional Conduct: courtesy of Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD)

7. Research and Design: extract adapted from: Cameron, S. and Price, D. (2009) Business Research Methods: A Practical Approach , London, CIPD

Every effort has been made to contact copyright owners. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.

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Incorporating Outside Research

Finding and evaluating research sources, introduction.

In order to create rhetorically effective and engaging pieces, research writers must be able to find appropriate and diverse sources and to evaluate those sources for usefulness and credibility. This chapter discusses how to locate such sources and how to evaluate them. On the one hand, this is a chapter about the nuts and bolts of research. If you have written research papers before, searching for sources and citing them in your paper may, at times, have appeared to you as purely mechanical processes, chores necessary to produce a paper. On the other hand, when writers work with research sources, first finding and then evaluating them, they do rhetorical work. Finding good sources and using them effectively helps you to create a message and a persona that your readers are more likely to accept, believe, and be interested in than if unsuitable and unreliable sources are used. This chapter covers the various kinds of research sources available to writers. It discusses how to find, evaluate, and use primary and secondary sources, printed and online ones.

Types of Research Sources

It is a well-known cliché: we live in an information age. Information has become a tangible commodity capable of creating and destroying wealth, influencing public opinion and government policies, and effecting social change. As writers and citizens, we have unprecedented access to different kinds of information from different sources. Writers who hope to influence their audiences need to know what research sources are available, where to find them, and how to use them.

Primary and Secondary Sources

Definition of primary sources.

Let us begin with the definition of primary and secondary sources. A primary research sources is one that allows you to learn about your subject “firsthand.” Primary sources provide direct evidence about the topic under investigation. They offer us “direct access” to the events or phenomena we are studying. For example, if you are researching the history of World War II and decide to study soldiers’ letters home or maps of battlefields, you are working with primary sources. Similarly, if you are studying the history of your hometown in a local archive that contains documents pertaining to that history, you are engaging in primary research. Among other primary sources and methods are interviews, surveys, polls, observations, and other similar “firsthand” investigative techniques. The fact that primary sources allow us “direct access” to the topic does not mean that they offer an objective and unbiased view of it. It is therefore important to consider primary sources critically and, if possible, gather multiple perspectives on the same event, time period, or questions from multiple primary sources.

Definition of Secondary Sources

Secondary sources describe, discuss, and analyze research obtained from primary sources or from other secondary sources. Using the previous example about World War II, if you read other historians’ accounts of it, government documents, maps, and other written documents, you are engaging in secondary research. Some types of secondary sources with which you are likely to work include books, academic journals, popular magazines and newspapers, websites, and other electronic sources. The same source can be both primary and secondary, depending on the nature and purpose of the project. For example, if you study a culture or group of people by examining texts they produce, you are engaging in primary research. On the other hand, if that same group published a text analyzing some external event, person, or issue and if your focus is not on the text’s authors but on their analysis, you would be doing secondary research. Secondary sources often contain descriptions and analyses of primary sources. Therefore, accounts, descriptions, and interpretations of research subjects found in secondary sources are at least one step further removed from what can be found in primary sources about the same subject. And while primary sources do not give us a completely objective view of reality, secondary sources inevitably add an extra layer of opinion and interpretation to the views and ideas found in primary sources. All texts are rhetorical creations, and writers make choices about what to include and what to omit. As researchers, we need to understand that and not rely on either primary or secondary sources blindly.

Writing Activity: Examining the Same Topic through Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary and secondary sources can offer writers different views of the same topic. This activity invites you to explore the different perspectives that you may get after investigating the same subject through primary and secondary sources. It should help us see how our views of different topics depend on the kinds of sources we use. Find several primary sources on a topic that interests you. Include archival documents, first- hand accounts, lab experiment results, interviews, surveys, and so on. Depending on how much time you have for this project, you may or may not be able to consult all of the above source types. In either case, try to consult sources of three or four different kinds. Next, write a summary of what you learned about your subject as a result of your primary-source investigation. Mention facts, dates, important people, opinions, theories, and anything that seems important or interesting. Now, conduct a brief secondary-source search on the same subject. Use books, journals, popular magazines and newspapers, Internet sites, and so on. Write a summary of your findings. Finally, compare the two summaries. What differences do you see? What new ideas, perspectives, ideas, or opinions did your secondary-source search yield? As a result of these two searches, have you obtained different accounts of the same research subject? Pay special attention to the differences in descriptions, accounts, or interpretations of the same subject. Notice what secondary sources add to the treatment of the subject and what they take away, compared to the primary sources.

Print and Electronic Sources

Researcher have at their disposal both printed and electronic sources. Before the advent of the Internet, most research papers were written with the use of printed sources only. Until fairly recently, one of the main stated goals of research writing instruction was to give students practice in the use of the library. Libraries are venerable institutions, and therefore printed sources have traditionally been seen (with good reason, usually,) as more solid and reliable than those found on the Internet. With the growing popularity of the Internet and other computerized means of storing and communicating information, traditional libraries faced serious competition for clients. It has become impractical if not impossible for researchers to ignore the massive amount of information available to them on the Internet or from other online sources. As a result, it is not uncommon for many writers beginning a research project to begin searching online rather than at a library or a local archive. For example, several times in the process of writing this essay, when I found myself in need of information fast, I opened my Web browser and researched online. With the popularity of the Internet ever increasing, it has become common practice for many student writers to limit themselves to online research and to ignore the library. While there are some cases when a modified version of such an approach to searching may be justifiable (more about that later), it is clear that by using only online research sources, a writer severely limits his or her options. This section covers three areas. First, we will discuss the various types of printed and online sources as well the main similarities and differences between them. Next, I’d like to offer some suggestions on using your library effectively and creatively. Finally, we will examine the topic of conducting online searches, including methods of evaluating information found on the Internet.

Know Your Library

• Books (these include encyclopedias, dictionaries, indexes, and so on)
• Academic Journals
• Popular magazines
• Government documents
• A music and film collection (on CDs, VHS tapes, and DVDs)
• A CD-Rom collection
• A microfilm and microfiche collection
• Special collections, such as ancient manuscripts or documents related to local history and culture.

According to librarian Linda M. Miller, researchers need to “gather relevant information about a topic or research question thoroughly and efficiently. To be thorough, it helps to be familiar with the kinds of resources that the library holds, and the services it provides to enable access to the holdings of other libraries” (2001, 61). Miller’s idea is a simple one, yet it is amazing how many inexperienced writers prefer to use the first book or journal they come across in the library as the basis for their writing and do not take the time to learn what the library has to offer. Here are some practical steps that will help you learn about your library:

Take a tour of the library with your class or other groups if such tours are available. While such group tours are generally less effective than conducting your own searches of a topic that interests you, they will give you a good introduction to the library and, perhaps, give you a chance to talk to a librarian.

Check your library’s website to see if online “virtual” tours are available. At James Madison University where I work, the librarians have developed a series of interactive online activities and quizzes which anyone wishing to learn about the JMU libraries can take in their spare time.

Talk to reference librarians! They are truly your best source of information. They will not get mad at you if you ask them too many questions. Not only are they paid to answer your questions, but most librarians love what they do and are eager to share their expertise with others.

Go from floor to floor and browse the shelves. Learn where different kinds of materials are located and what they look like.

Pay attention to the particulars of your campus library’s architecture. I am an experienced library user, but it look me some time, after I arrived at my university for the first time, to figure out that our library building has an annex that can only be accessed by taking a different elevator from the one leading to the main floors.

Use the library not only as a source of knowledge but as a source of entertainment and diversion. I like going to the library to browse through new fiction acquisitions. Many campus libraries also have excellent film and music collections.

The items on the list above will help you to acquire a general understanding of your campus library. However, the only way to gain an in-depth and meaningful knowledge of your library is to use it for specific research and writing projects. No matter how attentive you are during a library tour or while going from floor to floor and learning about all the different resources your library has to offer, it is during searchers that you conduct for your research projects that you will become most interested and involved in what you are doing. Here, therefore, is an activity that combines the immediate goal of finding research sources for a research project with the more long-term goal of knowing what your campus library has to offer.

Activity: Conducting a Library Search for a Writing Project

If you have a research and writing topic in mind for your next project, head for your brick-and-mortar campus library. As soon as you enter the building, go straight to the reference desk and talk to a reference librarian. Be aware that some of the people behind the reference desk may be student assistants working there. As a former librarian assistant myself and as a current library user, I know that most student assistants know their job rather well, but sometimes they need help from the professionals. So, don’t be surprised if the first person you approach refers you to someone else. Describe your research interests to the librarian. Be proactive. The worst disservice you can do yourself at this point is to look, sound, and act disinterested. Remember that the librarian can be most helpful if you are passionate about the subject of your research and if—this is very important—the paper you are writing is not due the next day. So, before you go to the library, try to narrow your topic or formulate some specific research questions. For example, instead of saying that you are interested in dolphins, you might explain that you are looking for information about people who train dolphins to be rescue animals. If the librarian senses that you have a rather vague idea about what to research and write about, he or she may point you to general reference sources such as indexes, encyclopedias, and research guides. While those may prove to be excellent thought-triggering publications, use them judiciously and don’t choose the first research topic you find just because your library has a lot of resources on it. After all, your research and writing will be successful only when you are deeply interested in and committed to your investigation. If you have a more definite idea about what you would like to research and write about, the reference librarian will likely point you to the library’s online catalog. I have often seen librarians working alongside students to help them identify or refine a writing topic. Find several different types of materials pertaining to your topic. Include books and academic articles. Don’t forget popular magazines and newspapers—the popular press covers just about any subject, event, or phenomena, and such articles may bring a unique perspective not found in academic sources. Also, don’t neglect to look in the government documents section to see if there has been any legislation or government regulation relevant to your research subject. Remember that at this stage your goal is to learn as much as you can about your topic by casting your research net as far and wide as you can. So, do not limit yourself to the first few sources you will find. Keep looking, and remember that your goal is to find the best information available. You will probably have to look in a variety of sources. If you are pressed for time you may not be able to study the books dedicated to your topic in detail. In this case, you may decide to focus your research entirely on shorter texts, such as journal and magazine articles, websites, government documents, and so on. However it is always a good idea to at least browse through the books on your topic to see whether they contain any information or leads worth investigating further.

