how to write a research paper on an animal

How to write an animal report

Your teacher wants a written report on the beluga whale . Not to worry. Use these organizational tools from the Nat Geo Kids Almanac so you can stay afloat while writing a report.

STEPS TO SUCCESS:

Your report will follow the format of a descriptive or expository essay and should consist of a main idea, followed by supporting details and a conclusion. Use this basic structure for each paragraph as well as the whole report, and you’ll be on the right track.

Introduction

State your main idea .

The beluga whale is a common and important species of whale.

Provide supporting points for your main idea.

1. The beluga whale is one of the smallest whale species.

2. It is also known as the “white whale” because of its distinctive coloring.

3. These whales are common in the Arctic Ocean’s coastal waters.

Then expand on those points with further description, explanation, or discussion.

1a. Belugas range in size from 13 to 20 feet (4 to 6.1 m) in length.

2a. Belugas are born gray or brown. They fade to white at around five years old.

3a. Some Arctic belugas migrate south in large herds when sea ice freezes over.

Wrap it up with a summary of your whole paper.

Because of its unique coloring and unusual features, belugas are among the most familiar and easily distinguishable of all the whales.

Key Information

Here are some things you should consider including in your report:

What does your animal look like? To what other species is it related? How does it move? Where does it live? What does it eat? What are its predators? How long does it live? Is it endangered? Why do you find it interesting?

SEPARATE FACT FROM FICTION: Your animal may have been featured in a movie or in myths and legends. Compare and contrast how the animal has been portrayed with how it behaves in reality. For example, penguins can’t dance the way they do in Happy Feet.

PROOFREAD AND REVISE: As with any essay, when you’re finished, check for misspellings, grammatical mistakes, and punctuation errors. It often helps to have someone else proofread your work, too, as he or she may catch things you have missed. Also, look for ways to make your sentences and paragraphs even better. Add more descriptive language, choosing just the right verbs, adverbs, and adjectives to make your writing come alive.

BE CREATIVE: Use visual aids to make your report come to life. Include an animal photo file with interesting images found in magazines or printed from websites. Or draw your own! You can also build a miniature animal habitat diorama. Use creativity to help communicate your passion for the subject.

THE FINAL RESULT: Put it all together in one final, polished draft. Make it neat and clean, and remember to cite your references.

Download the pdf .

More resources

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How to Write an Animal Report

Last Updated: April 15, 2021 References

wikiHow is a “wiki,” similar to Wikipedia, which means that many of our articles are co-written by multiple authors. To create this article, 20 people, some anonymous, worked to edit and improve it over time. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been viewed 61,000 times.

Many schools require students write reports on animals as a standard part of the curriculum. There are literally thousands of different types of animals that you can write about. Fortunately, writing a report about animals requires only a few simple guidelines.

Researching Your Animal

• Choose an animal about which you can find a good deal of information.
• Read as much about the animal as you can, either online or in books and other resources. Encyclopedias are a great resource for learning about animals.

• Describing what your animal looks like will be an important part of your report. You might want to know if your animal changes appearance over the course of its lifetime. Does the male look different than the female? If so, how?
• Include details about how the animal's appearance might be an adaptation to its environment. For example, polar bears developed white fur because they live on glaciers. Now that glaciers are melting, the bears' camouflage is losing its effectiveness.

• Including information on the breeding habits of your animal will be part of showing your understanding. Does your animal have a mating season? If so, when is it?
• Perhaps your animal reproduces by itself. Any information related to its breeding will be important to include in your report. [3] X Research source

• Knowing where your animal lives might have implications for other parts of your report. For example, if your animal migrates annually from the Arctic tundra to South America, it probably requires water stops along the way. You might want to include any information about pollution in the ponds, lakes and rivers along its migration route.
• Learning about the animal's home will help you understand the animal better.

• Notice the way an animal's diet affects his habitat, and the other way around.
• Is there anything surprising in the animal's diet? For instance, the Great Blue Whale is the largest mammal in the world, yet its diet is almost entirely comprised of tiny fish only 1-2 centimeters long. [5] X Research source

• The behavior of your animal likely affects its habitat, living area, and eating patterns.
• It's good to show adaptive reasons for the animal's behavior if they're known. Continue to read and research until you find as many of the answers to your questions as possible.

• A large predator in many animals' environment is mankind. Explore the ways that human activity affects your animal.
• Is this animal in danger of extinction? If so, what has happened to make this the case?

Outlining Your Report

• You might use handwritten index cards to keep track of your information, or you can use computer apps or programs such as Evernote.
• If you use index cards, you can easily sort them into topics.
• If there are research facts that don't easily fit into topics, set them aside. When you're done, return to this pile. Carefully go through the stack, and see if there is anything that they have in common. If not, it's okay to have a topic you can label for yourself as "Etc."

• Your teacher's assignment will likely supply more information on how to focus your paper.
• No matter what sort of focus you bring to your report, it should begin with an introduction to your animal. The appearance and name should be in the introduction.

• For any style of writing, you'll need to include your research results. However, the research that you include may vary depending on the way in which you organize your paper.
• Consider using a graphic organizer to help you. [10] X Research source

• A topic outline doesn't have to be made up of complete sentences, but your intentions should be easily understandable.
• Use your sorted research notes to help you write your outline. For example, if you have a topic called "Habitat" for your animal, make notes about the habitat location, environmental needs, environmental threats, and the way the animal interacts with its habitat for your outline.

• You may wish to include your thesis sentence in your outline. A thesis sentence is like a topic sentence for your animal report. It sums up your idea about the full report.
• Make sure that your proofreader can tell the purpose of your report. What were the words that the teacher used in her assignment? Make sure your report is on the right topic.
• Does your outline include an introduction, a body, and a closing? This is a good time to check and make sure all your report's parts are present.

Writing Your Report

• Make sure your paper is the right length. If you're supposed to turn in a 10-page paper, your rough draft should be about that long.
• Keep your notes organized as you write. Make sure that you note all sources.

• Notice that your word may need to be added to your word program's dictionary if it doesn't recognize it. Sometimes words that appear misspelled to your computer are actually spelled correctly.
• Look for habitually misspelled words. Everyone has certain words that she regularly misspells. If you know your own habits, you'll be more likely to avoid repeating your errors.

• Read your paper aloud. You'll often notice out-of-place words or typos when reading aloud.
• Make sure you've left enough time to carefully go through your paper before turning it in.

• Watch for fragment sentences, run-on sentences, and other common errors of writing.
• Remember the tip of reading out loud. If you're not sure if a sentence is good or not, read it out loud. Your ear may be able to tell you what your eye can't.
• Take a break as you need to.

• If you are at a university, your teacher may want you to use a certain kind of citation, such as Chicago or MLA format. Make sure you know what's expected from your teacher.
• If you aren't expected to use any particular format, just make sure that you're including the author's name, the title of the source you are using, and the date it was published.

• Have you included the basics? Is your name on the report? If your teacher requires page numbers, are they included? Is your report legible?
• Try to avoid proofreading at the very last minute before you must turn in your paper. Leave yourself time to make corrections if necessary.
• Have a friend or your parent read it for you, if you have time. Sometimes another person will see errors you've missed.

Community Q&A

• Be creative. Don't be afraid to think outside of the box. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Ask your teacher questions as you work. She'll be able to help you. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Be careful not to copy sentences straight from your reading. This is plagiarizing, and it's against the law. Thanks Helpful 8 Not Helpful 3
• Make sure you're following your teacher's directions for writing your report. This article provides only general directions. Individual assignments may vary. Thanks Helpful 5 Not Helpful 2

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://www.enchantedlearning.com/report/animal/
• ↑ http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/3268
• ↑ http://www.whalefacts.org/what-do-blue-whales-eat/
• ↑ http://beyondpenguins.ehe.osu.edu/issue/polar-plants/organizing-research-reports
• ↑ http://www.enchantedlearning.com/graphicorganizers/animalrpt/
• ↑ http://www.umuc.edu/writingcenter/writingresources/prewriting_outlining.cfm
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/561/1/
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/561/02/
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/561/04/

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• v.18(7); 2020 Jul

Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0

Nathalie percie du sert.

1 NC3Rs, London, United Kingdom

Amrita Ahluwalia

2 The William Harvey Research Institute, London, United Kingdom

3 Barts Cardiovascular CTU, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom

Sabina Alam

4 Taylor & Francis Group, London, United Kingdom

Marc T. Avey

5 Health Science Practice, ICF, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America

Monya Baker

6 Nature, San Francisco, California, United States of America

William J. Browne

7 School of Education, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

Alejandra Clark

8 PLOS ONE, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Innes C. Cuthill

9 School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom

Ulrich Dirnagl

10 QUEST Center for Transforming Biomedical Research, Berlin Institute of Health & Department of Experimental Neurology, Charite Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Michael Emerson

11 National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom

Paul Garner

12 Centre for Evidence Synthesis in Global Health, Clinical Sciences Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom

Stephen T. Holgate

13 Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom

David W. Howells

14 Tasmanian School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia

Natasha A. Karp

15 Data Sciences & Quantitative Biology, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Stanley E. Lazic

16 Prioris.ai Inc, Ottawa, Canada

Katie Lidster

Catriona j. maccallum.

17 Hindawi Ltd, London, United Kingdom

Malcolm Macleod

18 Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Esther J. Pearl

Ole h. petersen.

19 Academia Europaea Knowledge Hub, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom

Frances Rawle

20 Medical Research Council, London, United Kingdom

Penny Reynolds

21 Statistics in Anesthesiology Research (STAR) Core, Department of Anesthesiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America

Kieron Rooney

22 Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

Emily S. Sena

Shai d. silberberg.

23 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America

Thomas Steckler

24 Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium

Hanno Würbel

25 Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

Associated Data

Improving the reproducibility of biomedical research is a major challenge. Transparent and accurate reporting is vital to this process; it allows readers to assess the reliability of the findings and repeat or build upon the work of other researchers. The ARRIVE guidelines (Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments) were developed in 2010 to help authors and journals identify the minimum information necessary to report in publications describing in vivo experiments. Despite widespread endorsement by the scientific community, the impact of ARRIVE on the transparency of reporting in animal research publications has been limited. We have revised the ARRIVE guidelines to update them and facilitate their use in practice. The revised guidelines are published alongside this paper. This explanation and elaboration document was developed as part of the revision. It provides further information about each of the 21 items in ARRIVE 2.0, including the rationale and supporting evidence for their inclusion in the guidelines, elaboration of details to report, and examples of good reporting from the published literature. This document also covers advice and best practice in the design and conduct of animal studies to support researchers in improving standards from the start of the experimental design process through to publication.

The NC3Rs developed the ARRIVE guidelines in 2010 to help authors and journals identify the minimum information necessary to report in publications describing in vivo experiments. This article explains the rationale behind each item in the revised and updated ARRIVE guidelines 2019, clarifying key concepts and providing illustrative examples.

See S1 Annotated byline for individual authors’ positions at the time this article was submitted . See S1 Annotated References for further context on the works cited in this article .

Introduction

Transparent and accurate reporting is essential to improve the reproducibility of scientific research; it enables others to scrutinise the methodological rigour of the studies, assess how reliable the findings are, and repeat or build upon the work.

However, evidence shows that the majority of publications fail to include key information and there is significant scope to improve the reporting of studies involving animal research [ 1 – 4 ]. To that end, the UK National Centre for the 3Rs (NC3Rs) published the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments) guidelines in 2010. The guidelines are a checklist of information to include in a manuscript to ensure that publications contain enough information to add to the knowledge base [ 5 ]. The guidelines have received widespread endorsement from the scientific community and are currently recommended by more than a thousand journals, with further endorsement from research funders, universities, and learned societies worldwide.

Studies measuring the impact of ARRIVE on the quality of reporting have produced mixed results [ 6 – 11 ], and there is evidence that in vivo scientists are not sufficiently aware of the importance of reporting the information covered in the guidelines and fail to appreciate the relevance to their work or their research field [ 12 ].

As a new international working group—the authors of this publication—we have revised the guidelines to update them and facilitate their uptake; the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0 are published alongside this paper [ 13 ]. We have updated the recommendations in line with current best practice, reorganised the information, and classified the items into two sets. The ARRIVE Essential 10 constitute the minimum reporting requirement, and the Recommended Set provides further context to the study described. Although reporting both sets is best practice, an initial focus on the most critical issues helps authors, journal staff, editors, and reviewers use the guidelines in practice and allows a pragmatic implementation. Once the Essential 10 are consistently reported in manuscripts, items from the Recommended Set can be added to journal requirements over time until all 21 items are routinely reported in all manuscripts. Full methodology for the revision and the allocation of items into sets is described in the accompanying publication [ 13 ].

A key aspect of the revision was to develop this explanation and elaboration document to provide background and rationale for each of the 21 items of ARRIVE 2.0. Here, we present additional guidance for each item and subitem, explain the importance of reporting this information in manuscripts that describe animal research, elaborate on what to report, and provide supporting evidence. The guidelines apply to all areas of bioscience research involving living animals. That includes mammalian species as well as model organisms such as Drosophila or Caenorhabditis elegans . Each item is equally relevant to manuscripts centred around a single animal study and broader-scope manuscripts describing in vivo observations along with other types of experiments. The exact type of detail to report, however, might vary between species and experimental setup; this is acknowledged in the guidance provided for each item.

We recognise that the purpose of the research influences the design of the study. Hypothesis-testing research evaluates specific hypotheses, using rigorous methods to reduce the risk of bias and a statistical analysis plan that has been defined before the study starts. In contrast, exploratory research often investigates many questions simultaneously without adhering to strict standards of rigour; this flexibility is used to develop or test novel methods and generate theories and hypotheses that can be formally tested later. Both study types make valuable contributions to scientific progress. Transparently reporting the purpose of the research and the level of rigour used in the design, execution, and analysis of the study enables readers to decide how to use the research, whether the findings are groundbreaking and need to be confirmed before building on them, or whether they are robust enough to be applied to other research settings.

To contextualise the importance of reporting information described in the Essential 10, this document also covers experimental design concepts and best practices. This has two main purposes: First, it helps authors understand the relevance of this information for readers to assess the reliability of the reported results, thus encouraging thorough reporting. Second, it supports the implementation of best practices in the design and conduct of animal research. Consulting this document at the start of the process when planning an in vivo experiment will enable researchers to make the best use of it, implement the advice on study design, and prepare for the information that will need to be collected during the experiment to report the study in adherence with the guidelines.

To ensure that the recommendations are as clear and useful as possible to the target audience, this document was road tested alongside the revised guidelines with researchers preparing manuscripts describing in vivo research [ 13 ]. Each item is written as a self-contained section, enabling authors to refer to particular items independently, and a glossary ( Box 1 ) explains common statistical terms. Each subitem is also illustrated with examples of good reporting from the published literature. Explanations and examples are also available from the ARRIVE guidelines website: https://www.arriveguidelines.org .

Box 1. Glossary

Bias: The over- or underestimation of the true effect of an intervention. Bias is caused by inadequacies in the design, conduct, or analysis of an experiment, resulting in the introduction of error.

Descriptive and inferential statistics: Descriptive statistics are used to summarise the data. They generally include a measure of central tendency (e.g., mean or median) and a measure of spread (e.g., standard deviation or range). Inferential statistics are used to make generalisations about the population from which the samples are drawn. Hypothesis tests such as ANOVA, Mann-Whitney, or t tests are examples of inferential statistics.

Effect size: Quantitative measure of differences between groups, or strength of relationships between variables.

Experimental unit: Biological entity subjected to an intervention independently of all other units, such that it is possible to assign any two experimental units to different treatment groups. Sometimes known as unit of randomisation.

External validity: Extent to which the results of a given study enable application or generalisation to other studies, study conditions, animal strains/species, or humans.

False negative: Statistically nonsignificant result obtained when the alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) is true. In statistics, it is known as the type II error.

False positive: Statistically significant result obtained when the null hypothesis (H 0 ) is true. In statistics, it is known as the type I error.

Independent variable: Variable that either the researcher manipulates (treatment, condition, time) or is a property of the sample (sex) or a technical feature (batch, cage, sample collection) that can potentially affect the outcome measure. Independent variables can be scientifically interesting, or nuisance variables. Also known as predictor variable.

Internal validity: Extent to which the results of a given study can be attributed to the effects of the experimental intervention, rather than some other, unknown factor(s) (e.g., inadequacies in the design, conduct, or analysis of the study introducing bias).

Nuisance variable: Variables that are not of primary interest but should be considered in the experimental design or the analysis because they may affect the outcome measure and add variability. They become confounders if, in addition, they are correlated with an independent variable of interest, as this introduces bias. Nuisance variables should be considered in the design of the experiment (to prevent them from becoming confounders) and in the analysis (to account for the variability and sometimes to reduce bias). For example, nuisance variables can be used as blocking factors or covariates.

Null and alternative hypotheses: The null hypothesis (H 0 ) is that there is no effect, such as a difference between groups or an association between variables. The alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) postulates that an effect exists.

Outcome measure: Any variable recorded during a study to assess the effects of a treatment or experimental intervention. Also known as dependent variable, response variable.

Power: For a predefined, biologically meaningful effect size, the probability that the statistical test will detect the effect if it exists (i.e., the null hypothesis is rejected correctly).

Sample size: Number of experimental units per group, also referred to as n .

Definitions are adapted from [ 14 , 15 ] and placed in the context of animal research.

ARRIVE Essential 10

The ARRIVE Essential 10 ( Box 2 ) constitute the minimum reporting requirement to ensure that reviewers and readers can assess the reliability of the findings presented. There is no ranking within the set; items are presented in a logical order.

Box 2. ARRIVE Essential 10

• Study design
• Sample size
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Randomisation
• Outcome measures
• Statistical methods
• Experimental animals
• Experimental procedures

Item 1. Study design

For each experiment, provide brief details of study design including :

1a . The groups being compared, including control groups . If no control group has been used, the rationale should be stated .

Explanation. The choice of control or comparator group is dependent on the experimental objective. Negative controls are used to determine whether a difference between groups is caused by the intervention (e.g., wild-type animals versus genetically modified animals, placebo versus active treatment, sham surgery versus surgical intervention). Positive controls can be used to support the interpretation of negative results or determine if an expected effect is detectable.

It may not be necessary to include a separate control with no active treatment if, for example, the experiment aims to compare a treatment administered by different methods (e.g., intraperitoneal administration versus oral gavage) or animals that are used as their own control in a longitudinal study. A pilot study, such as one designed to test the feasibility of a procedure, might also not require a control group.

For complex study designs, a visual representation is more easily interpreted than a text description, so a timeline diagram or flowchart is recommended. Diagrams facilitate the identification of which treatments and procedures were applied to specific animals or groups of animals and at what point in the study these were performed. They also help to communicate complex design features such as whether factors are crossed or nested (hierarchical/multilevel designs), blocking (to reduce unwanted variation, see Item 4. Randomisation), or repeated measurements over time on the same experimental unit (repeated measures designs); see [ 16 – 18 ] for more information on different design types. The Experimental Design Assistant (EDA) is a platform to support researchers in the design of in vivo experiments; it can be used to generate diagrams to represent any type of experimental design [ 19 ].

For each experiment performed, clearly report all groups used. Selectively excluding some experimental groups (for example, because the data are inconsistent or conflict with the narrative of the paper) is misleading and should be avoided [ 20 ]. Ensure that test groups, comparators, and controls (negative or positive) can be identified easily. State clearly if the same control group was used for multiple experiments or if no control group was used.

Subitem 1a—Example 1

‘The DAV1 study is a one-way, two-period crossover trial with 16 piglets receiving amoxicillin and placebo at period 1 and only amoxicillin at period 2. Amoxicillin was administered orally with a single dose of 30 mg.kg -1 . Plasma amoxicillin concentrations were collected at same sampling times at each period: 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 h’ [ 21 ].

Subitem 1a—Example 2

1b . The experimental unit (e.g., a single animal, litter, or cage of animals) .

Explanation. Within a design, biological and technical factors will often be organised hierarchically, such as cells within animals and mitochondria within cells, or cages within rooms and animals within cages. Such hierarchies can make determining the sample size difficult (is it the number of animals, cells, or mitochondria?). The sample size is the number of experimental units per group. The experimental unit is defined as the biological entity subjected to an intervention independently of all other units, such that it is possible to assign any two experimental units to different treatment groups. It is also sometimes called the unit of randomisation. In addition, the experimental units should not influence each other on the outcomes that are measured.

Commonly, the experimental unit is the individual animal, each independently allocated to a treatment group (e.g., a drug administered by injection). However, the experimental unit may be the cage or the litter (e.g., a diet administered to a whole cage, or a treatment administered to a dam and investigated in her pups), or it could be part of the animal (e.g., different drug treatments applied topically to distinct body regions of the same animal). Animals may also serve as their own controls, receiving different treatments separated by washout periods; here, the experimental unit is an animal for a period of time. There may also be multiple experimental units in a single experiment, such as when a treatment is given to a pregnant dam and then the weaned pups are allocated to different diets [ 23 ]. See [ 17 , 24 , 25 ] for further guidance on identifying experimental units.

Conflating experimental units with subsamples or repeated measurements can lead to artificial inflation of the sample size. For example, measurements from 50 individual cells from a single mouse represent n = 1 when the experimental unit is the mouse. The 50 measurements are subsamples and provide an estimate of measurement error and so should be averaged or used in a nested analysis. Reporting n = 50 in this case is an example of pseudoreplication [ 26 ]. It underestimates the true variability in a study, which can lead to false positives and invalidate the analysis and resulting conclusions [ 26 , 27 ]. If, however, each cell taken from the mouse is then randomly allocated to different treatments and assessed individually, the cell might be regarded as the experimental unit.

Clearly indicate the experimental unit for each experiment so that the sample sizes and statistical analyses can be properly evaluated.

Subitem 1b—Example 1

‘The present study used the tissues collected at E15.5 from dams fed the 1X choline and 4X choline diets ( n = 3 dams per group, per fetal sex; total n = 12 dams). To ensure statistical independence, only one placenta (either male or female) from each dam was used for each experiment. Each placenta, therefore, was considered to be an experimental unit’ [ 28 ].

Subitem 1b—Example 2

‘We have used data collected from high-throughput phenotyping, which is based on a pipeline concept where a mouse is characterized by a series of standardized and validated tests underpinned by standard operating procedures (SOPs)…. The individual mouse was considered the experimental unit within the studies’ [ 29 ].

Subitem 1b—Example 3

‘Fish were divided in two groups according to weight (0.7–1.2 g and 1.3–1.7 g) and randomly stocked (at a density of 15 fish per experimental unit) in 24 plastic tanks holding 60 L of water’ [ 30 ].

Subitem 1b—Example 4

‘In the study, n refers to number of animals, with five acquisitions from each [corticostriatal] slice, with a maximum of three slices obtained from each experimental animal used for each protocol (six animals each group)’ [ 31 ].

Item 2. Sample size

2a . Specify the exact number of experimental units allocated to each group, and the total number in each experiment . Also indicate the total number of animals used .

Explanation. The sample size relates to the number of experimental units in each group at the start of the study and is usually represented by n (see Item 1. Study design for further guidance on identifying and reporting experimental units). This information is crucial to assess the validity of the statistical model and the robustness of the experimental results.

