aim of the research paper

• Aims and Objectives – A Guide for Academic Writing
• Doing a PhD

One of the most important aspects of a thesis, dissertation or research paper is the correct formulation of the aims and objectives. This is because your aims and objectives will establish the scope, depth and direction that your research will ultimately take. An effective set of aims and objectives will give your research focus and your reader clarity, with your aims indicating what is to be achieved, and your objectives indicating how it will be achieved.

Introduction

There is no getting away from the importance of the aims and objectives in determining the success of your research project. Unfortunately, however, it is an aspect that many students struggle with, and ultimately end up doing poorly. Given their importance, if you suspect that there is even the smallest possibility that you belong to this group of students, we strongly recommend you read this page in full.

This page describes what research aims and objectives are, how they differ from each other, how to write them correctly, and the common mistakes students make and how to avoid them. An example of a good aim and objectives from a past thesis has also been deconstructed to help your understanding.

What Are Aims and Objectives?

Research aims.

A research aim describes the main goal or the overarching purpose of your research project.

In doing so, it acts as a focal point for your research and provides your readers with clarity as to what your study is all about. Because of this, research aims are almost always located within its own subsection under the introduction section of a research document, regardless of whether it’s a thesis , a dissertation, or a research paper .

A research aim is usually formulated as a broad statement of the main goal of the research and can range in length from a single sentence to a short paragraph. Although the exact format may vary according to preference, they should all describe why your research is needed (i.e. the context), what it sets out to accomplish (the actual aim) and, briefly, how it intends to accomplish it (overview of your objectives).

To give an example, we have extracted the following research aim from a real PhD thesis:

Example of a Research Aim

The role of diametrical cup deformation as a factor to unsatisfactory implant performance has not been widely reported. The aim of this thesis was to gain an understanding of the diametrical deformation behaviour of acetabular cups and shells following impaction into the reamed acetabulum. The influence of a range of factors on deformation was investigated to ascertain if cup and shell deformation may be high enough to potentially contribute to early failure and high wear rates in metal-on-metal implants.

Note: Extracted with permission from thesis titled “T he Impact And Deformation Of Press-Fit Metal Acetabular Components ” produced by Dr H Hothi of previously Queen Mary University of London.

Research Objectives

Where a research aim specifies what your study will answer, research objectives specify how your study will answer it.

They divide your research aim into several smaller parts, each of which represents a key section of your research project. As a result, almost all research objectives take the form of a numbered list, with each item usually receiving its own chapter in a dissertation or thesis.

Following the example of the research aim shared above, here are it’s real research objectives as an example:

Example of a Research Objective

• Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.
• Investigate the number, velocity and position of impacts needed to insert a cup.
• Determine the relationship between the size of interference between the cup and cavity and deformation for different cup types.
• Investigate the influence of non-uniform cup support and varying the orientation of the component in the cavity on deformation.
• Examine the influence of errors during reaming of the acetabulum which introduce ovality to the cavity.
• Determine the relationship between changes in the geometry of the component and deformation for different cup designs.
• Develop three dimensional pelvis models with non-uniform bone material properties from a range of patients with varying bone quality.
• Use the key parameters that influence deformation, as identified in the foam models to determine the range of deformations that may occur clinically using the anatomic models and if these deformations are clinically significant.

It’s worth noting that researchers sometimes use research questions instead of research objectives, or in other cases both. From a high-level perspective, research questions and research objectives make the same statements, but just in different formats.

Taking the first three research objectives as an example, they can be restructured into research questions as follows:

Restructuring Research Objectives as Research Questions

• Can finite element models using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum together with explicit dynamics be used to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion?
• What is the number, velocity and position of impacts needed to insert a cup?
• What is the relationship between the size of interference between the cup and cavity and deformation for different cup types?

Difference Between Aims and Objectives

Hopefully the above explanations make clear the differences between aims and objectives, but to clarify:

• The research aim focus on what the research project is intended to achieve; research objectives focus on how the aim will be achieved.
• Research aims are relatively broad; research objectives are specific.
• Research aims focus on a project’s long-term outcomes; research objectives focus on its immediate, short-term outcomes.
• A research aim can be written in a single sentence or short paragraph; research objectives should be written as a numbered list.

How to Write Aims and Objectives

Before we discuss how to write a clear set of research aims and objectives, we should make it clear that there is no single way they must be written. Each researcher will approach their aims and objectives slightly differently, and often your supervisor will influence the formulation of yours on the basis of their own preferences.

Regardless, there are some basic principles that you should observe for good practice; these principles are described below.

Your aim should be made up of three parts that answer the below questions:

• Why is this research required?
• What is this research about?
• How are you going to do it?

The easiest way to achieve this would be to address each question in its own sentence, although it does not matter whether you combine them or write multiple sentences for each, the key is to address each one.

The first question, why , provides context to your research project, the second question, what , describes the aim of your research, and the last question, how , acts as an introduction to your objectives which will immediately follow.

Scroll through the image set below to see the ‘why, what and how’ associated with our research aim example.

Note: Your research aims need not be limited to one. Some individuals per to define one broad ‘overarching aim’ of a project and then adopt two or three specific research aims for their thesis or dissertation. Remember, however, that in order for your assessors to consider your research project complete, you will need to prove you have fulfilled all of the aims you set out to achieve. Therefore, while having more than one research aim is not necessarily disadvantageous, consider whether a single overarching one will do.

Research Objectives

Each of your research objectives should be SMART :

• Specific – is there any ambiguity in the action you are going to undertake, or is it focused and well-defined?
• Measurable – how will you measure progress and determine when you have achieved the action?
• Achievable – do you have the support, resources and facilities required to carry out the action?
• Relevant – is the action essential to the achievement of your research aim?
• Timebound – can you realistically complete the action in the available time alongside your other research tasks?

In addition to being SMART, your research objectives should start with a verb that helps communicate your intent. Common research verbs include:

Table of Research Verbs to Use in Aims and Objectives

Last, format your objectives into a numbered list. This is because when you write your thesis or dissertation, you will at times need to make reference to a specific research objective; structuring your research objectives in a numbered list will provide a clear way of doing this.

To bring all this together, let’s compare the first research objective in the previous example with the above guidance:

Checking Research Objective Example Against Recommended Approach

Research Objective:

1. Develop finite element models using explicit dynamics to mimic mallet blows during cup/shell insertion, initially using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum.

Checking Against Recommended Approach:

Q: Is it specific? A: Yes, it is clear what the student intends to do (produce a finite element model), why they intend to do it (mimic cup/shell blows) and their parameters have been well-defined ( using simplified experimentally validated foam models to represent the acetabulum ).

Q: Is it measurable? A: Yes, it is clear that the research objective will be achieved once the finite element model is complete.

Q: Is it achievable? A: Yes, provided the student has access to a computer lab, modelling software and laboratory data.

Q: Is it relevant? A: Yes, mimicking impacts to a cup/shell is fundamental to the overall aim of understanding how they deform when impacted upon.

Q: Is it timebound? A: Yes, it is possible to create a limited-scope finite element model in a relatively short time, especially if you already have experience in modelling.

Q: Does it start with a verb? A: Yes, it starts with ‘develop’, which makes the intent of the objective immediately clear.

Q: Is it a numbered list? A: Yes, it is the first research objective in a list of eight.

Mistakes in Writing Research Aims and Objectives

1. making your research aim too broad.

Having a research aim too broad becomes very difficult to achieve. Normally, this occurs when a student develops their research aim before they have a good understanding of what they want to research. Remember that at the end of your project and during your viva defence , you will have to prove that you have achieved your research aims; if they are too broad, this will be an almost impossible task. In the early stages of your research project, your priority should be to narrow your study to a specific area. A good way to do this is to take the time to study existing literature, question their current approaches, findings and limitations, and consider whether there are any recurring gaps that could be investigated .

Note: Achieving a set of aims does not necessarily mean proving or disproving a theory or hypothesis, even if your research aim was to, but having done enough work to provide a useful and original insight into the principles that underlie your research aim.

2. Making Your Research Objectives Too Ambitious

Be realistic about what you can achieve in the time you have available. It is natural to want to set ambitious research objectives that require sophisticated data collection and analysis, but only completing this with six months before the end of your PhD registration period is not a worthwhile trade-off.

3. Formulating Repetitive Research Objectives

Each research objective should have its own purpose and distinct measurable outcome. To this effect, a common mistake is to form research objectives which have large amounts of overlap. This makes it difficult to determine when an objective is truly complete, and also presents challenges in estimating the duration of objectives when creating your project timeline. It also makes it difficult to structure your thesis into unique chapters, making it more challenging for you to write and for your audience to read.

Fortunately, this oversight can be easily avoided by using SMART objectives.

Hopefully, you now have a good idea of how to create an effective set of aims and objectives for your research project, whether it be a thesis, dissertation or research paper. While it may be tempting to dive directly into your research, spending time on getting your aims and objectives right will give your research clear direction. This won’t only reduce the likelihood of problems arising later down the line, but will also lead to a more thorough and coherent research project.

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Research Aims, Objectives & Questions

The “Golden Thread” Explained Simply (+ Examples)

By: David Phair (PhD) and Alexandra Shaeffer (PhD) | June 2022

The research aims , objectives and research questions (collectively called the “golden thread”) are arguably the most important thing you need to get right when you’re crafting a research proposal , dissertation or thesis . We receive questions almost every day about this “holy trinity” of research and there’s certainly a lot of confusion out there, so we’ve crafted this post to help you navigate your way through the fog.

Overview: The Golden Thread

• What is the golden thread
• What are research aims ( examples )
• What are research objectives ( examples )
• What are research questions ( examples )
• The importance of alignment in the golden thread

What is the “golden thread”?  

The golden thread simply refers to the collective research aims , research objectives , and research questions for any given project (i.e., a dissertation, thesis, or research paper ). These three elements are bundled together because it’s extremely important that they align with each other, and that the entire research project aligns with them.

Importantly, the golden thread needs to weave its way through the entirety of any research project , from start to end. In other words, it needs to be very clearly defined right at the beginning of the project (the topic ideation and proposal stage) and it needs to inform almost every decision throughout the rest of the project. For example, your research design and methodology will be heavily influenced by the golden thread (we’ll explain this in more detail later), as well as your literature review.

The research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread) define the focus and scope ( the delimitations ) of your research project. In other words, they help ringfence your dissertation or thesis to a relatively narrow domain, so that you can “go deep” and really dig into a specific problem or opportunity. They also help keep you on track , as they act as a litmus test for relevance. In other words, if you’re ever unsure whether to include something in your document, simply ask yourself the question, “does this contribute toward my research aims, objectives or questions?”. If it doesn’t, chances are you can drop it.

Alright, enough of the fluffy, conceptual stuff. Let’s get down to business and look at what exactly the research aims, objectives and questions are and outline a few examples to bring these concepts to life.

Research Aims: What are they?

Simply put, the research aim(s) is a statement that reflects the broad overarching goal (s) of the research project. Research aims are fairly high-level (low resolution) as they outline the general direction of the research and what it’s trying to achieve .

Research Aims: Examples  

True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording “this research aims to…”, “this research seeks to…”, and so on. For example:

“This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.”   “This study sets out to assess the interaction between student support and self-care on well-being in engineering graduate students”  

As you can see, these research aims provide a high-level description of what the study is about and what it seeks to achieve. They’re not hyper-specific or action-oriented, but they’re clear about what the study’s focus is and what is being investigated.

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Research Objectives: What are they?

The research objectives take the research aims and make them more practical and actionable . In other words, the research objectives showcase the steps that the researcher will take to achieve the research aims.

The research objectives need to be far more specific (higher resolution) and actionable than the research aims. In fact, it’s always a good idea to craft your research objectives using the “SMART” criteria. In other words, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound”.

Research Objectives: Examples  

Let’s look at two examples of research objectives. We’ll stick with the topic and research aims we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic:

To observe the retail HR employees throughout the digital transformation. To assess employee perceptions of digital transformation in retail HR. To identify the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR.

And for the student wellness topic:

To determine whether student self-care predicts the well-being score of engineering graduate students. To determine whether student support predicts the well-being score of engineering students. To assess the interaction between student self-care and student support when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students.

  As you can see, these research objectives clearly align with the previously mentioned research aims and effectively translate the low-resolution aims into (comparatively) higher-resolution objectives and action points . They give the research project a clear focus and present something that resembles a research-based “to-do” list.

Research Questions: What are they?

Finally, we arrive at the all-important research questions. The research questions are, as the name suggests, the key questions that your study will seek to answer . Simply put, they are the core purpose of your dissertation, thesis, or research project. You’ll present them at the beginning of your document (either in the introduction chapter or literature review chapter) and you’ll answer them at the end of your document (typically in the discussion and conclusion chapters).  

The research questions will be the driving force throughout the research process. For example, in the literature review chapter, you’ll assess the relevance of any given resource based on whether it helps you move towards answering your research questions. Similarly, your methodology and research design will be heavily influenced by the nature of your research questions. For instance, research questions that are exploratory in nature will usually make use of a qualitative approach, whereas questions that relate to measurement or relationship testing will make use of a quantitative approach.  

Let’s look at some examples of research questions to make this more tangible.

Research Questions: Examples  

Again, we’ll stick with the research aims and research objectives we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic (which would be qualitative in nature):

How do employees perceive digital transformation in retail HR? What are the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR?  

And for the student wellness topic (which would be quantitative in nature):

Does student self-care predict the well-being scores of engineering graduate students? Does student support predict the well-being scores of engineering students? Do student self-care and student support interact when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students?  

You’ll probably notice that there’s quite a formulaic approach to this. In other words, the research questions are basically the research objectives “converted” into question format. While that is true most of the time, it’s not always the case. For example, the first research objective for the digital transformation topic was more or less a step on the path toward the other objectives, and as such, it didn’t warrant its own research question.  

So, don’t rush your research questions and sloppily reword your objectives as questions. Carefully think about what exactly you’re trying to achieve (i.e. your research aim) and the objectives you’ve set out, then craft a set of well-aligned research questions . Also, keep in mind that this can be a somewhat iterative process , where you go back and tweak research objectives and aims to ensure tight alignment throughout the golden thread.

The importance of strong alignment 

Alignment is the keyword here and we have to stress its importance . Simply put, you need to make sure that there is a very tight alignment between all three pieces of the golden thread. If your research aims and research questions don’t align, for example, your project will be pulling in different directions and will lack focus . This is a common problem students face and can cause many headaches (and tears), so be warned.

Take the time to carefully craft your research aims, objectives and research questions before you run off down the research path. Ideally, get your research supervisor/advisor to review and comment on your golden thread before you invest significant time into your project, and certainly before you start collecting data .  

Recap: The golden thread

In this post, we unpacked the golden thread of research, consisting of the research aims , research objectives and research questions . You can jump back to any section using the links below.

As always, feel free to leave a comment below – we always love to hear from you. Also, if you’re interested in 1-on-1 support, take a look at our private coaching service here.

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38 Comments

Thank you very much for your great effort put. As an Undergraduate taking Demographic Research & Methodology, I’ve been trying so hard to understand clearly what is a Research Question, Research Aim and the Objectives in a research and the relationship between them etc. But as for now I’m thankful that you’ve solved my problem.

Well appreciated. This has helped me greatly in doing my dissertation.

An so delighted with this wonderful information thank you a lot.

so impressive i have benefited a lot looking forward to learn more on research.

I am very happy to have carefully gone through this well researched article.

Infact,I used to be phobia about anything research, because of my poor understanding of the concepts.

Now,I get to know that my research question is the same as my research objective(s) rephrased in question format.

I please I would need a follow up on the subject,as I intends to join the team of researchers. Thanks once again.

Thanks so much. This was really helpful.

I know you pepole have tried to break things into more understandable and easy format. And God bless you. Keep it up

i found this document so useful towards my study in research methods. thanks so much.

This is my 2nd read topic in your course and I should commend the simplified explanations of each part. I’m beginning to understand and absorb the use of each part of a dissertation/thesis. I’ll keep on reading your free course and might be able to avail the training course! Kudos!

Thank you! Better put that my lecture and helped to easily understand the basics which I feel often get brushed over when beginning dissertation work.

This is quite helpful. I like how the Golden thread has been explained and the needed alignment.

This is quite helpful. I really appreciate!

The article made it simple for researcher students to differentiate between three concepts.

Very innovative and educational in approach to conducting research.

I am very impressed with all these terminology, as I am a fresh student for post graduate, I am highly guided and I promised to continue making consultation when the need arise. Thanks a lot.

A very helpful piece. thanks, I really appreciate it .

Very well explained, and it might be helpful to many people like me.

Wish i had found this (and other) resource(s) at the beginning of my PhD journey… not in my writing up year… 😩 Anyways… just a quick question as i’m having some issues ordering my “golden thread”…. does it matter in what order you mention them? i.e., is it always first aims, then objectives, and finally the questions? or can you first mention the research questions and then the aims and objectives?

Thank you for a very simple explanation that builds upon the concepts in a very logical manner. Just prior to this, I read the research hypothesis article, which was equally very good. This met my primary objective.

My secondary objective was to understand the difference between research questions and research hypothesis, and in which context to use which one. However, I am still not clear on this. Can you kindly please guide?

In research, a research question is a clear and specific inquiry that the researcher wants to answer, while a research hypothesis is a tentative statement or prediction about the relationship between variables or the expected outcome of the study. Research questions are broader and guide the overall study, while hypotheses are specific and testable statements used in quantitative research. Research questions identify the problem, while hypotheses provide a focus for testing in the study.

Exactly what I need in this research journey, I look forward to more of your coaching videos.

This helped a lot. Thanks so much for the effort put into explaining it.

What data source in writing dissertation/Thesis requires?

What is data source covers when writing dessertation/thesis

This is quite useful thanks

I’m excited and thankful. I got so much value which will help me progress in my thesis.

where are the locations of the reserch statement, research objective and research question in a reserach paper? Can you write an ouline that defines their places in the researh paper?