Cyber Library

Besides the brick and mortar buildings, nearly all college and university libraries have a Web space that is a gateway to more documents, resources, and information than any library building can house. From your library’s website, you can not only search the library’s holdings but also access millions of articles, electronic books, and other resources available on the Internet. It is a good idea to conduct a search from your campus library page rather than from your favorite search engine. There are three reasons for that. First, most of the materials you will find through your library site are accessible to paying subscribers only and cannot be found via any search engine. Second, online library searches return organized and categorized results, complete with the date of publication and source—something that cannot be said about popular search engines. Finally, by searching online library databases you can be reasonably sure that the information you retrieve is reliable.

So, what might you expect to find on your library’s website? The site of the library at James Madison University where I work offers several links. In addition to the link to the library catalog, there is a Quick Reference link, a link called Research Databases, a Periodical Locator, Research Guides, and Internet Search. There are also links to special collections and to the featured or new electronic databases to which the library has recently subscribed. While your school library may use other names for these links, the kinds of resources they offer will be similar to what JMU’s library has to offer. Most of these links are self-explanatory. Obviously, the link to the library catalog allows you to search your brick and mortar library’s collection. A periodical locator search will tell you what academic journals, popular magazines, and newspapers are available at your library. The Internet search option will allow you to search the World Wide Web, except that your library’s Internet searching function will probably allow you to conduct meta-searches—i.e., searches using many search engines simultaneously. Where a link like Research Databases or Research Guides will take you is a little less obvious. Therefore I will cover these two types of library resources in some detail. Let us start with the research databases. An average-size college or university subscribes to hundreds, if not thousands, of online databases on just about every subject. These databases contain, at a minimum, information about titles, authors, and sources of relevant newspaper and journal articles, government documents, online archive materials, and other research sources. Most databases provide readers with abstracts (short summaries) of those materials, and a growing number of online databases offer full texts of articles. From the research-database home page, it is possible to search for a specific database or by subject. Research-guide websites are similar to the database home pages, except that, in addition to database links, they often offer direct connections to academic journals and other relevant online resources on the research subject. Searching online is a skill that can only be learned through frequent practice and critical reflection. Therefore, in order to become a proficient user of your library’s electronic resources, you will need to visit the library’s website often and conduct many searches. Although most library websites are organized according to similar principles and offer similar types of resources, it will be up to you as a researcher and learner to find out what your school library has to offer and to learn to use those resources. I hope that the following activities will help you in that process.

Activity: Exploring your Cyber Library

Go to your school library’s website and explore the kinds of resources it has to offer.

Conduct searches on a subject you are currently investigating or interested in investigating in the future, using the a periodical locator resource (if your library has one). Then, conduct similar searches of electronic databases and research guides.

Summarize, whether in an oral presentation or in writing, your search process and the kinds of sources you have found. Pay attention to particular successes and failures that occurred as you searched.

Print Sources or Electronic?

In the early years of the Internet, there was widespread mistrust of the World Wide Web and the information it had to offer. While some of this mistrust is still present (and justifiable), the undeniable fact is that the authority of the Internet as a legitimate and reliable source of information has increased considerably in recent years. For example, academic journals in almost every discipline complement their printed volumes with Web versions, and some are now only available online. These online journals employ the same rigorous submission review processes as their printed counterparts. Complete texts of academic and other books are sometimes available on the Internet. Respected specialized databases and government document collections are published entirely and exclusively online. Print and electronic sources are not created equal, and although online and other electronic texts are gaining ground as legitimate research resources, there is still a widespread and often justified opinion among academics and other writers that printed materials make better research sources. Some materials available in some libraries simply cannot be found online and vice versa. For example, if you are a Shakespeare scholar wishing to examine manuscripts from the Elizabethan times, you will not find them online. To get to them, you will have to visit the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, DC, or a similar repository of Elizabethan manuscripts. On the other hand, if you are researching the Creative Commons movement, which is a community dedicated to reforming copyright laws in this country, then your best bet is to begin your search on the Internet at http://www.creativecommons.org/. Surely, after reading the website, you will need to augment your research by reading other related materials, both online and in print, but in this case, starting online rather than in the library is a reasonable idea. As a researching writer, you should realize that printed and electronic sources are not inherently bad or good. Either type can be reliable or unreliable; either can be appropriate or inappropriate for a specific research project. It is up to researchers and writers to learn how to select both print and electronic sources judiciously and how to evaluate them for their reliability and appropriateness for particular purposes.

Determining the Suitability and Reliability of Research Sources

Much of the discussion about the relative value of printed and electronic—especially Internet—sources revolves around the issue of reliability. When it comes to libraries, the issue is more or less clear. Libraries keep books, journals, ands other publications that usually undergo a rigorous pre- and post-publication review process. It is reasonable to assume that your campus library contains very few or no materials that are blatantly unreliable or false, unless those materials are kept there precisely to demonstrate their unreliability and falsehood. As a faculty member, I am sometimes asked by my university librarians to recommend titles in my academic field that our university library should own. Of course my opinion (or that of another faculty member) does not completely safeguard against the library acquiring materials that contain errors and or misleading information; we use our experience and knowledge in the field to recommend certain titles and omit certain others. Faculty recommendations are the last stage of long process before a publication gets to a campus library. Before that, every book, journal article, or other material undergoes a stringent review from the publisher’s editors and other readers. And while researchers still need to use sound judgment in deciding which library sources to use in their project, the issue is usually one of relevance and suitability for a specific research project and specific research questions rather than one of whether the information presented in the source is truthful or not. The same is true of some electronic sources. Databases and other research sources published on CD-ROMs, as well as various online research websites that accompany many contemporary writing textbooks, for example, are subject to the same strict review process as their printed counterparts. Information contained in specialized academic and professional databases is also screened for reliability and accuracy. If, as we have established, most of the materials you are likely to encounter in your campus library are generally trustworthy, then your task as a researcher is to determine the relevance of the information contained in books, journals, and other materials for your particular research project. It is a simple question, really: will my research sources help me answer the research questions that I am posing in my project? Will they help me learn as much as I can about my topic and create a rhetorically effective and interesting text for my readers? Consider the following example. Recently, the topic of the connection between certain antidepressant drugs and suicidal tendencies among teenagers who take those drugs has received a lot of media coverage. Suppose you are interested in researching this topic further. Suppose, too, that you want not only to give statistical information about the problem in your paper but also to study firsthand accounts of the people who have been negatively affected by the antidepressants. When you come to your campus library, you have no trouble locating the latest reports and studies that give you a general overview of your topic, including rates of suicidal behavior in teenagers who took the drugs, tabulated data on the exact relationships between the dosage of the drugs and the changes in the patients’ moods, and so on. All this may be useful information, and there is a good chance that, as a writer, you will still find a way to use it in your paper. You could, for example, provide the summary of the statistics in order to introduce the topic to your readers. However, this information does not fulfill your research purpose completely. You want to understand what it is like to be a teenager whose body and mind have been affected by the antidepressants, yet the printed materials you have found so far offer no such insight. They fulfill your goal only partially. To find such firsthand accounts, then, you will either have to keep looking in the library or conduct interviews with people who have been affected by these drugs.

Suitability of Sources

Determine how suitable a particular source is for your current research project. To do this, consider the following factors:

• Scope: What topics and subtopics does the source cover? Is it a general overview of your subject or it is a specialized resource?
• Audience: Who is the intended audience for the text? If the text itself is too basic or too specialized, it may not match the expectations and needs of your own target audience.
• Timeliness: When was the source published? Does it represent the latest information, theories, and views? Bear in mind, though, that if you are conducting a historical investigation, you will probably need to consult older materials, too.

What are credentials of the author(s)? This may be particularly important when you use Internet sources, since there are so few barriers to publishing online. One needn’t have an academic degree or credentials to make one’s writing publicly available. As part of your evaluation of the source’s authority, you should also pay attention to the kinds of external sources that were used during its creation. Look through the bibliography or list of works cited attached to the text. Not only will it help you determine how reliable and suitable the source is, but it may also provide you with further leads for your own research. Try asking the above questions of any source you are using for a research project you are currently conducting.

Reliability of Internet Sources

Charles Lowe, the author of the essay “The Internet Can Be a Wonderful Place, but . . .” offers the following opinion of the importance of the Internet as a research source for contemporary researchers:

To a generation raised in the electronic media culture, the Internet is an environment where you feel more comfortable, more at home than the antiquated libraries and research arenas of the pre-electronic, print culture. To you, instructors just don’t get it when they advise against using the Internet for research or require the bulk of the sources for a research paper to come from the library (129-130).