The sample size in each group at the start of the study may be different from the n numbers in the analysis (see Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria); this information helps readers identify attrition or if there have been exclusions and in which group they occurred. Reporting the total number of animals used in the study is also useful to identify whether any were reused between experiments.

Report the exact value of n per group and the total number in each experiment (including any independent replications). If the experimental unit is not the animal, also report the total number of animals to help readers understand the study design. For example, in a study investigating diet using cages of animals housed in pairs, the number of animals is double the number of experimental units.

Subitem 2a –example 1

2b . Explain how the sample size was decided . Provide details of any a priori sample size calculation, if done .

Explanation. For any type of experiment, it is crucial to explain how the sample size was determined. For hypothesis-testing experiments, in which inferential statistics are used to estimate the size of the effect and to determine the weight of evidence against the null hypothesis, the sample size needs to be justified to ensure experiments are of an optimal size to test the research question [ 33 , 34 ] (see Item 13. Objectives). Sample sizes that are too small (i.e., underpowered studies) produce inconclusive results, whereas sample sizes that are too large (i.e., overpowered studies) raise ethical issues over unnecessary use of animals and may produce trivial findings that are statistically significant but not biologically relevant [ 35 ]. Low power has three effects: first, within the experiment, real effects are more likely to be missed; second, when an effect is detected, this will often be an overestimation of the true effect size [ 24 ]; and finally, when low power is combined with publication bias, there is an increase in the false positive rate in the published literature [ 36 ]. Consequently, low-powered studies contribute to the poor internal validity of research and risk wasting animals used in inconclusive research [ 37 ].

Study design can influence the statistical power of an experiment, and the power calculation used needs to be appropriate for the design implemented. Statistical programmes to help perform a priori sample size calculations exist for a variety of experimental designs and statistical analyses, both freeware (web-based applets and functions in R) and commercial software [ 38 – 40 ]. Choosing the appropriate calculator or algorithm to use depends on the type of outcome measures and independent variables, and the number of groups. Consultation with a statistician is recommended, especially when the experimental design is complex or unusual.

When the experiment tests the effect of an intervention on the mean of a continuous outcome measure, the sample size can be calculated a priori, based on a mathematical relationship between the predefined, biologically relevant effect size, variability estimated from prior data, chosen significance level, power, and sample size (see Box 3 and [ 17 , 41 ] for practical advice). If you have used an a priori sample size calculation, report

Box 3. Information used in a power calculation

Sample size calculation is based on a mathematical relationship between the following parameters: effect size, variability, significance level, power, and sample size. Questions to consider are the following:

The primary objective of the experiment—What is the main outcome measure?

The primary outcome measure should be identified in the planning stage of the experiment; it is the outcome of greatest importance, which will answer the main experimental question.

The predefined effect size—What is a biologically relevant effect size?

The effect size is estimated as a biologically relevant change in the primary outcome measure between the groups under study. This can be informed by similar studies and involves scientists exploring what magnitude of effect would generate interest and would be worth taking forward into further work. In preclinical studies, the clinical relevance of the effect should also be taken into consideration.

What is the estimate of variability?

Estimates of variability can be obtained

• From data collected from a preliminary experiment conducted under identical conditions to the planned experiment, e.g., a previous experiment in the same laboratory, testing the same treatment under similar conditions on animals with the same characteristics
• From the control group in a previous experiment testing a different treatment
• From a similar experiment reported in the literature

Significance threshold—What risk of a false positive is acceptable?

The significance level or threshold (α) is the probability of obtaining a false positive. If it is set at 0.05, then the risk of obtaining a false positive is 1 in 20 for a single statistical test. However, the threshold or the p -values will need to be adjusted in scenarios of multiple testing (e.g., by using a Bonferroni correction).

Power—What risk of a false negative is acceptable?

For a predefined, biologically meaningful effect size, the power (1 − β) is the probability that the statistical test will detect the effect if it genuinely exists (i.e., true positive result). A target power between 80% and 95% is normally deemed acceptable, which entails a risk of false negative between 5% and 20%.

Directionality—Will you use a one- or two-sided test?

The directionality of a test depends on the distribution of the test statistics for a given analysis. For tests based on t or z distributions (such as t tests), whether the data will be analysed using a one- or two-sided test relates to whether the alternative hypothesis is directional or not. An experiment with a directional (one-sided) alternative hypothesis can be powered and analysed with a one-sided test with the goal of maximising the sensitivity to detect this directional effect. Controversy exists within the statistics community on when it is appropriate to use a one-sided test [ 42 ]. The use of a one-sided test requires justification of why a treatment effect is only of interest when it is in a defined direction and why they would treat a large effect in the unexpected direction no differently from a nonsignificant difference [ 43 ]. Following the use of a one-sided test, the investigator cannot then test for the possibility of missing an effect in the untested direction. Choosing a one-tailed test for the sole purpose of attaining statistical significance is not appropriate.

Two-sided tests with a nondirectional alternative hypothesis are much more common and allow researchers to detect the effect of a treatment regardless of its direction.

Note that analyses such as ANOVA and chi-squared are based on asymmetrical distributions (F-distribution and chi-squared distribution) with only one tail. Therefore, these tests do not have a directionality option.

• the analysis method (e.g., two-tailed Student t test with a 0.05 significance threshold)
• the effect size of interest and a justification explaining why an effect size of that magnitude is relevant
• the estimate of variability used (e.g., standard deviation) and how it was estimated
• the power selected

There are several types of studies in which a priori sample size calculations are not appropriate. For example, the number of animals needed for antibody or tissue production is determined by the amount required and the production ability of an individual animal. For studies in which the outcome is the successful generation of a sample or a condition (e.g., the production of transgenic animals), the number of animals is determined by the probability of success of the experimental procedure.

In early feasibility or pilot studies, the number of animals required depends on the purpose of the study. When the objective of the preliminary study is primarily logistic or operational (e.g., to improve procedures and equipment), the number of animals needed is generally small. In such cases, power calculations are not appropriate and sample sizes can be estimated based on operational capacity and constraints [ 44 ]. Pilot studies alone are unlikely to provide adequate data on variability for a power calculation for future experiments. Systematic reviews and previous studies are more appropriate sources of information on variability [ 45 ].

If no power calculation was used to determine the sample size, state this explicitly and provide the reasoning that was used to decide on the sample size per group. Regardless of whether a power calculation was used or not, when explaining how the sample size was determined take into consideration any anticipated loss of animals or data, for example, due to exclusion criteria established upfront or expected attrition (see Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria).

Subitem 2b—Example 1

‘The sample size calculation was based on postoperative pain numerical rating scale (NRS) scores after administration of buprenorphine (NRS AUC mean = 2.70; noninferiority limit = 0.54; standard deviation = 0.66) as the reference treatment… and also Glasgow Composite Pain Scale (GCPS) scores… using online software (Experimental design assistant; https://eda.nc3rs.org.uk/eda/login/auth ). The power of the experiment was set to 80%. A total of 20 dogs per group were considered necessary’ [ 46 ].

Subitem 2b—Example 2

‘We selected a small sample size because the bioglass prototype was evaluated in vivo for the first time in the present study, and therefore, the initial intention was to gather basic evidence regarding the use of this biomaterial in more complex experimental designs’ [ 47 ].

Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

3a . Describe any criteria used for including or excluding animals (or experimental units) during the experiment, and data points during the analysis . Specify if these criteria were established a priori . If no criteria were set, state this explicitly .

Explanation. Inclusion and exclusion criteria define the eligibility or disqualification of animals and data once the study has commenced. To ensure scientific rigour, the criteria should be defined before the experiment starts and data are collected [ 8 , 33 , 48 , 49 ]. Inclusion criteria should not be confused with animal characteristics (see Item 8. Experimental animals) but can be related to these (e.g., body weights must be within a certain range for a particular procedure) or related to other study parameters (e.g., task performance has to exceed a given threshold). In studies in which selected data are reanalysed for a different purpose, inclusion and exclusion criteria should describe how data were selected.

Exclusion criteria may result from technical or welfare issues such as complications anticipated during surgery or circumstances in which test procedures might be compromised (e.g., development of motor impairments that could affect behavioural measurements). Criteria for excluding samples or data include failure to meet quality control standards, such as insufficient sample volumes, unacceptable levels of contaminants, poor histological quality, etc. Similarly, how the researcher will define and handle data outliers during the analysis should also be decided before the experiment starts (see subitem 3b for guidance on responsible data cleaning).

Exclusion criteria may also reflect the ethical principles of a study in line with its humane endpoints (see Item 16. Animal care and monitoring). For example, in cancer studies, an animal might be dropped from the study and euthanised before the predetermined time point if the size of a subcutaneous tumour exceeds a specific volume [ 50 ]. If losses are anticipated, these should be considered when determining the number of animals to include in the study (see Item 2. Sample size). Whereas exclusion criteria and humane endpoints are typically included in the ethical review application, reporting the criteria used to exclude animals or data points in the manuscript helps readers with the interpretation of the data and provides crucial information to other researchers wanting to adopt the model.

Best practice is to include all a priori inclusion and exclusion/outlier criteria in a preregistered protocol (see Item 19. Protocol registration). At the very least, these criteria should be documented in a laboratory notebook and reported in manuscripts, explicitly stating that the criteria were defined before any data was collected.

Subitem 3a—Example 1

‘The animals were included in the study if they underwent successful MCA occlusion (MCAo), defined by a 60% or greater drop in cerebral blood flow seen with laser Doppler flowmetry. The animals were excluded if insertion of the thread resulted in perforation of the vessel wall (determined by the presence of sub-arachnoid blood at the time of sacrifice), if the silicon tip of the thread became dislodged during withdrawal, or if the animal died prematurely, preventing the collection of behavioral and histological data’ [ 51 ].

3b . For each experimental group, report any animals, experimental units, or data points not included in the analysis and explain why . If there were no exclusions, state so .

Explanation. Animals, experimental units, or data points that are unaccounted for can lead to instances in which conclusions cannot be supported by the raw data [ 52 ]. Reporting exclusions and attritions provides valuable information to other investigators evaluating the results or who intend to repeat the experiment or test the intervention in other species. It may also provide important safety information for human trials (e.g., exclusions related to adverse effects).

There are many legitimate reasons for experimental attrition, some of which are anticipated and controlled for in advance (see subitem 3a on defining exclusion and inclusion criteria), but some data loss might not be anticipated. For example, data points may be excluded from analyses because of an animal receiving the wrong treatment, unexpected drug toxicity, infections or diseases unrelated to the experiment, sampling errors (e.g., a malfunctioning assay that produced a spurious result, inadequate calibration of equipment), or other human error (e.g., forgetting to switch on equipment for a recording).

Most statistical analysis methods are extremely sensitive to outliers and missing data. In some instances, it may be scientifically justifiable to remove outlying data points from an analysis, such as obvious errors in data entry or measurement with readings that are outside a plausible range. Inappropriate data cleaning has the potential to bias study outcomes [ 53 ]; providing the reasoning for removing data points enables the distinction to be made between responsible data cleaning and data manipulation. Missing data, common in all areas of research, can impact the sensitivity of the study and also lead to biased estimates, distorted power, and loss of information if the missing values are not random [ 54 ]. Analysis plans should include methods to explore why data are missing. It is also important to consider and justify analysis methods that account for missing data [ 55 , 56 ].

There is a movement toward greater data sharing (see Item 20. Data access), along with an increase in strategies such as code sharing to enable analysis replication. These practices, however transparent, still need to be accompanied by a disclosure on the reasoning for data cleaning and whether methods were defined before any data were collected.

Report all animal exclusions and loss of data points, along with the rationale for their exclusion. For example, this information can be summarised as a table or a flowchart describing attrition in each treatment group. Accompanying this information should be an explicit description of whether researchers were blinded to the group allocations when data or animals were excluded (see Item 5. Blinding and [ 57 ]). Explicitly state when built-in models in statistics packages have been used to remove outliers (e.g., GraphPad Prism’s outlier test).

Subitem 3b—Example 1

‘Pen was the experimental unit for all data. One entire pen (ZnAA90) was removed as an outlier from both Pre-RAC and RAC periods for poor performance caused by illness unrelated to treatment…. Outliers were determined using Cook’s D statistic and removed if Cook’s D > 0.5. One steer was determined to be an outlier for day 48 liver biopsy TM and data were removed’ [ 58 ].

Subitem 3b—Example 2

‘Seventy-two SHRs were randomized into the study, of which 13 did not meet our inclusion and exclusion criteria because the drop in cerebral blood flow at occlusion did not reach 60% (seven animals), postoperative death (one animal: autopsy unable to identify the cause of death), haemorrhage during thread insertion (one animal), and disconnection of the silicon tip of the thread during withdrawal, making the permanence of reperfusion uncertain (four animals). A total of 59 animals were therefore included in the analysis of infarct volume in this study. In error, three animals were sacrificed before their final assessment of neurobehavioral score: one from the normothermia/water group and two from the hypothermia/pethidine group. These errors occurred blinded to treatment group allocation. A total of 56 animals were therefore included in the analysis of neurobehavioral score’ [ 51 ].

Subitem 3b—Example 3

3c . For each analysis, report the exact value of n in each experimental group .

Explanation. The exact number of experimental units analysed in each group (i.e., the n number) is essential information for the reader to interpret the analysis; it should be reported unambiguously. All animals and data used in the experiment should be accounted for in the data presented. Sometimes, for good reasons, animals may need to be excluded from a study (e.g., illness or mortality), or data points excluded from analyses (e.g., biologically implausible values). Reporting losses will help the reader to understand the experimental design process, replicate methods, and provide adequate tracking of animal numbers in a study, especially when sample size numbers in the analyses do not match the original group numbers.

For each outcome measure, indicate numbers clearly within the text or on figures and provide absolute numbers (e.g., 10/20, not 50%). For studies in which animals are measured at different time points, explicitly report the full description of which animals undergo measurement and when [ 33 ].

Subitem 3c—Example 1

‘Group F contained 29 adult males and 58 adult females in 2010 ( n = 87), and 32 adult males and 66 adult females in 2011 ( n = 98). The increase in female numbers was due to maturation of juveniles to adults. Females belonged to three matrilines, and there were no major shifts in rank in the male hierarchy. Six mid to low ranking individuals died and were excluded from analyses, as were five mid-ranking males who emigrated from the group at the beginning of 2011’ [ 60 ].

Subitem 3c—Example 2

‘The proportion of test time that animals spent interacting with the handler (sniffed the gloved hand or tunnel, made paw contact, climbed on, or entered the handling tunnel) was measured from DVD recordings. This was then averaged across the two mice in each cage as they were tested together and their behaviour was not independent…. Mice handled with the home cage tunnel spent a much greater proportion of the test interacting with the handler (mean ± s.e.m., 39.8 ± 5.2 percent time of 60 s test, n = 8 cages) than those handled by tail (6.4 ± 2.0 percent time, n = 8 cages), while those handled by cupping showed intermediate levels of voluntary interaction (27.6 ± 7.1 percent time, n = 8 cages)’ [ 61 ].

Item 4. Randomisation

4a . State whether randomisation was used to allocate experimental units to control and treatment groups . If done, provide the method used to generate the randomisation sequence .

Explanation. Using appropriate randomisation methods during the allocation to groups ensures that each experimental unit has an equal probability of receiving a particular treatment and provides balanced numbers in each treatment group. Selecting an animal ‘at random’ (i.e., haphazardly or arbitrarily) from a cage is not statistically random, as the process involves human judgement. It can introduce bias that influences the results, as a researcher may (consciously or subconsciously) make judgements in allocating an animal to a particular group, or because of unknown and uncontrolled differences in the experimental conditions or animals in different groups. Using a validated method of randomisation helps minimise selection bias and reduce systematic differences in the characteristics of animals allocated to different groups [ 62 – 64 ]. Inferential statistics based on nonrandomised group allocation are not valid [ 65 , 66 ]. Thus, the use of randomisation is a prerequisite for any experiment designed to test a hypothesis. Examples of appropriate randomisation methods include online random number generators (e.g., https://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/randomize1/ ) or a function like Rand() in spreadsheet software such as Excel, Google Sheets, or LibreOffice. The EDA has a dedicated feature for randomisation and allocation concealment [ 19 ].

Systematic reviews have shown that animal experiments that do not report randomisation or other bias-reducing measures such as blinding are more likely to report exaggerated effects that meet conventional measures of statistical significance [ 67 – 69 ]. It is especially important to use randomisation in situations in which it is not possible to blind all or parts of the experiment, but even with randomisation, researcher bias can pervert the allocation. This can be avoided by using allocation concealment (see Item 5. Blinding). In studies in which sample sizes are small, simple randomisation may result in unbalanced groups; here, randomisation strategies to balance groups such as randomising in matched pairs [ 70 – 72 ] and blocking are encouraged [ 17 ]. Reporting the precise method used to allocate animals or experimental units to groups enables readers to assess the reliability of the results and identify potential limitations.

Report the type of randomisation used (simple, stratified, randomised complete blocks, etc.; see Box 4 ), the method used to generate the randomisation sequence (e.g., computer-generated randomisation sequence, with details of the algorithm or programme used), and what was randomised (e.g., treatment to experimental unit, order of treatment for each animal). If this varies between experiments, report this information specifically for each experiment. If randomisation was not the method used to allocate experimental units to groups, state this explicitly and explain how the groups being compared were formed.

Box 4. Considerations for the randomisation strategy

Simple randomisation

All animals/samples are simultaneously randomised to the treatment groups without considering any other variable. This strategy is rarely appropriate, as it cannot ensure that comparison groups are balanced for other variables that might influence the result of an experiment.

Randomisation within blocks

Blocking is a method of controlling natural variation among experimental units. This splits up the experiment into smaller subexperiments (blocks), and treatments are randomised to experimental units within each block [ 17 , 66 , 73 ]. This takes into account nuisance variables that could potentially bias the results (e.g., cage location, day or week of procedure).

Stratified randomisation uses the same principle as randomisation within blocks, only the strata tend to be traits of the animal that are likely to be associated with the response (e.g., weight class or tumour size class). This can lead to differences in the practical implementation of stratified randomisation as compared with block randomisation (e.g., there may not be equal numbers of experimental units in each weight class).

Other randomisation strategies

Minimisation is an alternative strategy to allocate animals/samples to treatment group to balance variables that might influence the result of an experiment. With minimisation, the treatment allocated to the next animal/sample depends on the characteristics of those animals/samples already assigned. The aim is that each allocation should minimise the imbalance across multiple factors [ 74 ]. This approach works well for a continuous nuisance variable such as body weight or starting tumour volume.

Examples of nuisance variables that can be accounted for in the randomisation strategy

• Time or day of the experiment
• Litter, cage, or fish tank
• Investigator or surgeon—different level of experience in the people administering the treatments, performing the surgeries, or assessing the results may result in varying stress levels in the animals or duration of anaesthesia
• Equipment (e.g., PCR machine, spectrophotometer)—calibration may vary
• Measurement of a study parameter (e.g., initial tumour volume)
• Animal characteristics (e.g., sex, age bracket, weight bracket)
• Location—exposure to light, ventilation, and disturbances may vary in cages located at different height or on different racks, which may affect important physiological processes

Implication for the analysis

If blocking factors are used in the randomisation, they should also be included in the analysis. Nuisance variables increase variability in the sample, which reduces statistical power. Including a nuisance variable as a blocking factor in the analysis accounts for that variability and can increase the power, thus increasing the ability to detect a real effect with fewer experimental units. However, blocking uses up degrees of freedom and thus reduces the power if the nuisance variable does not have a substantial impact on variability.

Subitem 4a—Example 1

‘Fifty 12-week-old male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 320–360g, were obtained from Guangdong Medical Laboratory Animal Center (Guangzhou, China) and randomly divided into two groups (25 rats/group): the intact group and the castration group. Random numbers were generated using the standard = RAND() function in Microsoft Excel’ [ 75 ].

Subitem 4a—Example 2

‘Animals were randomized after surviving the initial I/R, using a computer based random order generator’ [ 76 ].

Subitem 4a—Example 3

‘At each institute, phenotyping data from both sexes is collected at regular intervals on age-matched wildtype mice of equivalent genetic backgrounds. Cohorts of at least seven homozygote mice of each sex per pipeline were generated…. The random allocation of mice to experimental group (wildtype versus knockout) was driven by Mendelian Inheritance’ [ 29 ].

4b . Describe the strategy used to minimise potential confounders such as the order of treatments and measurements, or animal/cage location . If confounders were not controlled, state this explicitly .

Explanation. Ensuring there is no systematic difference between animals in different groups apart from the experimental exposure is an important principle throughout the conduct of the experiment. Identifying nuisance variables (sources of variability or conditions that could potentially bias results) and managing them in the design and analysis increases the sensitivity of the experiment. For example, rodents in cages at the top of the rack may be exposed to higher light levels, which can affect stress [ 77 ].

Reporting the strategies implemented to minimise potential differences that arise between treatment groups during the course of the experiment enables others to assess the internal validity. Strategies to report include standardising (keeping conditions the same, e.g., all surgeries done by the same surgeon), randomising (e.g., the sampling or measurement order), and blocking or counterbalancing (e.g., position of animal cages or tanks on the rack), to ensure groups are similarly affected by a source of variability. In some cases, practical constraints prevent some nuisance variables from being randomised, but they can still be accounted for in the analysis (see Item 7. Statistical methods).

Report the methods used to minimise confounding factors alongside the methods used to allocate animals to groups. If no measures were used to minimise confounders (e.g., treatment order, measurement order, cage or tank position on a rack), explicitly state this and explain why.

Subitem 4b—Example 1

‘Randomisation was carried out as follows. On arrival from El-Nile Company, animals were assigned a group designation and weighed. A total number of 32 animals were divided into four different weight groups (eight animals per group). Each animal was assigned a temporary random number within the weight range group. On the basis of their position on the rack, cages were given a numerical designation. For each group, a cage was selected randomly from the pool of all cages. Two animals were removed from each weight range group and given their permanent numerical designation in the cages. Then, the cages were randomized within the exposure group’ [ 78 ].

Subitem 4b—Example 2

‘… test time was between 08.30am to 12.30pm and testing order was randomized daily, with each animal tested at a different time each test day’ [ 79 ].

Subitem 4b—Example 3

‘Bulls were blocked by BW into four blocks of 905 animals with similar BW and then within each block, bulls were randomly assigned to one of four experimental treatments in a completely randomized block design resulting in 905 animals per treatment. Animals were allocated to 20 pens (181 animals per pen and five pens per treatment)’ [ 80 ].

Item 5. Blinding

Describe who was aware of the group allocation at the different stages of the experiment (during the allocation, the conduct of the experiment, the outcome assessment, and the data analysis) .

Explanation. Researchers often expect a particular outcome and can unintentionally influence the experiment or interpret the data in such a way as to support their preferred hypothesis [ 81 ]. Blinding is a strategy used to minimise these subjective biases.

Although there is primary evidence of the impact of blinding in the clinical literature that directly compares blinded versus unblinded assessment of outcomes [ 82 ], there is limited empirical evidence in animal research [ 83 , 84 ]. There are, however, compelling data from systematic reviews showing that nonblinded outcome assessment leads to the treatment effects being overestimated, and the lack of bias-reducing measures such as randomisation and blinding can contribute to as much as 30%–45% inflation of effect sizes [ 67 , 68 , 85 ].