Very helpful and important tips on Aims, Objectives and Questions.

Thank you so much for making research aim, research objectives and research question so clear. This will be helpful to me as i continue with my thesis.

Thanks much for this content. I learned a lot. And I am inspired to learn more. I am still struggling with my preparation for dissertation outline/proposal. But I consistently follow contents and tutorials and the new FB of GRAD Coach. Hope to really become confident in writing my dissertation and successfully defend it.

As a researcher and lecturer, I find splitting research goals into research aims, objectives, and questions is unnecessarily bureaucratic and confusing for students. For most biomedical research projects, including ‘real research’, 1-3 research questions will suffice (numbers may differ by discipline).

Awesome! Very important resources and presented in an informative way to easily understand the golden thread. Indeed, thank you so much.

Well explained

The blog article on research aims, objectives, and questions by Grad Coach is a clear and insightful guide that aligns with my experiences in academic research. The article effectively breaks down the often complex concepts of research aims and objectives, providing a straightforward and accessible explanation. Drawing from my own research endeavors, I appreciate the practical tips offered, such as the need for specificity and clarity when formulating research questions. The article serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers, offering a concise roadmap for crafting well-defined research goals and objectives. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced researcher, this article provides practical insights that contribute to the foundational aspects of a successful research endeavor.

A great thanks for you. it is really amazing explanation. I grasp a lot and one step up to research knowledge.

I really found these tips helpful. Thank you very much Grad Coach.

I found this article helpful. Thanks for sharing this.

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A Complete Guide to Write Research Aims and Objectives

The importance of making a good quality aim and objectives of a research is paramount in the success of the research.

In this post, you will learn:

• What is research aim?
• What are research objectives?
• How to differentiate between research aim and research objective
• Examples of research aims and objectives
• Key points to remember while writing research aim and objectives
• Do’s and Don’ts

What Is Research Aim?

The research aim is the primary focus of the research and determines what the research serves to do. It defines the purpose of the research and tells the audience what the research aims to achieve.

Because research aims are so important for the study, a sun heading in the introductory chapter is usually dedicated to them. They are written in a paragraph form and define the main purpose of conducting the research on a topic.

Example of a good quality research aim

Research about the effects of climate change on the mental health of young adults can be worded as follows:

“The effects of climate change information on the minds of young adults are under researched. This research aims to find the effects that climate change information has on the mental health of young adults. By studying the effects of the intensity and frequency of the consumption of climate change news and forecasts among young adults, this study aims to see how climate change information is influencing their mental health.”

The above research aim is focused and clear and presents the reader with a clear understanding of the purpose of the research.

What Is Research Objective?

Research aims are related to research objectives. The research aim determines the overall purpose of the study, and the objectives determine in what ways that purpose will be achieved. The purpose of the research aim is separated into subsections. However, If any you need to order IT Research Paper help services then you have to take a survey on the net. These subsections are smaller steps that define the objectives of the research.

Research objectives are usually written in the form of a list. These small bits of steps can be checked off as the research progresses. They are written in chronological order, starting with the first objective that needs to be achieved and ending with the final one.

Example of research objectives

Taking the example of the research aim above, we can divide it into smaller sections to create specific aims of the research.

• Understand the concepts of climate change and mental health
• Understand the relationship between climate change and mental health
• Determine the frequency and intensity of climate change news consumption among young adults
• Determine the frequency and intensity of news affects the mental health of young adults
• Develop recommendations for clinical practice in the field

From this example, you can see how the research aim was broken down into smaller, specific objectives that were then listed down.

Differentiate Research Between Aims & Objectives

Although the two concepts are related, they are not the same. The differences between research aim and research objectives are:

• The way they are worded are different: Research aim is worded in a wide scoped way, while research objectives are worded as specific, narrowed down tasks.
• The focus of the two are different: research aim focuses on the overall purpose while research objectives focus on how to achieve that purpose.
• The purpose of the two are different: research aims are concerned with the overall findings of a research, which are long-term, while research objectives serve to define the short term aims of the research.
• The way they are presented are different: research aims are written in a small paragraph form while the objectives are written in the form of a list.

3 Key Points To Remember While Drafting Research Aim

The ways of writing a research aim varies with the researcher, but there are certain points to keep in mind to write a good quality research aim:

1. Answer the “why” question of the research: A research aim needs to provide an answer for why the study is being conducted. It needs to describe, in a small sentence or phares, why the research is important to conduct.

Taking the example of the research aim above, we can see that it answers the why question:

“The effects of climate change information on the minds of young adults are under researched”.

2. Answer the “what” question of the research: this is the main purpose of the research aim, as it signifies the main aim of the research.

From the example above, the “what” question is answered as follows:

“This research aims to find the effects that climate change information has on the mental health of young adults.”

3. Lastly, the research aim needs to answer the “how” question. In a simple sentence or a few phrases, it should outline the main way in which you are planning to achieve the aim.

From the example above, the “how” question is answered as follows:

“By studying the effects of the intensity and frequency of the consumption of climate change news and forecasts among young adults, this study aims to see how climate change information is influencing their mental health.”

Checklist of research aim:

• Tells the purpose of research
• Tells why the research is important
• Tells how the aim will be achieved
• Is clear and concise

5 Key Points To Remember While Drafting Research Objective

An easy way to determine the quality of your research objectives is to apply the SMART method to them:

• You need to make sure that the objectives are worded as specific tasks you need to achieve. They should not be vague.
• You should ensure that the objectives are measurable, meaning that they allow you to see how much of them have been achieved and how much are left to work on.
• The objectives need to be achievable, meaning you should have the resources to work on them.
• They need to be relevant to getting to your research aim.
• They need to be achievable in the time you have available for your research project.

In the example above the objectives follow the above mentioned criteria. While making your own objectives, make sure to evaluate them using the points above to ensure your objectives are good quality.

Checklist of research objectives

Do’s and Don’ts of research aims and objectives

What to do and what to avoid in writing aims and objectives

The Takeaway

• The research aim is the primary focus of the research.
• Research aims are related to research objectives
• The objectives determine in what ways that purpose will be achieved.
• Research aim needs to answer the “what”, “why” and “how” questions of the research.
• Research objectives need to be SMART.

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11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

• Identify reasons to research writing projects.
• Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

• Medical laboratory technician
• Small business owner
• Information technology professional
• Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

• Choose a topic.
• Plan and schedule time to research and write.
• Conduct research.
• Organize research and ideas.
• Draft your paper.
• Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

• In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
• In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
• What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

• People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
• The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

• How it works

How to Write the Dissertation Aims and Objectives – Guide & Examples

Published by Grace Graffin at January 27th, 2023 , Revised On October 9, 2023

Aims and objectives are among the essential aspects of a dissertation. If you write aims and objectives effectively, they can act as a foundation to give your research clarity and focus.

This article will provide you with all the necessary information regarding aims and objectives, their differences, writing tips , and the common mistakes you should avoid while writing them.

The aim is often a single sentence or a short paragraph that describes your dissertation’s main goal and intent. It tells what you hope to achieve at the end. You should write the aim so that it becomes identifiable when it is achieved with the completion of your dissertation .

The aim is written in a subsection of the introduction to clarify the overall purpose of the dissertation .

Example: It is often observed that employees in culturally diverse workplaces struggle to work effectively in a team. A probable cause of this issue is bullying at the workplace. This research investigates the impact of bullying on employee job satisfaction at culturally diverse workplaces and the resulting loss of employee productivity. This research will use surveys and case study analysis to analyze the impact of bullying on employees.

The objectives in a dissertation describe the ways through which you intend to achieve the research aim. They are specific statements that break down the aim into several smaller key sections of the overall research. Suitable objectives can help you stay focused and conduct research in the direction of your aim.

The number of objectives should be realistic; usually, between three to six, and each one should be possible to achieve. The following example shows the objectives for the previously-mentioned dissertation aim.

1. identification of the behaviors that are considered as bullying 2. exploring the factors that cause bullying at a culturally diverse workplace 3. analyzing the relationship between bullying and job satisfaction of employees 4. providing suitable recommendations on minimizing the bullying at the workplace

The objectives of a dissertation should be SMART.

• Specific: should be precise, focused, and well-defined
• Measurable: the progress should be measurable, and you should be able to determine when you have achieved an objective.
• Achievable: you should be able to carry out the required action within your available resources
• Relevant: should be related to the dissertation aim
• Time-bound: should be possible within the available time

Differences between aims and objectives

Aims and objectives are often mixed, but there are clear differences between them.

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How to write aims and objectives?

There is no particular way or standard to write the aims and objectives. Different researchers have different writing styles, and often it can be influenced by your research supervisor. However, you should follow certain basic principles while writing aims and objectives in a dissertation.

Writing the aim statement

The aim statement should cover the following essential elements.

• Why is the research necessary? (covers the underlying problem on which the study is to be conducted)
• What is the research about? (description of the research title)
• How are you going to conduct it? (a brief statement of intended research methods)

An appropriate aim clearly defines the research purpose without confusing the reader. If you struggle to explain your research and its importance in simpler terms, you should consider refining your research to clarify it further.

Writing objectives

The objectives describe how you would achieve your research aim. You can do this through the following steps,

• The first one to two objectives can be applied to the literature review . (Verbs to be used: investigate, examine, study)
• One objective can be applied to the methodology portion. (Verbs to be used: collect, select, demonstrate, estimate)
• Two to three objectives can cover the critical evaluation or discussion chapters (Verbs to be used: analyze, compare, evaluate)
• The final objective will cover the conclusion or recommendation portion. (Verbs to be used: conclude, recommend)

Instead of writing like a paragraph, the objectives should be written as a numbered list to give them more clarity.

How many aims and objectives should be there?

It depends upon the topic of your research and mainly upon your supervisor’s requirements. Generally, a dissertation has a single broad statement as the research aim. However, it is acceptable to include a main aim along with two to three subsidiary aims.

Similarly, the number of objectives should be realistic and sufficient to measure the progress regarding the achievement of the research aim. Their number can generally vary from three to six depending upon the aim.

Common mistakes to avoid while writing research aims and objectives

• Writing a broad research aim

Writing a broad research aim is a common mistake, and it often becomes difficult to achieve. It may create a problem when you are asked to prove how you have achieved your aims during your  viva defense . It would be best to narrow your study to a specific area in the early stages of the dissertation.

• Formulating overlapping research objectives

The objectives should be written such that they are measurable and distinct from each other. If they overlap, it makes it difficult to structure your dissertation properly in specific chapters.

• Setting unrealistic aims

Students often get over-ambitious while describing the research aim and face problems afterward in achieving those aims. You should avoid this mistake and be realistic about what you can achieve in the available time and resources.

Aims and objectives are the sections that require significant time and attention to avoid future hassles while conducting research and writing your dissertation.

Frequently Asked Questions

How to set dissertation aims and objectives.

To set dissertation aims and objectives, define your research goals clearly. Aims state what you want to achieve, while objectives outline specific, measurable steps to reach those goals. Ensure they align with your research question and contribute to your study’s significance.

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• How It Works

Research Aims and Objectives: The dynamic duo for successful research

Picture yourself on a road trip without a destination in mind — driving aimlessly, not knowing where you’re headed or how to get there. Similarly, your research is navigated by well-defined research aims and objectives. Research aims and objectives are the foundation of any research project. They provide a clear direction and purpose for the study, ensuring that you stay focused and on track throughout the process. They are your trusted navigational tools, leading you to success.

Understanding the relationship between research objectives and aims is crucial to any research project’s success, and we’re here to break it down for you in this article. Here, we’ll explore the importance of research aims and objectives, understand their differences, and delve into the impact they have on the quality of research.

Understanding the Difference between Research Aims and Objectives

In research, aims and objectives are two important components but are often used interchangeably. Though they may sound similar, they are distinct and serve different purposes.

Research Aims:

Research aims are broad statements that describe the overall purpose of your study. They provide a general direction for your study and indicate the intended achievements of your research. Aims are usually written in a general and abstract manner describing the ultimate goal of the research.

Research Objectives:

Research objectives are specific, measurable, and achievable goals that you aim to accomplish within a specified timeframe. They break down the research aims into smaller, more manageable components and provide a clear picture of what you want to achieve and how you plan to achieve it.

In the example, the objectives provide specific targets that must be achieved to reach the aim. Essentially, aims provide the overall direction for the research while objectives provide specific targets that must be achieved to accomplish the aims. Aims provide a broad context for the research, while the objectives provide smaller steps that the researcher must take to accomplish the overall research goals. To illustrate, when planning a road trip, your research aim is the destination you want to reach, and your research objectives are the specific routes you need to take to get there.

Aims and objectives are interconnected. Objectives play a key role in defining the research methodology, providing a roadmap for how you’ll collect and analyze data, while aim is the final destination, which represents the ultimate goal of your research. By setting specific goals, you’ll be able to design a research plan that helps you achieve your objectives and, ultimately, your research aim.

Importance of Well-defined Aims and Objectives

The impact of clear research aims and objectives on the quality of research cannot be understated. But it’s not enough to simply have aims and objectives. Well-defined research aims and objectives are important for several reasons:

• Provides direction: Clear aims and well-defined objectives provide a specific direction for your research study, ensuring that the research stays focused on a specific topic or problem. This helps to prevent the research from becoming too broad or unfocused, and ensures that the study remains relevant and meaningful.
• Guides research design: The research aim and objectives help guide the research design and methodology, ensuring that your study is designed in a way that will answer the research questions and achieve the research objectives.
• Helps with resource allocation: Clear research aims and objectives helps you to allocate resources effectively , including time, financial resources, human resources, and other required materials. With a well-defined aim and objectives, you can identify the resources required to conduct the research, and allocate them in a way that maximizes efficiency and productivity.
• Assists in evaluation: Clearly specified research aims and objectives allow for effective evaluation of your research project’s success. You can assess whether the research has achieved its objectives, and whether the aim has been met. This evaluation process can help to identify areas of the research project that may require further attention or modification.
• Enhances communication: Well-defined research aims and objectives help to enhance communication among the research team, stakeholders, funding agencies, and other interested parties. Clear aims and objectives ensure that everyone involved in your research project understands the purpose and goals of the study. This can help to foster collaboration and ensure that everyone is working towards the same end goal.

How to Formulate Research Aims and Objectives

Formulating effective research aims and objectives involves a systematic process to ensure that they are clear, specific, achievable, and relevant. Start by asking yourself what you want to achieve through your research. What impact do you want your research to have? Once you have a clear understanding of your aims, you can then break them down into specific, achievable objectives. Here are some steps you can follow when developing research aims and objectives:

• Identify the research question : Clearly identify the questions you want to answer through your research. This will help you define the scope of your research. Understanding the characteristics of a good research question will help you generate clearer aims and objectives.
• Conduct literature review : When defining your research aim and objectives, it’s important to conduct a literature review to identify key concepts, theories, and methods related to your research problem or question. Conducting a thorough literature review can help you understand what research has been done in the area and what gaps exist in the literature.
• Identify the research aim: Develop a research aim that summarizes the overarching goal of your research. The research aim should be broad and concise.
• Develop research objectives: Based on your research questions and research aim, develop specific research objectives that outline what you intend to achieve through your research. These objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
• Use action verbs: Use action verbs such as “investigate,” “examine,” “analyze,” and “compare” to describe your research aims and objectives. This makes them more specific and measurable.
• Ensure alignment with research question: Ensure that the research aim and objectives are aligned with the research question. This helps to ensure that the research remains focused and that the objectives are specific enough to answer your research question.
• Refine and revise: Once the research aim and objectives have been developed, refine and revise them as needed. Seek feedback from your colleagues, mentors, or supervisors to ensure that they are clear, concise, and achievable within the given resources and timeframe.
• Communicate: After finalizing the research aim and objectives, they should be communicated to the research team, stakeholders, and other interested parties. This helps to ensure that everyone is working towards the same end goal and understands the purpose of the study.

Common Pitfalls to Avoid While Formulating Aims and Objectives

There are several common mistakes that researchers can make when writing research aims and objectives. These include:

• Being too broad or vague: Aims and objectives that are too general or unclear can lead to confusion and lack of focus. It is important to ensure that the aims and objectives are concise and clear.
• Being too narrow or specific: On the other hand, aims and objectives that are too narrow or specific may limit the scope of the research and make it difficult to draw meaningful conclusions or implications.
• Being too ambitious: While it is important to aim high, being too ambitious with the aims and objectives can lead to unrealistic expectations and can be difficult to achieve within the constraints of the research project.
• Lack of alignment: The aims and objectives should be directly linked to the research questions being investigated. Otherwise, this will lead to a lack of coherence in the research project.
• Lack of feasibility: The aims and objectives should be achievable within the constraints of the research project, including time, budget, and resources. Failing to consider feasibility may cause compromise of the research quality.
• Failing to consider ethical considerations: The aims and objectives should take into account any ethical considerations, such as ensuring the safety and well-being of study participants.
• Failing to involve all stakeholders: It’s important to involve all relevant stakeholders, such as participants, supervisors, and funding agencies, in the development of the aims and objectives to ensure they are appropriate and relevant.

To avoid these common pitfalls, it is important to be specific, clear, relevant, and realistic when writing research aims and objectives. Seek feedback from colleagues or supervisors to ensure that the aims and objectives are aligned with the research problem , questions, and methodology, and are achievable within the constraints of the research project. It’s important to continually refine your aims and objectives as you go. As you progress in your research, it’s not uncommon for research aims and objectives to evolve slightly, but it’s important that they remain consistent with the study conducted and the research topic.

In summary, research aims and objectives are the backbone of any successful research project. They give you the ability to cut through the noise and hone in on what really matters. By setting clear goals and aligning them with your research questions and methodology, you can ensure that your research is relevant, impactful, and of the highest quality. So, before you hit the road on your research journey, make sure you have a clear destination and steps to get there. Let us know in the comments section below the challenges you faced and the strategies you followed while fomulating research aims and objectives! Also, feel free to reach out to us at any stage of your research or publication by using #AskEnago  and tagging @EnagoAcademy on Twitter , Facebook , and Quora . Happy researching!