Indeed, the Internet has become the main source of information not only for college students, but also for many people outside academia. And while I do not advise you to stay away from the Internet when researching and I generally do not require my own students to use only printed sources, I do know that working with Internet sources places additional demands on the researcher and the writer. Because much of the Internet is a democratic, open space, and because anyone with a computer can post materials online, evaluating online sources is not always easy. A surprisingly large number of people believe much of the information on the Internet, even if this information is blatantly misleading or its authors have a self-serving agenda. I think many students uncritically accept information they find on the Internet because some of the sites on which this information appears look and sound very authoritative. Used to believing the published word, inexperienced writers often fall for such information as legitimate research data. So, what are some of strategies you can use to determine that reliability? The key to successful evaluation of Internet research sources, as any other research sources, is application of your critical reading and thinking skills. In order to determine the reliability of any source, including online sources, it is advisable to conduct a basic rhetorical analysis of that source. When deciding whether to use a particular website as a research source, every writer should ask and answer the following questions:

• Who is the author (or, authors) of the website and the materials presented on it? What is known about the site’s author(s) and its publishers and their agendas and goals?
• What is the purpose of the website?
• Who is the target audience of the website
• How do the writing style and the design of the website contribute to (or detract from) its meaning?

Website Authors and Publishers

As with a printed source, first we need to consider the author and the publisher of a website. Lowe suggests that we start by looking at the tag in the website’s URL. Whether it is a “.com,” an “.org,” a “.net, “or an “.edu” site can offer useful clues about the types and credibility of materials located on the site. In addition to the three most common URL tags listed above, websites of military organizations use the extension “.mil” while websites hosted in other countries have other tags that are usually abbreviations of those countries’ names. Sites of government agencies end in “.gov.” For example, most sites hosted in Great Britain have the tag “.uk,” which stands for “United Kingdom.” Websites based in Italy usually have the tag “.it,” and so on. Typically, a “.com” site is set up to sell or promote a product or service. Therefore, if you are researching Nike shoes, you will probably  not  want to rely on http://www.nike.com/ if you want to get a more objective review of the product. While Nike’s website may provide some useful information about the products it sells, the site’s main purpose is to sell Nike’s goods, playing up the advantages of their products. Keep in mind that not all “.com” websites try to sell something. Sometimes academics and other professionals obtain “.com” addresses because they are easy to obtain. For example, the professional website of Charles Lowe (cited above) is located at  http://www.cyberdash.com/ . Political candidates running for office often also choose “.com” addresses for their campaign websites. In every case, you need to apply your critical reading skills and your judgment when evaluating a website. The “.org” sites usually belong to organizations, including political groups. These sites can present some specific challenges to researchers trying to evaluate their credibility and usefulness. To understand these challenges, let us consider the “.org” sites of two political research organizations, also known as “think tanks.” One is the conservative Heritage Foundation (http://www.heritage.org), and the other is the traditionally liberal Center for National Policy (http://www.cnponline.org). Both sites have “About” pages intended to explain to their readers the goals and purposes of the organizations they represent. The Heritage Foundation’s site contains the following information:

 . . . The Heritage Foundation is a research and educational institute—a think tank—whose mission is to formulate and promote conservative public policies based on the principles of free enterprise, limited government, individual freedom, traditional American values, and a strong national defense. (http://www.heritage.org/about)

This statement can tell a researcher a lot about the research articles and other materials contained in the site. It tells us that the authors of the site are not neutral, nor do they pretend to be. Instead, they are advancing a particular political agenda, so, when used as research sources, the writings on the site should not be seen as unbiased “truths” but as arguments. The same is true of the Center for National Policy’s website, although its authors use a different rhetorical strategy to explain their political commitments. They write:

The Center for National Policy (CNP) is a nonprofit, nonpartisan public policy organization located in Washington, DC. Founded in 1981, the center’s mission is to engage national leaders with new policy options and innovative programs designed to advance progressive ideas in the interest of all Americans (http://www.cnponline.org/people_and_programs.html)

It takes further study of the center’s website, as well as sure knowledge of the American political scene, to realize that the organization leans toward the left of the political spectrum. The websites of both organizations contain an impressive amount of research, commentary, and other materials designed to advance the groups’ causes. When evaluating “.org” sites, it is important to realize that they belong to organizations, and each organization has a purpose or a cause. Therefore, each organizational website will try to advance that cause and fulfill that purpose by publishing appropriate materials. Even if the research and arguments presented on those sites are solid (and they often are), there is no such thing as an unbiased and disinterested source. This is especially true of political and social organizations whose sole purpose is to promote agendas. The Internet addresses ending in “.edu” are rather self-evident—they belong to universities and other educational institutions. On these sites we can expect academic articles and other writings, as well as papers and other works created by students. These websites are also useful resources if you are looking for information on a specific college or university. Be aware, though, that typically any college faculty member or student can obtain Web space from their institution and publish materials of their own choosing there. Thus some of the texts that appear on “.edu” sites may be personal rather than academic. In recent years, some political research organizations have begun to use Web addresses with the “.edu” tag. One of these organizations is The Brookings Institution, whose address is http://www.brookings.edu. Government websites that end in “.gov” can be useful sources of information on the latest legislation and other regulatory documents. The website with a “.net” extension can belong to commercial organizations or online forums.

Website Content

Now that we have established principles for evaluating the authors and publishers of Web materials, let us look at the content of the writing. As I have stated above, like all writing, Web writing is argumentative; therefore it is important to recognize that authors of Web texts work to promote their agendas or highlight the events, organizations, and opinions that they consider right, important, and worthy of public attention. Different writers work from different assumptions and try to reach different audiences. Websites of political organizations are prime examples of that.

Activity: Evaluating Website Content

Go to one of the following websites: The Heritage Foundation (http://www.heritage.org), The Center for National Policy (http://www.cnponline.org), The Brookings Institution (http://www.brookings.edu), or The American Enterprise Institute (http://www.aei.org). Or choose another website suggested by your instructor. Browse through the site’s content and consider the following questions:

• What is the purpose of the site?
• What is its intended audience? How do we know?
• What are the main subjects discussed on the sites?
• What assumptions and biases do the authors of the publications on the site seem to have? How do we know?
• What research methods and sources do the authors of these materials use? How does research help the writers of the site state their case?

Apply the same analysis to any online sources you are using for one of your research projects.

Website Design and Style

The style and layout of any text is a part of that text’s message, and online research sources are no exception. Well-designed and written websites add to the ethos (credibility) of their authors while badly designed and poorly written ones detract from it. Sometimes, however, a website with a good-looking design can turn out to be an unreliable or unsuitable research source.

In Place of a Conclusion: Do Not Accept A Source Just Because It Sounds or Looks Authoritative

Good writers try to create authoritative texts. Having authority in their writing helps them advance their arguments and influence their audiences. To establish such authority, writers use a variety of methods. As has been discussed throughout this essay, it is important for any researcher to recognize authoritative and credible research sources. On the other hand, it is also important  not  to accept authoritative sources without questioning them. After all, the purpose of every researched piece of writing is to create new views and new theories on the subject, not to repeat the old ones, however good and well presented those old theories may be. Therefore, when working with reliable and suitable research sources, consider them solid foundations that will help you to achieve a new understanding of your subject, which will be your own. Applying the critical source-evaluation techniques discussed in this essay will help you to accomplish this goal.

• Authored by : Pavel Zemliansky. Provided by : Saylor University. Located at : http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/ENGL002-Chapter-4-Research-Writing.pdf . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• CCC Library Pictures. Provided by : Corning Community College. License : All Rights Reserved

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Perspective: mitochondrial STAT3 in cardioprotection

• Mitochondria at the heart of cardioprotection
• Open access
• Published: 24 August 2023
• Volume 118 , article number  32 , ( 2023 )

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• Petra Kleinbongard   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3576-3772 1  

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Activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) has been identified as a key cardioprotective signal not only in animal studies but also in humans—in animals, STAT3 is causally involved in cardioprotection. In response to late ischemic conditioning, canonical function of STAT3 activation upregulates the expression of cardioprotective and anti-apoptotic proteins. In its non-canonical function, STAT3 is activated during ischemic conditioning and is part of the cardioprotective cytosolic survival activating factor enhancement pathway. Activated STAT3 is imported and localized to the mitochondria. Mitochondrial STAT3 stimulates the activity of mitochondrial electron transport chain complex I, reduces mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production and mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening. Finally, two novel aspects of STAT activation in cardioprotection are discussed: a genetic variance of the STAT encoding region as a potential primordial confounding variable for cardioprotection, and the cardioprotective potential of sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors through STAT3 activation.

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Cardioprotection: strategies and relevance of STAT signaling

In addition to rapid reperfusion and current therapy there is still a need for cardioprotection to reduce morbidity and mortality in patients with acute myocardial infarction. In experimental settings, there are mechanical and pharmacological interventions that reduce myocardial infarct size. The strongest and most robust cardioprotective intervention is ischemic conditioning, which is effective in all species tested so far, including humans [ 45 , 52 ]. Reduction of infarct size by ischemic conditioning can be induced by cycles of brief ischemia/reperfusion before (ischemic preconditioning, IPC) [ 79 ] or after (ischemic postconditioning, POCO) [ 119 ] sustained myocardial ischemia with reperfusion. Ischemic conditioning can also be induced remotely from the heart (remote IPC, RIC) [ 43 , 45 ]. Among these cardioprotective strategies, RIC has been successfully translated from experimental studies to clinical trials. In patients undergoing elective surgical coronary revascularization, there are several single-center trials in which RIC provided perioperative myocardial protection (e.g., [ 15 , 40 , 57 , 89 , 100 , 103 ]), and one of them also reported improved patient prognosis [ 65 , 100 ]. However, two prospectively designed multi-center phase III trials in patients undergoing elective surgical coronary revascularization and valve surgery, i.e., ERICCA and RIPHEART, were neutral [ 37 , 77 ], possibly because use of propofol rather than volatile anesthesia [ 49 ]. Similarly, in patients with acute myocardial infarction, RIC attenuated myocardial injury in single-center trials (e.g., [ 13 , 23 , 108 , 115 ]), and again one of them also reported an improved patient prognosis [ 94 ]. However, the prospectively designed larger phase III multi-center follow-up CONDI-2/ERIC-PPCI trial was neutral on myocardial injury and clinical outcome [ 39 ]. Only the prospectively designed single-center RIC-STEMI trial truly reported an improved clinical outcome as a primary endpoint with RIC [ 29 ]. A detailed and more comprehensive review of available clinical trials on cardioprotective strategies is found in: [ 42 , 45 ]. Potentially confounding factors of the cardioprotective strategies in patients [ 24 , 61 , 90 ] as well as errors in the planning and design of preclinical and clinical trials are discussed in detail in the other reviews [ 44 , 47 , 70 ]. Irrespective of all these valid considerations, one reason for the lack of success in translating cardioprotective strategies from experimental studies to the clinical situation is that the underlying signaling pathways are incompletely understood and much more basic research is needed to improve our understanding of the signaling pathways involved in cardioprotective interventions that are in principle applicable.