Ideally, investigators should be unaware of the treatment(s) animals have received or will be receiving, from the start of the experiment until the data have been analysed. If this is not possible for every stage of an experiment (see Box 5 ), it should always be possible to conduct at least some of the stages blind. This has implications for the organisation of the experiment and may require help from additional personnel—for example, a surgeon to perform interventions, a technician to code the treatment syringes for each animal, or a colleague to code the treatment groups for the analysis. Online resources are available to facilitate allocation concealment and blinding [ 19 ].

Box 5. Blinding during different stages of an experiment

During allocation

Allocation concealment refers to concealing the treatment to be allocated to each individual animal from those assigning the animals to groups, until the time of assignment. Together with randomisation, allocation concealment helps minimise selection bias, which can introduce systematic differences between treatment groups.

During the conduct of the experiment

When possible, animal care staff and those who administer treatments should be unaware of allocation groups to ensure that all animals in the experiment are handled, monitored, and treated in the same way. Treating different groups differently based on the treatment they have received could alter animal behaviour and physiology and produce confounds.

Welfare or safety reasons may prevent blinding of animal care staff, but in most cases, blinding is possible. For example, if hazardous microorganisms are used, control animals can be considered as dangerous as infected animals. If a welfare issue would only be tolerated for a short time in treated but not control animals, a harm-benefit analysis is needed to decide whether blinding should be used.

During the outcome assessment

The person collecting experimental measurements or conducting assessments should not know which treatment each sample/animal received and which samples/animals are grouped together. Blinding is especially important during outcome assessment, particularly if there is a subjective element (e.g., when assessing behavioural changes or reading histological slides) [ 83 ]. Randomising the order of examination can also reduce bias.

If the person assessing the outcome cannot be blinded to the group allocation (e.g., obvious phenotypic or behavioural differences between groups), some, but not all, of the sources of bias could be mitigated by sending data for analysis to a third party who has no vested interest in the experiment and does not know whether a treatment is expected to improve or worsen the outcome.

During the data analysis

The person analysing the data should know which data are grouped together to enable group comparisons but should not be aware of which specific treatment each group received. This type of blinding is often neglected but is important, as the analyst makes many semisubjective decisions such as applying data transformation to outcome measures, choosing methods for handling missing data, and handling outliers. How these decisions will be made should also be decided a priori.

Data can be coded prior to analysis so that the treatment group cannot be identified before analysis is completed.

Specify whether blinding was used or not for each step of the experimental process (see Box 5 ) and indicate what particular treatment or condition the investigators were blinded to, or aware of.

If blinding was not used at any of the steps outlined in Box 5 , explicitly state this and provide the reason why blinding was not possible or not considered.

Item 5—Example 1

‘For each animal, four different investigators were involved as follows: a first investigator (RB) administered the treatment based on the randomization table. This investigator was the only person aware of the treatment group allocation. A second investigator (SC) was responsible for the anaesthetic procedure, whereas a third investigator (MS, PG, IT) performed the surgical procedure. Finally, a fourth investigator (MAD) (also unaware of treatment) assessed GCPS and NRS, mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT), and sedation NRS scores’ [ 46 ].

Item 5—Example 2

‘… due to overt behavioral seizure activity the experimenter could not be blinded to whether the animal was injected with pilocarpine or with saline’ [ 86 ].

Item 5—Example 3

‘Investigators could not be blinded to the mouse strain due to the difference in coat colors, but the three-chamber sociability test was performed with ANY-maze video tracking software (Stoelting, Wood Dale, IL, USA) using an overhead video camera system to automate behavioral testing and provide unbiased data analyses. The one-chamber social interaction test requires manual scoring and was analyzed by an individual with no knowledge of the questions’ [ 87 ].

Item 6. Outcome measures

6a . Clearly define all outcome measures assessed (e.g., cell death, molecular markers, or behavioural changes) .

Explanation. An outcome measure (also known as a dependent variable or a response variable) is any variable recorded during a study (e.g., volume of damaged tissue, number of dead cells, specific molecular marker) to assess the effects of a treatment or experimental intervention. Outcome measures may be important for characterising a sample (e.g., baseline data) or for describing complex responses (e.g., ‘haemodynamic’ outcome measures including heart rate, blood pressure, central venous pressure, and cardiac output). Failure to disclose all the outcomes that were measured introduces bias in the literature, as positive outcomes (e.g., those statistically significant) are reported more often [ 88 – 91 ].

Explicitly describe what was measured, especially when measures can be operationalised in different ways. For example, activity could be recorded as time spent moving or distance travelled. When possible, the recording of outcome measures should be made in an unbiased manner (e.g., blinded to the treatment allocation of each experimental group; see Item 5. Blinding). Specify how the outcome measure(s) assessed are relevant to the objectives of the study.

Subitem 6a—Example 1

‘The following parameters were assessed: threshold pressure (TP; intravesical pressure immediately before micturition); post-void pressure (PVP; intravesical pressure immediately after micturition); peak pressure (PP; highest intravesical pressure during micturition); capacity (CP; volume of saline needed to induce the first micturition); compliance (CO; CP to TP ratio); frequency of voiding contractions (VC) and frequency of non-voiding contractions (NVCs)’ [ 92 ].

6b . For hypothesis-testing studies, specify the primary outcome measure, i.e., the outcome measure that was used to determine the sample size .

Explanation. In a hypothesis-testing experiment, the primary outcome measure answers the main biological question. It is the outcome of greatest importance, identified in the planning stages of the experiment and used as the basis for the sample size calculation (see Box 3 ). For exploratory studies, it is not necessary to identify a single primary outcome, and often multiple outcomes are assessed (see Item 13. Objectives).

In a hypothesis-testing study powered to detect an effect on the primary outcome measure, data on secondary outcomes are used to evaluate additional effects of the intervention, but subsequent statistical analysis of secondary outcome measures may be underpowered, making results and interpretation less reliable [ 88 , 93 ]. Studies that claim to test a hypothesis but do not specify a predefined primary outcome measure or those that change the primary outcome measure after data were collected (also known as primary outcome switching) are liable to selectively report only statistically significant results, favouring more positive findings [ 94 ].

Registering a protocol in advance protects the researcher against concerns about selective outcome reporting (also known as data dredging or p-hacking) and provides evidence that the primary outcome reported in the manuscript accurately reflects what was planned [ 95 ] (see Item 19. Protocol registration).

In studies using inferential statistics to test a hypothesis (e.g., t test, ANOVA), if more than one outcome was assessed, explicitly identify the primary outcome measure, state whether it was defined as such prior to data collection and whether it was used in the sample size calculation. If there was no primary outcome measure, explicitly state so.

Subitem 6b—Example 1

‘The primary outcome of this study will be forelimb function assessed with the staircase test. Secondary outcomes constitute Rotarod performance, stroke volume (quantified on MR imaging or brain sections, respectively), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) connectome mapping, and histological analyses to measure neuronal and microglial densities, and phagocytic activity…. The study is designed with 80% power to detect a relative 25% difference in pellet-reaching performance in the Staircase test’ [ 96 ].

Subitem 6b—Example 2

‘The primary endpoint of this study was defined as left ventricular ejection fraction (EF) at the end of follow-up, measured by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Secondary endpoints were left ventricular end diastolic volume and left ventricular end systolic volume (EDV and ESV) measured by MRI, infarct size measured by ex vivo gross macroscopy after incubation with triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE) MRI, functional parameters serially measured by pressure volume (PV-)loop and echocardiography, coronary microvascular function by intracoronary pressure- and flow measurements and vascular density and fibrosis on histology’ [ 76 ].

Item 7. Statistical methods

7a . Provide details of the statistical methods used for each analysis, including software used .

Explanation. The statistical analysis methods implemented will reflect the goals and the design of the experiment; they should be decided in advance before data are collected (see Item 19. Protocol registration). Both exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies might use descriptive statistics to summarise the data (e.g., mean and SD, or median and range). In exploratory studies in which no specific hypothesis was tested, reporting descriptive statistics is important for generating new hypotheses that may be tested in subsequent experiments, but it does not allow conclusions beyond the data. In addition to descriptive statistics, hypothesis-testing studies might use inferential statistics to test a specific hypothesis.

Reporting the analysis methods in detail is essential to ensure readers and peer reviewers can assess the appropriateness of the methods selected and judge the validity of the output. The description of the statistical analysis should provide enough detail so that another researcher could reanalyse the raw data using the same method and obtain the same results. Make it clear which method was used for which analysis.

Analysing the data using different methods and selectively reporting those with statistically significant results constitutes p-hacking and introduces bias in the literature [ 90 , 94 ]. Report all analyses performed in full. Relevant information to describe the statistical methods include

• the outcome measures
• the independent variables of interest
• the nuisance variables taken into account in each statistical test (e.g., as blocking factors or covariates)
• what statistical analyses were performed and references for the methods used
• how missing values were handled
• adjustment for multiple comparisons
• the software package and version used, including computer code if available [ 97 ]

The outcome measure is potentially affected by the treatments or interventions being tested but also by other factors, such as the properties of the biological samples (sex, litter, age, weight, etc.) and technical considerations (cage, time of day, batch, experimenter, etc.). To reduce the risk of bias, some of these factors can be taken into account in the design of the experiment, for example, by using blocking factors in the randomisation (see Item 4. Randomisation). Factors deemed to affect the variability of the outcome measure should also be handled in the analysis, for example, as a blocking factor (e.g., batch of reagent or experimenter) or as a covariate (e.g., starting tumour size at point of randomisation).

Furthermore, to conduct the analysis appropriately, it is important to recognise the hierarchy that can exist in an experiment. The hierarchy can induce a clustering effect; for example, cage, litter, or animal effects can occur when the outcomes measured for animals from the same cage/litter, or for cells from the same animal, are more similar to each other. This relationship has to be managed in the statistical analysis by including cage/litter/animal effects in the model or by aggregating the outcome measure to the cage/litter/animal level. Thus, describing the reality of the experiment and the hierarchy of the data, along with the measures taken in the design and the analysis to account for this hierarchy, is crucial to assessing whether the statistical methods used are appropriate.

For bespoke analysis—for example, regression analysis with many terms—it is essential to describe the analysis pipeline in detail. This could include detailing the starting model and any model simplification steps.

When reporting descriptive statistics, explicitly state which measure of central tendency is reported (e.g., mean or median) and which measure of variability is reported (e.g., standard deviation, range, quartiles, or interquartile range). Also describe any modification made to the raw data before analysis (e.g., relative quantification of gene expression against a housekeeping gene). For further guidance on statistical reporting, refer to the Statistical Analyses and Methods in the Published Literature (SAMPL) guidelines [ 98 ].

Subitem 7a—Example 1

‘Analysis of variance was performed using the GLM procedure of SAS (SAS Inst., Cary, NC). Average pen values were used as the experimental unit for the performance parameters. The model considered the effects of block and dietary treatment (5 diets). Data were adjusted by the covariant of initial body weight. Orthogonal contrasts were used to test the effects of SDPP processing (UV vs no UV) and dietary SDPP level (3% vs 6%). Results are presented as least squares means. The level of significance was set at P < 0.05’ [ 99 ].

Subitem 7a—Example 2

‘All risk factors of interest were investigated in a single model. Logistic regression allows blocking factors and explicitly investigates the effect of each independent variable controlling for the effects of all others…. As we were interested in husbandry and environmental effects, we blocked the analysis by important biological variables (age; backstrain; inbreeding; sex; breeding status) to control for their effect. (The role of these biological variables in barbering behavior, particularly with reference to barbering as a model for the human disorder trichotillomania, is described elsewhere …). We also blocked by room to control for the effect of unknown environmental variables associated with this design variable. We tested for the effect of the following husbandry and environmental risk factors: cage mate relationships (i.e. siblings, non-siblings, or mixed); cage type (i.e. plastic or steel); cage height from floor; cage horizontal position (whether the cage was on the side or the middle of a rack); stocking density; and the number of adults in the cage. Cage material by cage height from floor; and cage material by cage horizontal position interactions were examined, and then removed from the model as they were nonsignificant. N = 1959 mice were included in this analysis’ [ 100 ].

7b . Describe any methods used to assess whether the data met the assumptions of the statistical approach, and what was done if the assumptions were not met .

Explanation. Hypothesis tests are based on assumptions about the underlying data. Describing how assumptions were assessed and whether these assumptions are met by the data enables readers to assess the suitability of the statistical approach used. If the assumptions are incorrect, the conclusions may not be valid. For example, the assumptions for data used in parametric tests (such as a t test, z test, ANOVA, etc.) are that the data are continuous, the residuals from the analysis are normally distributed, the responses are independent, and different groups have similar variances.

There are various tests for normality, for example, the Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. However, these tests have to be used cautiously. If the sample size is small, they will struggle to detect non-normality; if the sample size is large, the tests will detect unimportant deviations. An alternative approach is to evaluate data with visual plots, e.g., normal probability plots, box plots, scatterplots. If the residuals of the analysis are not normally distributed, the assumption may be satisfied using a data transformation in which the same mathematical function is applied to all data points to produce normally distributed data (e.g., log e , log 10 , square root).

Other types of outcome measures (binary, categorical, or ordinal) will require different methods of analysis, and each will have different sets of assumptions. For example, categorical data are summarised by counts and percentages or proportions and are analysed by tests of proportions; these analysis methods assume that data are binary, ordinal or nominal, and independent [ 18 ].

For each statistical test used (parametric or nonparametric), report the type of outcome measure and the methods used to test the assumptions of the statistical approach. If data were transformed, identify precisely the transformation used and which outcome measures it was applied to. Report any changes to the analysis if the assumptions were not met and an alternative approach was used (e.g., a nonparametric test was used, which does not require the assumption of normality). If the relevant assumptions about the data were not tested, state this explicitly.

Subitem 7b—Example 1

‘Model assumptions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk normality test and Levene’s Test for homogeneity of variance and by visual inspection of residual and fitted value plots. Some of the response variables had to be transformed by applying the natural logarithm or the second or third root, but were back-transformed for visualization of significant effects’ [ 101 ].

Subitem 7b—Example 2

‘The effects of housing (treatment) and day of euthanasia on cortisol levels were assessed by using fixed-effects 2-way ANOVA. An initial exploratory analysis indicated that groups with higher average cortisol levels also had greater variation in this response variable. To make the variation more uniform, we used a logarithmic transform of each fish’s cortisol per unit weight as the dependent variable in our analyses. This action made the assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity (standard deviations were equal) of our analyses reasonable’ [ 102 ].

Item 8. Experimental animals

8a . Provide species-appropriate details of the animals used, including species, strain and substrain, sex, age or developmental stage, and, if relevant, weight .

Explanation. The species, strain, substrain, sex, weight, and age of animals are critical factors that can influence most experimental results [ 103 – 107 ]. Reporting the characteristics of all animals used is equivalent to standardised human patient demographic data; these data support both the internal and external validity of the study results. It enables other researchers to repeat the experiment and generalise the findings. It also enables readers to assess whether the animal characteristics chosen for the experiment are relevant to the research objectives.

When reporting age and weight, include summary statistics for each experimental group (e.g., mean and standard deviation) and, if possible, baseline values for individual animals (e.g., as supplementary information or a link to a publicly accessible data repository). As body weight might vary during the course of the study, indicate when the measurements were taken. For most species, precise reporting of age is more informative than a description of the developmental status (e.g., a mouse referred to as an adult can vary in age from 6 to 20 weeks [ 108 ]). In some cases, however, reporting the developmental stage is more informative than chronological age—for example, in juvenile Xenopus , in which rate of development can be manipulated by incubation temperature [ 109 ].

Reporting the weight or the sex of the animals used may not feasible for all studies. For example, sex may be unknown for embryos or juveniles, or weight measurement may be particularly stressful for some aquatic species. If reporting these characteristics can be reasonably expected for the species used and the experimental setting but are not reported, provide a justification.

Subitem 8a—Example 1

‘One hundred and nineteen male mice were used: C57BL/6OlaHsd mice ( n = 59), and BALB/c OlaHsd mice ( n = 60) (both from Harlan, Horst, The Netherlands). At the time of the EPM test the mice were 13 weeks old and had body weights of 27.4 ± 0.4 g and 27.8 ± 0.3 g, respectively (mean ± SEM)’ [ 110 ].

Subitem 8a—Example 2

‘Histone Methylation Profiles and the Transcriptome of X . tropicalis Gastrula Embryos. To generate epigenetic profiles, ChIP was performed using specific antibodies against trimethylated H3K4 and H3K27 in Xenopus gastrula-stage embryos (Nieuwkoop-Faber stage 11–12), followed by deep sequencing (ChIP-seq). In addition, polyA-selected RNA (stages 10–13) was reverse transcribed and sequenced (RNA-seq)’ [ 111 ].

8b . Provide further relevant information on the provenance of animals, health/immune status, genetic modification status, genotype, and any previous procedures .

Explanation. The animals’ provenance, their health or immune status, and their history of previous testing or procedures can influence their physiology and behaviour, as well as their response to treatments, and thus impact on study outcomes. For example, animals of the same strain but from different sources, or animals obtained from the same source but at different times, may be genetically different [ 16 ]. The immune or microbiological status of the animals can also influence welfare, experimental variability, and scientific outcomes [ 112 – 114 ].

Report the health status of all animals used in the study and any previous procedures the animals have undergone. For example, if animals are specific pathogen free (SPF), list the pathogens that they were declared free of. If health status is unknown or was not tested, explicitly state this.

For genetically modified animals, describe the genetic modification status (e.g., knockout, overexpression), genotype (e.g., homozygous, heterozygous), manipulated gene(s), genetic methods and technologies used to generate the animals, how the genetic modification was confirmed, and details of animals used as controls (e.g., littermate controls [ 115 ]).

Reporting the correct nomenclature is crucial to understanding the data and ensuring that the research is discoverable and replicable [ 116 – 118 ]. Useful resources for reporting nomenclature for different species include

• Mice—International Committee on Standardized Genetic Nomenclature ( https://www.jax.org/jax-mice-and-services/customer-support/technical-support/genetics-and-nomenclature )
• Rats—Rat Genome and Nomenclature Committee ( https://rgd.mcw.edu/ )
• Zebrafish—Zebrafish Information Network ( http://zfin.org/ )
• Xenopus —Xenbase ( http://www.xenbase.org/entry/ )
• Drosophila —FlyBase ( http://flybase.org/ )
• C . elegans —WormBase ( https://wormbase.org/ )

Subitem 8b—Example 1

‘A construct was engineered for knockin of the mi R-128 ( mi R-128-3p) gene into the Rosa26 locus. Rosa26 genomic DNA fragments (~1.1 kb and ~4.3 kb 5′ and 3′ homology arms, respectively) were amplified from C57BL/6 BAC DNA, cloned into the pBasicLNeoL vector sequentially by in-fusion cloning, and confirmed by sequencing. The mi R-128 gene, under the control of tetO-minimum promoter, was also cloned into the vector between the two homology arms. In addition, the targeting construct also contained a loxP sites flanking the neomycin resistance gene cassette for positive selection and a diphtheria toxin A (DTA) cassette for negative selection. The construct was linearized with ClaI and electroporated into C57BL/6N ES cells. After G418 selection, seven-positive clones were identified from 121 G418-resistant clones by PCR screening. Six-positive clones were expanded and further analyzed by Southern blot analysis, among which four clones were confirmed with correct targeting with single-copy integration. Correctly targeted ES cell clones were injected into blastocysts, and the blastocysts were implanted into pseudo-pregnant mice to generate chimeras by Cyagen Biosciences Inc. Chimeric males were bred with Cre deleted mice from Jackson Laboratories to generate neomycin-free knockin mice. The correct insertion of the mi R-128 cassette and successful removal of the neomycin cassette were confirmed by PCR analysis with the primers listed in Supplementary Table… ’ [ 119 ].

Subitem 8b—Example 2

‘The C57BL/6J (Jackson) mice were supplied by Charles River Laboratories. The C57BL/6JOlaHsd (Harlan) mice were supplied by Harlan. The α-synuclein knockout mice were kindly supplied by Prof…. (Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.) and were congenic C57BL/6JCrl (backcrossed for 12 generations). TNFα−/− mice were kindly supplied by Dr…. (Queens University, Belfast, Northern Ireland) and were inbred on a homozygous C57BL/6J strain originally sourced from Bantin & Kingman and generated by targeting C57BL/6 ES cells. T286A mice were obtained from Prof…. (University of California, Los Angeles, CA). These mice were originally congenic C57BL/6J (backcrossed for five generations) and were then inbred (cousin matings) over 14 y, during which time they were outbred with C57BL/6JOlaHsd mice on three separate occasions’ [ 120 ].

Item 9. Experimental procedures

For each experimental group, including controls, describe the procedures in enough detail to allow others to replicate them, including :

9a . What was done, how it was done, and what was used .

Explanation. Essential information to describe in the manuscript includes the procedures used to develop the model (e.g., induction of the pathology), the procedures used to measure the outcomes, and pre- and postexperimental procedures, including animal handling, welfare monitoring, and euthanasia. Animal handling can be a source of stress, and the specific method used (e.g., mice picked up by tail or in cupped hands) can affect research outcomes [ 61 , 121 , 122 ]. Details about animal care and monitoring intrinsic to the procedure are discussed in further detail in Item 16. Animal care and monitoring. Provide enough detail to enable others to replicate the methods and highlight any quality assurance and quality control used [ 123 , 124 ]. A schematic of the experimental procedures with a timeline can give a clear overview of how the study was conducted. Information relevant to distinct types of interventions and resources are described in Table 1 .

AVMA, American Veterinary Medical Association; RRID, Research Resource Identifier.

When available, cite the Research Resource Identifier (RRID) for reagents and tools used [ 126 , 127 ]. RRIDs are unique and stable, allowing unambiguous identification of reagents or tools used in a study, aiding other researchers to replicate the methods.

Detailed step-by-step procedures can also be saved and shared online, for example, using Protocols.io [ 128 ], which assigns a digital object identifier (DOI) to the protocol and allows cross-referencing between protocols and publications.

Subitem 9a—Example 1

Subitem 9a—Example 2

‘For the diet-induced obesity (DIO) model, eight-week-old male mice had ad libitum access to drinking water and were kept on standard chow (SFD, 10.9 kJ/g) or on western high-fat diet (HFD; 22 kJ/g; kcal from 42% fat, 43% from carbohydrates and 15% from protein; E15721-34, Ssniff, Soest, Germany) for 15 weeks ( https://dx.doi.org/10.17504/protocols.io.kbacsie )’ [ 130 ].

Subitem 9a—Example 3

‘The frozen kidney tissues were lysed. The protein concentration was determined with the Pierce BCA assay kit (catalogue number 23225; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). A total of 100–150 μg total proteins were resolved on a 6–12% SDS-PAGE gel. The proteins were then transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane, blocked with 5% skimmed milk for 1 h at room temperature and incubated overnight at 4°C with primary antibodies against the following proteins: proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA; Cat# 2586, RRID: AB_2160343), phospho-AMPK (Cat# 2531, RRID: AB_330330), phospho-mTOR (Cat# 2971, RRID: AB_330970)…. The β-actin (Cat# A5441, RRID: AB_476744) antibody was obtained from Sigma. The blots were subsequently probed with HRP-conjugated anti-mouse (Cat# A0216) or anti-rabbit IgG (Cat# A0208; Beyotime Biotechnology, Beijing, China) at 1:1000. Immunoreactive bands were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence, and densitometry was performed using ImageJ software (RRID: SCR_003070, Bio-Rad Laboratories)’ [ 131 ].