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Setting a research question, aim and objective

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Limerick, Limerick, Republic of Ireland.
• 2 Department of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland.
• PMID: 26997231
• DOI: 10.7748/nr.23.4.19.s5

Aim: To describe the development of a research question, aim and objective.

Background: The first steps of any study are developing the research question, aim and objective. Subsequent steps develop from these and they govern the researchers' choice of population, setting, data to be collected and time period for the study. Clear, succinctly posed research questions, aims and objectives are essential if studies are to be successful.

Discussion: Researchers developing their research questions, aims and objectives generally experience difficulties. They are often overwhelmed trying to convert what they see as a relevant issue from practice into research. This necessitates engaging with the relevant published literature and knowledgeable people.

Conclusion: This paper identifies the issues to be considered when developing a research question, aim and objective. Understanding these considerations will enable researchers to effectively present their research question, aim and objective.

Implications for practice: To conduct successful studies, researchers should develop clear research questions, aims and objectives.

Keywords: novice researchers; nursing research; research aim; research objective; research question; study development.

• Nursing Research / methods
• Nursing Research / organization & administration*
• Organizational Objectives

Research Objectives: The Compass of Your Study

Table of contents

• 1 Definition and Purpose of Setting Clear Research Objectives
• 2 How Research Objectives Fit into the Overall Research Framework
• 3 Types of Research Objectives
• 4 Aligning Objectives with Research Questions and Hypotheses
• 5 Role of Research Objectives in Various Research Phases
• 6.1 Key characteristics of well-defined research objectives
• 6.2 Step-by-Step Guide on How to Formulate Both General and Specific Research Objectives
• 6.3 How to Know When Your Objectives Need Refinement
• 7 Research Objectives Examples in Different Fields
• 8 Conclusion

Embarking on a research journey without clear objectives is like navigating the sea without a compass. This article delves into the essence of establishing precise research objectives, serving as the guiding star for your scholarly exploration.

We will unfold the layers of how the objective of study not only defines the scope of your research but also directs every phase of the research process, from formulating research questions to interpreting research findings. By bridging theory with practical examples, we aim to illuminate the path to crafting effective research objectives that are both ambitious and attainable. Let’s chart the course to a successful research voyage, exploring the significance, types, and formulation of research paper objectives.

Definition and Purpose of Setting Clear Research Objectives

Defining the research objectives includes which two tasks? Research objectives are clear and concise statements that outline what you aim to achieve through your study. They are the foundation for determining your research scope, guiding your data collection methods, and shaping your analysis. The purpose of research proposal and setting clear objectives in it is to ensure that your research efforts are focused and efficient, and to provide a roadmap that keeps your study aligned with its intended outcomes.

To define the research objective at the outset, researchers can avoid the pitfalls of scope creep, where the study’s focus gradually broadens beyond its initial boundaries, leading to wasted resources and time. Clear objectives facilitate communication with stakeholders, such as funding bodies, academic supervisors, and the broader academic community, by succinctly conveying the study’s goals and significance. Furthermore, they help in the formulation of precise research questions and hypotheses, making the research process more systematic and organized. Yet, it is not always easy. For this reason, PapersOwl is always ready to help. Lastly, clear research objectives enable the researcher to critically assess the study’s progress and outcomes against predefined benchmarks, ensuring the research stays on track and delivers meaningful results.

How Research Objectives Fit into the Overall Research Framework

Research objectives are integral to the research framework as the nexus between the research problem, questions, and hypotheses. They translate the broad goals of your study into actionable steps, ensuring every aspect of your research is purposefully aligned towards addressing the research problem. This alignment helps in structuring the research design and methodology, ensuring that each component of the study is geared towards answering the core questions derived from the objectives. Creating such a difficult piece may take a lot of time. If you need it to be accurate yet fast delivered, consider getting professional research paper writing help whenever the time comes. It also aids in the identification and justification of the research methods and tools used for data collection and analysis, aligning them with the objectives to enhance the validity and reliability of the findings.

Furthermore, by setting clear objectives, researchers can more effectively evaluate the impact and significance of their work in contributing to existing knowledge. Additionally, research objectives guide literature review, enabling researchers to focus their examination on relevant studies and theoretical frameworks that directly inform their research goals.

Types of Research Objectives

In the landscape of research, setting objectives is akin to laying down the tracks for a train’s journey, guiding it towards its destination. Constructing these tracks involves defining two main types of objectives: general and specific. Each serves a unique purpose in guiding the research towards its ultimate goals, with general objectives providing the broad vision and specific objectives outlining the concrete steps needed to fulfill that vision. Together, they form a cohesive blueprint that directs the focus of the study, ensuring that every effort contributes meaningfully to the overarching research aims.

• General objectives articulate the overarching goals of your study. They are broad, setting the direction for your research without delving into specifics. These objectives capture what you wish to explore or contribute to existing knowledge.
• Specific objectives break down the general objectives into measurable outcomes. They are precise, detailing the steps needed to achieve the broader goals of your study. They often correspond to different aspects of your research question , ensuring a comprehensive approach to your study.

To illustrate, consider a research project on the impact of digital marketing on consumer behavior. A general objective might be “to explore the influence of digital marketing on consumer purchasing decisions.” Specific objectives could include “to assess the effectiveness of social media advertising in enhancing brand awareness” and “to evaluate the impact of email marketing on customer loyalty.”

Aligning Objectives with Research Questions and Hypotheses

The harmony between what research objectives should be, questions, and hypotheses is critical. Objectives define what you aim to achieve; research questions specify what you seek to understand, and hypotheses predict the expected outcomes.

This alignment ensures a coherent and focused research endeavor. Achieving it necessitates a thoughtful consideration of how each component interrelates, ensuring that the objectives are not only ambitious but also directly answerable through the research questions and testable via the hypotheses. This interconnectedness facilitates a streamlined approach to the research process, enabling researchers to systematically address each aspect of their study in a logical sequence. Moreover, it enhances the clarity and precision of the research, making it easier for peers and stakeholders to grasp the study’s direction and potential contributions.

Role of Research Objectives in Various Research Phases

Throughout the research process, objectives guide your choices and strategies – from selecting the appropriate research design and methods to analyzing data and interpreting results. They are the criteria against which you measure the success of your study. In the initial stages, research objectives inform the selection of a topic, helping to narrow down a broad area of interest into a focused question that can be explored in depth. During the methodology phase, they dictate the type of data needed and the best methods for obtaining that data, ensuring that every step taken is purposeful and aligned with the study’s goals. As the research progresses, objectives provide a framework for analyzing the collected data, guiding the researcher in identifying patterns, drawing conclusions, and making informed decisions.

Crafting Effective Research Objectives

The effective objective of research is pivotal in laying the groundwork for a successful investigation. These objectives clarify the focus of your study and determine its direction and scope. Ensuring that your objectives are well-defined and aligned with the SMART criteria is crucial for setting a strong foundation for your research.

Key characteristics of well-defined research objectives

Well-defined research objectives are characterized by the SMART criteria – Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. Specific objectives clearly define what you plan to achieve, eliminating any ambiguity. Measurable objectives allow you to track progress and assess the outcome. Achievable objectives are realistic, considering the research sources and time available. Relevant objectives align with the broader goals of your field or research question. Finally, Time-bound objectives have a clear timeline for completion, adding urgency and a schedule to your work.

Step-by-Step Guide on How to Formulate Both General and Specific Research Objectives

So lets get to the part, how to write research objectives properly?

• Understand the issue or gap in existing knowledge your study aims to address.
• Gain insights into how similar challenges have been approached to refine your objectives.
• Articulate the broad goal of research based on your understanding of the problem.
• Detail the specific aspects of your research, ensuring they are actionable and measurable.

How to Know When Your Objectives Need Refinement

Your objectives of research may require refinement if they lack clarity, feasibility, or alignment with the research problem. If you find yourself struggling to design experiments or methods that directly address your objectives, or if the objectives seem too broad or not directly related to your research question, it’s likely time for refinement. Additionally, objectives in research proposal that do not facilitate a clear measurement of success indicate a need for a more precise definition. Refinement involves ensuring that each objective is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound, enhancing your research’s overall focus and impact.

Research Objectives Examples in Different Fields

The application of research objectives spans various academic disciplines, each with its unique focus and methodologies. To illustrate how the objectives of the study guide a research paper across different fields, here are some research objective examples:

• In Health Sciences , a research aim may be to “determine the efficacy of a new vaccine in reducing the incidence of a specific disease among a target population within one year.” This objective is specific (efficacy of a new vaccine), measurable (reduction in disease incidence), achievable (with the right study design and sample size), relevant (to public health), and time-bound (within one year).
• In Environmental Studies , the study objectives could be “to assess the impact of air pollution on urban biodiversity over a decade.” This reflects a commitment to understanding the long-term effects of human activities on urban ecosystems, emphasizing the need for sustainable urban planning.
• In Economics , an example objective of a study might be “to analyze the relationship between fiscal policies and unemployment rates in developing countries over the past twenty years.” This seeks to explore macroeconomic trends and inform policymaking, highlighting the role of economic research study in societal development.

These examples of research objectives describe the versatility and significance of research objectives in guiding scholarly inquiry across different domains. By setting clear, well-defined objectives, researchers can ensure their studies are focused and impactful and contribute valuable knowledge to their respective fields.

Defining research studies objectives and problem statement is not just a preliminary step, but a continuous guiding force throughout the research journey. These goals of research illuminate the path forward and ensure that every stride taken is meaningful and aligned with the ultimate goals of the inquiry. Whether through the meticulous application of the SMART criteria or the strategic alignment with research questions and hypotheses, the rigor in crafting and refining these objectives underscores the integrity and relevance of the research. As scholars venture into the vast terrains of knowledge, the clarity, and precision of their objectives serve as beacons of light, steering their explorations toward discoveries that advance academic discourse and resonate with the broader societal needs.

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How to Write a Research Paper

Undergrads often write research papers each semester, causing stress. Yet, it’s simpler than believing if you know how to write a research paper . Divide the task, get tips, a plan, and tools for an outstanding paper. Simplify research, writing, topic choice, and illustration use!

A research paper is an academic document that involves deep, independent research to offer analysis, interpretation, and argument. Unlike academic essays, research papers are lengthier and more detailed, aiming to evaluate your writing and scholarly research abilities. To write one, you must showcase expertise in your subject, interact with diverse sources, and provide a unique perspective to the discussion. 

Research papers are a foundational element of contemporary science and the most efficient means of disseminating knowledge throughout a broad network. Nonetheless, individuals usually encounter research papers during their education; they are frequently employed in college courses to assess a student’s grasp of a specific field or their aptitude for research. 

Given their significance, research papers adopt a research paper format – a formal, unadorned style that eliminates any subjective influence from the writing. Scientists present their discoveries straightforwardly, accompanied by relevant supporting proof, enabling other researchers to integrate the paper into their investigations.

This guide leads you through every steps to write a research paper , from grasping your task to refining your ultimate draft and will teach you how to write a research paper.

Understanding The Research Paper

A research paper is a meticulously structured document that showcases the outcomes of an inquiry, exploration, or scrutiny undertaken on a specific subject. It embodies a formal piece of academic prose that adds novel information, perspectives, or interpretations to a particular domain of study. Typically authored by scholars, researchers, scientists, or students as part of their academic or professional pursuits, these papers adhere to a well-defined format. This research paper format encompasses an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. 

The introduction provides context and outlines the study’s significance, while the literature review encapsulates existing research and situates the study within the broader academic discourse. The methodology section elucidates the research process, encompassing data collection and analysis techniques. Findings are presented in the results section, often complemented by graphical and statistical representations. Interpretation of findings, implications, and connection to existing knowledge transpire in the discussion section. 

Ultimately, the conclusion encapsulates pivotal discoveries and their wider import.

Research papers wield immense significance in advancing knowledge across diverse disciplines, enabling researchers to disseminate findings, theories, and revelations to a broader audience. Before publication in academic journals or presentations at conferences, these papers undergo a stringent peer review process conducted by domain experts, ensuring their integrity, precision, and worth.

Academic and non-academic research papers diverge across several dimensions. Academic papers are crafted for scholarly circles to expand domain knowledge and theories. They maintain a formal, objective tone and heavily rely on peer-reviewed sources for credibility. In contrast, non-academic papers, employing a more flexible writing style, target a broader audience or specific practical goals. These papers might incorporate persuasive language, anecdotes, and various sources beyond academia. While academic papers rigorously adhere to structured formats and established citation styles, non-academic papers prioritize practicality, adapting their structure and citation methods to suit the intended readership.

The purpose of a research paper revolves around offering fresh insights, knowledge, or interpretations within a specific field. This formal document serves as a conduit for scholars, researchers, scientists, and students to communicate their investigative findings and actively contribute to the ongoing academic discourse.

Research Paper Writing Process – How To Write a Good Research Paper

Selecting a suitable research topic .

Your initial task is to thoroughly review the assignment and carefully absorb the writing prompt’s details. Pay particular attention to technical specifications like length, formatting prerequisites (such as single- vs. double-spacing, indentation, etc.), and the required citation style. Also, pay attention to specifics, including an abstract or a cover page.

Once you’ve a clear understanding of the assignment, the subsequent steps to write a research paper are aligned with the conventional writing process. However, remember that research papers have rules, adding some extra considerations to the process.

When given some assignment freedom, the crucial task of choosing a topic rests on you. Despite its apparent simplicity, this choice sets the foundation for your entire research paper, shaping its direction. The primary factor in picking a research paper topic is ensuring it has enough material to support it. Your chosen topic should provide ample data and complexity for a thorough discussion. However, it’s important to avoid overly broad subjects and focus on specific ones that cover all relevant information without gaps. Yet, approach topic selection more slowly; choosing something that genuinely interests you is still valuable. Aim for a topic that meets both criteria—delivering substantial content while maintaining engagement.

Conducting Thorough Research 

Commence by delving into your research early to refine your topic and shape your thesis statement. Swift engagement with available research aids in dispelling misconceptions and unveils optimal paths and strategies to gather more material. Typically, research sources can be located either online or within libraries. When navigating online sources, exercise caution and opt for reputable outlets such as scientific journals or academic papers. Specific search engines, outlined below in the Tools and Resources section, exclusively enable exploring accredited sources and academic databases.

While pursuing information, it’s essential to differentiate between primary and secondary sources. Primary sources entail firsthand accounts, encompassing published articles or autobiographies, while secondary sources, such as critical reviews or secondary biographies, are more distanced. Skimming sources instead of reading each part proves more efficient during the research phase. If a source shows promise, set it aside for more in-depth reading later. Doing so prevents you from investing excessive time in sources that won’t contribute substantively to your work. You should present a literature review detailing your references and submit them for validation in certain instances. 

Organizing And Structuring The Research Paper

According to the research paper format , an outline for a research paper is a catalogue of essential topics, arguments, and evidence you intend to incorporate. These elements are divided into sections with headings, offering a preliminary overview of the paper’s structure before commencing the writing process. Formulating a structural outline can significantly enhance writing efficiency, warranting an investment of time to establish one.

Start by generating a list encompassing crucial categories and subtopics—a preliminary outline. Reflect on the amassed information while gathering supporting evidence, pondering the most effective means of segregation and categorization.

Once a discussion list is compiled, deliberate on the optimal information presentation sequence and identify related subtopics that should be placed adjacent. Consider if any subtopic loses coherence when presented out of order. Adopting a chronological arrangement can be suitable if the information follows a straightforward trajectory.

Given the potential complexity of research papers, consider breaking down the outline into paragraphs. This aids in maintaining organization when dealing with copious information and provides better control over the paper’s progression. Rectifying structural issues during the outline phase is preferable to addressing them after writing.

Remember to incorporate supporting evidence within the outline. Since there’s likely a substantial amount to include, outlining helps prevent overlooking crucial elements.

Writing The Introduction

According to the research paper format , the introduction of a research paper must address three fundamental inquiries: What, why, and how? Upon completing the introduction, the reader should clearly understand the paper’s subject matter, its relevance, and the approach you’ll use to construct your arguments.

What? Offer precise details regarding the paper’s topic, provide context, and elucidate essential terminology or concepts.

Why? This constitutes the most crucial yet challenging aspect of the introduction. Endeavour to furnish concise responses to the subsequent queries: What novel information or insights do you present? Which significant matters does your essay assist in defining or resolving?

How? To provide the reader with a preview of the paper’s forthcoming content, the introduction should incorporate a “guide” outlining the upcoming discussions. This entails briefly outlining the paper’s principal components in chronological sequence.

Developing The Main Body 

One of the primary challenges that many writers grapple with is effectively organizing the wealth of information they wish to present in their papers. This is precisely why an outline can be an invaluable tool. However, it’s essential to recognize that while an outline provides a roadmap, the writing process allows flexibility in determining the order in which information and arguments are introduced.

Maintaining cohesiveness throughout the paper involves anchoring your writing to the thesis statement and topic sentences. Here’s how to ensure a well-structured paper:

• Alignment with Thesis Statement: Regularly assess whether your topic sentences correspond with the central thesis statement. This ensures that your arguments remain on track and directly contribute to the overarching message you intend to convey.
• Consistency and Logical Flow: Review your topic sentences concerning one another. Do they follow a logical order that guides the reader through a coherent narrative? Ensuring a seamless flow from one topic to another helps maintain engagement and comprehension.
• Supporting Sentence Alignment: Each sentence within a paragraph should align with the topic sentence of that paragraph. This alignment reinforces the central idea, preventing tangential or disjointed discussions.

Additionally, identify paragraphs that cover similar content. While some overlap might be inevitable, it’s essential to approach shared topics from different angles, offering fresh insights and perspectives. Creating these nuanced differences helps present a well-rounded exploration of the subject matter.

An often-overlooked aspect of effective organization is the art of crafting smooth transitions. Transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and larger sections are the glue that holds your paper together. They guide the reader through the progression of ideas, enhancing clarity and creating a seamless reading experience.