Currently, the underlying myocardial signal transduction of cardioprotection [ 43 , 45 ] can be conceptually classified by their (sub-) cellular localization (extracellular molecules, cytosolic signal transduction and target organelle/structure). Extracellular molecules (e.g., autacoids, calcium, cytokines, neurohormones, nitric oxide, or reactive oxygen species) are released during conditioning cycles from cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, neurons, etc., but the exact subcellular origin and detailed biochemical reactions of how these extracellular molecules are generated and released are unclear. Through sarcolemmal receptors or receptor-independently, these molecules then activate cytosolic signaling cascades. Within the cardiomyocyte, a variety of proteins are activated as cytosolic signal transducers. Again, conceptually, cytosolic signaling pathways are divided into three major cardioprotective pathways: the nitric oxide/protein kinase G (NO/PKG) pathway [ 20 ], the reperfusion injury salvage kinase (RISK) pathway [ 41 ], and the survival activating factor enhancement (SAFE) pathway [ 69 ]. The RISK pathway and its interaction with mitochondrial function is the subject of a detailed discussion in the current issue of “Mitochondria at the heart of cardioprotection” [ 116 ]. Key protein of the SAFE pathway is the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3 [ 6 , 43 , 45 , 67 , 69 ]. In response to ligand binding [e.g., interleukin 6-like cytokines, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF)] through sarcolemmal glycoprotein 130 or TNF receptors, Janus kinase (JAK) is activated and phosphorylates STAT3 [tyrosine (tyr) 701 and serine (ser) 727]. STAT3 phosphorylation is required for the protein dimerization, its subsequent translocation to the nucleus, and its function as a transcription factor; the ser727 phosphorylation seems to be the boost for transcriptional activity of STAT3 [ 26 ]. STAT3 is constitutively expressed, and under physiological conditions its expression is tightly controlled—also in myocardial cells (i.e., cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts). STAT3 regulates the expression of genes encoding proteins mainly involved in angiogenesis, apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress—the canonical function of STAT3 [ 6 , 21 , 36 , 82 , 117 ]. STATs canonical functions are too slow for acute protection [ 6 , 59 ]. However, subacute cardioprotection by late IPC and late RIC (ischemic conditioning is induced 24 h before myocardial infarction) involves the canonical function of STAT3 [ 11 , 113 ] and STAT5 [ 17 ]. STAT3 activation during late preconditioning upregulates the expression of anti-apoptotic and cytoprotective proteins (e.g., cyclooxygenase 2, heme oxygenase-1, manganese sodium dismutase, myeloid leukemia protein 1, apoptosis regulator protein Bcl-2 family, c-FLIP a natural homologue of caspase 8, heat shock protein 70) [ 11 , 17 , 113 ] (Fig.  1 ). In contrast to the acute non-canonical and the subacute canonical STAT3 activation which serve a protective function, chronic STAT3 activation after myocardial infarction contributes to inflammatory processes and cardiac remodeling [ 6 , 33 , 34 , 36 , 55 ]. Such chronic STAT3 activation occurs mostly in macrophages which invade from the circulating blood and are recruited from bone marrow and spleen [ 112 ]. Up to four days after myocardial infarction, macrophages initiate or maintain inflammatory processes that contribute to debris clearance. Later on, however, macrophages express anti-inflammatory cytokines which then stimulate scar formation and angiogenesis (Fig.  1 ). The influence of chronic STAT3 activation after myocardial infarction on the processes described above is based on studies in rodents in the absence of a cardioprotective intervention, for further details please see: [ 6 , 33 , 34 , 36 , 55 ]. Importantly, chronic systemic STAT3 activation may also promote malignant transformation, which is of concern because RIC is a systemic phenomenon that may through STAT3 activation also promote cancer [ 46 , 53 ].

Schematic overview of the time-dependent—acute, subacute, chronic—and non-canonical vs. canonical effects of STAT3 activation on myocardial ischemia/reperfusion; created with BioRender.com. ATP adenosine triphosphate, MPTP mitochondrial permeability transition pore, ROS reactive oxygen species, STAT3 signal transducer and activator of transcription 3

Outside the nucleus, the non-canonical function of STAT3 plays a unique role in acute cardioprotection: in contrast to all other cardioprotective signals, STAT3 activation is consistently not only associated with the reduction of infarct size by all ischemic conditioning procedures, but also causally involved in cardioprotection in all species tested to date [ 6 , 43 , 45 , 67 , 69 ]—also in in larger mammals, i.e., in pigs, which are more similar to humans in their cardiovascular physiology than rodents [ 54 , 70 ]. In detail: Interleukin 6-like cytokines and TNF appear to be the major activators of the cardioprotective SAFE pathway [ 36 ]. Downstream of activation of sarcolemmal glycoprotein 130 or TNF receptors, the cytosolic SAFE pathway is activated [ 6 , 43 , 45 , 67 , 69 ]. In response to IPC [ 27 , 30 , 31 ], POCO [ 50 ], and RIC [ 88 , 92 , 98 ] in rodents [ 4 , 27 , 31 , 88 , 92 , 98 ] and pigs [ 30 , 50 , 60 , 63 , 66 , 71 , 92 , 93 ], STAT3 is phosphorylated at tyr705. The causal involvement of STAT3 activation in infarct size reduction by different types of ischemic conditioning was demonstrated by pharmacological blockade of STAT3 activation [ 6 , 43 , 45 , 67 , 69 ]. In STAT3 knock-out mice and aged mice (which had reduced STAT3 protein), a more potent local ischemic conditioning stimulus overcame the STAT3-associated loss of cardioprotection [ 5 ], suggesting that other cardioprotective pathways are also involved. Apart from and in addition to a potential activation of NO/PKG and RISK pathways, STAT5 may have been activated. STAT5 knock-out in mice prevented infarct size reduction by local ischemic conditioning [ 114 ]. The ser727 phosphorylation of STAT3 was described in crosstalk with key proteins of the RISK pathway [ 36 ]. Present data suggest a dynamic balance between STAT3 phosphorylation at tyr705 and ser727 for STAT3 transcriptional activity; whether this may also play a role in cardioprotection is unclear. Notably, only STAT3/5 activation induced by ischemic conditioning appears to be causal for infarct size reduction, whereas basal STAT3/5 activity is not relevant for infarct size—neither pharmacological blockade nor knock-out increases infarct size per se.

The common intracellular target of all cardioprotective pathways, including the SAFE pathway, are mitochondria [ 8 ]. As such, mitochondria are critical elements of cardiomyocyte function and viability [ 12 , 25 , 32 , 78 , 91 ], and preservation of mitochondrial function is central for the reduction of ischemia/reperfusion injury [ 8 , 43 , 45 ] (Fig.  1 ). There is a prior comprehensive review on the non-canonical function of STAT3 in cardioprotection by targeting mitochondrial function [ 21 ]. The focus of my present somewhat personal and opinionated article is on the state-of-the-art of mitochondrial STAT3 and its potential causal role in cardioprotective strategies (Table 1 ). Mitochondrial STAT3 has been detected across species, in myocardium from mice [ 7 , 85 , 86 , 96 ], rats [ 7 , 84 , 99 , 109 , 110 ], and pigs [ 50 , 85 ].

STAT3 phosphorylation site, import into, and localization within mitochondria

In vitro studies with isolated rat heart mitochondria and labeled STAT3 proposed an energy-dependent import of STAT3 mediated through chaperone-like activity of a complex I subunit protein—the protein of the gene associated with retinoid interferon-induced cell mortality 19 (GRIM-19, Fig.  2 ) [ 99 ]. In rat left ventricular protein extracts, mitochondrial import receptor subunit Tom20 co-immunoprecipitated with ser727 STAT3 and total STAT3 [ 7 ], suggesting a Tom20-dependent import. In heat shock protein 22 (HSP22) knock-out mice, STAT3 translocation into the mitochondria was reduced, and HSP22 co-immunoprecipitated with total STAT3 [ 86 ], indicating another import mechanism (Fig.  2 ). The initial study suggested that ser727 phosphorylation is required for STAT translocation to mitochondria, a ser727 mutation in STAT3 reduced the import and the STAT3 GRIM-19 assembly in isolated rat heart mitochondria [ 99 ]. As mentioned above, it is still unclear whether ser727 phosphorylation of STAT3 is indeed causally involved in infarct size reduction. However, while in mouse [ 86 , 107 ] and rat [ 84 , 109 , 110 ] heart mitochondria ser727 phosphorylation was described, a tyr705 phosphorylation has been detected in rat heart mitochondria in addition to the ser727 phosphorylation [ 7 , 84 ], and in pig heart mitochondria, only the tyr705 phosphorylation was reported [ 50 ]. Beside potential species-specific differences, it is also conceivable that simple methodological reasons, such as the antibodies used and their species-specificity, may have led to the reported differences. Regardless of the exact phosphorylation site, given that phosphorylation of STAT3 is a prerequisite for mitochondrial import, the cytosolic non-canonical function and, thus, phosphorylation of STAT3 seems to be a prerequisite for mitochondrial import of STAT3.