9b . When and how often .

Explanation. Clearly report the frequency and timing of experimental procedures and measurements, including the light and dark cycle (e.g., 12L:12D), circadian time cues (e.g., lights on at 8:00 AM), and experimental time sequence (e.g., interval between baseline and comparator measurements or interval between procedures and measurements). Along with innate circadian rhythms, these can affect research outcomes such as behavioural, physiological, and immunological parameters [ 132 , 133 ]. Also report the timing and frequency of welfare assessments, taking into consideration the normal activity patterns (see Item 16. Animal care and monitoring). For example, nocturnal animals may not show behavioural signs of discomfort during the day [ 134 ].

If the timing of procedures or measurements varies between animals, this information can be provided as a supplementary table listing each animal.

Subitem 9b—Example 1

‘Blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen saturation and amount of blood extracted were recorded every 5 minutes. Blood samples were drawn at baseline (pre injury), 0 minutes (immediately after injury), and after 30 and 60 minutes’ [ 135 ].

Subitem 9b—Example 2

‘After a 5-h fast (7:30–12:30am), awake and freely moving mice were randomized and subjected to three consecutive clamps performed in the same mice as described above, with a 2 days recovery after each hyperinsulinemic/hypoglycemic (mHypo, n = 6) or hyperinsulinemic/euglycemic (mEugly, n = 4) clamps’ [ 136 ].

9c . Where (including detail of any acclimatisation periods) .

Explanation. Physiological acclimatisation after a stressful event, such as transport (e.g., between supplier, animal facility, operating theatre, and laboratory), but before the experiment begins allows stabilisation of physiological responses of the animal [ 137 , 138 ]. Protocols vary depending on species, strain, and outcome; for example, physiological acclimatisation following transportation of different animals can take anywhere from 24 hours to more than 1 week [ 139 ]. Procedural acclimatisation immediately before a procedure allows stabilisation of the animals’ responses after unaccustomed handling, novel environments, and previous procedures, which otherwise can induce behavioural and physiological changes [ 140 , 141 ]. Standard acclimatisation periods may vary between research laboratories, and this information cannot be inferred by readers.

Indicate where studies were performed (e.g., dedicated laboratory space or animal facility, home cage, open field arena, water maze) and whether periods of physiological or procedural acclimatisation were included in the study protocol, including type and duration. If the study involved multiple sites, explicitly state where each experiment and sample analysis was performed. Include any accreditation of laboratories if appropriate (e.g., if samples were sent to a commercial laboratory for analysis).

Subitem 9c –example 1

‘Fish were singly housed for 1 week before being habituated to the conditioning tank over 2 consecutive days. The conditioning tank consisted of an opaque tank measuring 20 cm (w) 15 cm (h) 30 cm (l) containing 2.5L of aquarium water with distinct visual cues (spots or stripes) on walls at each end of the tank…. During habituation, each individual fish was placed in the conditioning apparatus for 20 minutes with free access to both compartments and then returned to its home tank’ [ 142 ].

9d . Why (provide rationale for procedures) .

Explanation. There may be numerous approaches to investigate any given research problem; therefore, it is important to explain why a particular procedure or technique was chosen. This is especially relevant when procedures are novel or specific to a research laboratory or constrained by the animal model or experimental equipment (e.g., route of administration determined by animal size [ 143 ]).

Subitem 9d—Example 1

‘Because of the very small caliber of the murine tail veins, partial paravenous injection is common if 18 F-FDG is administered by tail vein injection (intravenous). This could have significantly biased our comparison of the biodistribution of 18 F-FDG under various conditions. Therefore, we used intraperitoneal injection of 18 F-FDG for our experiments evaluating the influence of animal handling on 18 F-FDG biodistribution’ [ 144 ].

Subitem 9d—Example 2

‘Since Xenopus oocytes have a higher potential for homologous recombination than fertilized embryos… we next tested whether the host transfer method could be used for efficient HDR-mediated knock-in. We targeted the C-terminus of X . laevis Ctnnb1 (β-catenin), a key cytoskeletal protein and effector of the canonical Wnt pathway, because previous studies have shown that addition of epitope tags to the C-terminus do not affect the function of the resulting fusion protein (Fig …). CRISPR components were injected into X . laevis oocytes followed by host transfer or into embryos’ [ 145 ].

Item 10. Results

For each experiment conducted, including independent replications, report :

10a . Summary/descriptive statistics for each experimental group, with a measure of variability where applicable (e.g., mean and SD, or median and range) .

Explanation. Summary/descriptive statistics provide a quick and simple description of the data; they communicate quantitative results easily and facilitate visual presentation. For continuous data, these descriptors include a measure of central tendency (e.g., mean, median) and a measure of variability (e.g., quartiles, range, standard deviation) to help readers assess the precision of the data collected. Categorical data can be expressed as counts, frequencies, or proportions.

Report data for all experiments conducted. If a complete experiment is repeated on a different day or under different conditions, report the results of all repeats rather than selecting data from representative experiments. Report the exact number of experimental units per group so readers can gauge the reliability of the results (see Item 2. Sample size and Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria). Present data clearly as text, in tables, or in graphs, to enable information to be evaluated or extracted for future meta-analyses [ 146 ]. Report descriptive statistics with a clearly identified measure of variability for each group. Fig 5 shows data summarised as means and standard deviations and, in brackets, ranges. Box plots are a convenient way to summarise continuous data, plotted as median and interquartile range, as shown in Fig 6 .

Subitem 10a—Example 1

Subitem 10a—Example 2

10b . If applicable, the effect size with a confidence interval .

Explanation. In hypothesis-testing studies using inferential statistics, investigators frequently confuse statistical significance and small p -values with biological or clinical importance [ 149 ]. Statistical significance is usually quantified and evaluated against a preassigned threshold, with p < 0.05 often used as a convention. However, statistical significance is heavily influenced by sample size and variation in the data (see Item 2. Sample size). Investigators must consider the size of the effect that was observed and whether this is a biologically relevant change.

Effect sizes are often not reported in animal research, but they are relevant to both exploratory and hypothesis-testing studies. An effect size is a quantitative measure that estimates the magnitude of differences between groups or strength of relationships between variables. It can be used to assess the patterns in the data collected and make inferences about the wider population from which the sample came. The confidence interval for the effect indicates how precisely the effect has been estimated and tells the reader about the strength of the effect [ 150 ]. In studies in which statistical power is low and/or hypothesis-testing is inappropriate, providing the effect size and confidence interval indicates how small or large an effect might really be, so a reader can judge the biological significance of the data [ 151 , 152 ]. Reporting effect sizes with confidence intervals also facilitates extraction of useful data for systematic review and meta-analysis. When multiple independent studies included in a meta-analysis show quantitatively similar effects, even if each is statistically nonsignificant, this provides powerful evidence that a relationship is ‘real’, although small.

Report all analyses performed, even those providing non-statistically significant results. Report the effect size to indicate the size of the difference between groups in the study, with a confidence interval to indicate the precision of the effect size estimate.

Subitem 10b—Example 1

Recommended Set

The Recommended Set ( Box 6 ) adds context to the study described, including further detail about the methodology and advice on what to include in the more narrative parts of a manuscript. Items are presented in a logical order; there is no ranking within the set.

Box 6. ARRIVE Recommended Set

• Ethical statement
• Housing and husbandry
• Animal care and monitoring
• Interpretation/scientific implications
• Generalisability/translation
• Protocol registration
• Data access
• Declaration of interests

Item 11. Abstract

Provide an accurate summary of the research objectives, animal species, strain and sex, key methods, principal findings, and study conclusions .

Explanation. A transparent and accurate abstract increases the utility and impact of the manuscript and allows readers to assess the reliability of the study [ 153 ]. The abstract is often used as a screening tool by readers to decide whether to read the full article or whether to select an article for inclusion in a systematic review. However, abstracts often either do not contain enough information for this purpose [ 11 ] or contain information that is inconsistent with the results in the rest of the manuscript [ 154 , 155 ]. In systematic reviews, initial screens to identify papers are based on titles, abstracts, and keywords [ 156 ]. Leaving out of the abstract information such as the species of animal used or the drugs being tested limits the value of preclinical systematic reviews as relevant studies cannot be identified and included. For example, in a systematic review of the effect of the MVA85A vaccine on tuberculosis challenge in animals, the largest preclinical trial did not include the vaccine name in the abstract or keywords of the publication; the paper was only included in the systematic review following discussions with experts in the field [ 157 ].

To maximise utility, include details of the species, sex, and strain of animals used and accurately report the methods, results, and conclusions of the study. Also describe the objectives of the study, including whether it was designed either to test a specific hypothesis or to generate a new hypothesis (see Item 13. Objectives). Incorporating this information will enable readers to interpret the strength of evidence and judge how the study fits within the wider knowledge base.

Item 11—Example 1

‘Background and Purpose

‘Asthma is an inflammatory disease that involves airway hyperresponsiveness and remodelling. Flavonoids have been associated to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities and may represent a potential therapeutic treatment of asthma. Our aim was to evaluate the effects of the sakuranetin treatment in several aspects of experimental asthma model in mice.

‘Experimental Approach

‘Male BALB/c mice received ovalbumin (i.p.) on days 0 and 14, and were challenged with aerolized ovalbumin 1% on days 24, 26 and 28. Ovalbumin-sensitized animals received vehicle (saline and dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO), sakuranetin (20 mg kg –1 per mice) or dexamethasone (5 mg kg –1 per mice) daily beginning from 24th to 29th day. Control group received saline inhalation and nasal drop vehicle. On day 29, we determined the airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation and remodelling as well as specific IgE antibody. RANTES, IL- 5, IL -4, Eotaxin, IL -10, TNF -α, IFN -γ and GMC-SF content in lung homogenate was performed by Bioplex assay, and 8-isoprostane and NF -kB activations were visualized in inflammatory cells by immunohistochemistry.

‘Key Results

‘We have demonstrated that sakuranetin treatment attenuated airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation and remodelling; and these effects could be attributed to Th2 pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress reduction as well as control of NF -kB activation.

‘Conclusions and Implications

‘These results highlighted the importance of counteracting oxidative stress by flavonoids in this asthma model and suggest sakuranetin as a potential candidate for studies of treatment of asthma’ [ 158 ].

Item 11—Example 2

‘In some parts of the world, the laboratory pig (Sus scrofa) is often housed in individual, sterile housing which may impose stress. Our objectives were to determine the effects of isolation and enrichment on pigs housed within the PigTurn ® —a novel penning system with automated blood sampling—and to investigate tear staining as a novel welfare indicator. Twenty Yorkshire × Landrace weaner pigs were randomly assigned to one of four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial combination of enrichment (non-enriched [NE] or enriched [E]) and isolation (visually isolated [I] or able to see another pig [NI]). Pigs were catheterised and placed into the PigTurns ® 48 h post recovery. Blood was collected automatically twice daily to determine white blood cell (WBC) differential counts and assayed for cortisol. Photographs of the eyes were taken daily and tear staining was quantified using a 0–5 scoring scale and Image-J software to measure stain area and perimeter. Behaviour was video recorded and scan sampled to determine time budgets. Data were analysed as an REML using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Enrichment tended to increase proportion of time standing and lying laterally and decrease plasma cortisol, tear-stain area and perimeter. There was a significant isolation by enrichment interaction. Enrichment given to pigs housed in isolation had no effect on plasma cortisol, but greatly reduced it in non-isolated pigs. Tear-staining area and perimeter were highest in the NE-I treatment compared to the other three treatments. Eosinophil count was highest in the E-NI treatment and lowest in the NE-I treatment. The results suggest that in the absence of enrichment, being able to see another animal but not interact may be frustrating. The combination of no enrichment and isolation maximally impacted tear staining and eosinophil numbers. However, appropriate enrichment coupled with proximity of another pig would appear to improve welfare’ [ 159 ].

Item 12. Background

12a . Include sufficient scientific background to understand the rationale and context for the study, and explain the experimental approach .

Explanation. Scientific background information for an animal study should demonstrate a clear evidence gap and explain why an in vivo approach was warranted. Systematic reviews of the animal literature provide the most convincing evidence that a research question has not been conclusively addressed, by showing the extent of current evidence within a field of research. They can also inform the choice of animal model by providing a comprehensive overview of the models used along with their benefits and limitations [ 160 – 162 ].

Describe the rationale and context of the study and how it relates to other research, including relevant references to previous work. Outline evidence underpinning the hypothesis or objectives and explain why the experimental approach is best suited to answer the research question.

Subitem 12a –example 1

‘For decades, cardiovascular disease has remained the leading cause of mortality worldwide… [and] cardiovascular research has been performed using healthy and young, non-diseased animal models. Recent failures of cardioprotective therapies in obese insulin-resistant …, diabetic …, metabolic syndrome-affected… and aged… animals that were otherwise successful in healthy animal models has highlighted the need for the development of animal models of disease that are representative of human clinical conditions…. The majority of laboratory-based studies investigating cardiovascular disease and myocardial tolerance to ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) are currently conducted using normogonadic models with either genetically-induced… or diet-induced… obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS). In the clinical setting, elderly male patients often present with both testosterone deficiency (TD) and MetS…. A strong and compounding association exists between metabolic syndrome and testosterone deficiency which may have significant impact on cardiovascular disease and its outcomes which is not addressed by current models…. Although laboratory investigations generally rely on animal models of isolated metabolic syndrome or hypogonadism, their mutual presentation in the clinical setting warrants the development of appropriate animal models of the MetS with hypogonadism, especially in the context of cardiovascular disease research’ [ 163 ].

12b . Explain how the animal species and model used address the scientific objectives and, where appropriate, the relevance to human biology .

Explanation. Provide enough detail for the reader to assess the suitability of the animal model used to address the research question. Include information on the rationale for choosing a particular species and explain how the outcome measures assessed are relevant to the condition under study and how the model was validated. Stating that an animal model is commonly used in the field is not appropriate, and a well-considered, detailed rationale should be provided.

When the study models an aspect of a human disease, indicate how the model is appropriate for addressing the specific objectives of the study [ 164 ]. This can include a description of how the induction of the disease, disorder, or injury is sufficiently analogous to the human condition; how the model responds to known clinically effective treatments; how similar symptoms are to the clinical disease; and how animal characteristics were selected to represent the age, sex, and health status of the clinical population [ 14 ].

Subitem 12b—Example 1

‘For this purpose, we selected a pilocarpine model of epilepsy that is characterized by robust, frequent spontaneous seizures acquired after a brain insult …, well-described behavioral abnormalities …, and poor responses to antiepileptic drugs…. These animals recapitulate several key features of human temporal lobe epilepsy, the most common type of epilepsy in adults’ [ 165 ].

Subitem 12b—Example 2

‘Transplantation of healthy haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is a critical therapy for a wide range of malignant haematological and non-malignant disorders and immune dysfunction…. Zebrafish are already established as a successful model to study the haematopoietic system, with significant homology with mammals…. Imaging of zebrafish transparent embryos remains a powerful tool and has been critical to confirm that the zebrafish Caudal Haematopoietic Tissue (CHT) is comparable to the mammalian foetal haematopoietic niche…. Xenotransplantation in zebrafish embryos has revealed highly conserved mechanisms between zebrafish and mammals. Recently, murine bone marrow cells were successfully transplanted into zebrafish embryos, revealing highly conserved mechanism of haematopoiesis between zebrafish and mammals…. Additionally, CD34 enriched human cells transplanted into zebrafish were shown to home to the CHT and respond to zebrafish stromal-cell derived factors’ [ 166 ].

Item 13. Objectives

Clearly describe the research question, research objectives and, where appropriate, specific hypotheses being tested .

Explanation. Explaining the purpose of the study by describing the question(s) that the research addresses allows readers to determine whether the study is relevant to them. Readers can also assess the relevance of the model organism, procedures, outcomes measured, and analysis used.

Knowing whether a study is exploratory or hypothesis-testing is critical to its interpretation. A typical exploratory study may measure multiple outcomes and look for patterns in the data or relationships that can be used to generate hypotheses. It may also be a pilot study, which aims to inform the design or feasibility of larger subsequent experiments. Exploratory research helps researchers to design hypothesis-testing experiments by choosing what variables or outcome measures to focus on in subsequent studies.

Testing a specific hypothesis has implications for both the study design and the data analysis [ 16 , 167 ]. For example, an experiment designed to detect a hypothesised effect will likely need to be analysed with inferential statistics, and a statistical estimation of the sample size will need to be performed a priori (see Item 2. Sample size). Hypothesis-testing studies also have a predefined primary outcome measure, which is used to assess the evidence in support of the specific research question (see Item 6. Outcome measures).

In contrast, exploratory research investigates many possible effects and is likely to yield more false positive results because some will be positive by chance. Thus, results from well-designed hypothesis-testing studies provide stronger evidence than those from exploratory or descriptive studies. Independent replication and meta-analysis can further increase the confidence in conclusions.

Clearly outline the objective(s) of the study, including whether it is hypothesis-testing or exploratory, or if it includes research of both types. Hypothesis-testing studies may collect additional information for exploratory purposes; it is important to distinguish which hypotheses were prespecified and which originated after data inspection, especially when reporting unanticipated effects or outcomes that were not part of the original study design.

Item 13—Example 1

‘The primary objective of this study was to investigate the cellular immune response to MSC injected into the striatum of allogeneic recipients (6-hydroxydopamine [6-OHDA]-hemilesioned rats, an animal model of Parkinson’s disease [PD]), and the secondary objective was to determine the ability of these cells to prevent nigrostriatal dopamine depletion and associated motor deficits in these animals’ [ 168 ].

Item 13—Example 2

‘In this exploratory study, we aimed to investigate whether calcium electroporation could initiate an anticancer immune response similar to electrochemotherapy. To this end, we treated immunocompetent balb/c mice with CT26 colon tumors with calcium electroporation, electrochemotherapy, or ultrasound-based delivery of calcium or bleomycin’ [ 169 ].

Item 13—Example 3

‘While characterizing a rab-6 . 2 -null C . elegans strain for another study, we observed that rab-6 . 2(ok2254) animals were fragile. We set out to analyze the fragile-skin phenotype in rab-6 . 2(ok2254) animals genetically…. We observed several ruptured animals on our rab-6 . 2(ok2254) culture plates during normal maintenance, a phenotype very rarely observed in wild-type cultures…. We hypothesized that RAB-6.2 is required for skin integrity’ [ 170 ].

Item 14. Ethical statement

Provide the name of the ethical review committee or equivalent that has approved the use of animals in this study and any relevant licence or protocol numbers (if applicable) . If ethical approval was not sought or granted, provide a justification .

Explanation. Authors are responsible for complying with regulations and guidelines relating to the use of animals for scientific purposes. This includes ensuring that they have the relevant approval for their study from an appropriate ethics committee and/or regulatory body before the work starts. The ethical statement provides editors, reviewers, and readers with assurance that studies have received this ethical oversight [ 12 ]. This also promotes transparency and understanding about the use of animals in research and fosters public trust.

Provide a clear statement explaining how the study conforms to appropriate regulations and guidelines. Include the name of the institution where the research was approved and the ethics committee who reviewed it (e.g., Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee [IACUC] in the United States or Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Body [AWERB] in the United Kingdom) and indicate protocol or project licence numbers so that the study can be identified. Also add any relevant accreditation, e.g., American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC) [ 171 ] or Good Laboratory Practice (GLP).

If the research is not covered by any regulation and formal ethical approval is not required (e.g., a study using animal species not protected by regulations or law), demonstrate that international standards were complied with and cite the appropriate reference. In such cases, provide a clear statement explaining why the research is exempt from regulatory approval.

Item 14—Example 1

‘All procedures were conducted in accordance with the United Kingdom Animal (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, approved by institutional ethical review committees (Alderley Park Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Board and Babraham Institute Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Board) and conducted under the authority of the Project Licence (40/3729 and 70/8307, respectively)’ [ 172 ].

Item 14—Example 2

‘All protocols in this study were approved by the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of Fuwai Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and the Beijing Council on Animal Care, Beijing, China (IACUC permit number: FW2010-101523), in compliance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH publication no.85-23, revised 1996)’ [ 173 ].

Item 14—Example 3

‘Samples and data were collected according to Institut de Sélection d’Animale (ISA) protocols, under the supervision of ISA employees. Samples and data were collected as part of routine animal data collection in a commercial breeding program for layer chickens in The Netherlands. Samples and data were collected on a breeding nucleus of ISA for breeding purposes only, and is a non-experimental, agricultural practice, regulated by the Act Animals, and the Royal Decree on Procedures. The Dutch Experiments on Animals Act does not apply to non-experimental, agricultural practices. An ethical review by the Statement Animal Experiment Committee was therefore not required. No extra animal discomfort was caused for sample collection for the purpose of this study’ [ 174 ].

Item 15. Housing and husbandry

Provide details of housing and husbandry conditions, including any environmental enrichment .

Explanation. The environment determines the health and wellbeing of the animals, and every aspect of it can potentially affect their behavioural and physiological responses, thereby affecting research outcomes [ 175 ]. Different studies may be sensitive to different environmental factors, and particular aspects of the environment necessary to report may depend on the type of study [ 176 ]. Examples of housing and husbandry conditions known to affect animal welfare and research outcomes are listed in Table 2 ; consider reporting these elements and any other housing and husbandry conditions likely to influence the study outcomes.

Environment, either deprived or enriched, can affect a wide range of physiological and behavioural responses [ 206 ]. Specific details to report include, but are not limited to, structural enrichment (e.g., elevated surfaces, dividers); resources for species-typical activities (e.g., nesting material, shelters, or gnawing sticks for rodents; plants or gravel for aquatic species); and toys or other tools used to stimulate exploration, exercise (e.g., running wheel), and novelty. If no environmental enrichment was provided, this should be clearly stated with justification. Similarly, scientific justification needs to be reported for withholding food and water [ 207 ] and for singly housing animals [ 208 , 209 ].

If space is an issue, relevant housing and husbandry details can be provided in the form of a link to the information in a public repository or as supplementary information.

Item 15—Example 1

‘Breeding colonies were kept in individually ventilated cages (IVCs; Tecniplast, Italy) at a temperature of 20°C to 24°C, humidity of 50% to 60%, 60 air exchanges per hour in the cages, and a 12/12-hour light/dark cycle with the lights on at 5:30 AM. The maximum caging density was five mice from the same litter and sex starting from weaning. As bedding, spruce wood shavings (Lignocel FS-14; J. Rettenmaier und Soehne GmbH, Rosenberg, Germany) were provided. Mice were fed a standardized mouse diet (1314, Altromin, Germany) and provided drinking water ad libitum . All materials, including IVCs, lids, feeders, bottles, bedding, and water were autoclaved before use. Sentinel mice were negative for at least all Federation of laboratory animal science associations (FELASA)-relevant murine infectious agents… as diagnosed by our health monitoring laboratory, mfd Diagnostics GmbH, Wendelsheim, Germany’ [ 210 ].