Ultimately, while the struggle to organize information is accurate, employing these strategies not only aids in addressing the challenge but also contributes to the overall quality and impact of your writing.

Crafting A Strong Conclusion 

The purpose of the research paper’s conclusion is to guide your reader out of the realm of the paper’s argument, leaving them with a sense of closure.

Trace the paper’s trajectory, underscoring how all the elements converge to validate your thesis statement. Impart a sense of completion by ensuring the reader comprehends the resolution of the issues introduced in the paper’s introduction.

In addition, you can explore the broader implications of your argument, outline your paper’s contributions to future students studying the subject, and propose questions that your argument raises—ones that might not be addressed in the paper itself. However, it’s important to avoid:

• Introducing new arguments or crucial information that wasn’t covered earlier.
• Extending the conclusion unnecessarily.
• Employing common phrases that signal the decision (e.g., “In conclusion”).

By adhering to these guidelines, your conclusion can serve as a fitting and impactful conclusion to your research paper, leaving a lasting impression on your readers.

Refining The Research Paper

• Editing And Proofreading 

Eliminate unnecessary verbiage and extraneous content. In tandem with the comprehensive structure of your paper, focus on individual words, ensuring your language is robust. Verify the utilization of active voice rather than passive voice, and confirm that your word selection is precise and tangible.

The passive voice, exemplified by phrases like “I opened the door,” tends to convey hesitation and verbosity. In contrast, the active voice, as in “I opened the door,” imparts strength and brevity.

Each word employed in your paper should serve a distinct purpose. Strive to eschew the inclusion of surplus words solely to occupy space or exhibit sophistication.

For instance, the statement “The author uses pathos to appeal to readers’ emotions” is superior to the alternative “The author utilizes pathos to appeal to the emotional core of those who read the passage.”

Engage in thorough proofreading to rectify spelling, grammatical, and formatting inconsistencies. Once you’ve refined the structure and content of your paper, address any typographical and grammatical inaccuracies. Taking a break from your paper before proofreading can offer a new perspective.

Enhance error detection by reading your essay aloud. This not only aids in identifying mistakes but also assists in evaluating the flow. If you encounter sections that seem awkward during this reading, consider making necessary adjustments to enhance the overall coherence.

• Formatting And Referencing 

Citations are pivotal in distinguishing research papers from informal nonfiction pieces like personal essays. They serve the dual purpose of substantiating your data and establishing a connection between your research paper and the broader scientific community. Given their significance, citations are subject to precise formatting regulations; however, the challenge lies in the existence of multiple sets of rules.

It’s crucial to consult the assignment’s instructions to determine the required formatting style. Generally, academic research papers adhere to either of two formatting styles for source citations:

• MLA (Modern Language Association)
• APA (American Psychological Association)

Moreover, aside from MLA and APA styles, occasional demands might call for adherence to CMOS (The Chicago Manual of Style), AMA (American Medical Association), and IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) formats.

Initially, citations might appear intricate due to their numerous regulations and specific details. However, once you become adept at them, citing sources accurately becomes almost second nature. It’s important to note that each formatting style provides detailed guidelines for citing various sources, including photographs, websites, speeches, and YouTube videos.

Tips For Writing An Effective Research Paper 

By following these research paper writing tips , you’ll be well-equipped to create a well-structured, well-researched, and impactful research paper:

• Select a Clear and Manageable Topic: Choose a topic that is specific and focused enough to be thoroughly explored within the scope of your paper.
• Conduct In-Depth Research: Gather information from reputable sources such as academic journals, books, and credible websites. Take thorough notes to keep track of your sources.
• Create a Strong Thesis Statement: Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or purpose of your paper.
• Develop a Well-Structured Outline: Organize your ideas into a logical order by creating an outline that outlines the main sections and their supporting points.
• Compose a Captivating Introduction: Hook the reader with an engaging introduction that provides background information and introduces the thesis statement.
• Provide Clear and Relevant Evidence: Support your arguments with reliable and relevant evidence, such as statistics, examples, and expert opinions.
• Maintain Consistent Tone and Style: Keep a consistent tone and writing style throughout the paper, adhering to the formatting guidelines of your chosen citation style.
• Craft Coherent Paragraphs: Each paragraph should focus on a single idea or point, and transitions should smoothly guide the reader from one idea to the next.
• Use Active Voice: Write in the active voice to make your writing more direct and engaging.
• Revise and Edit Thoroughly: Proofread your paper for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and sentence structure. Revise for clarity and coherence.
• Seek Peer Feedback: Have a peer or instructor review your paper for feedback and suggestions.
• Cite Sources Properly: Accurately cite all sources using the required citation style (e.g., MLA, APA) to avoid plagiarism and give credit to original authors.
• Be Concise and Avoid Redundancy: Strive for clarity by eliminating unnecessary words and redundancies.
• Conclude Effectively: Summarize your main points and restate your thesis in the conclusion. Provide a sense of closure without introducing new ideas.
• Stay Organized: Keep track of your sources, notes, and drafts to ensure a structured and organized approach to the writing process.
• Proofread with Fresh Eyes: Take a break before final proofreading to review your paper with a fresh perspective, helping you catch any overlooked errors.
• Edit for Clarity: Ensure that your ideas are conveyed clearly and that your arguments are easy to follow.
• Ask for Feedback: Don’t hesitate to ask for feedback from peers, instructors, or writing centers to improve your paper further.

In conclusion, we’ve explored the essential steps to write a research paper . From selecting a focused topic to mastering the intricacies of citations, we’ve navigated through the key elements of this process.

It’s vital to recognize that adhering to the research paper writing tips is not merely a suggestion, but a roadmap to success. Each stage contributes to the overall quality and impact of your paper. By meticulously following these steps, you ensure a robust foundation for your research, bolster your arguments, and present your findings with clarity and conviction.

As you embark on your own research paper journey, I urge you to put into practice the techniques and insights shared in this guide. Don’t shy away from investing time in organization, thorough research, and precise writing. Embrace the challenge, for it’s through this process that your ideas take shape and your voice is heard within the academic discourse.

Remember, every exceptional research paper begins with a single step. And with each step you take, your ability to articulate complex ideas and contribute to your field of study grows. So, go ahead – apply these tips, refine your skills, and witness your research papers evolve into compelling narratives that inspire, inform, and captivate.

In the grand tapestry of academia, your research paper becomes a thread of insight, woven into the larger narrative of human knowledge. By embracing the writing process and nurturing your unique perspective, you become an integral part of this ever-expanding tapestry.

Happy writing, and may your research papers shine brightly, leaving a lasting mark on both your readers and the world of scholarship.

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Home » Purpose of Research – Objectives and Applications

Purpose of Research – Objectives and Applications

Table of Contents

Purpose of Research

Definition:

The purpose of research is to systematically investigate and gather information on a particular topic or issue, with the aim of answering questions, solving problems, or advancing knowledge.

The purpose of research can vary depending on the field of study, the research question, and the intended audience. In general, research can be used to:

• Generate new knowledge and theories
• Test existing theories or hypotheses
• Identify trends or patterns
• Gather information for decision-making
• Evaluate the effectiveness of programs, policies, or interventions
• Develop new technologies or products
• Identify new opportunities or areas for further study.

Objectives of Research

The objectives of research may vary depending on the field of study and the specific research question being investigated. However, some common objectives of research include:

• To explore and describe a phenomenon: Research can be conducted to describe and understand a phenomenon or situation in greater detail.
• To test a hypothesis or theory : Research can be used to test a specific hypothesis or theory by collecting and analyzing data.
• To identify patterns or trends: Research can be conducted to identify patterns or trends in data, which can provide insights into the behavior of a system or population.
• To evaluate a program or intervention: Research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a program or intervention, such as a new drug or educational intervention.
• To develop new knowledge or technology : Research can be conducted to develop new knowledge or technologies that can be applied to solve practical problems.
• To inform policy decisions: Research can provide evidence to inform policy decisions and improve public policy.
• To improve existing knowledge: Research can be conducted to improve existing knowledge and fill gaps in the current understanding of a topic.

Applications of Research

Research has a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

• Medicine : Research is critical in developing new treatments and drugs for diseases. Researchers conduct clinical trials to test the safety and efficacy of new medications and therapies. They also study the underlying causes of diseases to find new ways to prevent or treat them.
• Technology : Research is crucial in developing new technologies and improving existing ones. Researchers work to develop new software, hardware, and other technological innovations that can be used in various industries such as healthcare, manufacturing, and telecommunications.
• Education : Research is essential in the field of education to develop new teaching methods and strategies. Researchers conduct studies to determine the effectiveness of various educational approaches and to identify factors that influence student learning.
• Business : Research is critical in helping businesses make informed decisions. Market research can help businesses understand their target audience and identify trends in the market. Research can also help businesses improve their products and services.
• Environmental Science : Research is crucial in the field of environmental science to understand the impact of human activities on the environment. Researchers conduct studies to identify ways to reduce pollution, protect natural resources, and mitigate the effects of climate change.

Goal of Research

The ultimate goal of research is to advance our understanding of the world and to contribute to the development of new theories, ideas, and technologies that can be used to improve our lives. Some more common Goals are follows:

• Explore and discover new knowledge : Research can help uncover new information and insights that were previously unknown.
• Test hypotheses and theories : Research can be used to test and validate theories and hypotheses, allowing researchers to refine and develop their ideas.
• Solve practical problems: Research can be used to identify solutions to real-world problems and to inform policy and decision-making.
• Improve understanding : Research can help improve our understanding of complex phenomena and systems, such as the human body, the natural world, and social systems.
• Develop new technologies and innovations : Research can lead to the development of new technologies, products, and innovations that can improve our lives and society.
• Contribute to the development of academic fields : Research can help advance academic fields by expanding our knowledge and understanding of important topics and areas of inquiry.

Importance of Research

The importance of research lies in its ability to generate new knowledge and insights, to test existing theories and ideas, and to solve practical problems.

Some of the key reasons why research is important are:

• Advancing knowledge: Research is essential for advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields. It enables us to explore and discover new concepts, ideas, and phenomena that can contribute to scientific and technological progress.
• Solving problems : Research can help identify and solve practical problems and challenges in various domains, such as health care, agriculture, engineering, and social policy.
• Innovation : Research is a critical driver of innovation, as it enables the development of new products, services, and technologies that can improve people’s lives and contribute to economic growth.
• Evidence-based decision-making : Research provides evidence and data that can inform decision-making in various fields, such as policy-making, business strategy, and healthcare.
• Personal and professional development : Engaging in research can also contribute to personal and professional development, as it requires critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills.

When to use Research

Research should be used in situations where there is a need to gather new information, test existing theories, or solve problems. Some common scenarios where research is often used include:

• Scientific inquiry : Research is essential for advancing scientific knowledge and understanding, and for exploring new concepts, theories, and phenomena.
• Business and market analysis: Research is critical for businesses to gather data and insights about the market, customer preferences, and competition, to inform decision-making and strategy development.
• Social policy and public administration: Research is often used in social policy and public administration to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies, and to identify areas where improvements are needed.
• Healthcare: Research is essential in healthcare to develop new treatments, improve existing ones, and to understand the causes and mechanisms of diseases.
• Education : Research is critical in education to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching methods and programs, and to develop new approaches to learning.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

• Break through writer’s block. Write your research paper introduction with Paperpal Copilot

Table of Contents

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The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

Write a Research Paper Introduction in Minutes with Paperpal

Paperpal Copilot is a generative AI-powered academic writing assistant. It’s trained on millions of published scholarly articles and over 20 years of STM experience. Paperpal Copilot helps authors write better and faster with:

• Real-time writing suggestions
• In-depth checks for language and grammar correction
• Paraphrasing to add variety, ensure academic tone, and trim text to meet journal limits

With Paperpal Copilot, create a research paper introduction effortlessly. In this step-by-step guide, we’ll walk you through how Paperpal transforms your initial ideas into a polished and publication-ready introduction.

How to use Paperpal to write the Introduction section

Step 1: Sign up on Paperpal and click on the Copilot feature, under this choose Outlines > Research Article > Introduction

Step 2: Add your unstructured notes or initial draft, whether in English or another language, to Paperpal, which is to be used as the base for your content.

Step 3: Fill in the specifics, such as your field of study, brief description or details you want to include, which will help the AI generate the outline for your Introduction.

Step 4: Use this outline and sentence suggestions to develop your content, adding citations where needed and modifying it to align with your specific research focus.

Step 5: Turn to Paperpal’s granular language checks to refine your content, tailor it to reflect your personal writing style, and ensure it effectively conveys your message.

You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

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The Main Aim of a Research Paper

A research paper is one of the most commonly assigned tasks at both high school and college. That is why every student knows how challenging such a task may be and often claim that it only adds inconvenience and stress.

However, a research paper, if completed properly, is a great way to understand the subject and give a tutor a chance to evaluate a variety of skills.

A real goal of completing a research paper

It is as simple, as A-B-C: you won’t be able to finish post-secondary grade until you will be ready to complete such assignments. Research papers give your professors a chance to evaluate not only your knowledge of the subject but also your abilities to find relevant sources and data, process it and use the material in a clear and understandable manner.

In addition, you will be able to show your tutors how well you are able to shape your personal opinion on a subject and back it with relevant information.

The main difference between a research paper and a creative writing is that you should always put logic first. No need to make up anything: just use facts and arguments to cover the topic. It is probably the most valuable and important advice you will ever get on an academic assignment.

How to complete

As any academic task, a research paper has some rules and guidelines, which you need to follow. While such rules may not be too strict or obvious, there is always one thing you need to remember: always follow the structure.

A proper structure of your work gives the reader a chance to understand the subject and make up personal opinion on the matter.

Another important lesson you will learn from a research paper is that you should always base it on other works and studies. Being able to process various sources and make up your own vision on the subject is one of the most valuable lessons any student can learn from an academic writing.

What will you learn

If you think that completing a research paper is causing you stress and you don’t feel like finishing it, you need to consider all of the benefits. Such task gives you a valuable experience of working with various sources, analyzing information and improving knowledge on the subject. That is why benefits of a research paper include:

• Learning various information. You will always know more!
• Obtaining logical skills. Constant analyzing will definitely help in future;
• Argumentation skills that are useful even in daily lives;
• Gaining confidence to support your point of view.

All these skills will bring you an ultimately new experience and you will not only be able to complete a great research paper but will also improve the quality of your life.

AI Index Report

Welcome to the seventh edition of the AI Index report. The 2024 Index is our most comprehensive to date and arrives at an important moment when AI’s influence on society has never been more pronounced. This year, we have broadened our scope to more extensively cover essential trends such as technical advancements in AI, public perceptions of the technology, and the geopolitical dynamics surrounding its development. Featuring more original data than ever before, this edition introduces new estimates on AI training costs, detailed analyses of the responsible AI landscape, and an entirely new chapter dedicated to AI’s impact on science and medicine.

Read the 2024 AI Index Report

The AI Index report tracks, collates, distills, and visualizes data related to artificial intelligence (AI). Our mission is to provide unbiased, rigorously vetted, broadly sourced data in order for policymakers, researchers, executives, journalists, and the general public to develop a more thorough and nuanced understanding of the complex field of AI.

The AI Index is recognized globally as one of the most credible and authoritative sources for data and insights on artificial intelligence. Previous editions have been cited in major newspapers, including the The New York Times, Bloomberg, and The Guardian, have amassed hundreds of academic citations, and been referenced by high-level policymakers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union, among other places. This year’s edition surpasses all previous ones in size, scale, and scope, reflecting the growing significance that AI is coming to hold in all of our lives.

Steering Committee Co-Directors

Ray Perrault

Steering committee members.

Erik Brynjolfsson

John Etchemendy

Katrina Ligett

Terah Lyons

James Manyika

Juan Carlos Niebles

Vanessa Parli

Yoav Shoham

Russell Wald

Staff members.

Loredana Fattorini

Nestor Maslej

Letter from the co-directors.

A decade ago, the best AI systems in the world were unable to classify objects in images at a human level. AI struggled with language comprehension and could not solve math problems. Today, AI systems routinely exceed human performance on standard benchmarks.

Progress accelerated in 2023. New state-of-the-art systems like GPT-4, Gemini, and Claude 3 are impressively multimodal: They can generate fluent text in dozens of languages, process audio, and even explain memes. As AI has improved, it has increasingly forced its way into our lives. Companies are racing to build AI-based products, and AI is increasingly being used by the general public. But current AI technology still has significant problems. It cannot reliably deal with facts, perform complex reasoning, or explain its conclusions.

AI faces two interrelated futures. First, technology continues to improve and is increasingly used, having major consequences for productivity and employment. It can be put to both good and bad uses. In the second future, the adoption of AI is constrained by the limitations of the technology. Regardless of which future unfolds, governments are increasingly concerned. They are stepping in to encourage the upside, such as funding university R&D and incentivizing private investment. Governments are also aiming to manage the potential downsides, such as impacts on employment, privacy concerns, misinformation, and intellectual property rights.

As AI rapidly evolves, the AI Index aims to help the AI community, policymakers, business leaders, journalists, and the general public navigate this complex landscape. It provides ongoing, objective snapshots tracking several key areas: technical progress in AI capabilities, the community and investments driving AI development and deployment, public opinion on current and potential future impacts, and policy measures taken to stimulate AI innovation while managing its risks and challenges. By comprehensively monitoring the AI ecosystem, the Index serves as an important resource for understanding this transformative technological force.

On the technical front, this year’s AI Index reports that the number of new large language models released worldwide in 2023 doubled over the previous year. Two-thirds were open-source, but the highest-performing models came from industry players with closed systems. Gemini Ultra became the first LLM to reach human-level performance on the Massive Multitask Language Understanding (MMLU) benchmark; performance on the benchmark has improved by 15 percentage points since last year. Additionally, GPT-4 achieved an impressive 0.97 mean win rate score on the comprehensive Holistic Evaluation of Language Models (HELM) benchmark, which includes MMLU among other evaluations.