Schematic overview of STAT3 import, localization, and function in mitochondria; created with BioRender.com. I, II, II, IV indicates respiratory chain complexes; ATP adenosine triphosphate, GRIM-19 gene associated with retinoid interferon-induced cell mortality 19, HSP22 heat shock protein 22, MCU mitochondrial calcium uniporter, MPTP mitochondrial permeability transition pore, Tom20 mitochondrial import receptor subunit Tom20, ROS reactive oxygen species, STAT3 signal transducer and activator of transcription 3

Using enzymatic digestion of isolated mouse and rat heart mitochondria and Western blot technique with specific marker proteins for intra-mitochondrial localization , STAT3 was identified in the matrix of mitochondria [ 7 , 86 , 107 ] as well as in the inner mitochondrial membrane [ 86 , 99 ]. Using immunofluorescence imaging, a colocalization of STAT3 with the mitochondrial calcium uniporter—which is localized in the inner mitochondrial membrane—was identified in rat hearts. Co-immunoprecipitation confirmed an interaction with the N-terminal domain of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter and STAT3 in isolated rat cardiomyocytes [ 109 ] (Fig.  2 , Table 1 ).

Function of mitochondrial STAT3

Phillips et al. had questioned the functional relevance of mitochondrial STAT3 by quantitative biochemical analyses: the abundance of mitochondrial STAT3 compared with respiratory chain proteins was low, with a ratio of electron transport complex proteins to STAT3 of ~ 10 5 , and relevance to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production was, thus, ruled out [ 85 ]. However, studies on mitochondrial function indicate the opposite. Cardiomyocyte-specific STAT3 knock-out mice had not only less mitochondrial STAT3, but also selective defects in complex I of the electron transport chain [ 7 ]. Cardiomyocyte-specific overexpression of mitochondrial STAT3 in mice improved complex I respiration during ischemia [ 96 ] (Fig.  1 ). In mice that overexpress a mitochondrially targeted, transcriptionally inactive STAT3 in cardiomyocytes, a partial and persistent blockade of complex I was evident. Smaller infarct size in these mice in comparison to wild-type mice was associated with an attenuated reactive oxygen species release and attenuation of mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening at the onset of reperfusion [ 97 ]. In isolated rat heart mitochondria, pharmacological STAT3 inhibition with stattic (STAT3 inhibitory compound 6 nitrobenzol(b)thiopene 1,1-dioxide) reduced mitochondrial respiration and ATP production; opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore and generation of reactive oxygen species were reduced [ 10 ] (Fig.  2 ). There is evidence for STAT3 not only in isolated mitochondria from rodent hearts but also in those from larger mammals. In mitochondria isolated from pig myocardium, POCO induced an increase in mitochondrial STAT3 phosphorylation. This phosphorylation improved mitochondrial complex I respiration and increased calcium retention capacity [ 50 ]. The biochemical mechanisms, however, by which mitochondrial STAT3 regulates the electron transport chain complex activities and mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening are not clear. GRIM-19 enhanced in isolated rat heart mitochondria the integration of STAT3 into complex I [ 99 ], indicating a direct interaction of STAT3 with complex I activity (Fig.  2 , Table 1 ). In a postconditioning protocol by intermittent hypobaric hypoxia, the colocalization of STAT3 and the mitochondrial calcium uniporter was associated with a reduction in mitochondrial calcium overload during reperfusion [ 109 ] (Fig.  2 , Table 1 ).

Causal evidence for mitochondrial STAT3 in cardioprotection

A number of studies have suggested an association between mitochondrial STAT3 activation and infarct size reduction during maneuvers such as IPC [ 84 ] or intermittent hyperbaric hypoxia [ 109 , 110 ]. However, there is only one study describing a causal evidence for mitochondrial STAT3 in infarct size reduction with POCO. In pigs, improved mitochondrial function after POCO was causally related to increased STAT3 tyr705 phosphorylation, but not to total STAT3. AG490 (tyrphostin B42), a JAK–STAT inhibitor, when administered in vivo before POCO, not only abolished the reduction in infarct size but also the protective effect on mitochondrial function. In vitro, stattic (a non-peptide small molecule inhibitor that inhibits STAT3 activity by binding to its SH2 region, which is essential for the tyr705 phosphorylation) abrogated better preservation of mitochondrial function when isolated after POCO. The fact that in mitochondria only STAT3 tyr705 was increased, but not total STAT3, suggests that STAT3 import into mitochondria does not play a role in acute cardioprotection [ 50 ]. In rats, POCO did not activate mitochondrial STAT3, but activated proteins of the RISK pathway which were subsequently translocated to the mitochondria [ 84 ]. In this study, however, it remained unclear whether or not the POCO maneuver that was performed actually reduced the infarct size (Table 1 ).

Critical considerations on the detection and function of mitochondrial STAT3

For methodological reasons, most studies investigated mitochondria isolated from the total myocardium; thus, mitochondrial fractions from all myocardial cell types are included. The estimated proportion of cardiomyocytes in the left ventricular myocardium in rodents is between 75% (estimated from cell volume data) and 50% (estimated from nuclei data) [ 73 , 102 ]. In adult human ventricular myocardium, transcriptome analysis identified 49% cardiomyocytes, whereas studies using nuclear labeling techniques found only about 30% cardiomyocytes [ 74 ]. Since mitochondria in cardiomyocytes occupy about 30–40% of the total volume [ 75 ], and mitochondrial density in other cells (e.g., endothelial cells) is much lower at 2–5% [ 58 ], studies on mitochondria isolated from myocardial tissue mainly refer to cardiomyocyte mitochondria, but not exclusively. Considering that STAT3 activation also plays an important role in non-cardiomyocyte cells such as fibroblasts and endothelial cells, modulating there cell proliferation, differentiation, oxidative stress, cell metabolism, and survival [ 33 ], it is reasonable to assume that mitochondrial STAT3 may originate not exclusively from cardiomyocytes. Of note, the above numerical estimates may vary species-specifically, as there are significant species-specific differences in the cellular composition between mouse, rat, and human hearts [ 3 ]. In cardiomyocytes, it has been estimated that the majority of mitochondria in cardiomyocytes are interfibrillar mitochondria (IFM), a much smaller proportion are subsarcolemmal mitochondria (SSM), and the smallest proportion are perinuclear mitochondria [ 87 ]. Although many studies in rodents have documented differences between SSM and IFM not only in location, but also in function (e.g.. see [ 9 , 56 , 68 , 83 ]), a functional difference in ischemic reperfused myocardium, however, was not confirmed in a study in pigs [ 16 ]. In rat myocardium, STAT3 was quantified in preparations of SSM and IFM [ 7 ]. Because selective isolation of perinuclear mitochondria is methodologically difficult [ 68 ], perinuclear mitochondria have not been studied in this regard.

Based on the findings discussed above, it is reasonable to assume that mitochondrial STAT3 plays a critical role in cardioprotection (Table 1 ). Again, however, using 3 different proteomic approaches in mouse myocardium, the abundance of mitochondrial STAT3 was estimated to be very low (10% of the total cytoplasmic STAT3 and a ratio of electron transport complex proteins to STAT3 of ~ 10 5 ) [ 85 ], so a relevance of protein–protein interaction in the mitochondria seems indeed questionable. The low abundance of STAT3 in mitochondria is indirectly confirmed by the fact that without prior immunoprecipitation of STAT3, e.g., as done in the study by Boengler et al. [ 7 ], detection in isolated mouse mitochondria failed [ 97 ]. Further, in a Percoll-purified mitochondrial preparation from mouse myocardium, STAT3 was neither detectable under baseline conditions nor after hypoxia/reoxygenation via Western blot, and confocal imaging showed no colocalization of STAT3 signal with mitochondrial proteins. In this study, only a STAT3 overexpression in a H9C2 cardiomyoblast cell line led to detectable translocation of STAT3 into mitochondria [ 35 ]. Overall, it seems most plausible that differences in mitochondrial STAT3 detection are due to the methods used (different purification, enrichment, and denaturation protocols, antibodies, etc.) and which of the available results best reflects the biological reality remains unclear. The functional studies in genetically modified mice and on mitochondria with pharmacological blockade are definitely not affected by these methodological aspects and clearly indicate a relevance of mitochondrial STAT3 for mitochondrial function. However, both the use of genetically modified animal models and the use of pharmacological blockers have different, but also fundamental limitations (e.g., for animal models, the genetic compensation of the knock-out and for pharmacological blockers side effects, non-specificity, toxicity, etc.).

In conclusion, the precise function and importance of mitochondrial STAT3 during cardioprotection is still unclear. Finally, to what extent the acute cardioprotective effect is mediated by cytosolic STAT3 or mitochondrial STAT3 activation remains open.