Item 15—Example 2

‘Same sex litter mates were housed together in individually ventilated cages with two or four mice per cage. All mice were maintained on a regular diurnal lighting cycle (12:12 light:-dark) with ad libitum access to food (7012 Harlan Teklad LM-485 Mouse/Rat Sterilizable Diet) and water. Chopped corn cob was used as bedding. Environmental enrichment included nesting material (Nestlets, Ancare, Bellmore, NY, USA), PVC pipe, and shelter (Refuge XKA-2450-087, Ketchum Manufacturing Inc., Brockville, Ontario, Canada). Mice were housed under broken barrier-specific pathogen-free conditions in the Transgenic Mouse Core Facility of Cornell University, accredited by AAALAC (The Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International)’ [ 211 ].

Item 16. Animal care and monitoring

16a . Describe any interventions or steps taken in the experimental protocols to reduce pain, suffering, and distress .

Explanation. A safe and effective analgesic plan is critical to relieve pain, suffering, and distress. Untreated pain can affect the animals’ biology and add variability to the experiment; however, specific pain management procedures can also introduce variability, affecting experimental data [ 212 , 213 ]. Underreporting of welfare management procedures contributes to the perpetuation of noncompliant methodologies and insufficient or inappropriate use of analgesia [ 213 ] or other welfare measures. A thorough description of the procedures used to alleviate pain, suffering, and distress provides practical information for researchers to replicate the method.

Clearly describe pain management strategies, including

• specific analgesic
• administration method (e.g., formulation, route, dose, concentration, volume, frequency, timing, and equipment used)
• rationale for the choice (e.g., animal model, disease/pathology, procedure, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, personnel safety)
• protocol modifications to reduce pain, suffering, and distress (e.g., changes to the anaesthetic protocol, increased frequency of monitoring, procedural modifications, habituation, etc.)

If analgesics or other welfare measures, reasonably expected for the procedure performed, are not performed for experimental reasons, report the scientific justification [ 214 ].

Subitem 16a—Example 1

‘If piglets developed diarrhea, they were placed on an electrolyte solution and provided supplemental water, and if the diarrhea did not resolve within 48 h, piglets received a single dose of ceftiofur (5.0 mg ceftiofur equivalent/kg of body weight i.m [Excede, Zoetis, Florham Park, NJ]). If fluid loss continued after treatment, piglets then received a single dose of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim oral suspension (50 mg/8 mg per mL, Hi-Tech Pharmacal, Amityville, NY) for 3 consecutive days’ [ 215 ].

Subitem 16a—Example 2

‘One hour before surgery, we administered analgesia to the mice by offering them nut paste (Nutella; Ferrero, Pino Torinese, Italy) containing 1 mg per kg body weight buprenorphine (Temgesic; Schering-Plough Europe, Brussels, Belgium) for voluntary ingestion, as described previously…. The mice had been habituated to pure nut paste for 2 d prior to surgery’ [ 216 ].

Subitem 16a—Example 3

‘If a GCPS score equal or greater than 6 (out of 24) was assigned postoperatively, additional analgesia was provided with methadone 0.1 mg kg −1 IM (or IV if required) … and pain reassessed 30 minutes later. The number of methadone doses was recorded’ [ 46 ].

16b . Report any expected or unexpected adverse events .

Explanation. Reporting adverse events allows other researchers to plan appropriate welfare assessments and minimise the risk of these events occurring in their own studies. If the experiment is testing the efficacy of a treatment, the occurrence of adverse events may alter the balance between treatment benefit and risk [ 34 ].

Report any adverse events that had a negative impact on the welfare of the animals in the study (e.g., cardiovascular and respiratory depression, central nervous system disturbance, hypothermia, reduction of food intake). Indicate whether they were expected or unexpected. If adverse events were not observed, or not recorded during the study, explicitly state this.

Subitem 16b—Example 1

‘Murine lymph node tumors arose in 11 of 12 mice that received N2-transduced human cells. The neo gene could be detected in murine cells as well as in human cells. Significant lymphoproliferation could be seen only in the murine pre-T cells. It took 5 months for murine leukemia to arise; the affected mice displayed symptoms of extreme sickness rapidly, with 5 of the 12 mice becoming moribund on exactly the same day (Figure …), and 6 others becoming moribund within a 1-month period…. Of the 12 mice that had received N2-transduced human cells, 11 had to be killed because they developed visibly enlarged lymph nodes and spleen, hunching, and decrease in body weight, as shown in Figure…. The 12th mouse was observed carefully for 14 months; it did not show any signs of leukemia or other adverse events, and had no abnormal tissues when it was autopsied…. The mice were observed at least once daily for signs of illness, which were defined as any one or more of the following: weight loss, hunching, lethargy, rapid breathing, skin discoloration or irregularities, bloating, hemi-paresis, visibly enlarged lymph nodes, and visible solid tumors under the skin. Any signs of illness were logged as “adverse events” in the experiment, the mouse was immediately killed, and an autopsy was performed to establish the cause of illness’ [ 217 ].

Subitem 16b—Example 2

‘Although procedures were based on those reported in the literature, dogs under Protocol 1 displayed high levels of stress and many experienced vomiting. This led us to significantly alter procedures in order to optimize the protocol for the purposes of our own fasting and postprandial metabolic studies’ [ 218 ].

16c . Describe the humane endpoints established for the study, the signs that were monitored, and the frequency of monitoring . If the study did not set humane endpoints, state this .

Explanation. Humane endpoints are predetermined morphological, physiological, and/or behavioural signs that define the circumstances under which an animal will be removed from an experimental study. The use of humane endpoints can help minimise harm while allowing the scientific objectives to be achieved [ 219 ]. Report the humane endpoints that were established for the specific study, species, and strain. Include clear criteria of the clinical signs monitored [ 134 ] and clinical signs that led to euthanasia or other defined actions. Include details such as general welfare indicators (e.g., weight loss, reduced food intake, abnormal posture) and procedure-specific welfare indicators (e.g., tumour size in cancer studies [ 50 ], sensory-motor deficits in stroke studies [ 220 ]).

Report the timing and frequency of monitoring, taking into consideration the normal circadian rhythm of the animal and timing of scientific procedures, as well as any increase in the frequency of monitoring (e.g., postsurgery recovery, critical times during disease studies, or following the observation of an adverse event). Publishing score sheets of the clinical signs that were monitored [ 221 ] can help guide other researchers to develop clinically relevant welfare assessments, particularly for studies reporting novel procedures.

This information should be reported even if no animal reached any of the humane endpoints. If no humane endpoints were established for the study, explicitly state this.

Subitem 16c—Example 1

‘Both the research team and the veterinary staff monitored animals twice daily. Health was monitored by weight (twice weekly), food and water intake, and general assessment of animal activity, panting, and fur condition…. The maximum size the tumors allowed to grow in the mice before euthanasia was 2000 mm 3 ’ [ 222 ].

Item 17. Interpretation/scientific implications

17a . Interpret the results, taking into account the study objectives and hypotheses, current theory, and other relevant studies in the literature .

Explanation. It is important to interpret the results of the study in the context of the study objectives (see Item 13. Objectives). For hypothesis-testing studies, interpretations should be restricted to the primary outcome (see Item 6. Outcome measures). Exploratory results derived from additional outcomes should not be described as conclusive, as they may be underpowered and less reliable.

Discuss the findings in the context of current theory, ideally with reference to a relevant systematic review, as individual studies do not provide a complete picture. If a systematic review is not available, take care to avoid selectively citing studies that corroborate the results or only those that report statistically significant findings [ 223 ].

When appropriate, describe any implications of the experimental methods or research findings for improving welfare standards or reducing the number of animals used in future studies (e.g., the use of a novel approach reduced the results’ variability, thus enabling the use of smaller group sizes without losing statistical power). This may not be the primary focus of the research, but reporting this information enables wider dissemination and uptake of refined techniques within the scientific community.

Subitem 17a—Example 1

‘This is in contrast to data provided by an ‘intra-renal IL-18 overexpression’ model …, and may reflect an IL-18 concentration exceeding the physiologic range in the latter study’ [ 224 ].

Subitem 17a—Example 2

‘The new apparatus shows potential for considerably reducing the number of animals used in memory tasks designed to detect potential amnesic properties of new drugs… approximately 43,000 animals have been used in these tasks in the past 5 years but with the application of the continual trials apparatus we estimate that this could have been reduced to 26,000 … with the new paradigm the number of animals needed to obtain reliable results and maintain the statistical power of the tasks is greatly reduced’ [ 225 ].

Subitem 17a—Example 3

‘In summary, our results show that IL-1Ra protects against brain injury and reduces neuroinflammation when administered peripherally to aged and comorbid animals at reperfusion or 3 hours later. These findings address concerns raised in a recent systematic review on IL-1Ra in stroke… and provide further supporting evidence for IL-1Ra as a lead candidate for the treatment of ischemic stroke’ [ 226 ].

17b . Comment on the study limitations, including potential sources of bias, limitations of the animal model, and imprecision associated with the results .

Explanation. Discussing the limitations of the work is important to place the findings in context, interpret the validity of the results, and ascribe a credibility level to its conclusions [ 227 ]. Limitations are unavoidable in scientific research, and describing them is essential to share experience, guide best practice, and aid the design of future experiments [ 228 ].

Discuss the quality of evidence presented in the study and consider how appropriate the animal model is to the specific research question. A discussion on the rigour of the study design to isolate cause and effect (also known as internal validity [ 229 ]) should include whether potential risks of bias have been addressed [ 9 ] (see Item 2. Sample size, Item 3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria, Item 4. Randomisation, and Item 5. Blinding).

Subitem 17b—Example 1

‘Although in this study we did not sample the source herds, the likelihood of these herds to be IAV positive is high given the commonality of IAV infections in the Midwest…. However, we cannot fully rule out the possibility that new gilts became infected with resident viruses after arrival to the herd. Although new gilts were placed into isolated designated areas and procedures were in place to minimize disease transmission (eg. isolation, vaccination), these areas or procedures might not have been able to fully contain infections within the designated areas’ [ 230 ].

Subitem 17b—Example 2

‘Even though our data demonstrates that sustained systemic TLR9 stimulation aggravates diastolic HF in our model of gene-targeted diastolic HF, there are several limitations as to mechanistic explanations of causality, as well as extrapolations to clinical inflammatory disease states and other HF conditions. First, our pharmacological inflammatory model does not allow discrimination between effects caused by direct cardiac TLR9 stimulation to that of indirect effects mediated by systemic inflammation. Second, although several systemic inflammatory conditions have disturbances in the innate immune system as important features, and some of these again specifically encompassing distorted TLR9 signalling… sustained TLR9 stimulation does not necessarily represent a clinically relevant inflammatory condition. Finally, the cardiac myocyte SERCA2a KO model does not adequately represent the molecular basis for, or the clinical features of, diastolic HF’ [ 231 ].

Item 18. Generalisability/translation

Comment on whether, and how, the findings of this study are likely to generalise to other species or experimental conditions, including any relevance to human biology (where appropriate) .

Explanation. An important purpose of publishing research findings is to inform future research. In the context of animal studies, this might take the form of further in vivo research or another research domain (e.g., human clinical trial). Thoughtful consideration is warranted, as additional unnecessary animal studies are wasteful and unethical. Similarly, human clinical trials initiated based on insufficient or misleading animal research evidence increase research waste and negatively influence the risk-benefit balance for research participants [ 229 , 232 ].

Consider the type of study conducted to assess the implications of the findings. Well-designed hypothesis-testing studies provide more robust evidence than exploratory studies (see Item 13. Objectives). Findings from a novel, exploratory study may be used to inform future research in a broadly similar context. Alternatively, enough evidence may have accumulated in the literature to justify further research in another species or in humans. Discuss what (if any) further research may be required to allow generalisation or translation. Discuss and interpret the results in relation to current evidence and, in particular, whether similar [ 233 ] or otherwise supportive [ 234 ] findings have been reported by other groups. Discuss the range of circumstances in which the effect is observed and factors that may moderate that effect. Such factors could include, for example, the population (e.g., age, sex, strain, species), the intervention (e.g., different drugs of the same class), and the outcome measured (e.g., different approaches to assessing memory).

Item 18—Example 1

‘Our results demonstrate that hDBS robustly modulates the mesolimbic network. This finding may hold clinical relevance for hippocampal DBS therapy in epilepsy cases, as connectivity in this network has previously been shown to be suppressed in mTLE. Further research is necessary to investigate potential DBS-induced restoration of MTLE-induced loss of functional connectivity in mesolimbic brain structures’ [ 235 ].

Item 18—Example 2

‘The tumor suppressor effects of GAS1 had been previously reported in cell cultures or in xenograft models, this is the first work in which the suppressor activity of murine Gas1 is reported for primary tumors in vivo . Recent advances in the design of safe vectors for transgene delivery… may result in extrapolating our results to humans and so a promising field of research emerges in the area of hepatic, neoplastic diseases’ [ 236 ].

Item 19. Protocol registration

Provide a statement indicating whether a protocol (including the research question, key design features, and analysis plan) was prepared before the study, and if and where this protocol was registered .

Explanation. Akin to the approach taken for clinical trials, protocol registration has emerged as a mechanism that is likely to improve the transparency of animal research [ 232 , 237 , 238 ]. Registering a protocol before the start of the experiment enables researchers to demonstrate that the hypothesis, approach, and analysis were planned in advance and not shaped by data as they emerged; it enhances scientific rigour and protects the researcher against concerns about selective reporting of results [ 239 , 240 ]. A protocol should consist of (1) the question being addressed and the key features of the research that is proposed, such as the hypothesis being tested, the primary outcome measure (if applicable), and the statistical analysis plan; and (2) the laboratory procedures to be used to perform the planned experiment.

Protocols may be registered with different levels of completeness. For example, in the Registered Report format offered by an increasing number of journals, protocols undergo peer review, and if accepted, the journal commits to publishing the completed research regardless of the results obtained [ 237 ].

Other online resources include the Open Science Framework [ 241 ], which is suitable to deposit PHISPS (Population; Hypothesis; Intervention; Statistical Analysis Plan; Primary; Outcome Measure; Sample Size Calculation) protocols [ 242 ] and provide researchers with the flexibility to embargo the preregistration, keep it from public view until the research is published, and selectively share it with reviewers and editors. The EDA can also be used to generate a time-stamped PDF, which sets out key elements of the experimental design [ 19 ]. This can be used to demonstrate that the study conduct, analysis, and reporting were not unduly driven by emerging data. As a minimum, we recommend registering protocols containing all PHISPS components as outlined above.

Provide a statement indicating whether or not any protocol was prepared before the study, and if applicable, provide the time-stamped protocol or the location of its registration. When there have been deviations from the protocol, describe the rationale for these changes in the publication so that readers can take this into account when assessing the findings.

Item 19—Example 1

‘A detailed description of all protocols can be found in the Registered Report (Kandela et al., 2015). Additional detailed experimental notes, data, and analysis are available on the Open Science Framework (OSF) (RRID: SCR_003238) ( https://osf.io/xu1g2/ )’ [ 243 ].

Item 19—Example 2

‘To maximize the objectivity of the presented research, we preregistered this study with its 2 hypotheses, its planned methods, and its complete plan of data analysis before the start of data collection ( https://osf.io/eb8ua/register/565fb3678c5e4a66b5582f67 , accessed 29 December 2017). We closely adhered to our plan…. All statistical analyses closely followed our preregistered analysis plan ( https://osf.io/eb8ua/ )’ [ 244 ].

Item 19—Example 3

‘We preregistered our analyses with the Open Science Framework which facilitates reproducibility and open collaboration in science research…. Our preregistration: Sheldon and Griffith (2017), was carried out to limit the number of analyses conducted and to validate our commitment to testing a limited number of a priori hypotheses. Our methods are consistent with this preregistration …’ [ 245 ].

Item 20. Data access

Provide a statement describing if and where study data are available .

Explanation. A data-sharing statement describes how others can access the data on which the paper is based. Sharing adequately annotated data allows others to replicate data analyses so that results can be independently tested and verified. Data sharing allows the data to be repurposed and new datasets to be created by combining data from multiple studies (e.g., to be used in secondary analyses). This allows others to explore new topics and increases the impact of the study, potentially preventing unnecessary use of animals and providing more value for money. Access to raw data also facilitates text and automated data mining [ 246 ].

An increasing number of publishers and funding bodies require authors or grant holders to make their data publicly available [ 247 ]. Journal articles with accompanying data may be cited more frequently [ 248 , 249 ]. Datasets can also be independently cited in their own right, which provides additional credit for authors. This practice is gaining increasing recognition and acceptance [ 250 ].

When possible, make available all data that contribute to summary estimates or claims presented in the paper. Data should follow the FAIR guiding principles [ 251 ]; that is, data are findable, accessible (i.e., do not use outdated file types), interoperable (can be used on multiple platforms and with multiple software packages), and reusable (i.e., have adequate data descriptors).

Data can be made publicly available via a structured, specialised (domain-specific), open-access repository such as those maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ ) or European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI, https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ ). If such a repository is not available, data can be deposited in unstructured but publicly available repositories (e.g., Figshare [ https://figshare.com/ ], Dryad [ https://datadryad.org/ ], Zenodo [ https://zenodo.org/ ], or Open Science Framework [ https://osf.io/ ]). There are also search platforms to identify relevant repositories with rigorous standards, e.g., FairSharing ( https://fairsharing.org/ ) and re3data ( https://www.re3data.org/ ).

Item 20—Example 1

‘Data Availability: All data are available from Figshare at http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.1288935 ’ [ 252 ].

Item 20—Example 2

‘A fundamental goal in generating this dataset is to facilitate access to spiny mouse transcript sequence information for external collaborators and researchers. The sequence reads and metadata are available from the NCBI (PRJNA342864) and assembled transcriptomes (Trinity_v2.3.2 and tr2aacds_v2) are available from the Zenodo repository ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.808870 ), however accessing and utilizing this data can be challenging for researchers lacking bioinformatics expertise. To address this problem we are hosting a SequenceServer… BLAST-search website ( http://spinymouse.erc.monash.edu/sequenceserver/ ). This resource provides a user-friendly interface to access sequence information from the tr2aacds_v2 assembly (to explore annotated protein-coding transcripts) and/or the Trinity_v2.3.2 assembly (to explore non-coding transcripts)’ [ 253 ].

Item 21. Declaration of interests

21a . Declare any potential conflicts of interest, including financial and nonfinancial . If none exist, this should be stated .

Explanation. A competing or conflict of interest is anything that interferes with (or could be perceived as interfering with) the full and objective presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the research. Competing or conflicts of interest can be financial or nonfinancial, professional or personal. They can exist in institutions, in teams, or with individuals. Potential competing interests are considered in peer review, editorial, and publication decisions; the aim is to ensure transparency, and in most cases, a declaration of a conflict of interest does not obstruct the publication or review process.

Examples are provided in Box 7 . If unsure, declare all potential conflicts, including both perceived and real conflicts of interest [ 254 ].

Box 7. Examples of competing or conflicts of interest

Funding and other payments received or expected by the authors directly arising from the publication of the study, or funding or other payments from an organisation with an interest in the outcome of the work.

Nonfinancial

Research that may benefit the individual or institution in terms of goods in kind. This includes unpaid advisory position in a government, nongovernment organisation, or commercial organisations.

Affiliations

Employed by, on the advisory board, or a member of an organisation with an interest in the outcome of the work.

Intellectual property

Patents or trademarks owned by someone or their organisation. This also includes the potential exploitation of the scientific advance being reported for the institution, the authors, or the research funders.

Friends, family, relationships, and other close personal connections to people who may potentially benefit financially or in other ways from the research.

Beliefs or activism (e.g., political or religious) relevant to the work. Membership of a relevant advocacy or lobbying organisation.

Subitem 21a—Example 1

‘The study was funded by Gubra ApS. LSD, PJP, GH, KF and HBH are employed by Gubra ApS. JJ and NV are the owners of Gubra ApS. Gubra ApS provided support in the form of materials and salaries for authors LSD, PJP, GH, KF, HBH, JJ and NV’ [ 255 ].

Subitem 21a—Example 2

‘The authors have declared that no competing interests exist’ [ 256 ].

21b . List all funding sources (including grant identifier) and the role of the funder(s) in the design, analysis, and reporting of the study .

Explanation. The identification of funding sources allows the reader to assess any competing interests and any potential sources of bias. For example, bias, as indicated by a prevalence of more favourable outcomes, has been demonstrated for clinical research funded by industry compared with studies funded by other sources [ 257 – 259 ]. Evidence for preclinical research also indicates that funding sources may influence the interpretation of study outcomes [ 254 , 260 ].

Report the funding information including the financial supporting body(s) and any grant identifier(s). If the study was supported by several sources of funding, list them all, including internal grants. Specify the role of the funder in the design, analysis, reporting, and/or decision to publish. If the research did not receive specific funding but was performed as part of the employment of the authors, name the employer.

Subitem 21b—Example 1

‘Support was provided by the Italian Ministry of Health: Current research funds PRC 2010/001 [ http://www.salute.gov.it/ ] to MG. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript’ [ 261 ].

Subitem 21b—Example 2

‘This study was financially supported by the Tuberculosis and Lung Research Center of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences and the Research Council of University of Tabriz. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript’ [ 262 ].

Subitem 21b—Example 3

‘This work was supported by the salary paid to AEW. The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript’ [ 263 ].

Supporting information

S1 annotated byline, s1 annotated references, acknowledgments.

We would like to acknowledge the late Doug Altman’s contribution to this project. Doug was a dedicated member of the working group, and his input into the guidelines’ revision has been invaluable.

Abbreviations

Funding statement.

This work was supported by the National Centre of the Replacement, Refinement & Reduction on Animals in Research (NC3Rs, https://www.nc3rs.org.uk/ ). NPdS, KL, VH, and EJP are employees of the NC3Rs.

How to Write Scientific Names of Plant and Animal Species in Journal Manuscripts (Part 1)

The format for writing scientific names of animals and plants is standardized and internationally accepted. “Scientific nomenclature” refers to various names according to a specific field of study. This article is the first in a series on scientific nomenclature within specific kingdoms.

Usually, animals & plants are identified by common and scientific names.

Common name: These are used locally and may vary by region or country. Scientific name: These are unique names used by the scientific community to accurately and universally identify species.

International Codes of Nomenclature

Taxonomists have established several “codes” for scientific nomenclature. These codes are universal and are periodically updated by consensus. The protocol for naming species was invented in the 1700s by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus. Linnaeus created the system of “binomial nomenclature,” which uses only two designations – genus and specific epithet as the species name.

In the mid-1800s, scientists agreed on an expanded system of nomenclature. The following codes are used today:

• International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.
• International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.
• International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria recently changed to International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes.
• International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.
• International Code of Phytosociological Nomenclature.
• International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses–publishes several reports including How to Write a Virus Name.

Common names of species can vary by geographic region but a universal protocol helps avoid ambiguity and ensures consistency.

Known as the “ taxonomic hierarchy ,” the system consists of several groups of species based on genetic and phylogenic characteristics. The highest level is the “kingdom.” The first kingdom comprised only two types of living organisms—animals and plants. We have seven classifications within the kingdom domain—Bacteria, Archaea, Protozoa, Chromista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.