Although global private investment in AI decreased for the second consecutive year, investment in generative AI skyrocketed. More Fortune 500 earnings calls mentioned AI than ever before, and new studies show that AI tangibly boosts worker productivity. On the policymaking front, global mentions of AI in legislative proceedings have never been higher. U.S. regulators passed more AI-related regulations in 2023 than ever before. Still, many expressed concerns about AI’s ability to generate deepfakes and impact elections. The public became more aware of AI, and studies suggest that they responded with nervousness.

Ray Perrault Co-director, AI Index

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Notes from the AI frontier: Modeling the impact of AI on the world economy

The role of artificial intelligence (AI) tools and techniques in business and the global economy is a hot topic. This is not surprising given that AI might usher in radical—arguably unprecedented—changes in the way people live and work. The AI revolution is not in its infancy, but most of its economic impact is yet to come.

New research from the McKinsey Global Institute attempts to simulate the impact of AI on the world economy. First, it builds on an understanding of the behavior of companies and the dynamics of various sectors to develop a bottom-up view of how to adopt and absorb AI technologies. Second, it takes into account the likely disruptions that countries, companies, and workers are likely to experience as they transition to AI. There will very probably be costs during this transition period, and they need to be factored into any estimate. The analysis examines how economic gains and losses are likely to be distributed among firms, employees, and countries and how this distribution could potentially hamper the capture of AI benefits. Third, the research examines the dynamics of AI for a wide range of countries—clustered into groups with similar characteristics—with the aim of giving a more global view.

The analysis should be seen as a guide to the potential economic impact of AI based on the best knowledge available at this stage. Among the major findings are the following:

There is large potential for AI to contribute to global economic activity

A key challenge is that adoption of ai could widen gaps among countries, companies, and workers.

The McKinsey Global Institute looked at five broad categories of AI: computer vision, natural language, virtual assistants, robotic process automation, and advanced machine learning. Companies will likely use these tools to varying degrees. Some will take an opportunistic approach, testing only one technology and piloting it in a specific function (an approach our modeling calls adoption). Others might be bolder, adopting all five and then absorbing them across the entire organization (an approach we call full absorption). In between these two poles, there will be many companies at different stages of adoption; the model also captures this partial impact.

By 2030, the average simulation shows that some 70 percent of companies might have adopted at least one type of AI technology but that less than half will have fully absorbed the five categories. The pattern of adoption and full absorption might be relatively rapid—at the high end of what has been observed with other technologies .

Several barriers might hinder rapid adoption and absorption (see video, “A minute with the McKinsey Global Institute: Challenges of adopting automation technology”). For instance, late adopters might find it difficult to generate impact from AI, because front-runners have already captured AI opportunities and late adopters lag in developing capabilities and attracting talent.

Nevertheless, at the global average level of adoption and absorption implied by our simulation, AI has the potential to deliver additional global economic activity of around $13 trillion by 2030, or about 16 percent higher cumulative GDP compared with today. This amounts to 1.2 percent additional GDP growth per year. If delivered, this impact would compare well with that of other general-purpose technologies through history.

A number of factors, including labor automation, innovation, and new competition, affect AI-driven productivity growth. Micro factors, such as the pace of adoption of AI, and macro factors, such as the global connectedness or labor-market structure of a country, both contribute to the size of the impact.

Our simulation examined seven possible channels of impact. The first three relate to the impact of AI adoption on the need for, and mix of, production factors that have direct impact on company productivity. The other four are externalities linked to the adoption of AI related to the broad economic environment and the transition to AI. We acknowledge that these seven channels are not definitive or necessarily comprehensive but rather a starting point based on our current understanding and trends currently under way (Exhibit 1).

The impact of AI might not be linear but could build up at an accelerating pace over time. Its contribution to growth might be three or more times higher by 2030 than it is over the next five years. An S-curve pattern of adoption and absorption of AI is likely—a slow start due to the substantial costs and investment associated with learning and deploying these technologies, then an acceleration driven by the cumulative effect of competition and an improvement in complementary capabilities alongside process innovations.

It would be a misjudgment to interpret this “slow burn” pattern of impact as proof that the effect of AI will be limited. The size of benefits for those who move early into these technologies will build up in later years at the expense of firms with limited or no adoption.

Although Al can deliver a boost to economic activity, the benefits are likely to be uneven.

How AI could affect countries

Potentially, AI might widen gaps between countries, reinforcing the current digital divide. Countries might need different strategies and responses as AI-adoption rates vary.

Leaders of AI adoption (mostly in developed countries) could increase their lead over developing countries. Leading AI countries could capture an additional 20 to 25 percent in net economic benefits, compared with today, while developing countries might capture only about 5 to 15 percent. Many developed countries might have no choice but to push AI to capture higher productivity growth as their GDP-growth momentum slows—in many cases, partly reflecting the challenge due to aging populations. Moreover, in these economies, wage rates are high, which means that there is more incentive to substitute labor with machines than there is in low-wage, developing countries.

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In contrast, developing countries tend to have other ways, including catching up with best practices and restructuring their industries, to improve their productivity. Therefore, they might have less incentive to push for AI (which, in any case, might offer them a relatively smaller economic benefit than it does advanced economies). Some developing countries might prove to be exceptions to this rule. For instance, China has a national strategy in place to become a global leader in the AI supply chain and is investing heavily.

How AI could affect companies

It is possible that AI technologies could lead to a performance gap between front-runners (companies that fully absorb AI tools across their enterprises over the next five to seven years) and nonadopters (companies that do not adopt AI technologies at all or have not fully absorbed them in their enterprises by 2030).

At one end of the spectrum, front-runners are likely to benefit disproportionately. By 2030, they could potentially double their cash flow (economic benefit captured minus associated investment and transition costs). This implies additional annual net cash-flow growth of about 6 percent for longer than the next decade. Front-runners tend to have a strong starting IT base, a higher propensity to invest in AI, and positive views of the business case for AI.

At the other end of the spectrum, nonadopters might experience around a 20 percent decline in their cash flow from today’s levels, assuming the same cost and revenue model as today. One important driver of this profit pressure is the existence of strong competitive dynamics among companies that could shift market share from laggards to front-runners and might prompt debate about the unequal distribution of the benefits of AI (Exhibit 2).

How AI could affect workers

A widening gap might unfold at the level of individual workers (see video, “A minute with the McKinsey Global Institute: What AI can and can’t [yet] do”). Demand for jobs could shift away from repetitive tasks toward those that are socially and cognitively driven and require more digital skills . Job profiles characterized by repetitive activities or that require a low level of digital skills could experience the largest decline as a share of total employment to around 30 percent by 2030, from some 40 percent. The largest gain in share could be in nonrepetitive activities and those that require high digital skills, rising from roughly 40 percent to more than 50 percent.

Notes from the frontier: Modeling the impact of AI on the world economy

These shifts would have an impact on wages. We simulate that around 13 percent of the total wage bill could shift to categories requiring nonrepetitive and high digital skills, where incomes could rise, while workers in the repetitive and low-digital-skills categories could experience a stagnation or even a cut in their wages. The share of the total wage bill of the latter group could decline to 20 percent, from 33 percent.

A direct consequence of this widening gap in employment and wages would be an intensifying war for people, particularly those skilled in developing and using AI tools. On the other hand is the potential for structural excess supply for a still relatively high portion of people lacking the digital and cognitive skills necessary to work with machines.

Overall, the adoption and absorption of AI might not have a significant impact on net employment. There will likely be substantial pressure on full-time-employment demand, but the total net impact in aggregate might be more limited than many fear. Our average global scenario suggests that total full-time-equivalent-employment demand might remain flat, or even that there could be a slightly negative net impact on jobs by 2030.

The opportunity of AI is significant, but there is no doubt that its penetration might cause disruption. The productivity dividend of AI probably will not materialize immediately. Its impact is likely to build up at an accelerated pace over time; therefore, the benefits of initial investment might not be visible in the short term. Patience and long-term strategic thinking will be required.

Policy makers will need to show bold leadership to overcome understandable discomfort among citizens about the perceived threat to their jobs as automation takes hold. Companies will also be important actors in searching for solutions on the mammoth task of skilling and reskilling people to work with AI. Individuals will need to adjust to a new world in which job turnover could be more frequent, they might have to transition to new types of employment, and they likely must continually refresh and update their skills to match the needs of a dynamically changing job market.

Using historical trends of new jobs created to old jobs, and adjusting for a lower labor-output ratio that considers the likely labor-saving nature of AI technologies via smart automation, new jobs driven by investment in AI could augment employment by about 5 percent by 2030. The total productivity effect could have a positive contribution to employment of about 10 percent.

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Jacques Bughin is a senior partner at the McKinsey Global Institute, where Jeongmin Seong is a senior fellow, James Manyika is chairman and a director, and Michael Chui is a partner. Raoul Joshi is a consultant in McKinsey’s Stockholm office.

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Quantum Physics

Title: quantum computers, quantum computing and quantum thermodynamics.

Abstract: Quantum thermodynamics aims at extending standard thermodynamics and non-equilibrium statistical physics to systems with sizes well below the thermodynamic limit. A rapidly evolving research field, which promises to change our understanding of the foundations of physics, while enabling the discovery of novel thermodynamic techniques and applications at the nanoscale. Thermal management turned into a major obstacle in pushing the limits of conventional digital computers, and it will represent a crucial issue also for quantum computers. The practical realization of quantum computers with superconducting loops requires working at cryogenic temperatures to eliminate thermal noise; ion-trap qubits need as well low temperatures to minimize collisional noise; in both cases, the sub-nanometric sizes also bring about thermal broadening of the quantum states. A number of thermal and thermodynamic questions therefore take center stage, such as quantum re-definitions of work and heat, thermalization and randomization of quantum states, the overlap of quantum and thermal fluctuations, and many other, even including a proper definition of temperature for the small open systems constantly out of equilibrium that are the qubits. This overview provides an introductory perspective on a selection of current trends in quantum thermodynamics and their impact on quantum computers and quantum computing, with a language accessible also to postgraduate students and researchers from different fields.

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 17.4.2024 in Vol 13 (2024)

Fostering Digital Life Skills Through Social Media With Adolescents in 6 German States: Protocol for an Accessibility Study According to the RE-AIM Framework

Authors of this article:

• Elizabeth Zimmermann * , MSc   ; 
• Samuel Tomczyk * , Dr Phil, Jun prof  

Institute for Health Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany

*all authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Elizabeth Zimmermann, MSc

Institute for Health Psychology

Department of Psychology

University of Greifswald

Robert-Blum-Str 13

Greifswald, 17489

Phone: 49 3834420 ext 3807

Email: [email protected]

Background: Social media is essential in the lives of adolescents, with 97% of US teenagers engaging daily. While it facilitates communication, learning, and identity development, it also poses risks like harmful content exposure and psychological distress, particularly for adolescents in their critical developmental stage. Teaching digital life skills innovatively counters these risks, adapting traditional competencies such as decision-making, problem-solving, creative and critical thinking, communication, interpersonal skills, self-awareness, empathy, and emotional and stress management to digital challenges.

Objective: This study evaluates the accessibility of the “leduin” program, a novel intervention designed to impart digital life skills through Instagram. The program aims to leverage social media’s educational potential, focusing on effective strategies to engage adolescents. Emphasizing accessibility is crucial, as it determines the program’s overall impact.

Methods: The leduin program, developed through intervention mapping, applies behavior change techniques via social media for 9th and 10th graders. It is a 14-week spaced learning curriculum with daily sessions <5 minutes. Emphasizing the “reach” aspect of the reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance (RE-AIM) model, the recruitment targets diverse educational settings across 6 German states, aiming for inclusivity. Recruitment will involve schools, youth centers, and therapeutic facilities. The study seeks at least 128 participants, a calculated minimum to detect medium-sized effects in the quasi-experimental design and explore varying engagement levels and program responses. Data collection includes preintervention, postintervention, and 6-month follow-up surveys, using multilevel regression, latent growth models, and qualitative analysis to extensively assess reach and gain first insights on effectiveness, acceptance, implementation, and maintenance. The study aims to reveal key factors influencing program participation and interaction; a detailed analysis of engagement patterns will reveal the effectiveness of the recruitment strategies and barriers to participation. Additionally, initial indications of the program’s impact on life skills, social media–related skills, health status, risk behaviors, and academic performance will be analyzed.

Results: Recruitment was planned from May 2023 until the beginning of the leduin program in October 2023. As of March 2024, we have recruited 283 participants.

Conclusions: The leduin program stands as an innovative and essential initiative in adolescent health promotion, harnessing the power of social media to teach important digital life skills. This study highlights the critical role of accessibility in the success of social media interventions. Effective adolescent engagement strategies are imperative, as they dictate the overall impact of such interventions. The insights gained from this study will be instrumental in shaping future programs, laying groundwork for a subsequent, more comprehensive cluster-randomized controlled trial. The study’s design acknowledges the limitations of the current quasi-experimental approach, including the anticipated sample size and the absence of a control group, and aims to provide a foundational understanding for future research in this field.

Trial Registration: Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien DRKS00032308; https://drks.de/search/de/trial/DRKS00032308

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID): PRR1-10.2196/51085

Introduction

Social media, a staple in the lives of 97% of US teenagers [ 1 ], facilitates communication, learning, and identity development for adolescents [ 2 - 5 ]. However, the functions and the lack of censorship on these platforms can lead to risks such as addiction, psychological distress, and exposure to harmful content [ 6 - 8 ]. Given the ongoing developmental stage of adolescents [ 9 ], they frequently lack the essential social-emotional and cognitive skills required for functional and constructive engagement with social media [ 10 ]. These challenges underscore the importance of building social media literacy, a crucial skill that enables adolescents to navigate digital content critically and responsibly [ 11 ]. Enhancing media literacy involves teaching adolescents to understand and manage the psychological impacts of digital interactions, including the development of self-regulation and critical thinking skills [ 12 - 14 ].

The widespread use of social media also offers a unique opportunity for preventive health interventions. As a cost-effective platform with a broad reach [ 3 , 15 - 17 ], social media can play a pivotal role in promoting mental and physical health [ 18 - 22 ]. Its accessibility makes it particularly valuable for reaching socially disadvantaged adolescents, who may engage more frequently with digital platforms, often in dysfunctional ways [ 23 - 26 ]. Thus, social media emerges as a critical tool in enhancing equity in health promotion.

While recognizing the potential of social media in adolescent health promotion, the limited evidence base highlights the need for careful consideration of practical, methodological, and ethical implications [ 22 , 27 - 30 ]. Current studies focus on engaging content and tailored interventions for diverse needs [ 20 , 29 , 31 , 32 ] but often lack a comprehensive, evidence-based approach that integrates psychological mechanisms and behavioral change techniques [ 30 ]. This gap extends to the challenge of effectively recruiting adolescents, especially for programs addressing sensitive health issues [ 33 , 34 ]. Recruitment complexities arise from stigma and the need to align with adolescents’ varied interests and obtain parental consent [ 35 - 37 ]. Addressing these challenges necessitates multifaceted strategies: empathetic engagement; using diverse channels; and clearly communicating the benefits while ensuring trust, confidentiality, and cultural sensitivity [ 38 , 39 ]. These methods emphasize the need for a supportive and safe environment, messages that resonate with adolescents, and the involvement of the broader community in the recruitment process for prevention programs.

Digital Life Skills in the Age of Social Media

Modern prevention strategies must encompass the growing convergence of analog and digital life, acknowledging the diverse challenges in both realms. In this context, promoting life skills emerges as a valuable and effective approach, contributing significantly to overall well-being, academic success, and the reduction of risk behaviors and chronic diseases [ 40 - 44 ].

Life skills, as defined by the World Health Organization [ 45 ], include decision-making, problem-solving, creative and critical thinking, communication and interpersonal skills, self-awareness, empathy, and managing emotions and stress. Traditional programs, despite their benefits, face challenges such as high costs and limited accessibility [ 46 , 47 ]. The digital era offers new avenues through e-learning and apps to effectively impart these skills while addressing issues such as substance abuse [ 48 - 53 ] but also necessitates developing digital skills to tackle digital challenges [ 11 , 12 , 54 ].

Development of a Digital Life Skills Program (Leduin)

Consequently, we have developed the “leduin” program, using the social media platform Instagram to teach digital life skills in a low-threshold and interactive manner, seamlessly integrated into everyday life. In doing so, we followed the intervention mapping methodology [ 55 ], which directs the conceptualization, development, and implementation of health promotion programs. The leduin program is a digital intervention specifically designed to empower adolescents in the 9th and 10th grades with crucial digital life skills to navigate challenges presented by social media and everyday life. The following steps were undertaken to develop the leduin program (E Zimmermann and S Tomczyk, unpublished data, 2024).

Logic Model Development

The development of the leduin program began with a comprehensive logic model, addressing the complexities of adolescent life in the context of social media. This model focuses on developing digital life skills that enhance health, reduce risk behaviors, and improve school performance, particularly targeting 9th and 10th graders. This timing is strategic as life skills are especially beneficial and more effectively imparted during such transitional periods in a student’s life [ 56 ]. The model was informed by focus groups with 67 adolescents aged 14 to 17 years and heterogeneous educational backgrounds.

Psychological Mechanisms Identification

The second step involved identifying psychological mechanisms vital for behavioral change and digital life skills development. The leduin program integrates (1) personal variables such as attitudes and self-efficacy, based on social cognitive theory and the theory of planned behavior [ 57 - 59 ]; (2) environmental factors including social norms and support [ 60 , 61 ]; and (3) information processing mechanisms to optimize message impact [ 62 ]. Additionally, it focuses on (4) activating resources to support the development of digital life skills [ 63 ].