Evidence for STAT3/5 in humans

Indeed, there is even evidence from the human myocardium that STAT is associated with cardioprotection by ischemic conditioning. In left ventricular biopsies, taken at early reperfusion after cardioplegic ischemic arrest from patients undergoing bypass surgery [ 51 ], the activation and expression of 22 signaling proteins, key signaling proteins of the NO/PKG, RISK and SAFE pathway were analyzed using Western blot analysis. Among these 22 proteins, only the activation of STAT5 was associated with reduction of perioperative myocardial injury by RIC [ 51 ]. Confirming results in right ventricular outflow tract biopsies of children undergoing tetralogy of Fallot repair surgery, activation of STAT3 and STAT5 was also associated with perioperative myocardial protection by RIC [ 111 ]—highlighting again the potentially relevant role of STATs in cardioprotection. Even when human myocardium is investigated, cardioprotective strategies improve mitochondrial function [ 1 , 62 , 111 ]. Since mitochondrial STAT has not yet been detected in human myocardium, it is difficult to predict the relevance of the available data for the translation to patients. In principle, also other members of the STAT family (STAT1, STAT2, STAT5, and STAT6) are present in the mitochondria [ 7 , 76 ]. Because there are several independent lines of evidence that STAT is associated with cardioprotection in human myocardium, further and more detailed analysis of (mitochondrial) STAT signaling in human myocardium is warranted.

Lack of STAT3 responsiveness: a novel confounding factor

Ossabaw minipigs, a particular strain of minipigs, are characterized by a genotype associated with a thrifty phenotype. Like humans, they develop a metabolic syndrome when fed a hypercaloric, atherogenic diet and consequently coronary atherosclerosis and occasional myocardial infarction [ 95 , 101 , 118 ]. The unequivocally strongest and most robust stimulus for cardioprotection, IPC, failed to reduce infarct size in a power analysis-based experimental design in these Ossabaw minipigs—even when they were lean and only predisposed to metabolic syndrome. Bioinformatic analysis of genetic differences between these Ossabaw minipigs and Göttingen minipigs, in which IPC confers robust protection, identified several clusters of protein-coding genes. One cluster was related to mitochondrial and one to JAK–STAT signaling. Indeed, the lack of infarct size reduction with IPC in the Ossabaw minipigs was associated with a lack of STAT3 activation in the myocardium [ 64 ]. RIC also failed to reduce infarct size in the Ossabaw minipigs, but RIC still induced a release of cardioprotective factors into the circulation in these Ossabaw minipigs, as evidenced by their protective effect after transfer to isolated rat hearts; thus, the lack of cardioprotection was attributed to myocardial—i.e., STAT3-dependent—non-responsiveness [ 72 ]. These studies in Ossabaw minipigs once again independently underscored the importance of STAT3 signaling for cardioprotection. However, the extent to which mitochondrial STAT3 plays here a role is unclear.

The neutral results of this prospectively designed experimental study in the Ossabaw minipigs are similar to the neutral results of several larger all-comer randomized controlled trials on RIC in patients undergoing interventional reperfusion of myocardial infarction [ 39 ] or cardiovascular surgery [ 37 , 77 ]. In addition to the often discussed confounders such as comorbidities and co-medications which are typical for patients with acute myocardial infarction [ 61 ], genetic variance may be newly considered as a potential confounder for cardioprotective measures [ 48 , 104 ]. In this context, it is noteworthy that STAT3 levels were reduced in aged mice and that this reduction in STAT3 levels was associated with a loss of the cardioprotective effect of POCO [ 5 ], suggesting that in addition to a genetic heterogeneity also age may act as confounding factor. A genetic heterogeneity of STATs exists also in humans. The European Lymphoma Risk Study identified human single-nucleotide polymorphisms belonging to the JAK–STAT pathway—including STAT3 and STAT5 [ 14 ]. The unique Ossabaw minipig strain may, therefore, be a suitable model to further investigate a genetically determined lack of susceptibility to cardioprotection and to develop therapeutic strategies and to possibly circumvent this blockade of cardioprotective signaling.

Cardioprotective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors through STAT3 activation

Sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors—also known as gliflozins—are a class of drugs originally developed to treat type 2 diabetes via inhibition of the sodium–glucose transport protein 2 in the kidney [ 2 ]. However, clinical trials have impressively shown that in addition to lowering blood glucose levels, gliflozins also significantly improve cardiovascular outcomes in patients with and without type 2 diabetes, indicating multifaceted cardioprotective effects that are beyond inhibition of the sodium–glucose transport protein 2 in the kidneys [ 2 ]. The larger clinical trials did not identify a reduction in the incidence of acute coronary syndromes, however, dapagliflozin and empagliflozin reduced the incidence of recurrent myocardial infarction, possibly reflecting attenuated ischemia/reperfusion injury [ 2 ]. Indeed, a recent study in SGLT2 knock-out mice demonstrated that the infarct size reduction by empagliflozin was completely independent of its initial target, sodium–glucose transport protein 2 inhibition [ 18 ]. Among all potential mediators discussed in the context of gliflozin-induced but SGLT2-independent cardioprotection [ 2 ], myocardial STAT3 activation could be a common denominator. In fact, one-week of treatment with dapagliflozin and empagliflozin before induction of myocardial infarction in mice reduced infarct size, and STAT3 activation was causally involved. In association with cardioprotection by empaliflozin, mitochondrial complex I and II respiration was preserved after myocardial infarction [ 81 ]. A more acute administration of empaliflozin (4 or 24 h before myocardial infarction in mice), however, failed to reduce myocardial infarct size, and STAT3 was not activated [ 80 ]. However, 24 h pretreatment of empaliflozin increased STAT3-dependently the survival of cultured human endothelial cells after hypoxia/reoxygenation [ 80 ]. Coronary endothelial cells are relative resistant to ischemia, but with endothelial swelling obstructing capillary blood flow, they contribute to microvascular damage in response to myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, and microvascular obstruction has a strong impact on patient prognosis [ 38 ]. Notably, knock-out of endothelial STAT3 in mice resulted in reduced recovery of left ventricular function during reperfusion after myocardial infarction [ 106 ]. In the EMMY trial [ 105 ] in patients with recent myocardial infarction, daily administration of SGLT2 inhibitors (with onset no later than 72 h after interventional reperfusion) preserved left ventricular function, possibly through anti-inflammatory effects [ 28 ]. However, a number of issues on the role of STAT3 in the gliflozin action remain to be resolved: Is, in response to gliflozins, STAT also activated in the human heart? In cardiomyocytes or endothelial cells, possibly also in inflammatory cells? Does STAT3 serve a canonical or non-canonical function? Are mitochondria involved?

Recently, also other compounds have been described that activate STAT3 and are causally involved in cardioprotection under experimental conditions. The anabolic steroid nandrolone decanoate [ 22 ] and dexmedetomidine—a selective alpha 2 adrenoceptor agonist [ 19 ] reduced infarct size/biomarker release reflecting myocardial injury in rodents via STAT3 activation. Again, improved mitochondrial function was also associated with cardioprotection. Thus, these agents may also be of interest for use in patients. For these agents, it is even more important to conduct further studies to determine the extent to which the results of the initial experimental studies can be transferred to patients.

STAT3 plays an important role in cardioprotection, also in the human heart. In animal models, there is evidence of mitochondrial STAT3 involved in mitochondrial function. The assumed causal relationship between mitochondrial STAT3 and cardioprotection is based on only one study in pigs. Data from human myocardium on mitochondrial STAT are lacking. There is a primordial non-responsiveness to cardioprotection in pigs which involves STAT3. Combination therapies that acutely activate STAT3—possibly mitochondrial STAT3—through different pathways could therefore be particularly effective, as they could bypass possible blockades upstream of STAT3. The timing of STAT activation seems to be relevant for therapeutic approaches. Acute activation and the non-canonical function of STAT3 are cardioprotective, subacute activation of canonical STAT3 function in late preconditioning is also cardioprotective. However, chronic activation of canonical STAT3 function may be more detrimental than beneficial.

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Amanda Hoover

Students Are Likely Writing Millions of Papers With AI

Students have submitted more than 22 million papers that may have used generative AI in the past year, new data released by plagiarism detection company Turnitin shows.

A year ago, Turnitin rolled out an AI writing detection tool that was trained on its trove of papers written by students as well as other AI-generated texts. Since then, more than 200 million papers have been reviewed by the detector, predominantly written by high school and college students. Turnitin found that 11 percent may contain AI-written language in 20 percent of its content, with 3 percent of the total papers reviewed getting flagged for having 80 percent or more AI writing. (Turnitin is owned by Advance, which also owns Condé Nast, publisher of WIRED.) Turnitin says its detector has a false positive rate of less than 1 percent when analyzing full documents.

ChatGPT’s launch was met with knee-jerk fears that the English class essay would die . The chatbot can synthesize information and distill it near-instantly—but that doesn’t mean it always gets it right. Generative AI has been known to hallucinate , creating its own facts and citing academic references that don’t actually exist. Generative AI chatbots have also been caught spitting out biased text on gender and race . Despite those flaws, students have used chatbots for research, organizing ideas, and as a ghostwriter . Traces of chatbots have even been found in peer-reviewed, published academic writing .

Teachers understandably want to hold students accountable for using generative AI without permission or disclosure. But that requires a reliable way to prove AI was used in a given assignment. Instructors have tried at times to find their own solutions to detecting AI in writing, using messy, untested methods to enforce rules , and distressing students. Further complicating the issue, some teachers are even using generative AI in their grading processes.

Detecting the use of gen AI is tricky. It’s not as easy as flagging plagiarism, because generated text is still original text. Plus, there’s nuance to how students use gen AI; some may ask chatbots to write their papers for them in large chunks or in full, while others may use the tools as an aid or a brainstorm partner.

Students also aren't tempted by only ChatGPT and similar large language models. So-called word spinners are another type of AI software that rewrites text, and may make it less obvious to a teacher that work was plagiarized or generated by AI. Turnitin’s AI detector has also been updated to detect word spinners, says Annie Chechitelli, the company’s chief product officer. It can also flag work that was rewritten by services like spell checker Grammarly, which now has its own generative AI tool . As familiar software increasingly adds generative AI components, what students can and can’t use becomes more muddled.