Note that the designations are in Latin . This could be challenging for some who are not familiar with that language; however, the terms are globally consistent. There is no need to interpret them or translate them into another language.

Using this system, the gray wolf, for example, would be identified as follows:

• Domain: Eukarya.
• Kingdom: Animalia.
• Phylum: Chordata.
• Class: Mammalia.
• Order: Carnivora.
• Suborder: Caniformia.
• Family: Canidae.
• Genus: Canis.
• Species: lupus.

Binomial Name

The binomial name consists of a genus name and specific epithet.  The scientific names of species are italicized . The genus name is always capitalized and is written first; the specific epithet follows the genus name and is not capitalized. There is no exception to this.

From above example, note that the classifications go from general (Animalia) to specific ( C. lupus ). A species, by definition, is the combination of both the genus and specific epithet , not just the epithet. For example, we can use the term gray wolf but we cannot use just Canis or lupus to describe this animal. Canis lupus is a species.

Writing Scientific Names of Animals

When writing, we use both the scientific name and the “common” name on the first mention. We then choose which to use throughout and make it consistent.

• Gray wolf ( Canis lupus ) is native to North America and Eurasia.

In subsequent references, we can use either the common or scientific name. If we use the scientific name, we need only to use the first letter of the genus followed by a period and the specific epithet. For example:

• In North America, the gray wolf was nearly hunted to extinction.
• In North America, C. lupus was nearly hunted to extinction.

It is also common to refer to several species under one genus when you want to point out some similar characteristics within a genus. For example:

• All species of Canis are known to be moderate to large and have large skulls.

You could also write this same information another way as follows:

• Canis spp. are known to be moderate to large and have large skulls.

In this case, “spp.” is an abbreviation for “several species” (“sp” is the designation for one species) in the genus. Either of the above is acceptable. If you are focusing on a few species in particular, you would refer to the species name of each one.

You might also see a scientific name followed by an initial or abbreviation. This would denote the person who discovered or named the species. For example, in Amaranthus retroflexus L., the L (not italicized) refers to the original name given by Linnaeus.

There are a few exceptions to some of these rules. First, the entire genus name must be spelled out if it begins a sentence, even if a subsequent reference:

• Canis lupus was nearly hunted to extinction in North America.

Second, when more than one species has the same genus initial but come from different genera, the genera names are spelled out to avoid confusion:

• Both the gray wolf ( Canis lupus ) and the beaver ( Castor canadensis ) are native to North America.

In this case, it is best to use the common name after the first mention, but either format is correct.

Related: Do you have questions on manuscript drafting? Get personalized answers on the FREE Q&A Forum!

Titles and Headers

In titles, it is appropriate to write the entire scientific name of animals in uppercase letters. For example:

• A Study of the History of CANIS LUPUS in North America

In an italicized header, the species name can be written in non-italic style. For example:

• Canis lupus is nearly extinct in North America

Writing Scientific Names of Plants

Plant names also follow binomial nomenclature (similar to animal names).

• Royal grevillea (Grevillea victoriae) is found in New South Wales and Victoria.

In the plant kingdom , classification after species is subspecies (subsp.) and variety (var.). For example, there are three subspecies of Grevillea victoriae.

•   Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  victoriae
• Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  nivalis  
• Grevillea victoriae  subsp.  brindabella

When the species of a plant is unknown, a plant can be referred as Grevillea sp.

Moreover, when we collectively want to refer few or all species, we use Grevillea spp.

Similar to animal names, it is common to see a specific epithet that refers to a geographic area or the person who discovered it. For example, Grevillea victoriae F.Muell. Although these are proper nouns, they are still written in lowercase font. Be mindful that some word processors might attempt to capitalize these references.

This is something to check when proofreading your text.

Cultivar names are dictated by International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

When writing, the cultivar name is added after genus or specific epithet and is put in single quotes without italicization. For example,  

•   Grevillea  ‘Robyn Gordon’       
•  Grevillea rosmarinifolia  ‘Rosy Posy’

Consistency

One of the basic rules of scientific writing is consistency. Regardless of your choice of scientific or common name, you must maintain consistency. Always check the author guidelines when preparing manuscripts. Formats for citations and references, headings, and section placement can be different. Be assured that the format for writing scientific names is internationally consistent regardless of the intended journal. The rules presented above will help.

In the next article in this series, we will discuss tips on how to write scientific names of bacterial species in a journal manuscript.

You see that the common name of the species you are studying has several variations depending on the geographic area. Which do you use and why? What other challenges do you face when using scientific nomenclature? Please share your thoughts with us in the comments section below.

Trying to identify species of plants is difficult when it changes from one reference to another. Is there a classification resource available to laymen with the most recently agreed upon name?

Hi Sandra, Thank you for your question. Some databases give you updated information on plant taxonomy. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) https://www.itis.gov/ is one such database. It gives you the flexibility to search taxonomic data of a particular plant based on its common name, scientific name, or taxonomic serial number. This database is not limited to plants and can be used to access taxonomic information about other organisms as well. Meanwhile, please visit https://www.enago.com/academy/ and consider subscribing to our newsletter. Need instant answers for burning queries on academic writing and publishing? Install our mobile app today! https://www.enago.com/academy/mobile-app/

when we write only the genus name should it be italicized? for example we wan t to write leishmania parasites is that necessary to write the genus name italicized?,

Hi Mohammad,

The rules for the scientific nomenclature vary with the organism. In case of botanical nomenclature, generally both the genus and the species names have to be italicized. For protozoans, the genus name when used in singular form should always be in italics. e.g., Leishmania donovani . However, when used in the plural form, you need not italicize the genus name. e.g., Leishmania are responsible for causing the disease leishmaniasis.

Explained in a simple and easy to understand way. It was helpful.

when writing the manuscript, does the family name of the plant have be italicized?

Which one is inside the parenthesis in the title, common name or scientific name?

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Essay on Animals: How to Write a Persuasive Paper

• Shelter and Rescue Work
• spay and neuter

When writing a persuasive paper, your purpose is to convince your audience to agree with your idea or accept your recommendation for a course of action. If you’ve decided to write an essay on animals (either for a school assignment or for another purpose), here are the steps to follow.

1. Choose a topic

Some sample topics for an essay on animals include:

• Everyone should spay or neuter their pets .
• Adoption is the best option.
• Dogs should be treated as individuals, not discriminated against because of breed.
• Microchipping is important to keep pets with their families.

2. Research information on the topic

You can do research online and at the library, plus talk to experts in the field, to get more information. While reviewing the materials, look for interesting facts or tidbits that will hook your readers.

3. Create a flow chart 

4. write the thesis statement for your paper.

Now it's time to fill in the flow chart, first with your thesis statement. For example: "Everyone should spay or neuter their pets." This statement will go in the first box in your flow chart. The flow chart is a visual way to help you create an outline. An outline will help you organize the information in a logical order. Your finished product will have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

5. Write the reasons and supporting data

The body will contain the reasons and the supporting data listed on your flow chart. The body not only contains evidence to support your opinion but also addresses one or two opposing views. 

Be sure to include your counter-argument when stating the opposing view. For example, one opposing view to the above statement might be this: "Many people think that an animal who has been spayed or neutered will become lazy and fat." Your counter-argument could be this: "This is a misconception. The main reason pets become overweight is lack of exercise and overfeeding."

6. Note engaging facts

Keep the flow chart handy as you read through all the information you have gathered. In a separate place, write “Hooks and facts to grab the reader’s attention,” and as you review your material, jot down cool facts that you come across. For example: "Just one female cat and her offspring can produce an estimated 420,000 cats in only seven years."

7. Consider all angles

Be sure to address a wide variety of reasons to support your topic statement. For example: Think about pet overpopulation, overcrowded shelters, the costs to your city or town, the effects on pet health, and pet behavior. What would your audience find most important?

8. Expand each reason individually

Before writing your actual paper, keep your facts straight by writing each reason and the supporting evidence on separate sheets of paper or documents.

9. Write your essay

Write your first draft. Then, revise your outline and draft as needed until you have your final draft. If necessary, include a bibliography.

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Animal Research Project: Writing an Animal Research Paper

Resources to Research Animals

Use library books, encyclopedias and magazines to research your animal. In addition, there are numerous online resources. Our school provided a list of three online resources (noted by *). Since these resources require a membership, we provided a few more online sites to assist in researching an animal.

Online Resources for Animal Research Paper

Each student selects an animal of her choice and should take good notes when collecting facts and important details about her animal. Good note taking will greatly assist a student when writing his animal research paper. You may want to remind each student to use his own words.

Writing Prompts for Animal Research Paper

After a student selects her animal, she must answer the questions below. It is important to instruct your child or student to take her time and answer each question thoroughly. These answers will be used to create the animal research paper.

After a student completes the above questions, it’s time to begin writing the first draft of the research paper. Take the information obtained above and put it on paper.

Each answer to the questions above should be a paragraph with the exception of the interesting facts question. The two facts should get put into the paragraph that is most applicable, e.g., habitat, physical description or life span.

If you are a teacher, consider visiting our writing rubric page for different templates used to grade writing papers.

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Animal Research Reports

Teaching students about animal research reports is one of my favorite writing units! It’s the perfect combination of nonfiction reading and informational writing – all in one perfect unit of study!

I’ve got so much to share with you that I’m splitting this into two posts! You can find part two here !

Getting Started with Animal Research Reports

To begin, I try to teach nonfiction text features and research writing at the same time. It’s also perfect for reviewing main idea and details in informational texts.

First, I choose an animal that I think my students will enjoy learning about as our whole group focus. I collect as many books and articles on this animal to use during whole group mini-lessons.

When I introduce this to my students for the first time, we start a KWL chart. I make a big anchor chart sized KWL chart, and my students begin their own chart in a research booklet that they’ll use throughout the unit.

As we research, students write the facts learned in a little research booklet. These booklets help students keep track of all of the things they’ve learned. Especially with students who are just beginning to learn how to research, these booklets are extremely helpful.

Once we’ve studied and completed one animal research booklet together, I let students choose a different animal to try on their own!

I love these tabbed booklets because they are extremely helpful in getting students to write MULTIPLE, FOCUSED paragraphs. Students can take each section of the research booklet and turn it into a paragraph. By the end, they have 3-4 focused paragraphs, instead of one giant paragraph with a bunch of random facts.

I suggest pre-selecting 4-7 animals that your students can choose from. I have booklets made for polar animals, desert animals, rainforest animals, grassland animals, and ocean animals!

Why not grab a FREE polar bear research book to try with your students? Click the image below to get this FREE digital + printable booklet !

You can read more animal research tips in my part two blog post ! I’ll show you how to use envelopes and index cards to teach students how to research! It’s a great way to teach elementary students how to research!

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Animal Science Subject Guide — Research Topics

• Starting Your Research Project
• Searching Scholarly Databases
• Encyclopedias & Handbooks
• Finding Books
• Other Information Sources
• Useful Tools

Narrowing a topic

Sometimes narrowing to a specific topic does not come naturally and can be a difficult task. Here are some techniques available to make this process simpler.

• First, pick a topic in which you are interested. You will spend a lot of time with your topic and you will do a better job with it if you find the topic enjoyable. As you search through potential topics, note which pique your interest and follow them further.
• Look for a topic with some recent controversy or a set of related topics which can be compared and contrasted.
• Pick a topic which you have some hope of understanding. If you cannot understand the basics you will not be able to write about it. Not all topics are appropriate for undergraduate paper writing.

Some additional sites with help on choosing and narrowing topics are listed below.

• Choosing and Narrowing a Topic
• Narrowing a Topic
• Narrowing a Topic and Developing a Research Question
• Identifying when a Topic is Too Narrow or Too Broad

Where to find possible topics for science papers

If you don't know on what topic you want to write a paper, start by looking in sources with broad spreads of relevant information. 

• Search any database by a particular journal or review journal (Science, Nature, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, etc.)
• Look for a classic topic in your textbook 
• Scan popular science sciences magazines such as Bioscience, Scientific American, Discover, etc.
• Go to the popular  website  www.sciencedaily.com which covers most aspects of science and search for a topic
• Search for ideas in the encyclopedias, handbooks or other books listed in this guide on a separate page
• If you have some idea of a topic, search for review articles on that topic in one of the science databases listed in this guide
• Search the table of contents of a journal which specializes in review articles, such as Trends in Ecology and Evolution

Search Strategies for Topics

Part of picking a topic will involve conducting literature searches. As you search for your topic(s) start with searches as BROAD as possible, while remaining relevant to your topic. Starting broad will give a breadth of coverage that allows you easy options for narrowing your topic. If you start with a narrow topic it is much harder to broaden your topic later to explore more options.

Describe your topic in a sentence.

How did carnivorous plants evolve digestive enzymes?

What are your major concepts? Identify the main elements of your topic.

Think of related terms for your concepts. Use both common words and scientific terms.

Add Boolean Operators (AND & OR) to structure the search in a database search interface.

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Open Access

Essays articulate a specific perspective on a topic of broad interest to scientists.

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A guide to open science practices for animal research

Contributed equally to this work with: Kai Diederich, Kathrin Schmitt

Affiliation German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), Berlin, Germany

* E-mail: [email protected]

• Kai Diederich, 
• Kathrin Schmitt, 
• Philipp Schwedhelm, 
• Bettina Bert, 
• Céline Heinl

Published: September 15, 2022

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810
• Reader Comments

Translational biomedical research relies on animal experiments and provides the underlying proof of practice for clinical trials, which places an increased duty of care on translational researchers to derive the maximum possible output from every experiment performed. The implementation of open science practices has the potential to initiate a change in research culture that could improve the transparency and quality of translational research in general, as well as increasing the audience and scientific reach of published research. However, open science has become a buzzword in the scientific community that can often miss mark when it comes to practical implementation. In this Essay, we provide a guide to open science practices that can be applied throughout the research process, from study design, through data collection and analysis, to publication and dissemination, to help scientists improve the transparency and quality of their work. As open science practices continue to evolve, we also provide an online toolbox of resources that we will update continually.

Citation: Diederich K, Schmitt K, Schwedhelm P, Bert B, Heinl C (2022) A guide to open science practices for animal research. PLoS Biol 20(9): e3001810. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810

Copyright: © 2022 Diederich et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: I have read the journal’s policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: All authors are employed at the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment and part of the German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R) which developed and hosts animalstudyregistry.org , a preregistration platform for animal studies and animaltestinfo.de, a database for non-technical project summaries (NTS) of approved animal study protocols within Germany.

Abbreviations: CC, Creative Commons; CIRS-LAS, critical incident reporting system in laboratory animal science; COVID-19, Coronavirus Disease 2019; DOAJ, Directory of Open Access Journals; DOI, digital object identifier; EDA, Experimental Design Assistant; ELN, electronic laboratory notebook; EU, European Union; IMSR, International Mouse Strain Resource; JISC, Joint Information Systems Committee; LIMS, laboratory information management system; MGI, Mouse Genome Informatics; NC3Rs, National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research; NTS, non-technical summary; RRID, Research Resource Identifier

Introduction

Over the past decade, the quality of published scientific literature has been repeatedly called into question by the failure of large replication studies or meta-analyses to demonstrate sufficient translation from experimental research into clinical successes [ 1 – 5 ]. At the same time, the open science movement has gained more and more advocates across various research areas. By sharing all of the information collected during the research process with colleagues and with the public, scientists can improve collaborations within their field and increase the reproducibility and trustworthiness of their work [ 6 ]. Thus, the International Reproducibility Networks have called for more open research [ 7 ].

However, open science practices have not been adopted to the same degree in all research areas. In psychology, which was strongly affected by the so-called reproducibility crisis, the open science movement initiated real practical changes leading to a broad implementation of practices such as preregistration or sharing of data and material [ 8 – 10 ]. By contrast, biomedical research is still lagging behind. Open science might be of high value for research in general, but in translational biomedical research, it is an ethical obligation. It is the responsibility of the scientist to transparently share all data collected to ensure that clinical research can adequately evaluate the risks and benefits of a potential treatment. When Russell and Burch published “The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique” in 1959, scientists started to implement their 3Rs principle to answer the ethical dilemma of animal welfare in the face of scientific progress [ 11 ]. By replacing animal experiments wherever possible, reducing the number of animals to a strict minimum, and refining the procedures where animals have still to be used, this ethical dilemma was addressed. However, in recent years, whether the 3Rs principle is sufficient to fully address ethical concerns about animal experiments has been questioned [ 12 ].

Most people tolerate the use of animals for scientific purposes only under the basic assumption that the knowledge gained will advance research in crucial areas. This implies that performed experiments are reported in a way that enables peers to benefit from the collected data. However, recent studies suggest that a large proportion of animal experiments are never actually published. For example, scientists working within the European Union (EU) have to write an animal study protocol for approval by the competent authorities of the respective country before performing an animal experiment [ 13 ]. In these protocols, scientists have to describe the planned study and justify every animal required for the project. By searching for publications resulting from approved animal study protocols from 2 German University Medical Centers, Wieschowski and colleagues found that only 53% of approved protocols led to a publication after 6 years [ 14 ]. Using a similar approach, Van der Naald and colleagues determined a publication rate of 60% at the Utrecht Medical Center [ 15 ]. In a follow-up survey, the respective researchers named so-called “negative” or null-hypothesis results as the main cause for not publishing outcomes [ 15 ]. The current scientific system is shaped by publishers, funders, and institutions and motivates scientists to publish novel, surprising, and positive results, revealing one of the many structural problems that the numerous efforts towards open science initiatives are targeting. Non-publication not only strongly contradicts ethical values, but also it compromises the quality of published literature by leading to overestimation of effect sizes [ 16 , 17 ]. Furthermore, publications of animal studies too often show poor reporting that strongly impairs the reproducibility, validity, and usefulness of the results [ 18 ]. Unfortunately, the idea that negative or equivocal findings can also contribute to the gain of scientific knowledge is frequently neglected.

So far, the scientific community using animals has shown limited resonance to the open science movement. Due to the strong controversy surrounding animal experiments, scientists have been reluctant to share information on the topic. Additionally, translational research is highly competitive and researchers tend to be secretive about their ideas until they are ready for publication or patent [ 19 , 20 ]. However, this missing openness could also point to a lack of knowledge and training on the many open science options that are available and suitable for animal research. Researchers have to be convinced of the benefits of open science practices, not only for science in general, but also for the individual researcher and each single animal. Yet, the key players in the research system are already starting to value open science practices. An increasing number of journals request open sharing of data, funders pay for open access publications and institutions consider open science practices in hiring decisions. Open science practices can improve the quality of work by enabling valuable scientific input from peers at the early stages of research projects. Furthermore, the extended communication that open science practices offer can draw attention to research and help to expand networks of collaborators and lead to new project opportunities or follow-up positions. Thus, open science practices can be a driver for careers in academia, particularly those of early career researchers.

Beyond these personal benefits, improving transparency in translational biomedical research can boost scientific progress in general. By bringing to light all the recorded research outputs that until now have remained hidden, the publication bias and the overestimation of effect sizes can be reduced [ 17 ]. Large-scale sharing of data can help to synthesize research outputs in preclinical research that will enable better decision-making for clinical research. Disclosing the whole research process will help to uncover systematic problems and support scientists in thoroughly planning their studies. In the long run, we predict that the implementation of open science practices will lead to the use of fewer animals in unintentionally repeated experiments that previously showed unreported negative results or in the establishment of methods by avoiding experimental dead ends that are often not published. More collaborations and sharing of materials and methods can further reduce the number of animal experiments used for the implementation of new techniques.

Open science can and should be implemented at each step of the research process ( Fig 1 ). A vast number of tools are already provided that were either directly conceptualized for animal research or can be adapted easily. In this Essay, we provide an overview of open science tools that improve transparency, reliability, and animal welfare in translational in vivo biomedical research by supporting scientists to clearly communicate their research and by supporting collaborative working. Table 1 lists the most prominent open science tools we discuss, together with their respective links. We have structured this Essay to guide you through which tools can be used at each stage of the research process, from planning and conducting experiments, through to analyzing data and communicating the results. However, many of these tools can be used at many different steps. Table 1 has been deposited on Zenodo and will be updated continuously [ 21 ].

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Application of open science practices at each step of the research process can maximize the impact of performed animal experiments. The implementation of these practices will lead to less time pressure at the end of a project. Due to the connection of most of these open science practices, spending more time in the planning phase and during the conduction of experiments will save time during the data analysis and publication of the study. Indeed, consulting reporting guidelines early on, preregistering a statistical plan, and writing down crucial experimental details in an electronic lab notebook, will strongly accelerate the writing of a manuscript. If protocols or even electronic lab notebooks were made public, just citing these would simplify the writing of publications. Similarly, if a data management plan is well designed before starting data collection, analyzing, and depositing data in a public repository, as is increasingly required, will be fast. NTS, non-technical summary.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810.g001

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810.t001

Planning the study

Transparent practices can be adopted at every stage of the research process. However, to ensure full effectivity, it is highly recommended to engage in detailed planning before the start of the experiment. This can prevent valuable time from being lost at the end of the study due to careless decisions being made at the beginning. Clarifying data management at the start of a project can help avoiding filing chaos that can be very time consuming to untangle. Keeping clear track of a project and study design will also help if new colleagues are included later on in the project or if entire project parts are handed over. In addition, all texts written on the rationale and hypothesis of the study or method descriptions, or design schemes created during the planning phase can be used in the final publications ( Fig 1 ). Similarly, information required for preregistration of animal studies or for reporting according to the ARRIVE guidelines are an extension of the details required for ethical approval [ 22 , 23 ]. Thus, the time burden within the planning phase is often overestimated. Furthermore, the thorough planning of experiments can avoid the unnecessary use of animals by preventing wrong avenues from being pursued.

Implementing open scientific practices at the beginning of a project does not mean that the idea and study plan must be shared immediately, but rather is critical for making the entire workflow transparent at the end of the project. However, optional early sharing of information can enable peers to give feedback on the study plan. Studies potentially benefit more from this a priori input than they would from the classical a posteriori peer-review process.

Most people perceive guidelines as advice that instructs on how to do something. However, it is sometimes useful to consider the term in its original meaning; “the line that guides us”. In this sense, following guidelines is not simply fulfilling a duty, but is a process that can help to design a sound research study and, as such, guidelines should be consulted at the planning stage of a project. The PREPARE guidelines are a list of important points that should be thought-out before starting a study involving animal experiments in order to reduce the waste of animals, promote alternatives, and increase the reproducibility of research and testing [ 24 ]. The PREPARE checklist helps to thoroughly plan a study and focuses on improving the communication and collaboration between all involved participants of the study (i.e., animal caretakers and scientists). Indeed, open science begins with the communication within a research facility. It is currently available in 33 languages and the responsible team from Norecopa, Norway’s 3R-center, takes requests for translations into further languages.

The UK Reproducibility Network has also published several guiding documents (primers) on important topics for open and reproducible science. These address issues such as data sharing [ 25 ], open access [ 26 ], open code and software [ 27 ], and preprints [ 28 ], as well as preregistration and registered reports [ 27 ]. Consultation of these primers is not only helpful in the relevant phases of the experiment but is also encouraged in the planning phase.