Developing Methodological Framework and Intervention Design

For the third step, we crafted a methodological framework using the behavior change taxonomy [ 64 ], tailored to social media context. Influenced by research on social media [ 65 ], behavior change techniques in health programs [ 66 ], and user preferences [ 67 ], we chose Instagram for its interactivity and popularity [ 3 , 68 ]. The program integrates behavior change techniques within Instagram, encompassing (1) content sharing through posts and stories for information dissemination, (2) interactive features such as quizzes for behavioral regulation, (3) material and social incentives to enhance engagement, and (4) social processes such as polling and commenting to encourage participation. These components collectively support habit formation, problem-solving, and identity development related to behavior change (see Table 1 for detailed mechanisms and associated features), with the selection process also being guided by adolescent focus group feedback.

Program and Module Structuring

In the fourth step of the intervention mapping approach, the leduin program’s structure and modules were developed. It resulted in a 14-week program that encompasses modules on individual, social, and health skills, detailed in Textbox 1 . Each module introduces, specifies, applies concepts to risk situations and relates them to everyday life, aligning with World Health Organization life skills education guidelines [ 69 ]. Modules cover areas such as emotional and stress management, communication skills, and digital safety. Content is delivered through Instagram stories and feeds using short videos, images, quizzes, and surveys to foster active learning. Additionally, the program incorporates weekly self-care and stress management activities and interactive challenges with prizes to boost engagement. An accompanying analog workbook with journaling activities complements the digital content. This dual approach ensures comprehensive life skills training, emphasizing concise, daily content to promote spaced learning [ 70 ], contrasting with traditional massed learning methods.

Individual skills (modules 1-4):

• Strengths, goals, emotions, and stress

Social skills (modules 5-8):

• Communication, needs, boundaries, identity, and peer pressure

Health skills (modules 9-12):

• Risks, addictions, digital violence, and information

Cross-module:

• Self-care, stress reduction, problem-solving, and self-reflection
• Modules 0 and 13 contain introduction and conclusion

Pilot Study of the Leduin Program

In a pilot study, we assessed the feasibility, acceptance, and engagement of the leduin program, implementing it with 101 students of 9th and 10th-grade in high schools and secondary schools in North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony, Germany, from November 2022 to February 2023 (E Zimmermann and S Tomczyk, unpublished data, 2024). A total of 13 interviews with participating adolescents aged 14 to 17 years and 6 interviews with their teachers were conducted to evaluate acceptance and initial effectiveness. These qualitative findings indicate that the social media–based prevention program was successfully conducted, well-received by participants, and executed with high commitment. Participants reported positive subjective learning outcomes in social media use, self-care, and stress reduction and perceived the leduin program as personally beneficial and enriching. Although the program yielded favorable results, its accessibility presented a substantial hurdle in the recruitment phase. We conducted informational sessions in schools and a youth center to educate adolescents about the program, enabling them to make informed choices about participating in their leisure time. However, the participation rates varied significantly among schools, with certain classes showing high engagement, while others had minimal involvement. This variation underscores the importance of developing effective strategies to engage adolescents in social media–based prevention programs. Consequently, in the fifth step of the intervention mapping approach as the subject of this study, our focus is to examine and enhance accessibility to guarantee effective program execution.

The objectives of the accessibility study for the leduin program, grounded in the reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance (RE-AIM) framework [ 71 ], primarily focus on evaluating the first dimension of the framework—“reach”—to identify effective strategies for engaging adolescents in digital life skills interventions on social media. This includes reaching a diverse demographic of 9th and 10th graders, encouraging participation, and ensuring sustained engagement. While also considering the remaining RE-AIM aspects—effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance—the study mainly seeks to understand the characteristics and engagement levels of participating adolescents and to identify what drives active or low engagement. This understanding is critical for refining recruitment strategies and enhancing the impact of social media–based health interventions for youth.

The focal point of our study is to encompass a broad and representative demographic of 9th- and 10th-grade adolescents. To achieve this, we are targeting a diverse population from various school types, including grammar schools, comprehensive schools, secondary schools, and independent schools. Moreover, recognizing the importance of reaching adolescents undergoing high stress, recruitment efforts are also extended to youth centers and therapeutic facilities. We will explore the characteristics of adolescents who have consented to participate. Based on insights from the pilot study, we anticipate varying levels of engagement among the participants: some may actively engage with the program’s social media content, while others may have minimal to no interaction although initially interested. This variance allows for a quasi-experimental design, using engagement levels (ranging from none to high) as the basis for group assignment. Such a design is capable of highlighting differences between these engagement groups, and we will explore the predictors that are associated with active engagement or no or low engagement. We will also conduct a qualitative process evaluation to explore the facilitators and barriers encountered during recruitment. This will involve the recruitment team documenting feedback about the program and information event, as well as the reasons participants choose to join or decline participation. This documentation will be captured both in written form and verbally.

Effectiveness

The program’s effectiveness will be evaluated by its impact on life skills, social media–related skills, health status, risk behaviors, and school performance. Using the quasi-experimental design, we aim to test the hypothesis that enhancing digital life skills through the intervention leads to improved social media skills and reduced risk behaviors. To detect medium-sized effects, a power analysis indicates the need for 128 adolescent participants (power=0.8, α=.05), aligning with existing evidence of medium effect sizes in digital interventions (d=0.30 to 0.76) [ 72 ]. This evaluation will provide crucial data for potential effectiveness, shaping the direction of future trials.

The study will evaluate the proportion of schools, youth centers, and therapists willing to participate, providing insights into broader program acceptance and feasibility.

Implementation

We will examine the effectiveness of data collection and participant engagement on Instagram, which is critical for understanding how the program can be successfully implemented in a larger trial.

Maintenance

A 6-month follow-up will gauge the long-term impact of the intervention on intended outcomes and evaluate interaction and retention rates. These data are crucial for understanding the sustainability of the program’s effects.

The operationalization of these dimensions is summarized in Table 2 . The trial will be conducted in a single-group design.

a Not applicable.

Recruitment

This accessibility study will recruit participants via schools, youth centers, and therapeutic facilities across Germany. Adolescents from various school types (grammar, secondary, comprehensive, and independent) and socioeconomic backgrounds are targeted. Recruitment spans several federal states (Berlin, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, North Rhine-Westphalia, Saxony, Lower Saxony, and Thuringia), chosen for representativeness and synchronized holidays, encompassing both rural and urban areas. State school participation requires ethical approval and ministry or school board consent. Schools, youth centers, and therapeutic facilities are randomly selected within these states.

Recruitment will begin once approvals are obtained, with invitations issued in waves based on response rates. Teachers, youth workers, and therapists initially agreed to participate ( Multimedia Appendix 1 ). Adolescents are then recruited through digital information events, which aim to build motivation to participate through highlighting the relevance of the programs’ content for their life stage ( Multimedia Appendix 2 ). In addition to research findings on that, key adolescent concerns were identified in the pilot study. The use of Instagram minimizes participation effort and the recruitment in schools fosters group dynamics. Further, the program incentivizes engagement with rewards and ensures anonymity and confidentiality, creating a safe space for discussing sensible and at the same time interesting topics. Finally, together with their parents, adolescents agree to participate in the study.

To join the study, participants need an Instagram account, must be proficient in German, and must be aged 14-17 years. The recruitment goal includes 2 classes from grammar schools, 3 classes from secondary schools, and 1 class from an independent school per state, plus 20 adolescents from youth centers and therapeutic institutions in each state, accommodating additional participants if interested.

As we are taking an innovative approach, it is not clear how complete the recruitment will be. The sample size depends on adolescents who voluntarily want to participate. Since adolescents work on the program in their free time, it can be assumed that fewer will participate than in compulsory programs conducted in school. Recruitment will start in May 2023 and end as soon as the target criteria are met or the program starts in September.

Data Collection

In this study, both qualitative and quantitative data are gathered to explore the RE-AIM framework’s dimensions, involving (1) documentation by the recruitment team and (2) personal-level outcomes via questionnaires. Figure 1 illustrates the study design with the recruitment phase and points of assessment.

To assess RE-AIM’s aspects of reach, acceptance, and implementation, data will be collected on the number of schools, youth centers, and therapeutic facilities contacted per state; their response rates; information events held; and consents after the event. The recruitment team will also document institutions’ responses.

Personal level characteristics outcomes, measuring reach, effectiveness, and maintenance, are gathered through web-based questionnaires in a preintervention, postintervention, and follow-up design. Participants and institutions receive unique codes for tracking. The institutional link aims for support through teachers or youth workers and therapists and thus comprehensive data collection by conducting the entire study, including data collection, within 1 school year. Schools optionally receive supplementary teaching materials for the leduin program content.

The following constructs are collected by means of questionnaires: primary outcomes (life skills [decision-making or goal setting, problem-solving, creative and critical thinking, communication, interpersonal skills and empathy, self-confidence and self-efficacy, managing emotions, and managing stress], and social media–related skills [media-based empathy, cyberbullying, smartphone, and addictive or disordered social media use]); secondary outcomes (health status [well-being, subjective health and mental health, and life satisfaction], risk behavior [substance use], and school performance); and covariants (acceptance and feasibility of the program and sociodemographic variables). Table 2 lists the survey instruments used to measure the constructs just described, including reliability.

For the web-based data collection of the participants’ personal data, we use the SoSci Survey platform with which we have an order data processing agreement for the leduin study that has been reviewed by the data protection officer of the University of Greifswald. This ensures the technical and organizational measures required for data security. The provider SoSci Survey works with SSL encryption (HTTPS) of the data when filling out the questionnaire and when retrieving the collected data. A secure SSL configuration (Qualys SSL Labs) secures the transmission of the data. The servers of the University of Greifswald are used to store the data. The data are secured by daily backup and are usually stored for 90 days (3 months).

The initial data collection in the pilot study proved successful due to teacher involvement. However, transferring responsibility for the subsequent data collection to the adolescents led to significant gaps in the data. To address this in the accessibility study, we will prioritize early emphasis on the importance of data collection and ensure consistent supervision of the adolescents to mitigate missing data issues.

Data Management

Participation in the study is voluntary, with participants receiving detailed information about the procedure and providing informed consent according to the Declaration of Helsinki. This consent can be withdrawn anytime without justification or repercussions. Pseudonymized data can be deleted until fully anonymized, a detail made clear in the study information.

The data are stored on password-protected servers at the University of Greifswald, secured by daily backups. Access is restricted to authorized scientific personnel for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Project management and data processing staff at the university ensure data plausibility, completeness, and accuracy. After collection, data are quickly anonymized.

Data management adheres to the German Psychological Society’s recommendations, focusing on quality assurance, knowledge optimization, and maximizing cost-benefit ratios. Cleaned, anonymized primary data, along with associated syntax commands, will be openly accessible in line with open science principles, a fact communicated to participants in the study information.

Data Analysis

Statistical methods.

Quantitative analyses will vary according to the different dimensions of the RE-AIM framework [ 71 ]. The software R Studio (Posit) and SPSS (IBM Corp) will be used [ 95 ]. Multilevel logistic regressions will be conducted to evaluate the dimensions of reach, acceptance, and implementation. Here, the extent to which the following variables influence institutions’ initial interest in the program, individuals’ initial willingness to participate in the program, completeness of data, and individual engagement within the program is examined: socioeconomic status, gender, age, mode of recruitment (school, youth center, and therapeutic facility), school type, performance, well-being, life satisfaction, and mental health. The initial interest of institutions in the program is operationalized by the proportion of institutions (schools, youth centers, and therapeutic institutions) that participated in an information session. The initial willingness of individuals to participate in the program is assessed by the percentage of students who decide to participate in the program after an information session. The completeness of data is examined by the percentage of data in the preintervention, postintervention, and follow-up surveys, and individual engagement is measured by the participants’ self-assessment.

For quantitative analyses of the dimensions of reach, effectiveness, and sustainability, mixed-effect multilevel regression analysis with institutions (school, youth center, and therapeutic facility), classes, and individuals as evaluation levels and 3 measurement points (preintervention, postintervention, and follow-up) will be carried out. The multilevel structure will be assumed if the actual design effect resulting from the intraclass correlation is >2 [ 96 ]. The influence of covariants such as gender, age, and socioeconomic status will be controlled. In addition, the individual courses in the outcome variables, as described before, will be examined by using latent growth models across the 3 time points. Logistic regressions will be conducted to investigate the impact of the program on participants’ addictive or disordered social media use by comparing pre- and postintervention data.

Qualitative analyses of the recruitment process will be executed by conducting a qualitative content analysis [ 97 ] using the software MAXQDA (VERBI Software). This should provide information on the barriers to participation in the program and also identify the facilitators.

Table 3 summarizes the different dimensions of the RE-AIM framework, their operationalization, and corresponding statistical methods.

Since the leduin study is not a clinical study, it is not expected that the participants will experience any harm. Therefore, the use of a data monitoring committee is waived. However, communication within the program will be monitored by an internal monitoring team in accordance with netiquette [ 98 ]. Violations of netiquette will be commented on and discussed within the program, and if necessary, the authors will be excluded from the program if there is no improvement. If harm is unexpectedly caused to a participant during the program, the program will be interrupted if there are indications that the harm may have been caused by the program. After review, the program will either be revised or continued.

Ethical Considerations

The leduin study has been positively assessed by the ethics committee of the Greifswald University Medical School (BB 190/22). Approval for the study has also been sought from the relevant education authorities and ministries for state schools in Germany. The data protection regulations have been developed with the data protection officer of the University of Greifswald and a register of processing activities is available. If important protocol modifications are made, this will be communicated to the responsible ethics committee, the school authorities and ministries, the data protection officer, and the study participants.

Participating adolescents and their parents consent to their participation in the study. Consent is given on the basis of the study information and information events.

Dissemination Policy

Trial results will be communicated to participants, schools, prevention professionals, and authorities via publication and in edited form in a brochure and on the project website, further through publications, conference contributions at academic conferences, and practitioners’ congresses (eg, Digitallabor and Medienschule).

Recruitment for the study was planned from May 2023 until the beginning of the leduin program in October 2023. As of March 2024, a total of 283 participants agreed to participate in the study.

Social media offers effective ways of reaching a broad audience and can be used to address risk behavior and skill development [ 3 , 15 , 22 ]. To this aim, life skills can be a holistic approach. Despite the prevalence of digital training, few are evidence-based and access to the target audience remains challenging [ 27 , 29 , 30 , 33 ]. Moreover, existing life skills training often fails to address digital challenges. Further, the potential of using existing social media to reach adolescents has not been exploited. Our program is designed to improve digital life skills using Instagram, a platform that aligns with adolescents’ habits and offers interactive features suitable for e-learning. The program addresses both the benefits and the risks associated with social media use. Our upcoming study aims to assess the accessibility of this innovative approach, leveraging existing social media to develop digital life skills, with future plans to evaluate its effectiveness.

In a pilot study, the leduin program was tested with 101 students in 9th and 10th grade across schools in North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony, Germany (E Zimmermann and S Tomczyk, unpublished data, 2024). The study, conducted from November 2022 to February 2023, involved interviews with 14- to 17-year-old participants and their teachers to evaluate the program’s acceptance and initial effectiveness. Results showed positive reception and commitment, with participants reporting beneficial learning outcomes in social media use, self-care, and stress reduction. However, our pilot study highlighted substantial challenges in reaching the target group. While some classes were very interested in participating, others showed minimal involvement. This disparity suggests that simply making the program available is not sufficient. Effective strategies are needed to actively engage adolescents, ensuring they are both aware of and interested in participating. The leduin program is crafted to subtly enhance life skills through everyday activities with minimal effort over an extended period with spaced learning, aligning with effective learning and skill acquisition theories [ 69 , 70 ]. While social media proves effective in health interventions [ 22 , 30 ], participation depends on the individual’s choice. Accordingly, adolescents might not fully appreciate the personal benefits of such engagement in their developmental stage [ 9 ]. To address this, we aim to reach adolescents through institutions already engaged in preventative work. However, since the intervention occurs during leisure time, even with its low barriers, consistent participation cannot be assured. Additionally, there is a possibility of waning intrinsic motivation over time.

The objectives of the accessibility study focus on identifying effective methods to engage adolescents in a digital life skills program on social media. It aims to encourage participation and sustain engagement to improve digital life skills. The study uses the RE-AIM model to guide its design, primarily focusing on the dimension “reach”. Accordingly, key aspects include reaching a representative adolescent sample, examining the characteristics of consenting participants, and analyzing the variance in engagement levels. We thus aim to assess the accessibility of a social media intervention amidst heightened stress levels in schools and among adolescents post–COVID-19 pandemic, as indicated by our pilot study. Despite the critical need for prevention work, overall accessibility may be significantly constrained due to resource limitations, independent of the program’s specifics.

The study further aims to identify relevant aspects of the other dimensions of the RE-AIM framework (effectiveness, acceptance, implementation, and maintenance) and thus examines the program’s effects on life skills and social media–related skills, along with health, risk behavior, and school performance. It assesses program acceptance among schools, youth centers, and therapeutic facilities; the effectiveness of data collection, participant interaction, and retention rates on Instagram; and the long-term impact of the intervention. While this approach may yield valuable information, further studies must follow to fully evaluate the aspects of the comprehensive RE-AIM model.

Limitations

The limitations of the described approach include potential sampling bias, as engagement levels and the willingness of schools and youth centers to participate may not represent the broader adolescent population. Schools and youth centers facing significant challenges could be unable to participate in the study due to capacity constraints. This stress could be related to having a particularly burdened student body, affecting representativeness. Moreover, while directly recruiting adolescents for a social media intervention via social media platforms might initially appear to be an effective strategy, it presents substantial challenges in the context of a scientific study. The primary issue lies in the difficulty of reliably verifying adolescents’ identities and securing parental consent in an online environment. Additionally, while data collection itself is not intended to be conducted through social media, motivating adolescents to consistently participate in data collection becomes challenging without a supervised setting. This lack of direct oversight and engagement can significantly impact the reliability and consistency of data collection. Therefore, this approach is considered unfeasible for maintaining the rigorous standards required for scientific research.