Detection tools themselves have a risk of bias. English language learners may be more likely to set them off; a 2023 study found a 61.3 percent false positive rate when evaluating Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) exams with seven different AI detectors. The study did not examine Turnitin’s version. The company says it has trained its detector on writing from English language learners as well as native English speakers. A study published in October found that Turnitin was among the most accurate of 16 AI language detectors in a test that had the tool examine undergraduate papers and AI-generated papers.

Amit Katwala

Andy Greenberg

Caroline Haskins

Schools that use Turnitin had access to the AI detection software for a free pilot period, which ended at the start of this year. Chechitelli says a majority of the service’s clients have opted to purchase the AI detection. But the risks of false positives and bias against English learners have led some universities to ditch the tools for now. Montclair State University in New Jersey announced in November that it would pause use of Turnitin’s AI detector. Vanderbilt University and Northwestern University did the same last summer.

“This is hard. I understand why people want a tool,” says Emily Isaacs, executive director of the Office of Faculty Excellence at Montclair State. But Isaacs says the university is concerned about potentially biased results from AI detectors, as well as the fact that the tools can’t provide confirmation the way they can with plagiarism. Plus, Montclair State doesn’t want to put a blanket ban on AI, which will have some place in academia. With time and more trust in the tools, the policies could change. “It’s not a forever decision, it’s a now decision,” Isaacs says.

Chechitelli says the Turnitin tool shouldn’t be the only consideration in passing or failing a student. Instead, it’s a chance for teachers to start conversations with students that touch on all of the nuance in using generative AI. “People don’t really know where that line should be,” she says.

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Francis Collins: Why I’m going public with my prostate cancer diagnosis

I served medical research. now it’s serving me. and i don’t want to waste time..

Over my 40 years as a physician-scientist, I’ve had the privilege of advising many patients facing serious medical diagnoses. I’ve seen them go through the excruciating experience of waiting for the results of a critical blood test, biopsy or scan that could dramatically affect their future hopes and dreams.

But this time, I was the one lying in the PET scanner as it searched for possible evidence of spread of my aggressive prostate cancer . I spent those 30 minutes in quiet prayer. If that cancer had already spread to my lymph nodes, bones, lungs or brain, it could still be treated — but it would no longer be curable.

Why am I going public about this cancer that many men are uncomfortable talking about? Because I want to lift the veil and share lifesaving information, and I want all men to benefit from the medical research to which I’ve devoted my career and that is now guiding my care.

Five years before that fateful PET scan, my doctor had noted a slow rise in my PSA, the blood test for prostate-specific antigen. To contribute to knowledge and receive expert care, I enrolled in a clinical trial at the National Institutes of Health, the agency I led from 2009 through late 2021.

At first, there wasn’t much to worry about — targeted biopsies identified a slow-growing grade of prostate cancer that doesn’t require treatment and can be tracked via regular checkups, referred to as “active surveillance.” This initial diagnosis was not particularly surprising. Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in men in the United States, and about 40 percent of men over age 65 — I’m 73 — have low-grade prostate cancer . Many of them never know it, and very few of them develop advanced disease.

Why am I going public about this cancer that many men are uncomfortable talking about? Because I want to lift the veil and share lifesaving information.

But in my case, things took a turn about a month ago when my PSA rose sharply to 22 — normal at my age is less than 5. An MRI scan showed that the tumor had significantly enlarged and might have even breached the capsule that surrounds the prostate, posing a significant risk that the cancer cells might have spread to other parts of the body.

New biopsies taken from the mass showed transformation into a much more aggressive cancer. When I heard the diagnosis was now a 9 on a cancer-grading scale that goes only to 10, I knew that everything had changed.

Thus, that PET scan, which was ordered to determine if the cancer had spread beyond the prostate, carried high significance. Would a cure still be possible, or would it be time to get my affairs in order? A few hours later, when my doctors showed me the scan results, I felt a rush of profound relief and gratitude. There was no detectable evidence of cancer outside of the primary tumor.

Later this month, I will undergo a radical prostatectomy — a procedure that will remove my entire prostate gland. This will be part of the same NIH research protocol — I want as much information as possible to be learned from my case, to help others in the future.

While there are no guarantees, my doctors believe I have a high likelihood of being cured by the surgery.

My situation is far better than my father’s when he was diagnosed with prostate cancer four decades ago. He was about the same age that I am now, but it wasn’t possible back then to assess how advanced the cancer might be. He was treated with a hormonal therapy that might not have been necessary and had a significant negative impact on his quality of life.

Because of research supported by NIH, along with highly effective collaborations with the private sector, prostate cancer can now be treated with individualized precision and improved outcomes.

As in my case, high-resolution MRI scans can now be used to delineate the precise location of a tumor. When combined with real-time ultrasound, this allows pinpoint targeting of the prostate biopsies. My surgeon will be assisted by a sophisticated robot named for Leonardo da Vinci that employs a less invasive surgical approach than previous techniques, requiring just a few small incisions.

Advances in clinical treatments have been informed by large-scale, rigorously designed trials that have assessed the risks and benefits and were possible because of the willingness of cancer patients to enroll in such trials.

I feel compelled to tell this story openly. I hope it helps someone. I don’t want to waste time.

If my cancer recurs, the DNA analysis that has been carried out on my tumor will guide the precise choice of therapies. As a researcher who had the privilege of leading the Human Genome Project , it is truly gratifying to see how these advances in genomics have transformed the diagnosis and treatment of cancer.

I want all men to have the same opportunity that I did. Prostate cancer is still the No. 2 cancer killer among men. I want the goals of the Cancer Moonshot to be met — to end cancer as we know it. Early detection really matters, and when combined with active surveillance can identify the risky cancers like mine, and leave the rest alone. The five-year relative survival rate for prostate cancer is 97 percent, according to the American Cancer Society , but it’s only 34 percent if the cancer has spread to distant areas of the body.

But lack of information and confusion about the best approach to prostate cancer screening have impeded progress. Currently, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends that all men age 55 to 69 discuss PSA screening with their primary-care physician, but it recommends against starting PSA screening after age 70.

Other groups, like the American Urological Association , suggest that screening should start earlier, especially for men with a family history — like me — and for African American men, who have a higher risk of prostate cancer. But these recommendations are not consistently being followed.

Our health-care system is afflicted with health inequities. For example, the image-guided biopsies are not available everywhere and to everyone. Finally, many men are fearful of the surgical approach to prostate cancer because of the risk of incontinence and impotence, but advances in surgical techniques have made those outcomes considerably less troublesome than in the past. Similarly, the alternative therapeutic approaches of radiation and hormonal therapy have seen significant advances.

A little over a year ago, while I was praying for a dying friend, I had the experience of receiving a clear and unmistakable message. This has almost never happened to me. It was just this: “Don’t waste your time, you may not have much left.” Gulp.

Having now received a diagnosis of aggressive prostate cancer and feeling grateful for all the ways I have benefited from research advances, I feel compelled to tell this story openly. I hope it helps someone. I don’t want to waste time.

Francis S. Collins served as director of the National Institutes of Health from 2009 to 2021 and as director of the National Human Genome Research Institute at NIH from 1993 to 2008. He is a physician-geneticist and leads a White House initiative to eliminate hepatitis C in the United States, while also continuing to pursue his research interests as a distinguished NIH investigator.

An earlier version of this article said prostate cancer is the No. 2 killer of men. It is the No. 2 cause of cancer death among men. The article has been updated.

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The First Person in Research Papers: Pros and Cons.

This article will explore the debate surrounding the use of first person in research papers, with a focus on identifying both the advantages and disadvantages associated with this practice. Through an analysis of different perspectives and scholarly sources, this paper will provide readers with a thorough understanding of why authors should or should not employ first person language when writing academic texts. Additionally, practical examples from existing research publications will be discussed to demonstrate how authors can use pronouns like “I” and “we” effectively while adhering to formal conventions. Ultimately, it is hoped that after reading this article readers would have gained insights into whether using first person within their own work is suitable for them or not.

I. Introduction

Ii. the pros of writing a research paper from the first person perspective, iii. the cons of writing a research paper from the first person perspective, iv. approaches to using the first person in academic writing, v. factors influencing decisions to use or not use ‘i’ and ‘we’ in academic texts, vi. strategies for overcoming issues related to employing an authorial voice in scientific articles, vii. conclusion.

The introduction is the first section of any research paper, and its importance cannot be overstated. It serves to capture a reader’s attention and provide necessary context for understanding the rest of the document. Additionally, it should briefly outline what will follow in subsequent sections.

In many cases, introductory paragraphs include an overarching statement or argument that helps set up what comes later on. This could mean directly addressing relevant theoretical debates within your field or introducing a novel concept you are proposing to explore throughout your study. As such, crafting an effective introduction requires considerable thoughtfulness about how best to summarize important points concisely and effectively so as not to overwhelm readers with too much detail while still conveying essential information.

• Can Research Papers Have First Person?

Writing from first person perspective (e.g., using “I” statements) is generally discouraged in formal academic writing as it can introduce bias into arguments; however there may be some flexibility depending on individual disciplinary standards or specific instructor requirements for assignments/papers . Ultimately , when deciding whether this approach is appropriate , it’s important to consider if use of personal language would actually benefit understanding by providing additional insight rather than detracting from scholarship .

The first person perspective can be advantageous when writing a research paper. One major benefit is that it allows for personal expression of the author’s ideas, thoughts and feelings which may increase reader engagement with the material. Furthermore, the use of “I” as an active participant in experiments or surveys provides authenticity to findings by demonstrating authorship over their own work.