Although the ARRIVE guidelines are primarily a reporting guideline specifically designed for preparing a publication containing animal data, they can also support researchers when planning their experiments [ 22 , 23 ]. Going through the ARRIVE website, researchers will find tools and explanations that can support them in planning their experiments [ 29 ]. Consulting the ARRIVE checklist at the beginning of a project can help in deciding what details need to be documented during conduction of the experiments. This is particularly advisable, given that compliance to ARRIVE is still poor [ 18 ].

Experimental design

To maximize the validity of performed experiments and the knowledge gained, designing the study well is crucial. It is important that the chosen animal species reflects the investigated disease well and that basic characteristics of the animal, such as sex or age, are considered carefully [ 30 ]. The Canadian Institutes of Health Research provides a collection of resources on the integration of sex and gender in biomedical research with animals, including tips and tools for researchers and reviewers [ 31 ]. Additionally, it is advisable to avoid unnecessary standardization of biological and environmental factors that can reduce the external validity of results [ 32 ]. Meticulous statistical planning can further optimize the use of animals. Free to use online tools for calculating sample sizes such as G*Power or the inVivo software package for R can further support animal researchers in designing their statistical plan [ 33 , 34 ]. Randomization for the allocation of groups can be supported with specific tools for scientists like Research Randomizer, but also by simple online random number generators [ 35 ]. Furthermore, it might be advisable when designing the study to incorporate pathological analyses into the experimental plan. Optimal planning of tissue collection, performance of pathological procedures according to accepted best practices, and use of optimal pathological analysis and reporting methods can add some extra knowledge that would otherwise be lost. This can improve the reproducibility and quality of translational biomedicine, especially, but not exclusively, in animal studies with morphological endpoints. In all animal studies, unexpected deaths in experimental animals can occur and be the cause of lost data or missed opportunities to identify health problems [ 36 , 37 ].

To support researchers in designing their animal research, the National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs) has also developed the Experimental Design Assistant (EDA) [ 38 , 39 ]. This online tool helps researchers to better structure in vivo research by creating detailed schemes of the study design. It provides feedback on the entered design, drawing researcher’s attention to crucial decisions in the project. The resulting schemes can be used to transparently share the study design by uploading it into a study preregistration, enclosing it in a grant application, or submitting it with a final manuscript. The EDA can be used for different study designs in diverse scenarios and helps to communicate researcher plans to others [ 40 ]. The EDA might be particularly of interest to clarify very complex study designs involving multiple experimental groups. Working with the EDA might appear rather complex in the beginning, but the NC3R provides regular webinars that can help to answer any questions that arise.

Preregistration

Preregistration is an effective tool to improve the quality and transparency of research. To preregister their work, scientists must determine crucial details of the study before starting any experiment. Changes occurring during a study can be outlined at the end. A preregistered study plan should include at least the hypothesis and determine all the parameters that are known in advance. A description of the planned study design and statistical analysis will enable reviewers and peers to better retrace the workflow. It can prevent the intentional use of the flexibility of analysis to reach p -values under a certain significance level (e.g., p-hacking or HARKing (Hypothesizing After Results are Known)). With preregistration, scientists can also claim their idea at an early stage of their research with a citable individual identifier that labels the idea as their own. Some open preregistration platforms also provide a digital object identifier (DOI), which makes the registered study citable. Three public registries actively encourage the preregistration of animal studies conducted around the world: OSF registry, preclinicaltrials.eu, and animalstudyregistry.org [ 41 – 45 ]. Scientists can choose the registry according to their needs. Preregistering a study in a public registry supports scientists in planning their study and later to critically reevaluate their own work and assess its limitations and potentials.

As an alternative to public registries, researchers can also submit their study plan to one of hundreds of journals already publishing registered reports, including many journals open to animal research [ 8 ]. A submitted registered report passes 2 steps of peer review. In the first step, reviewers comment on the idea and the study design. After an “in-principle-acceptance,” researchers can conduct their study as planned. If the authors conduct the experiments as described in the accepted study protocol, the journal will publish the final study regardless of the outcome. This might be an attractive option, especially for early career researchers, as a manuscript is published at the beginning of a project with the guarantee of a future final publication.

The benefits of preregistration can already be observed in clinical research, where registration has been mandatory for most trials for more than 20 years. Preregistration in clinical research has helped to make known what has been tested and not just what worked and was published, and the implementation of trial registration has strongly reduced the number of publications reporting significant treatment effects [ 46 ]. In animal research, with its unrealistically high percentage of positive results, preregistration seems to be particularly worthwhile.

Research data management

To get the most out of performed animal experiments, effective sharing of data at the end of the study is essential. Sharing research data optimally is complex and needs to be prepared in advance. Thus, data management can be seen as one part of planning a study thoroughly. Many funders have recognized the value of the original research data and request a data management plan from applicants in advance [ 25 , 47 ]. Various freely available tools such as DMPTool or DMPonline already exist to design a research data management plan that complies to the requirements of different funders [ 48 , 49 ]. The data management plan defines the types of data collected and describes the handling and names responsible persons throughout the data lifecycle. This includes collecting the data, analyzing, archiving, and sharing it. Finally, a data management plan enables long-term access and the possibility for reuse by peers. Developing such a plan, whether it is required by funders or not, will later simplify the application of the FAIR data principle (see section on the FAIR data principle). The Longwood Medical Area Research Data Management Working Group from the Harvard Medical School developed a checklist to assist researchers in optimally managing their data throughout the data lifecycle [ 50 ]. Similarly, the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) provides a great research data management toolkit including a checklist for researchers planning their project [ 51 ]. Consulting this checklist in the planning phase of a project can prevent common errors in research data management.

Non-technical project summary

One instrument specifically conceived to create transparency on animal research for the general public is the so-called non-technical project summary (NTS). All animal protocols approved within the EU must be accompanied by these comprehensible summaries. NTSs are intended to inform the public about ongoing animal experiments. They are anonymous and include information on the objectives and potential benefits of the project, the expected harm, the number of animals, the species, and a statement of compliance with the requirements of the 3Rs principle. However, beyond simply informing the public, NTSs can also be used for meta-research to help identify new research areas with an increased need for new 3R technologies [ 52 , 53 ]. NTSs become an excellent tool to appropriately communicate the scientific value of the approved protocol and for meta-scientists to generate added value by systematically analyzing theses summaries if they fulfill a minimum quality threshold [ 54 , 55 ]. In 2021, the EU launched the ALURES platform ( Table 1 ), where NTSs from all member states are published together, opening the opportunities for EU-wide meta-research. NTSs are, in contrast to other open science practices, mandatory in the EU. However, instead of thinking of them as an annoying duty, it might be worth thoroughly drafting the NTS to support the goals of more transparency towards the public, enabling an open dialogue and reducing extreme opinions.

Conducting the experiments

Once the experiments begin, documentation of all necessary details is essential to ensure the transparency of the workflow. This includes methodological details that are crucial for replicating experiments, but also failed attempts that could help peers to avoid experiments that do not work in the future. All information should be stored in such a way that it can be found easily and shared later. In this area, many new tools have emerged in recent years ( Table 1 ). These tools will not only make research transparent for colleagues, but also help to keep track of one’s own research and improve internal collaboration.

Electronic laboratory notebooks

Electronic laboratory notebooks (ELNs) are an important pillar of research data management and open science. ELNs facilitate the structured and harmonized documentation of the data generation workflow, ensure data integrity, and keep track of all modifications made to the original data based on an audit trail option. Moreover, ELNs simplify the sharing of data and support collaborations within and outside the research group. Methodological details and research data become searchable and traceable. There is an extensive amount of literature providing advice on the selection and the implementation process of an ELN depending on the specific needs and research area and its discussion would be beyond the scope of this Essay [ 56 – 58 ]. Some ELNs are connected to a laboratory information management system (LIMS) that provides an animal module supporting the tracking of animal details [ 59 ]. But as research involving animals is highly heterogeneous, this might not be the only decision point and we cannot recommend a specific ELN that is suitable for all animal research.

ELNs are already established in the pharmaceutical industry and their use is on the rise among academics as well. However, due to concerns around costs for licenses, data security, and loss of flexibility, many research institutions still fear the expenses that the introduction of such a system would incur [ 56 ]. Nevertheless, an increasing number of academic institutions are implementing ELNs and appreciating the associated benefits [ 60 ]. If your institution already has an ELN, it might be easiest to just use the option available in the research environment. If not, the Harvard Medical School provides an extensive and updated overview of various features of different ELNs that can support scientists in choosing the appropriate one for their research [ 61 ]. There are many commercial ELN products, which may be preferred when the administrative workload should be outsourced to a large extent. However, open-source products such as eLabFTW or open BIS provide a greater opportunity for customization to meet specific needs of individual research institutions [ 62 – 64 ]. A huge number of options are available depending on the resources and the features required. Some scientists might prefer generic note taking tools such as Evernote or just a simple Word document that offers infinite flexibility, but specific ELNs can further support good record keeping practice by providing immutability, automated backups, standardized methods, and protocols to follow. Clearly defining the specific requirements expected might help to choose an adequate system that would improve the quality of the record compared to classical paper laboratory notebooks.

Sharing protocols

Adequate sharing of methods in translational biomedical sciences is key to reproducibility. Several repositories exist that simplify the publication and exchange of protocols. Writing down methods at the end of the project bears the risk that crucial details might be missing [ 65 ]. On protocols.io, scientists can note all methodological details of a procedure, complete them with uploaded documents, and keep them for personal use or share them with collaborators [ 66 ]. Authors can also decide at any point in time to make their protocol public. Protocols published on protocols.io receive a DOI and become citable; they can be commented on by peers and adapted according to the needs of the individual researcher. Protocol.io files from established protocols can also be submitted together with some context and sample datasets to PLOS ONE , where it can be peer-reviewed and potentially published [ 67 , 68 ]. Depending on the affiliation of the researchers to academia or industry and on an internal or public sharing of files, protocols.io can be free of charge or come with costs. Other journals also encourage their authors to deposit their protocols in a freely accessible repository, such as protocol exchange from Nature portfolio [ 69 ]. Another option might be to separately submit a protocol that was validated by its use in an already published research article to an online and peer-reviewed journal specific for research protocols, such as Bio-Protocol. A multitude of journals, including eLife and Science already collaborate with Bio-Protocol and recommend authors to publish the method in Bio-Protocol [ 70 ]. Bio-Protocol has no submission fees and is freely available to all readers. Both protocols.io and Bio-Protocol allow the illustration of complex scientific methods by uploading videos to published protocols. In addition, protocols can be deposited in a general research repository such as the Open Science Framework (OSF repository) and referenced in appropriate publications.

Sharing critical incidents

Sharing critical or even adverse events that occur in the context of animal experimentation can help other scientists to avoid committing the same mistakes. The system of sharing critical incidents is already established in clinical practice and helps to improve medical care [ 71 , 72 ]. The online platform critical incident reporting system in laboratory animal science (CIRS-LAS) represents the first preclinical equivalent to these clinical systems [ 73 ]. With this web-based tool, critical incidents in animal research can be reported anonymously without registration. An expert panel helps to analyze the incident to encourage an open dialogue. Critical incident reporting is still very marginal in animal research and performed procedures are very variable. These factors make a systemic analysis and a targeted search of incidence difficult. However, it may be of special interest for methods that are broadly used in animal research such as anesthesia. Indeed, a broad feed of this system with data on errors occurring in standard procedures today could help avoid critical incidences in the future and refine animal experiments.

Sharing animals, organs, and tissue

When we think about open science, sharing results and data are often in focus. However, sharing material is also part of a collaborative and open research culture that could help to greatly reduce the number of experimental animals used. When an animal is killed to obtain specific tissue or organs, the remainder is mostly discarded. This may constitute a wasteful practice, as surplus tissue can be used by other researchers for different analyses. More animals are currently killed as surplus than are used in experiments, demonstrating the potential for sharing these animals [ 74 , 75 ].

Sharing information on generated surplus is therefore not only economical, but also an effective way to reduce the number of animals used for scientific purposes. The open-source software Anishare is a straightforward way for breeders of genetically modified lines to promote their surplus offspring or organs within an institution [ 76 ]. The database AniMatch ( Table 1 ) connects scientists within Europe who are offering tissue or organs with scientists seeking this material. Scientists already sharing animal organs can support this process by describing it in publications and making peers aware of this possibility [ 77 ]. Specialized research communities also allow sharing of animal tissue or animal-derived products worldwide that are typically used in these fields on a collaborative basis via the SEARCH-framework [ 78 , 79 ]. Depositing transgenic mice lines into one of several repositories for mouse strains can help to further minimize efforts in producing new transgenic lines and most importantly reduce the number of surplus animals by supporting the cryoconservation of mouse lines. The International Mouse Strain Resource (IMSR) can be used to help find an adequate repository or to help scientists seeking a specific transgenic line find a match [ 80 ].

Analyzing the data

Animal researchers have to handle increasingly complex data. Imaging, electrophysiological recording, or automated behavioral tracking, for example, produce huge datasets. Data can be shared as raw numerical output but also as images, videos, sounds, or other forms from which raw numerical data can be generated. As the heterogeneity and the complexity of research data increases, infinite possibilities for analysis emerge. Transparently reporting how the data were processed will enable peers to better interpret reported results. To get the most out of performed animal experiments, it is crucial to allow other scientists to replicate the analysis and adapt it to their research questions. It is therefore highly recommended to use formats and tools during the analysis that allow a straightforward exchange of code and data later on.

Transparent coding

The use of non-transparent analysis codes have led to a lack of reproducibility of results [ 81 ]. Sharing code is essential for complex analysis and enables other researchers to reproduce results and perform follow-up studies, and citable code gives credit for the development of new algorithms ( Table 1 ). Jupyter Notebooks are a convenient way to share data science pipelines that may use a variety of coding languages, including like Python, R or Matlab, and also share the results of analyses in the form of tables, diagrams, images, and videos. Notebooks contain source code and can be published or collaboratively shared on platforms like GitHub or GitLab, where version control of source code is implemented. The data-archiving tool Zenodo can be used to archive a repository on GitHub and create a DOI for the archive. Thereby contents become citable. Using free and open-source programming language like R or Python will increase the number of potential researchers that can work with the published code. Best practice for research software is to publish the source code with a license that allows modification and redistribution.

Choice of data visualization

Choosing the right format for the visualization of data can increase its accessibility to a broad scientific audience and enable peers to better judge the validity of the results. Studies based on animal research often work with very small sample sizes. Visualizing these data in histograms may lead to an overestimation of the outcomes. Choosing the right dot plots that makes all recorded points visible and at the same time focusses on the summary instead of the individual points can further improve the intuitive understanding of a result. If the sample size is too low, it might not be meaningful to visualize error bars. A variety of freely available tools already exists that can support scientists in creating the most appropriate graphs for their data [ 82 ]. In particular, when representing microscopy results or heat maps, it should be kept in mind that a large part of the population cannot perceive the classical red and green representation [ 83 ]. Opting for the color-blind safe color maps and checking images with free tools such as color oracle ( Table 1 ) can increase the accessibility of graphs. Multiple journals have already addressed flaws in data visualization and have introduced new policies that will accelerate the uptake of transparent representation of results.

Publication of all study outcomes

Open science practices have received much attention in the past few years when it comes to publication of the results. However, it is important to emphasize that although open science tools have their greatest impact at the end of the project, good study preparation and sharing of the study plan and data early on can greatly increase the transparency at the end.

The FAIR data principle

To maximize the impact and outcome of a study, and to make the best long-term use of data generated through animal experiments, researchers should publish all data collected during their research according to the FAIR data principle. That means the data should be findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable. The FAIR principle is thus an extension of open access publishing. Data should not only be published without paywalls or other access restrictions, but also in such a manner that they can be reused and further processed by others. For this, legal as well as technical requirements must be met by the data. To achieve this, the GoFAIR initiative has developed a set of principles that should be taken into account as early as at the data collection stage [ 49 , 84 ]. In addition to extensively described and machine-readable metadata, these principles include, for example, the application of globally persistent identifiers, the use of open file formats, and standardized communication protocols to ensure that humans and machines can easily download the data. A well-chosen repository to upload the data is then just the final step to publish FAIR data.

FAIR data can strongly increase the knowledge gained from performed animal experiments. Thus, the same data can be analyzed by different researchers and could be combined to obtain larger sample sizes, as already occurs in the neuroimaging community, which works with comparable datasets [ 85 ]. Furthermore, the sharing of data enables other researchers to analyze published datasets and estimate measurement reliabilities to optimize their own data collection [ 86 , 87 ]. This will help to improve the translation from animal research into clinics and simultaneously reduce the number of animal experiment in future.

Reporting guidelines

In preclinical research, the ARRIVE guidelines are the current state of the art when it comes to reporting data based on animal experiments [ 22 , 23 ]. The ARRIVE guidelines have been endorsed by more than 1,000 journals who ask that scientists comply with them when reporting their outcomes. Since the ARRIVE guidelines have not had the expected impact on the transparency of reporting in animal research publications, a more rigorous update has been developed to facilitate their application in practice (ARRIVE 2.0 [ 23 ]). We believe that the ARRIVE guidelines can be more effective if they are implemented at a very early stage of the project (see section on guidelines). Some more specialized reporting guidelines have also emerged for individual research fields that rely on animal studies, such as endodontology [ 88 ]. The equator network collects all guidelines and makes them easily findable with their search tool on their website ( Table 1 ). MERIDIAN also offers a 1-stop shop for all reporting guidelines involving the use of animals across all research sectors [ 89 ]. It is thus worth checking for new reporting guidelines before preparing a manuscript to maximize the transparency of described experiments.

Identifiers

Persistent identifiers for published work, authors, or resources are key for making public data findable by search engines and are thus a prerequisite for compliance to FAIR data principles. The most common identifier for publications will be a DOI, which makes the work citable. A DOI is a globally unique string assigned by the International DOI Foundation to identify content permanently and provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet. An ORCID ID is used as a personal persistent identifier and is recommendable to unmistakably identify an author ( Table 1 ). This will avoid confusions between authors with the same name or in the case of name changes or changes of affiliation. Research Resource Identifiers (RRID) are unique ID numbers that help to transparently report research resources. RRID also apply to animals to clearly identify the species used. RRID help avoid confusion between different names or changing names of genetic lines and, importantly, make them machine findable. The RRID Portal helps scientists find a specific RRID or create one if necessary ( Table 1 ). In the context of genetically altered animal lines, correct naming is key. The Mouse Genome Informatics (MGI) Database is the authoritative source of official names for mouse genes, alleles, and strains ([ 90 ]).

Preprint publication

Preprints have undergone unprecedented success, particularly during the height of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic when the need for rapid dissemination of scientific knowledge was critical. The publication process for scientific manuscripts in peer-reviewed journals usually requires a considerable amount of time, ranging from a few months to several years, mainly due to the lengthy review process and inefficient editorial procedures [ 91 , 92 ]. Preprints typically precede formal publication in scientific journals and, thus, do not go through a peer review process, thus, facilitating the prompt open dissemination of important scientific findings within the scientific community. However, submitted papers are usually screened and checked for plagiarism. Preprints are assigned a DOI so they can be cited. Once a preprint is published in a journal, its status is automatically updated on the preprint server. The preprint is linked to the publication via CrossRef and mentioned accordingly on the website of the respective preprint platform.

After initial skepticism, most publishers now allow papers to be posted on preprint servers prior to submission. An increasing number of journals even allow direct submission of a preprint to their peer review process. The US National Institutes of Health and the Wellcome Trust, among other funders, also encourage prepublication and permit researchers to cite preprints in their grant applications. There are now numerous preprint repositories for different scientific disciplines. BioASAP provides a searchable database for preprint servers that can help in identifying the one that best matches an individual’s needs [ 93 ]. The most popular repository for animal research is bioRxiv, which is hosted by the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory ( Table 1 ).

The early exchange of scientific results is particularly important for animal research. This acceleration of the publication process can help other scientists to adapt their research or could even prevent animal experiments if other scientists become aware that an experiment has already been done before starting their own. In addition, preprints can help to increase the visibility of research. Journal articles that have a corresponding preprint publication have higher citation and Altmetric counts than articles without preprint [ 94 ]. In addition, the publication of preprints can help to combat publication bias, which represents a major problem in animal research [ 16 ]. Since journals and readers prioritize cutting-edge studies with positive results over inconclusive or negative results, researchers are reluctant to invest time and money in a manuscript that is unlikely to be accepted in a high-impact journal.

In addition to the option of publishing as preprint, other alternative publication formats have recently been introduced to facilitate the publication of research results that are hard to publish in traditional peer-reviewed journals. These include micro publications, data repositories, data journals, publication platforms, and journals that focus on negative or inconclusive results. The tool fiddle can support scientists in choosing the right publication format [ 95 , 96 ].

Open access publication

Publishing open access is one of the most established open science strategies. In contrast to the FAIR data principle, the term open access publication refers usually to the publication of a manuscript on a platform that is accessible free of charge—in translational biomedical research, this is mostly in the form of a scientific journal article. Originally, publications accessible free of charge were the answer to the paywalls established by renowned publishing houses, which led to social inequalities within and outside the research system. In translational biomedical research, the ethical aspect of urgently needed transparency is another argument in favor of open access publication, as these studies will not only be findable, but also internationally readable.

There are different ways of open access publishing; the 2 main routes are gold open access and green open access. Numerous journals offer now gold open access. It refers to the immediate and fully accessible publication of an article. The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) provides a complete and updated list for high-quality, open access, and peer-reviewed journals [ 97 ]. Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin offers a specific tool for biomedical open access journals that supports animal researchers to choose an appropriate journal [ 49 ]. In addition, the Sherpa Romeo platform is a straightforward way to identify publisher open access policies on a journal-by-journal basis, including information on preprints, but also on licensing of articles [ 51 ]. Hybrid open access refers to openly accessible articles in otherwise paywalled journals. By contrast, green open access refers to the publication of a manuscript or article in a repository that is mostly operated by institutions and/or universities. The publication can be exclusively on the repository or in combination with a publisher. In the quality-assured, global Directory of Open Access Repositories (openDOAR), scientists can find thousands of indexed open access repositories [ 49 ]. The publisher often sets an embargo during which the authors cannot make the publication available in the repository, which can restrict the combined model. It is worth mentioning that gold open access is usually more expensive for the authors, as they have to pay an article processing charge. However, the article’s outreach is usually much higher than the outreach of an article in a repository or available exclusively as subscription content [ 98 ]. Diamond open access refers to publications and publication platforms that can be read free of charge by anyone interested and for which no costs are incurred by the authors either. It is the simplest and fairest form of open access for all parties involved, as no one is prevented from participating in scientific discourse by payment barriers. For now, it is not as widespread as the other forms because publishers have to find alternative sources of revenue to cover their costs.

As social media and the researcher’s individual public outreach are becoming increasingly important, it should be remembered that the accessibility of a publication should not be confused with the licensing under which the publication is made available. In order to be able to share and reuse one’s own work in the future, we recommend looking for journals that allow publications under the Creative Commons licenses CC BY or CC BY-NC. This also allows the immediate combination of gold and green open access.