The quasi-experimental design, while useful, might not fully account for confounding variables influencing engagement and outcomes. We are launching the leduin program with a digital information event, aiming for cost-effectiveness and wide reach among adolescents from diverse regions. This event serves to arouse interest. However, it is essential to thoroughly explain the scientific study’s framework accompanying the program for informed consent. While this detailed explanation may dampen interest, it is a necessary step to ensure ethical compliance and informed participation. Consequently, we will only be able to examine the characteristics of adolescents who initially agreed to participate in the study and take part in the follow-up survey. This will limit representativeness. Since we are also dependent on the voluntary participation of the participants, dropouts are to be expected, both in the program itself and in the surveys.

Additionally, relying on social media platforms, Instagram could limit reach to adolescents not actively using or engaging with this platform. The follow-up period of 6 months, although significant, may not be sufficient to fully assess the long-term sustainability of the intervention’s effects. Further, our sample size for evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention is calibrated for detecting medium-sized effects, which, while possible, are not guaranteed.

Conclusions

Our aim is to deepen our understanding in this field by identifying effective access strategies for social media interventions. Accessibility is crucial, acting as the “eye of the needle” for such interventions. Even the most effective programs cannot achieve their intended impact if they fail to reach and be accepted by the target group. By successfully navigating this pivotal aspect, we can ensure that our interventions are both accessible and effective, maximizing their potential benefits. We recognize the dual role of social media in interventions. On the one hand, these platforms offer valuable tools for reaching and engaging our target audience. On the other, it is imperative to acknowledge and address the inherent risks associated with social media use. Neglecting these risks could lead to unintended negative consequences, following a “dark-logic-model” where interventions might inadvertently cause harm. Thus, our focus is not only on leveraging social media for positive outcomes but also on mitigating its potential adverse effects to ensure a safe and effective intervention environment.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the University of Greifswald and the Heinrich-Böll-Foundation for supporting our research. The funding institutions do not have ultimate authority over the study design, collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of data, nor the writing of the report, or the decision to submit the report for publication. The authors acknowledge the use of ChatGPT 4.0 (OpenAI, 2024) [ 99 ], in the revision of our initial manuscript. This artificial intelligence tool aided in summarizing, abbreviating, and enhancing the text, thereby contributing to our productivity. Despite this assistance, the ultimate responsibility for the content and integrity of the manuscript lies with the authors.

Authors' Contributions

EZ was involved in conceptualization, as well as writing the original draft and reviewing and editing. ST contributed to the conceptualization and participated in reviewing and editing the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Study information and declaration of consent for the leduin study for caregivers.

Study information and declaration of consent for the leduin study for adolescents.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 20.07.23; peer-reviewed by S Haug, T Baranowski; comments to author 02.01.24; revised version received 23.01.24; accepted 22.02.24; published 17.04.24.

©Elizabeth Zimmermann, Samuel Tomczyk. Originally published in JMIR Research Protocols (https://www.researchprotocols.org), 17.04.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Research Protocols, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.researchprotocols.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 19.4.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Investigating the Cost-Effectiveness of Telemonitoring Patients With Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices: Systematic Review

Authors of this article:

• Sarah Raes 1 , MSc   ; 
• Andrea Prezzi 1 , MSc   ; 
• Rik Willems 2 , PhD   ; 
• Hein Heidbuchel 3 , PhD   ; 
• Lieven Annemans 1 , PhD  

1 Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium

2 Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

3 Department of Genetics, Pharmacology and Physiopathology of Heart, Blood Vessels and Skeleton (GENCOR), Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium

Corresponding Author:

Sarah Raes, MSc

Department of Public Health and Primary Care

Ghent University

Corneel Heymanslaan 10

Phone: 32 9 332 83 59

Email: [email protected]

Background: Telemonitoring patients with cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs) can improve their care management. However, the results of cost-effectiveness studies are heterogeneous. Therefore, it is still a matter of debate whether telemonitoring is worth the investment.

Objective: This systematic review aims to investigate the cost-effectiveness of telemonitoring patients with CIEDs, focusing on its key drivers, and the impact of the varying perspectives.

Methods: A systematic review was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and EconLit. The search was completed on July 7, 2022. Studies were included if they fulfilled the following criteria: patients had a CIED, comparison with standard care, and inclusion of health economic evaluations (eg, cost-effectiveness analyses and cost-utility analyses). Only complete and peer-reviewed studies were included, and no year limits were applied. The exclusion criteria included studies with partial economic evaluations, systematic reviews or reports, and studies without standard care as a control group. Besides general study characteristics, the following outcome measures were extracted: impact on total cost or income, cost or income drivers, cost or income drivers per patient, cost or income drivers as a percentage of the total cost impact, incremental cost-effectiveness ratios, or cost-utility ratios. Quality was assessed using the Consensus Health Economic Criteria checklist.

Results: Overall, 15 cost-effectiveness analyses were included. All studies were performed in Western countries, mainly Europe, and had primarily a male participant population. Of the 15 studies, 3 (20%) calculated the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio, 1 (7%) the cost-utility ratio, and 11 (73%) the health and cost impact of telemonitoring. In total, 73% (11/15) of the studies indicated that telemonitoring of patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) and cardiac resynchronization therapy ICDs was cost-effective and cost-saving, both from a health care and patient perspective. Cost-effectiveness results for telemonitoring of patients with pacemakers were inconclusive. The key drivers for cost reduction from a health care perspective were hospitalizations and scheduled in-office visits. Hospitalization costs were reduced by up to US $912 per patient per year. Scheduled in-office visits included up to 61% of the total cost reduction. Key drivers for cost reduction from a patient perspective were loss of income, cost for scheduled in-office visits and transport. Finally, of the 15 studies, 8 (52%) reported improved quality of life, with statistically significance in only 1 (13%) study ( P =.03).

Conclusions: From a health care and patient perspective, telemonitoring of patients with an ICD or a cardiac resynchronization therapy ICD is a cost-effective and cost-saving alternative to standard care. Inconclusive results were found for patients with pacemakers. However, telemonitoring can lead to a decrease in providers’ income, mainly due to a lack of reimbursement. Introducing appropriate reimbursement could make telemonitoring sustainable for providers while still being cost-effective from a health care payer perspective.

Trial Registration: PROSPERO CRD42022322334; https://tinyurl.com/puunapdr

Introduction

The implantation rates of cardiac implantable electronic devices (CIEDs), including pacemakers and implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs), have increased over the last decades due to expanded indications and a progressively aging population [ 1 ]. To evaluate the clinical status of the patient and device functioning, current guidelines recommend that older patients with pacemakers should be evaluated every 3 to 12 months and patients with ICDs should be evaluated every 3 to 6 months [ 2 ]. This regimen imposes a considerable burden on patients and physicians if the patient is required to be seen in person.

Telemonitoring, referring to the process of using telecommunication and information technology to monitor the health status of a patient and device function from a distance, can reduce this burden by replacing some in-office visits with transmissions from the patients’ home [ 3 ]. Existing research indicated that telemonitoring is safe (eg, experiencing equal major adverse events to standard care) [ 4 , 5 ]. The advantages of telemonitoring include fewer inappropriate shocks for patients with ICDs [ 4 , 6 ] and fewer hospitalizations for patients with atrial arrhythmias and strokes [ 4 , 6 , 7 ]. Moreover, there is a rapid detection of cardiovascular events and device malfunction [ 5 , 7 ], leading to a time reduction between clinical decision and intervention [ 8 ].

Besides the effectiveness of telemonitoring, patient experience is essential in high-quality health care services. Overall, patients with pacemakers on telemonitoring reported positive experiences comparable to the experience of patients with in-hospital monitoring [ 9 ]. Telemonitored patients with pacemakers tended to receive less information about their diagnosis but no significant differences were found in other items, such as confidence in clinicians, treatment decision involvement, treatment satisfaction, and waiting time before admission [ 9 ]. Another study indicated that telemonitoring of patients with a cardiac resynchronization therapy defibrillator (CRT-D) was time-saving for both patients and physicians [ 10 ].

Cost-effectiveness analyses are important to quantify the value of new interventions, informing both medical decision-making and public policy [ 11 ]. However, cost-effectiveness analyses depend on the perspective considered. The different perspectives are the health care payer perspective (eg, Medicare or Medicaid and British National Health Service), the patient perspective, the provider perspective (eg, physician), and the society perspective. The health care payer and societal perspectives differ from each other as the societal perspective includes indirect nonmedical costs (eg, transport) [ 12 ].

As cost-effectiveness analyses have shown heterogeneous results, it is still debatable whether telemonitoring is worth the investment relative to standard care. However, data on cost-effectiveness are important for health care payers to make decisions on the reimbursement of telemonitoring. Lack of reimbursement can be an important adoption barrier for new technology [ 13 , 14 ]. For these 2 reasons, this paper reviews the cost-effectiveness of telemonitoring, reviews how the results differ from different perspectives, and describes the key drivers of the cost-effectiveness of telemonitoring.

The review protocol was published by PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews; CRD42022322334). This systematic review was carried out in accordance with the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) reporting guideline of 2020 [ 15 ], and the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) [ 16 ], which can be found in the Multimedia Appendix 1 . Guidelines for preparing a systematic review of health economic evaluations were followed [ 17 ].

Literature Search

For this review, PubMed, Embase, EconLit, and Web of Science Core Collection were systematically searched. The last search was performed on July 7, 2022. No filters (eg, publication date or type of study) were applied. Search strategies for all electronic databases can be found in Multimedia Appendix 2 .

Search strings were developed based on explorations of databases and previous reviews. The following key concepts were translated into strings: (1) CIEDs, (2) telemonitoring, and (3) economic evaluations (eg, cost-effectiveness analyses and cost-utility analyses). The latter was based on a validated search filter, designed to identify economic evaluations, and was broadened for this study to maximize sensitivity [ 18 ]. The search terms for CIEDs and telemonitoring were based on existing reviews [ 19 - 21 ].

Study Selection

Studies were included if their primary focus was on the cost-effectiveness of telemonitoring patients with a CIED. The eligibility criteria were defined a priori for study selection ( Textbox 1 ). The population, intervention, comparator, and outcome strategy was applied to describe the criteria. Only complete and peer-reviewed studies were included. Specific exclusion criteria included partial economic evaluations, systematic reviews or reports, and studies without standard care as a control group. Only studies published in English, Dutch, French, or German were eligible for inclusion. The reference lists of the included studies were searched manually to identify relevant studies. Two reviewers (SR and AP) independently screened the titles and abstracts of all records using Rayyan (Rayyan Systems Inc) [ 22 ]. After the initial screening, full texts were retrieved and screened for a second time. The second screening round was independently performed by 2 reviewers (SR and AP). Reasons for exclusion were documented ( Figure 1 ). For both screening rounds, reviewers were blinded from each other’s decision, and disagreements were resolved through discussion.

Inclusion criteria

• Cardiac implantable electronic devices: pacemaker, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator, cardiac resynchronization therapy defibrillator, cardiac resynchronization therapy pacemaker, and loop recorder
• Standard care
• Complete health economic evaluations (within-trial and model-based)
• All settings
• English, French, German, or Dutch

Exclusion criteria

• Implantable pulmonary artery pressure monitor
• Partial health economic evaluations (outcomes related to costs or effectiveness only)
• Systematic reviews, reports, commentaries, congress abstracts, protocols, and animal studies

Quality Assessment

Two researchers (SR and AP) independently evaluated the original papers using the Consensus Health Economic Criteria (CHEC) checklist to assess the risk of bias [ 23 ]. The CHEC checklist included 19 items. Any disagreement was resolved by discussion and consensus. Interpretation of the CHEC list can be found in Multimedia Appendix 3 . The included studies were classified into 4 quality categories: excellent (score of 100%), good quality (score between 75% and 100%), moderate quality (score between 50% and 75%), and low quality (score <50%) [ 24 ].

Synthesis of Results

The study characteristics and main outcomes of the original papers are presented in the Results section. SR extracted all data. A data extraction sheet was developed using an existing template [ 17 ]. The following information was extracted from the included studies: study identification, general study characteristics, results, and authors’ conclusion. The principal outcome measures were health outcomes, cost or income outcomes (eg, the impact on total cost or income, cost or income drivers, cost or income drivers per patient, and cost or income drivers as a percentage of the total cost impact), and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) or cost-utility ratios.

To facilitate comparison across studies, the following adjustments and interpretations were made. First, the cost or income outcomes were presented per patient per year, and different currencies were converted to US Dollar (reference year: 2019 and reference country: United States) [ 25 ]. Second, perspectives were categorized into the health care payer perspective, patient perspective, provider perspective, and societal perspective. For the purpose of our study, the provider includes physicians who are directly involved in the care of patients with CIED.

The selection process is shown in Figure 1 . From a total of 3305 publications, 15 (0.45%) unique publications were reviewed. Studies were excluded because one of the following reasons: (1) intervention: the paper did not describe telemonitoring patients with a CIED; (2) outcome: the paper contained only a cost analysis and not a cost-effectiveness analysis; and (3) study design or publication: the paper was a partial health economic evaluation, congress abstract, protocol, systematic review, animal study, or with no peer review.

Characteristics of the included studies can be found in Table 1 . All 15 (100%) studies had a primarily male population, except for the Nordland study, which had an almost equal sex distribution ( Table 1 ) [ 26 ]. The mean age of the population with pacemakers was between 75 (SD 24.64) and 81 (SD 6.47) years. The mean age of patients with an ICD or CRT-D was between 61 (SD 12.6) and 69 (SD not calculated) years, except for the PREDICT RM study, where >50% of the population was aged >75 years [ 27 ]. Furthermore, of the 15 studies, 1 (7%) included only older patients (with a mean age of 81 years) with pacemakers [ 28 ], and 2 (13%) ICD or CRT-D studies only included patients with heart failure [ 11 , 29 ].

a CIED: cardiac implantable electronic device.

b N/A: not applicable.

c Age was a discrete variable in this study (higher of lower than 75 years old).

d ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator.

e TARIFF: Health Economics Evaluation Registry for Remote Follow-Up.

f CRT-D: cardiac resynchronization therapy defibrillator.

g EVOLVO: Evolution of Management Strategies of Heart Failure Patients With Implantable Defibrillators.

h MORE-CARE: Monitoring Resynchronization Devices and Cardiac Patients.

i CONNECT: Clinical Evaluation of Remote Notification to Reduce Time to Clinical Decision.

j ECOST: Effectiveness and Cost of ICD Follow-Up Schedule With Telecardiology.

k EuroEco: European Health Economic Trial on Home Monitoring in ICD Patients.

l VVI-ICD: single-chamber ICD.

m DDD-ICD: dual-chamber ICD.

n SAVE-HM: Socio-Economic Effects and Cost Saving Potential of Remote Patient Monitoring.

Study Designs

Tables 2 and 3 show the summary table of results. Of 15 studies, 11 (73%) were conducted in Europe [ 11 , 26 , 28 - 32 , 34 , 35 , 37 ], 3 (20%) in the United States [ 27 , 33 , 38 ], and 1 (7%) in Canada [ 36 ]. Of the 15 studies, 3 (20%) calculated the ICER [ 26 - 28 ], 1 (7%) calculated the cost-utility ratio [ 11 ], and 11 (73%) calculated the cost impact of telemonitoring. All studies analyzed the health care payer perspective, with 33% (5/15) analyzing the patient perspective [ 11 , 28 , 30 , 32 , 34 ], 13% (2/15) analyzing the societal perspective [ 33 , 35 ], and 13% (2/15) analyzing the provider perspective [ 13 , 30 ].

b RCT: randomized controlled trial.

c QALY: quality-adjusted life year.

d ICER: incremental cost-effectiveness ratio.

e SAVE-HM: Socio-Economic Effects and Cost Saving Potential of Remote Patient Monitoring.

f N/A: not applicable.

g ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator.

h CRT-D: cardiac resynchronization therapy defibrillator.

i TARIFF: Health Economics Evaluation Registry for Remote Follow-Up.

j EVOLVO: Evolution of Management Strategies of Heart Failure Patients With Implantable Defibrillators.

k The values are statistically significant.

l MORE-CARE: Monitoring Resynchronization Devices and Cardiac Patients.

m QOL: quality of life.

n CONNECT: Clinical Evaluation of Remote Notification to Reduce Time to Clinical Decision.

o ECOST: Effectiveness and Cost of ICD Follow-Up Schedule With Telecardiology.

p SF-36: The 36-Item Short Form Survey.

q EuroEco: European Health Economic Trial on Home Monitoring in ICD Patients.

a If the perspective is health care system or patient, then cost and if the perspective is provider, then income .

b pp: per patient (in health care and patient perspectives) or per physician (in provider perspective).

c The values are statistically significant.

d SAVE-HM: Socio-Economic Effects and Cost Saving Potential of Remote Patient Monitoring.

e ED: emergency department.

f ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator.

g CRT-D: cardiac resynchronization therapy defibrillator.

h TARIFF: Health Economics Evaluation Registry for Remote Follow-Up.

i EVOLVO: Evolution of Management Strategies of Heart Failure Patients With Implantable Defibrillators.

j MORE-CARE: Monitoring Resynchronization Devices and Cardiac Patients.

k Costs were recalculated per patient.

l CONNECT: Clinical Evaluation of Remote Notification to Reduce Time to Clinical Decision.

m ECOST: Effectiveness and Cost of ICD Follow-Up Schedule With Telecardiology.

n EuroEco: European Health Economic Trial on Home Monitoring in ICD Patients.