Additionally, this style encourages stronger connections between researchers and readers while allowing for more intimate narration within scholarly works. Even if authors are referring to third-person sources or other people’s opinions, using “I” helps establish themselves as experts on said subject matter through firsthand experience they have acquired from exploring various aspects related to it. Can research papers have first person? Absolutely! By doing so, authors lend validity and credibility to both their work and academic field overall.

Analysis of Potential Downsides When writing a research paper from the first person perspective, it is important to consider both its benefits and drawbacks. Even though there may be advantages in some cases, an analysis of potential downsides should also be taken into account.

Firstly, by using “I” or “we” throughout the paper, authors are putting themselves at risk for criticism on the perceived lack of objectivity. While this can still sometimes be overcome if sufficient evidence is presented that backs up their claims and assertions, it will require additional effort in order to convince readers they have not allowed their own opinions to interfere with sound academic judgement. Additionally, while a certain degree of subjectivity may be tolerated when discussing qualitative data or topics such as philosophy where personal views play an essential role – too much bias could render any findings invalid which would adversely affect overall credibility.

Secondly – depending on whether previous studies conducted within the field allow for discussion in terms of “first person” usage – incorporating personal pronouns might reduce research impact due to existing scientific conventions associated with third-person only papers. In other words: can research papers have first person? Yes; however deviations from customary norms should always warrant special attention given associated risks for misunderstanding and misinterpretation among peers

Academic writing is often thought of as a formal and objective form of communication. Yet the appropriate use of the first person can greatly enhance an essay or paper’s readability, especially when presenting research. There are several approaches to using “I” in academic work.

• Acknowledgement:

The simplest approach to first-person usage is to acknowledge authorship with “I” statements such as “In this essay, I will discuss…” This straightforward approach eliminates any ambiguity regarding authorship while still keeping the focus on what follows instead of who wrote it.

• Objective Argumentation:

Utilizing one’s personal experience can be beneficial for developing certain types of arguments or illustrating a point without having to rely solely on factual evidence and third-party sources. This technique does not necessarily mean expressing subjective opinions but rather helping readers understand complex issues by providing thoughtful insights based upon real experiences within certain contexts. Can research papers have first person? Absolutely! In fact, some professors even encourage their students use “I” in order make sure that they do not lose sight about themselves being the author(s) involved in creating something meaningful from available information and resources. It should also be noted that depending upon the topic and its complexity there might even be situations where exclusively utilizing only unbiased facts may not suffice – making room for more subjectivity if deemed necessary for effective argumentation purposes..

Factors Impacting Use of “I” and “We” in Academic Writing

The use of first-person pronouns such as “I” and “we” has become an increasingly popular way to approach academic writing. This is due to a combination of factors, including recent changes in pedagogical approaches emphasizing student experience and the ability for authors to present their unique points of view. These factors have led many instructors or professors to allow personal pronoun usage within research papers; however, there are still debates over when it should be used or avoided.

One primary factor influencing decisions on whether or not to utilize first person pronouns in scholarly works is the level of author involvement with the topic. Those who conducted interviews, gathered data through surveys, or were heavily involved in designing studies will naturally need include personal language about their roles because they played them directly. On the other hand, authors discussing topics that didn’t involve direct participation may prefer third-person language instead since it conveys greater objectivity by avoiding any perceived bias from using I/we statements. Additionally, fields like natural sciences tend towards avoiding these terms while social sciences often encourage them more frequently depending upon context (e.g., describing one’s own work versus generalizing theories). Ultimately though how much personal pronoun usage you employ ultimately depends upon what best communicates your message effectively yet objectively while fitting conventions appropriate for your field .

Maintaining an Objective Writing Voice In the world of scientific writing, a common goal is to maintain an objective writing voice when creating research papers. While employing an authorial perspective can be beneficial in terms of succinctly conveying the message of your paper, it’s important not to lose sight of maintaining neutrality and accuracy in its construction. To keep a scholarly tone throughout your work without slipping into first-person language, consider these strategies:

• Be precise with your language choice; words such as “I believe” or “It seems” should be avoided.
• Use facts rather than opinions—this includes any personal experience which may come through in the text.
• Make sure you provide evidence for all claims made within the article by providing clear citations from valid sources.

Can Research Papers Have First Person? In most cases, using first person language (such as “I” or “we”) is discouraged when crafting scientific articles due to its potential for skewing perceptions and introducing bias. However, there are some exceptions where employing this type of authorial point-of-view might be appropriate depending on certain circumstances. For example, if two authors worked together on a study then including their names alongside each other could help create clarity regarding who wrote what parts. Additionally citing direct quotes from interviews with experts can also make use of first person if applicable.

In concluding this paper, it is evident that research papers can indeed make use of the first-person voice. While there are certainly valid reasons to employ third-person narration in academic writing, such as greater objectivity and an appearance of authority, there are also numerous opportunities for utilizing the power of personal narrative within a scholarly context. Through employing tactics like story or anecdote telling, giving individual accounts or reflections on topics discussed throughout one’s research paper serves to expand upon its ideas more effectively.

Ultimately then, when used sparingly and intentionally – with consideration given to purposeful structuring and citation accuracy – authors may skillfully inject a dose of humanity into their work without compromising any credibility. In doing so they add further depth and value which enhances readers’ experience while still adhering to the conventions expected from an academic piece of writing.

In conclusion, it is important to consider the pros and cons of using “I” as a first person reference in research papers. While this approach can add a personal touch to an otherwise clinical paper, there are potential issues related to objectivity that must be considered before making such a decision. Ultimately, authors should weigh all factors carefully before deciding whether or not the use of “I” is appropriate for their research papers.

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Title: geoai reproducibility and replicability: a computational and spatial perspective.

Abstract: GeoAI has emerged as an exciting interdisciplinary research area that combines spatial theories and data with cutting-edge AI models to address geospatial problems in a novel, data-driven manner. While GeoAI research has flourished in the GIScience literature, its reproducibility and replicability (R&R), fundamental principles that determine the reusability, reliability, and scientific rigor of research findings, have rarely been discussed. This paper aims to provide an in-depth analysis of this topic from both computational and spatial perspectives. We first categorize the major goals for reproducing GeoAI research, namely, validation (repeatability), learning and adapting the method for solving a similar or new problem (reproducibility), and examining the generalizability of the research findings (replicability). Each of these goals requires different levels of understanding of GeoAI, as well as different methods to ensure its success. We then discuss the factors that may cause the lack of R&R in GeoAI research, with an emphasis on (1) the selection and use of training data; (2) the uncertainty that resides in the GeoAI model design, training, deployment, and inference processes; and more importantly (3) the inherent spatial heterogeneity of geospatial data and processes. We use a deep learning-based image analysis task as an example to demonstrate the results' uncertainty and spatial variance caused by different factors. The findings reiterate the importance of knowledge sharing, as well as the generation of a "replicability map" that incorporates spatial autocorrelation and spatial heterogeneity into consideration in quantifying the spatial replicability of GeoAI research.

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Inheritance tax written on a paper. Financial concept.

As the unprecedented transfer of wealth from the baby boomer generation to their heirs unfolds, a crucial debate emerges around the adequacy of current tax structures, especially estate and gift taxes, in addressing economic inequality and funding for government programs. This article delves into the potential effects of President Joe Biden's suggested reforms to these taxes, advocating for necessary changes from a progressive viewpoint, and considers a variety of economic, social, and political factors.

President Biden's ambitious proposal seeks to overhaul estate and gift taxation by ending the step-up in cost basis for inherited assets, raising the estate and gift tax rates above the current 40%, reducing the estate tax exemption from $11.58 million to $3.5 million, and lowering the gift tax exemption from $11.58 million to $1 million. This marks a notable departure from previous policies that typically increased exemption thresholds and lowered tax rates. The primary goals of these proposed changes are to bolster tax revenue and narrow the wealth gap.

A recent piece by Emma Agyemang in the Financial Times , published on April 11, 2024, titled " Should Governments Tax the Great Boomer Wealth Transfer? " takes a comprehensive look at the debate surrounding the taxation of wealth passed from the baby boomer generation to their heirs. This article delves into the possible economic, social, and political ramifications of imposing such taxes and examines the practicality of this approach alongside the expected pushback from various interest groups.

The transfer of wealth from baby boomers to younger generations represents a significant economic shift, with trillions of dollars at stake globally. This has profound implications for wealth distribution and economic stability. Advocates for taxing these transfers argue it could be an effective measure to mitigate wealth inequality, offering governments a new revenue stream to bolster public services and social programs. However, critics counter that it unfairly penalizes those who have managed their finances prudently, warning that it may also deter investment by affluent individuals and families.

The article illustrates that the practicality of enacting new wealth transfer taxes is hindered by political opposition, where societal views on wealth and inheritance significantly influence public opinion and policy formation. It contrasts the varied approaches taken by different nations, with some imposing steep inheritance taxes, while others levy minimal or no taxes on such transfers. It discusses the nuances of these tax models, including flat rates for all transfers above a specific threshold and progressive rates dependent on the inheritance size.

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The debate on reforming estate and gift taxes is a multifaceted issue intertwined with economic, social, and political elements. The goal of utilizing these taxes as mechanisms to lessen inequality and support governmental projects is ambitious but fraught with challenges, both domestically and internationally. Considering inherited wealth as ordinary income could present a more just and efficient method, potentially realigning with progressive aims to address historical economic disparities, than the current system allows, more effectively. Nonetheless, any modifications to the estate tax framework must navigate significant hurdles related to public support and political viability, requiring a balanced approach to achieve fairness and efficacy.

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