Intervention and Comparator

Telemonitoring entailed data transmission and data review. Table 4 shows the frequencies of data transmission, review, and in-office visits of the included studies. In 47% (7/15) of the studies, data were transmitted continuously or daily [ 26 , 28 , 30 , 31 , 34 , 35 ]; in 20% (3/15) studies, data were transmitted after a device alert [ 8 , 11 , 29 ]; and in 13% (2/15) studies, data were transmitted every 3 months [ 32 , 33 ]. In 20% (3/15) of the studies, data review was performed daily [ 28 , 34 , 35 ]; however, in 40% (6/15) of the studies, it was performed after a device alert was received [ 8 , 11 , 26 , 29 - 31 ]. Besides data transmission and review, telemonitoring included scheduled in-office visits. In 33% (5/15) of the studies, all scheduled in-office visits were based on the protocol [ 11 , 13 , 29 , 30 , 35 ]. In 7% (1/15) of the studies, at least 1 scheduled in-office visit was protocol based [ 37 ]. In 3 (20%) of the 15 studies, only 1 scheduled in-office visit was protocol based [ 32 - 34 ]. Protocol-based in-office visits are described in Table 4 .

b pp: per patient.

c TARIFF: Health Economics Evaluation Registry for Remote Follow-Up.

d EVOLVO: Evolution of Management Strategies of Heart Failure Patients With Implantable Defibrillators.

e MORE-CARE: Monitoring Resynchronization Devices and Cardiac Patients.

g ECOST: Effectiveness and Cost of ICD Follow-Up Schedule With Telecardiology.

h EuroEco: European Health Economic Trial on Home Monitoring in ICD Patients.

i Save-HM: Socio-Economic Effects and Cost Saving Potential of Remote Patient Monitoring.

j ICD: implantable-cardioverter defibrillator.

k N/A: not applicable.

Effectiveness

Effectiveness results of telemonitoring can be found in Table 2 . Of the 15 studies, 9 (60%) investigated a quality-adjusted life year (QALY) or quality of life (QOL) difference [ 11 , 26 - 30 , 33 , 34 ]. A total of 53% (8/15) of studies reported an increase in QALY or QOL [ 11 , 26 - 28 , 30 , 33 , 34 , 39 ], but the QALY or QOL increase was only statistically significant in 1 (13%; P =.03) of the 8 studies [ 26 - 28 , 30 , 33 , 34 ]. In contrast, only 1 (11%) of the 9 studies investigating QOL or QALY reported a significant decrease in QOL [ 29 ]. Comparing all studies, QALY differences ranged from 0.03 to 0.27 in patients with pacemakers and ranged from −1 to 0.64 in patients with ICD or CRT-D.

Besides QALY or QOL, several studies reported other health outcomes. Chew et al [ 36 ] indicated that the risk of death was lower with telemonitoring. Al-Khatib et al [ 33 ] reported that mortality and general patient satisfaction with telemonitoring were equal to those of standard care. Crossley et al [ 8 ] reported that the time between the clinical event and the clinical decision was 17.4 days shorter in patients with an ICD or CRT-D on telemonitoring than in those on standard care ( P <.001). Burri et al [ 31 ] indicated that telemonitoring patients with ICD or CRT-D led to fewer inappropriate shocks (−51%) and a reduction in battery exhaustion (−7%). Raatikainen et al [ 32 ] indicated that telemonitoring patients with an ICD reduced the average total time spent on device follow-up, with 17 minutes per patient per follow-up for physicians and 175 minutes per patient per follow-up for patients. Similarly, Dario et al [ 37 ] indicated that the time spent by physicians to treat the patient reduced by an average of 4.1 minutes per follow-up in patients with pacemakers and an average of 13.7 minutes per follow-up in patients with an ICD (SD was not reported).

Economic Impact

The results of the economic impact of telemonitoring are presented in Table 2 . Of the 15 studies, 4 (27%) investigated the cost impact of telemonitoring in patients with pacemakers [ 26 , 28 , 35 , 37 ]. From a health care payer perspective, 1 (25%) of the 4 pacemaker studies indicated that telemonitoring increased costs with US $2183 per patient per year (not statistically significant) mainly because of increased hospitalization costs [ 26 ]. A total of 2 (50%) of the 4 pacemaker studies indicated that telemonitoring reduced costs by US $8.9 and US $1054 per patient per year mainly because of a reduction in hospitalization and staff costs, respectively [ 28 , 37 ]. Therefore, hospitalizations reduced costs in the study by Dario et al [ 37 ] but increased costs in the study by Lopez-Villegas et al [ 26 ]. From a patient and societal perspective, the results indicated that telemonitoring reduced costs by US $11 and US $1113 per patient per year, respectively, mainly because of lower transport costs [ 28 , 35 ].

Of the 15 studies, 13 (87%) investigated the cost or income impact of telemonitoring in patients with an ICD or CRT-D [ 8 , 11 , 13 , 27 , 29 - 37 ]. A total of 11 (85%) of the 13 ICD or CRT-D studies investigated the cost impact of telemonitoring from a health care payer perspective, all indicating that telemonitoring reduced costs for patients with an ICD or CRT-D [ 8 , 11 , 13 , 27 , 29 - 32 , 34 , 36 , 37 ]. A total of 9 (82%) of the 11 health care payer perspective studies indicated that hospitalization was the largest driver for cost reduction for patients with an ICD or CRT-D [ 8 , 11 , 13 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 34 , 36 , 37 ]. The hospitalization cost reduced by up to US $912.3 per patient per year [ 34 ]. In addition, scheduled in-office visits were reported as a driver for cost reduction in 5 (45%) of the 11 health care payer perspective studies, as up to 61% of the total cost reduction was due to a decrease in the number of scheduled in-office visits [ 11 , 29 , 30 , 32 , 34 ]. Besides cost drivers that reduced costs, there were also drivers that increased costs. In 3 (27%) of the 11 health care payer perspective studies, unscheduled visits increased the total cost impact of telemonitoring [ 11 , 13 , 29 , 30 , 33 ]. A total of 3 (20%) of the 15 studies indicated that the cost reduction for scheduled in-office visits outweighed the cost increase for unscheduled in-office visits (−US $81.4 vs US $15.6, −US $45.4 vs US $7.8, and −US $44.1 vs US $14/patient/year) [ 11 , 29 , 30 ].

The results of 4 (31%) of the 13 ICD or CRT-D studies that investigated the cost impact of telemonitoring from the patients’ perspective [ 11 , 30 , 32 , 34 ] indicated that patient and caregiver loss of work or activity [ 30 ], scheduled in-office visits [ 11 ], and transport [ 34 ] were the largest drivers for cost reduction. The results of 2 (15%) of the 13 ICD or CRT-D studies that investigated the income impact of telemonitoring from a provider perspective indicated that the loss of reimbursed (scheduled) in-office visits was the most important factor for income loss due to telemonitoring [ 13 , 30 ], reducing income by up to €72.7 (US $77.21) per patient per year [ 30 ].

ICER and Cost-Utility Ratio

Results on ICER and the cost-utility ratio are presented in Table 2 . Of the 15 studies, 3 (20%) calculated the ICER from a health care payer perspective [ 26 - 28 ] and 1 (7%) calculated the cost-utility ratio from a health care payer perspective [ 11 ]. Of the 15 studies, 2 (13%) calculating ICER were conducted with patients with pacemakers [ 26 , 28 ]. Notably, of the 2 studies, 1 (50%) indicated that telemonitoring was cost-effective (ICER: US $270.09/QALY) [ 28 ], and 1 (50%) indicated that telemonitoring was not cost-effective (ICER: US $64,410/QALY) [ 26 ]. For patients with an ICD or CRT-D, of the 2 studies, 1 (50%) indicated that telemonitoring was cost-effective (ICER: US $12,069/QALY) [ 27 ] and 1 (50%) indicated that telemonitoring was dominant [ 11 ].

Critical Appraisal

The critical appraisal of the individual studies is provided in Tables 5 and 6 . Of the 15 studies, 1 (7%) was classified as excellent (score of 100%) [ 13 ], 8 (53%) had a good quality score (100%<score>75%) [ 26 , 28 , 30 , 31 , 33 , 34 , 36 , 37 ], and 6 (40%) had a moderate quality score (75%<score>50%) [ 8 , 11 , 27 , 29 , 32 , 35 ]. A total of 3 (20%) of the 15 studies scored the lowest, with 59% each [ 8 , 29 , 32 ]. More than 50% (>8/15) of the studies scored low for the items cost valuation (item 9) [ 11 , 27 - 32 , 34 , 35 , 37 ], discounting (item 14) [ 8 , 11 , 29 , 30 , 32 , 34 , 35 , 37 ], and no conflict of interest (item 18) [ 8 , 11 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 32 , 34 , 35 ]. All studies scored high on the items study population (item 1), study design (item 4), time horizon (item 10), outcome identification (item 11), outcome measurement (item 12), and ethics (item 19).

a EuroEco: European Health Economic Trial on Home Monitoring in ICD patients.

b TARIFF: Health Economics Evaluation Registry for Remote Follow-Up.

c ECOST: Effectiveness and Cost of ICD Follow-Up Schedule With Telecardiology.

d Sufficient attention was given to this aspect.

e Insufficient attention was given to this aspect.

a Save-HM: Socio-Economic Effects and Cost Saving Potential of Remote Patient Monitoring.

b EVOLVO: Evolution of Management Strategies of Heart Failure Patients With Implantable Defibrillators.

c MORE-CARE: Monitoring Resynchronization Devices and Cardiac Patients.

d CONNECT: Clinical Evaluation of Remote Notification to Reduce Time to Clinical Decision.

e Sufficient attention is given to this aspect.

f Insufficient attention is given to this aspect.

g N/A: not applicable.

Principal Findings and Comparison With Prior Work

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the cost-effectiveness of telemonitoring patients with an ICD or CRT-D and a pacemaker from different perspectives.

From a health care payer perspective, most studies indicated that telemonitoring was a cost-saving and effective alternative to standard care. The most important driver for cost reduction was hospitalizations, both in patients with a pacemaker and those with an ICD or CRT-D. The cost of hospitalizations was reduced by up to US $912.3 per patient per year [ 34 ]. Moreover, the reduction of scheduled in-office visits was the second most important cost-saving factor in most ICD or CRT-D studies, with up to 61% of the total cost reduction. Previous research indicated that up to 55% of the device follow-ups were routine checks with no actionable events or device programming [ 35 , 40 , 41 ]. Several researchers pointed out that most scheduled in-office visits could be replaced by telemonitoring without affecting the quality of care [ 7 , 34 ] and with potentially diagnosing >99.5% of arrhythmia and device problems [ 41 ]. Although scheduled in-office visits decreased, our results show that unscheduled in-office visits increased because of telemonitoring patients with an ICD or CRT-D, probably because of the possible faster detection of arrhythmia and device malfunction by telemonitoring [ 8 ]. However, in all studies analyzing both scheduled and unscheduled in-office visits, the cost reduction for scheduled in-office visits outweighed the cost increase for unscheduled in-office visits [ 11 , 29 , 30 ].

From a patient perspective, our results indicated that the reduction of professional activity, transport time, and costs due to scheduled in-office visits are the most important factors for cost reduction.

The provider perspective was investigated less frequently in the included studies, although it is very relevant. Owing to the reduction of scheduled in-office visits, providers will lose income with telemonitoring if no reimbursement exists for telemonitoring but only for in-office visits. As a result, providers will be stimulated to maintain the classic follow-up instead of telemonitoring. Of the 15 studies, 1 (7%) observed that the total cost for insurance payers does not increase in countries where telemonitoring is reimbursed [ 13 ]. As telemonitoring decreases the overall costs from a health care payer perspective, there is room for proper compensation for providers to transition from in-office care to remote care. Hence, correct compensation (which is possible while still saving on the overall health care cost) will stimulate providers to switch to telemonitoring as the desired care path for patients with a CIED.

All studies reported the effectiveness of telemonitoring. Of the 15 studies, 9 (60%) indicated a QALY or QOL difference. Furthermore, 89% (8/9) of these studies indicated an increase in QALYs or QOL for telemonitoring patients with pacemakers or ICD or CRT-D, ranging from −1 to 0.64. Some studies (3/9, 33%) indicated this QALY or QOL increase was the result of the reduced routine in-office visits [ 7 , 34 ]. However, the QALY or QOL increase was only statistically significant (and positive) in 1 (11%) of the 9 studies [ 11 ]. Nevertheless, patient questionnaires have demonstrated a high acceptance of telemonitoring among patients with pacemakers and those with ICDs [ 39 ]. Moreover, telemonitoring is reported to lead to an increased sense of security [ 39 ]. Furthermore, the results indicated that telemonitoring leads to fewer inappropriate shocks, an important determinant of QALY, in patients with an ICD or CRT-D [ 31 ].

The cost-effectiveness analyses may be sensitive to the heterogeneity among the organization of telemonitoring in different hospitals. This may include different devices, the number of transmissions, the configuration of alerts, and hospital visit scheduling [ 26 ]. It seems reasonable to expect that the efficiency of telemonitoring not only depends on the technology but also on the organization of the service. If hospitals see telemonitoring as an additional service, on top of standard care, less cost-savings may be seen than if hospitals see telemonitoring as a substitute for standard care. A radical organizational change could lead to larger cost-savings, as suggested by an observational study by Facchin et al [ 42 ]. Moreover, such radical change may include a strategy involving other physicians, such as general practitioners, and referring cardiologists, that is, an integrated health care delivery [ 37 ].

Furthermore, the comparison between studies is challenged by differences in study design. The Poniente study by Bautista-Mesa et al [ 28 ] followed up patients with pacemakers for 12 months and indicated a QALY increase of 0.09 for telemonitoring. However, after 5 years of follow-up, the results indicated a QALY decrease of 0.20 for telemonitoring. Bautista-Mesa et al [ 28 ] indicated that some of the telemonitoring benefits (eg, reduction of in-office visits) may not be appreciated in the long term. Therefore, the evolution of utilities may be different depending on the follow-up time. In addition, the results indicated that hospitalizations reduced costs in the study by Dario et al [ 37 ] but increased costs in the study by Lopez-Villegas et al [ 26 ]. This discrepancy might be explained because significantly fewer patients were included in the study by Lopez-Villegas et al (50 vs 2101 patients). None of the 25 patients in the conventional follow-up group were hospitalized, whereas 12% (3/25) of the patients were hospitalized in the remotely monitored group (all for pacemaker problems) [ 26 ]. Furthermore, the included studies relied disproportionally on male participants, except for the Nordland study [ 26 ]. This may be explained by the significant sex disparity in ICD implantation rates, pointed out by Ingelaere et al [ 43 ]. Ingelaere et al [ 43 ] could not completely explain these differences by prevalence differences of cardiomyopathies and imply a possible undertreatment of women. Another study [ 44 ] observed an undertreatment of women with coronary heart disease, as they are less likely to undergo coronary angiography. Therefore, men may undergo more expensive treatments than women. This can explain why the included cost-effectiveness studies may present an overly positive result. In addition, time differences may impact the quality and cost-effectiveness of telemonitoring, as telemonitoring may evolve over time. However, our results did not provide meaningful insights in this respect.

The cost-effectiveness analyses may be sensitive to the heterogeneity among health care systems. From a provider perspective, our results indicated that telemonitoring generates lesser profit than standard care in the absence of reimbursement. Therefore, the lack of reimbursement is generally perceived as a major implementation barrier to telemonitoring, affecting 80% of the centers [ 45 ]. Consequently, providers tend to continue with standard care instead of telemonitoring. However, from a health care payer perspective, our results indicated that telemonitoring was still cost-saving even with reimbursement [ 13 , 34 ]. To stimulate providers to use telemonitoring, provider compensation should be provided based on overall health care cost-savings, making telemonitoring possible if it is preferred as the way to deliver CIED follow-up care.

Limitations

Because of the large discrepancies between health care systems’ organization, costs, access, delivery, quality, and reimbursement of cardiac care, any generalization may be perceived as inaccurate [ 37 , 46 ]. For instance, the included studies were mainly performed in Western countries. The results may not be generalizable to non-Western countries. Therefore, the cost-effectiveness results are contingent on the context in which they were analyzed [ 46 ]. Another limitation of this research is that 40% (6/15) of the included studies are not randomized controlled trials. These studies may have unobserved confounding factors that cannot be controlled for. Finally, cost analyses were excluded in this study because of our research objective. However, future cost analyses could draw a lot of information from analyzing these excluded studies.

Conclusions

Telemonitoring patients with CIED may be a cost-effective alternative to standard follow-up. Moreover, telemonitoring may lead to a cost reduction from a health care and patient perspective, mainly by the reduction of hospitalizations and scheduled in-office visits. Owing to the reduction in scheduled in-office visits, providers’ income tends to decrease when implementing telemonitoring without proper reimbursement. Introducing appropriate reimbursement could make telemonitoring sustainable for providers, while still being cost-effective from a health care payer perspective.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Dr Ingrid Kremer of Maastricht University for her help in the manuscript review. This work was supported by the Fund for Scientific Research Flanders (Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen, grant 1SC9322N, 2021). RW is supported as a postdoctoral clinical researcher by the Fund for Scientific Research Flanders (Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen).

Data Availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its multimedia appendices.

Authors' Contributions

SR and LA were responsible for the conceptualization of the manuscript. SR, LA, RW, and HH acquired the financial support necessary for this paper and developed the methodology. SR analyzed and investigated the data. AP, LA, RW, and HH validated the results. SR was responsible for the first and final drafts. LA, RW, and HH were involved in editing the drafts. All authors approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

RW reports research funding from Abbott, Biotronik, Boston Scientific, and Medtronic and speakers and consultancy fees from Medtronic, Boston Scientific, Biotronik, and Abbott. None of these payments were personal; all were handled through the University of Leuven. HH received personal lecture and consultancy fees from Abbott, Biotronik, Daiichi-Sankyo, Pfizer-BMS, Medscape, and Springer Healthcare Limited. He received unconditional research grants through the University of Antwerp and the University of Hasselt from Abbott, Bayer, Biotronik, Biosense Webster, Boston Scientific, Boehringer Ingelheim, Daicchi-Sankyo, Fibricheck or Qompium, Medtronic, and Pfizer-BMS, all outside the scope of this work. All other authors declare no other conflicts of interest.

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Abbreviations

Edited by T Leung; submitted 28.03.23; peer-reviewed by P Jeurissen, B Dechert; comments to author 07.09.23; revised version received 13.09.23; accepted 13.02.24; published 19.04.24.

©Sarah Raes, Andrea Prezzi, Rik Willems, Hein Heidbuchel, Lieven Annemans. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 19.04.2024.

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