Creative commons licenses

Attributing Creative Commons (CC) licenses to scientific content can make research broadly available and clearly specifies the terms and conditions under which people can reuse and redistribute the intellectual property, namely publications and data, while giving the credit to whom it deserves [ 49 ]. As the laws on copyright vary from country to country and law texts are difficult to understand for outsiders, the CC licenses are designed to be easily understandable and are available in 41 languages. This way, users can easily avoid accidental misuse. The CC initiative developed a tool that enables researchers to find the license that best fits their interests [ 49 ]. Since the licenses are based on a modular concept ranging from relatively unrestricted licenses (CC BY, free to use, credit must be given) to more restricted licenses (CC BY-NC-ND, only free to share for non-commercial purposes, credit must be given), one can find an appropriate license even for the most sensitive content. Publishing under an open CC license will not only make the publication easy to access but can also help to increase its reach. It can stimulate other researchers and the interested public to share this article within their network and to make the best future use of it. Bear in mind that datasets published independently from an article may receive a different CC license. In terms of intellectual property, data are not protected in the same way as articles, which is why the CC initiative in the United Kingdom recommends publishing them under a CC0 (“no rights reserved”) license or the Public Domain Mark. This gives everybody the right to use the data freely. In an animal ethics sense, this is especially important in order to get the most out of data derived from animal experiments.

Data and code repositories

Sharing research data is essential to ensure reproducibility and to facilitate scientific progress. This is particularly true in animal research and the scientific community increasingly recognizes the value of sharing research data. However, even though there is increasing support for the sharing of data, researchers still perceive barriers when it comes to doing so in practice [ 99 – 101 ]. Many universities and research institutions have established research data repositories that provide continuous access to datasets in a trusted environment. Many of these data repositories are tied to specific research areas, geographic regions, or scientific institutions. Due to the growing number and overall heterogeneity of these repositories, it can be difficult for researchers, funding agencies, publishers, and academic institutions to identify appropriate repositories for storing and searching research data.

Recently, several web-based tools have been developed to help in the selection of a suitable repository. One example is Re3data, a global registry of research data repositories that includes repositories from various scientific disciplines. The extensive database can be searched by country, content (e.g., raw data, source code), and scientific discipline [ 49 ]. A similar tool to help find a data archive specific to the field is FAIRsharing, based at Oxford University [ 102 ]. If there is no appropriate subject-specific data repository or one seems unsuitable for the data, there are general data repositories, such as Open Science Framework, figshare, Dryad, or Zenodo. To ensure that data stored in a repository can be found, a DOI is assigned to the data. Choosing the right license for the deposited code and data ensures that authors get credit for their work.

Publication and connection of all outcomes

If scientists have used all available open science tools during the research process, then publishing and linking all outcomes represents the well-deserved harvest ( Fig 2 ). At the end of a research process, researchers will not just have 1 publication in a journal. Instead, they might have a preregistration, a preprint, a publication in a journal, a dataset, and a protocol. Connecting these outcomes in a way that enables other scientists to better assess the results that link these publications will be key. There are many examples of good open science practices in laboratory animal science, but we want to highlight one of them to show how this could be achieved. Blenkuš and colleagues investigated how mild stress-induced hyperthermia can be assessed non-invasively by thermography in mice [ 103 ]. The study was preregistered with animalstudyregistry.org , which is referred to in their publication [ 104 ]. A deviation from the originally preregistered hypothesis was explained in the manuscript and the supplementary material was uploaded to figshare [ 105 ].

Application of open science practices can increase the reproducibility and visibility of a research project at the same time. By publishing different research outputs with more detailed information than can be included in a journal article, researchers enable peers to replicate their work. Reporting according to guidelines and using transparent visualization will further improve this reproducibility. The more research products that are generated, the more credit can be attributed. By communicating on social media or additionally publishing slides from delivered talks or posters, more attention can be raised. Additionally, publishing open access and making the work machine-findable makes it accessible to an even broader number of peers.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001810.g002

It might also be helpful to provide all resources from a project in a single repository such as Open Science Framework, which also implements other, different tools that might have been used, like GitHub or protocols.io.

Communicating your research

Once all outcomes of the project are shared, it is time to address the targeted peers. Social media is an important instrument to connect research communities [ 106 ]. In particular, Twitter is an effective way to communicate research findings or related events to peers [ 107 ]. In addition, specialized platforms like ResearchGate can support the exchange of practical experiences ( Table 1 ). When all resources related to a project are kept in one place, sharing this link is a straightforward way to reach out to fellow scientists.

With the increasing number of publications, science communication has become more important in recent years. Transparent science that communicates openly with the public contributes to strengthening society’s trust in research.

Conclusions

Plenty of open science tools are already available and the number of tools is constantly growing. Translational biomedical researchers should seize this opportunity, as it could contribute to a significant improvement in the transparency of research and fulfil their ethical responsibility to maximize the impact of knowledge gained from animal experiments. Over and above this, open science practices also bear important direct benefits for the scientists themselves. Indeed, the implementation of these tools can increase the visibility of research and becomes increasingly important when applying for grants or in recruitment decisions. Already, more and more journals and funders require activities such as data sharing. Several institutions have established open science practices as evaluation criteria alongside publication lists, impact factor, and h-index for panels deciding on hiring or tenure [ 108 ]. For new adopters, it is not necessary to apply all available practices at once. Implementing single tools can be a safe approach to slowly improve the outreach and reproducibility of one’s own research. The more open science products that are generated, the more reproducible the work becomes, but also the more the visibility of a study increases ( Fig 2 ).

As other research fields, such as social sciences, are already a step ahead in the implementation of open science practices, translational biomedicine can profit from their experiences [ 109 ]. We should thus keep in mind that open science comes with some risks that should be minimized early on. Indeed, the more open science practices become incentivized, the more researchers could be tempted to get a transparency quality label that might not be justified. When a study is based on a bad hypothesis or poor statistical planning, this cannot be fixed by preregistration, as prediction alone is not sufficient to validate an interpretation [ 110 ]. Furthermore, a boom of data sharing could disconnect data collectors and analysts, bearing the risk that researchers performing the analysis lack understanding of the data. The publication of datasets could also promote a “parasitic” use of a researcher’s data and lead to scooping of outcomes [ 111 ]. Stakeholders could counteract such a risk by promoting collaboration instead of competition.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, we have seen an explosion of preprint publications. This unseen acceleration of science might be the adequate response to a pandemic; however, the speeding up science in combination with the “publish or perish” culture could come at the expense of the quality of the publication. Nevertheless, a meta-analysis comparing the quality of reporting between preprints and peer-reviewed articles showed that the quality of reporting in preprints in the life sciences is at most slightly lower on average compared to peer-reviewed articles [ 112 ]. Additionally, preprints and social media have shown during this pandemic that a premature and overconfident communication of research results can be overinterpreted by journalists and raise unfounded hopes or fears in patients and relatives [ 113 ]. By being honest and open about the scope and limitations of the study and choosing communication channels carefully, researchers can avoid misinterpretation. It should be noted, however, that by releasing all methodological details and data in research fields such as viral engineering, where a dual use cannot be excluded, open science could increase biosecurity risk. Implementing access-controlled repositories, application programming interfaces, and a biosecurity risk assessment in the planning phase (i.e., by preregistration) could mitigate this threat [ 114 ].

Publishing in open access journals often involves higher publication costs, which makes it more difficult for institutes and universities from low-income countries to publish there [ 115 ]. Equity has been identified as a key aim of open science [ 116 ]. It is vital, therefore, that existing structural inequities in the scientific system are not unintentionally reinforced by open science practices. Early career researchers have been the main drivers of the open science movement in other fields even though they are often in vulnerable positions due to short contracts and hierarchical and strongly networked research environments. Supporting these early career researchers in adopting open science tools could significantly advance this change in research culture [ 117 ]. However, early career researchers can already benefit by publishing registered reports or preprints that can provide a publication much faster than conventional journal publications. Communication in social media can help them establish a network enabling new collaborations or follow-up positions.

Even though open science comes with some risks, the benefits easily overweigh these caveats. If a change towards more transparency is accompanied by the implementation of open science in the teaching curricula of the universities, most of the risks can be minimized [ 118 ]. Interestingly, we have observed that open science tools and infrastructure that are specific to animal research seem to mostly come from Europe. This may be because of strict regulations within Europe for animal experiments or because of a strong research focus in laboratory animal science along with targeted research funding in this region. Whatever the reason might be, it demonstrates the important role of research policy in accelerating the development towards 3Rs and open science.

Overall, it seems inevitable that open science will eventually prevail in translational biomedical research. Scientists should not wait for the slow-moving incentive framework to change their research habits, but should take pioneering roles in adopting open science tools and working towards more collaboration, transparency, and reproducibility.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable input and comments from Sebastian Dunst, Daniel Butzke, and Nils Körber that have improved the content of this work.

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How to Write an Expository Essay on an Animal

Last Updated: September 15, 2021

This article was co-authored by Bess Ruff, MA . Bess Ruff is a Geography PhD student at Florida State University. She received her MA in Environmental Science and Management from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2016. She has conducted survey work for marine spatial planning projects in the Caribbean and provided research support as a graduate fellow for the Sustainable Fisheries Group. This article has been viewed 76,311 times.

Expository essays describe a particular topic and provide the reader with relevant information. An expository essay about an animal can take a variety of different directions. Choose a topic that interests you, outline and write your essay, and then proofread your work before turning it in.

Outlining and Researching

• An expository essay is an essay that provides the reader information about a particular topic. To write an expository essay on an animal, you'll have to choose an animal and provide a variety of information on that animal. It would likely include things like what that animal looks like, what it eats, where it lives, and so on.
• Choose an animal that personally interests you. You'll have more fun writing your essay if you are writing about something you enjoy. Pick an animal you like. Your favorite animal could be a good topic for an expository essay on an animal.

• You can review the assignment sheet given to you or ask your teacher in person. If you speak with your teacher, be sure to take notes so you can refer back to them when researching, outlining, writing, and polishing your essay.

• Look for sources that are valid. Major newspapers like the New York Times and the San Francisco Chronicle are a good place to start. You also might want to find some history behind your topic. Go your school's library and ask a librarian to help you use the card catalogue to locate books and magazines on your topic. An encyclopedia could be a good reference for an expository essay. [1] X Research source
• The Internet is a major source of information and can be extremely helpful when researching. However, you should know how to evaluate sources before relying on the internet for information. Look for current resources so you know the information is up-to-date. Go for websites associated with universities or government organizations, with domains like .edu and .gov, over business or commercial websites.
• Select pages where the author's name is clearly visible and the page is easy to navigate. Personal blogs are not a good resource. Websites for organizations advocating strongly for a particular political cause may have a strong bias. Avoid sites like Wikipedia, as they are user generated and may not have accurate information.
• Take notes while researching. Keep a notebook with you and jot down relevant information. Write down which source you got this information from so you can refer to the source later on. If possible, print out your own copies of library texts so you can underline and write notes in the margins.

• Outlines are usually formed using a series of numbers and letter. You write down main points as headings and then expand upon these points in subheadings.
• For example, you can use Roman numerals as headings and then use letters as subheadings. Say you're writing about potbelly pigs. You can start with “I. Introduction.” Then something like “a. Introduce my topic, including a brief description of potbelly pigs” and “b. briefly state the personality traits and appearance of a potbelly pig.”
• You don't need to use full sentences in an outline. It's just a tool to help you organize your ideas. Don't worry about forming full sentences or thoughts yet. You can get to that during the writing process.

Writing the Essay

• Begin your introduction with a fun opening sentence that gets the reader's attention. You can open with a question, a quote, a joke, or anything that introduces your topic in a creative manner. For example, let's return to the potbelly pig example. Open with something like, "Did you know that not all pigs are farmyard animals? Some pigs are kept domestically as pets." This invites the reader to think about your topic.
• From there, briefly state what you'll be discussing in your paper. You can provide a brief description of a potbelly pig, including things like a brief overview of their appearance and personality traits.

• For example, one paragraph can describe the appearance of a potbelly pig. Another paragraph can then describe the eating habits of a potbelly pig, and another can talk about how to care for potbelly pigs, health problems they're prone to, and so on.
• Make sure you stick to one main topic per paragraph.

• Go to your sources for support of the information you're listing. If you're talking about how potbelly pigs are prone to bacterial infections in the ear, you'll need a source that shows that this is true.

• Certain questions can help guide a good conclusion. Did you think of any new ideas about the animal you're researching? Are there any questions or concerns that need further research? What larger significance does your topic have in the bigger world?
• However, you should not suddenly introduce new information in the conclusion. Instead, you should speculate and reflect on the information provided. Think of a good closing line that will stay in readers' minds. You want to make sure your essay has an impact. [2] X Research source

Reviewing Your Work

• A good way to structure transitions is to make them a bridge between the old paragraph and the new. For example, to connect a paragraph on keeping a potbelly pig as a pet to a previous paragraph about eating habits, you could use something like this: "Although potbelly pigs can eat a variety of things in the wild, if you're keeping a potbelly pig as a pet, you need to be more careful about providing a balanced diet." The word Although sets up a connection between the ideas.
• Focus on clarity. You want to make sure the information is presented in as straightforward means as possible. If you notice any sentences that seem unclear in your first draft, work on rewording them in revision.

Community Q&A

• Pick an animal you would like to know about. This can help you have fun researching and writing. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0

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The primary reasons for citing sources in a research paper are to give credit to the authors whose work you have drawn upon and to allow readers to track down your sources, should they wish to explore further. There are many style guides for formatting citations and creating bibliographies. Many Animal Science professors ask that you use the format from the Journal of Animal Science , but you may be called upon to use others.

• Journal of Animal Science scroll to the "Literature Cited" section

Peer reviewed journal:

Holehan, A. M., and B. J. Merry. 1985. Modification of the oestrous cycle hormonal profile by dietary restriction. Mech. Ageing Dev. 32:63–76. doi:10.1016/0047-6374(85)90036-3.

Johnston, S. L., T. Grune, L. M. Bell, S. J. Murray, D. M. Souter, S. S. Erwin, J. M. Yearsley, I. J. Gordon, A. W. Illius, I. Kyriazakis, et al.  2006. Having it all: historical energy intakes do not generate the anticipated trade-offs in fecundity. Proc. Biol. Sci. 273: 1369–1374. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3456.

Chapter in an edited book: 

Bidanel, J. P. 2011. Biology and genetics of reproduction. In: Rothschild, M.F. and A. Ruvinsky, editors, The genetics of the pig, 2nd ed. Wallingford, UK: CAB International; p. 218–241.

Conference proceeding:

McCaw, M. B., M. Turner, S. Jones, and K. Gambino. 1999. Maximization of farrowing house production. Proceedings of the North Carolina Healthy Hogs Seminar. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Swine Veterinary Group, North Carolina State University.

The Journal of Animal Science uses CAS Source Index (CASSI) journal abbreviations. Use the Search Tool to determine the correct abbreviation for the journal you are citing.

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In-text references or citations are  used to acknowledge the work or ideas of others . They are placed next to the text that you have paraphrased or quoted, enabling the reader to differentiate between your writing and other people's work. The full details of your in-text references must be included in a reference list.

Energy restriction without limiting other essential nutrients has been shown to increase lifespan (Merry and Holehan, 2002) without compromising reproductive performance (Johnston et al., 2006) in several species.

When the author's name appears in the sentence, it does not need to be repeated in the citation:

Lean growth rates, feed intake, efficiency data, and rates of pubertal development of these gilts are described by Miller et al. (2011 ) .

• Mendeley A free reference manager and academic social network that can help you organize your research, collaborate with others online, and discover the latest research. You can automatically generate bibliographies, collaborate with other researchers online, import papers from other research software, find relevant papers based on what you’re reading, and access your papers from anywhere online.
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• Ten Simple Rules for Structuring Papers Focusing on how readers consume information, we present a set of ten simple rules to help you communicate the main idea of your paper. These rules are designed to make your paper more influential and the process of writing more efficient and pleasurable. more... less... citation: Mensh B, Kording K (2017) Ten simple rules for structuring papers. PLOS Computational Biology 13(9).
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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Writing Unit of Study: Animal Research Project

This free animal research project will provide you with a writing unit of study that will help you build excitement about writing informational text in your classroom.

You can download this free animal research project to help your writers develop their research and writing skills.

This project will be a great fit for your first, second or third grade writing workshop.

This is another free resource for teachers and homeschool families from The Curriculum Corner.

Why should I introduce my students to research through animal study?

Animal research can be a great topic for writing informational text because students tend to be curious about animals.

Nothing seems to spark interest in most kids like learning about animals in our world. Turn their enthusiasm into an engaging animal research writing project.

They can take the time to learn about different habitats and diets.

You can also encourage students to expand their vocabulary by having them create a glossary to accompany their writing.

About this animal research project

Within this post you will find over 30 pages of anchor charts, mini-lesson ideas, writing planners and graphic organizers.

The unit will help guide your students through the complete process. In the end, you will be helping to teach your students how to write their own pieces of informational text.

The intended end product for students is an animal booklet that they can staple together to share with others.

Students who are ready for more advanced work, can create a larger project with less direction.

A description of the mini-lessons

Lesson 1: introduction.

• Begin the unit by having the students brainstorm a list of animals that they might see everyday.
• Then, have them brainstorm a list of animals they see when they visit the zoo or walk in the forest. You can do this on the blank anchor chart provided or on cart paper.
• Another option is to place students in groups. They could work to create a list together.  
• You might assign each group a continent and have them find animals that live there.
• Pull the class together and have each group share what animals they found that live on their continent.

Lesson 2: Noticings

• Next you might want to get your students familiar with common characteristics about informational texts that teach about animals.
• Have them work in pairs or small groups to go through some books and record their “noticings” about the writing.
• Then come together in a community circle to discuss those noticings and create a class anchor chart.

Lesson 3: Opinion vs. Facts

• Before getting truly into this unit, you might need to conduct a lesson on opinions vs. facts.
• After a brief discussion you can use the giraffe paragraph provided in our resources to give your students some practice differentiating between the two. This paragraph contains both opinions and facts.
• With your class read through the paragraph and record facts and opinions on the T-chart.
• Discuss both sides and how they are different from each other.
• A black & white copy of this giraffe paragraph has also been provided.  You can have them work in pairs or groups to distinguish between the facts and opinions.
• If you need more resources for your students surrounding fact & opinion check out our   Fact & Opinion Sort .

Lesson 4: Choosing a Topic for the Animal Research Project

• We want to help students to narrow their topic choices by giving them some guidance.
• Gather students and begin a discussion about choosing an animal research topic.
• For this lesson we have provided two pages where students can individually brainstorm the animals they are interested in.
• You might have students work in groups or independently to make their choice. Conference with students as needed to help.
• Don’t shy away from letting more than one student research about the same animal.  This can be a great way to promote group work. It might also help out with some of your literacy center choices throughout this unit.

Lesson 5: Good Places to Find Information about an Animal

• At this age we want students to begin to understand that all they read online about animals isn’t always true. Sometimes writing might sound true without being filled with facts.
• Show students two possible places to find information online about their animal. One should be a trusted site with reliable and accurate information. Another should be a site that perhaps a child has created.  (There are many that you can find if you search.)
• Pose these questions: Is everything on the internet true? Why?  How can you tell? Why is it important for your research writing to contain accurate information?

Lesson 6: Taking Notes

• Sometimes giving students resources and a blank sheet of notebook paper can be too overwhelming for them. Some students will copy word for word. Others might feel overwhelmed.  We need to guide them to read and pull out facts & relevant information to use later in their writing.
• For this lesson we have provided four templates for note-taking that you might choose to use for your students.
• You might need to provide different organizers to students depending on their needs.
• You will want to model the organizers your students are use. Show them how to take notes as they read.
• After initial teaching, you may find that you need to pull small groups for extra practice. Others might benefit from a conference as you take a look at the notes they are taking.

Lesson 7: Word Choice in Research Writing

• To help students think about making their writing more interesting, have them brainstorm words about their animal.
• Together brainstorm words that would be appropriate for animals. They might add words about what they look like, their movement, their habitats, their life cycles, their diets, etc. You can create a class anchor chart on the page provided.  You might even think about using the real life picture of the wolf in the download. This can get the students to begin thinking of more interesting words for animals (fierce, mighty, strong, etc).
• Then, pass out the individual brainstorm pages. Students can use the anchor chart as a guide to begin their own word choice pages about their animal. This might be a good partner activity as well.

Lesson 8: Writing Sketch for the Animal Research Project

• Next, you can model the writing sketch planner for your class.
• One idea to help your students narrow down all of the information they have learned about their animals is to give them a specific number of animals facts that they can focus on.
• Each of these facts can serve as the actual text that they will put on each page of their animal research book. Or the facts could serve as a focus for each paragraph in their writing.
• You might find that this would be a good mini-lesson to do with smaller groups of children.

Lesson 9: Creating a Table of Contents

• Another idea that can be a writing planner AND a page in their animal research book is the table of contents. Pull out one of the Table of Contents pages from the resources provided and model how to fill in the blanks on each page.
• This page will then serve as their Table of Contents (with a focus discussion on what that is and the purpose it serves) and also their writing planner so they know what they will put in the pages of their booklet.

Lesson 10: Creating a Glossary

• There are two pages provided in the resources that might help your students to learn to pull out topic specific words to put into a glossary for the end of their animal research book.
• Be sure to model how you would like for your students to use these organizers (keeping in mind that you may need to copy more than one page if there are more words than the page provides for).
• If your students need a refresher on ABC order check out these links for some added practice/review: ABC Order Task Cards & Fry Word ABC Order Task Cards

Lesson 11: Writing Your Animal Research

• You will decide on the best method for your students to showcase their published animal research.
• You may want your students to use their own creativity in the texts that they write and share. If you’d like a first experience to provide a bit more guidance, we have provided two different sets of pages for booklets.
• One is more guided and the other has less structure and smaller lines for more writing.  15 pages are provided so that you or students can pick what fits their needs.
• This “lesson” may actually become a series of lessons if you choose to model how each page can be used.  (We have also included a page with simple writing lines in case students need less guidance than the booklet pages provided.)

Lesson 12: Labeling Pictures

• One final lesson idea that pairs well with writing informational text is to teach your students how to label pictures.
• Since most nonfiction writing has real photographs, students can find some pictures online to print out and label for their booklet.  Hand-drawn pictures are also great if you would rather encourage some or all of your students in that direction.
• Whatever you choose, show your class how to effectively label a picture so that it teaches the reader more.  You can use the picture of the polar bear provided to model how to add words or even short facts as labels.  (For example if the simple label “fur” wouldn’t add additional information to the book, you might teach them to label it with a short fact such as “dense fur protects the animal’s skin from the weather”.
• To make this idea more user friendly, you might want them to use the page of blank white boxes provided to write their labels for their pictures.  Then all they need to do is cut them out and glue them to a printed picture.

Lesson 13: Writing Celebration

As always, find a way to celebrate your students’ writing.  

Invite guests (younger students or special adults) to read the books with your young authors. You might simply want to pair or group them, or some students might choose to present their book to everyone.  

Provide some light snacks if possible to give it a party atmosphere and pass out the author certificates to each child for his/her hard work.

You can download this free writing unit of study here:

Writing Download

As with all of our resources, The Curriculum Corner creates these for free classroom use. Our products may not be sold. You may print and copy for your personal classroom use. These are also great for home school families!

You may not modify and resell in any form. Please let us know if you have any questions.

Christine E.

Saturday 8th of May 2021

Thank you so much for this resource and the many pages that I can use in my homeschooling. It is exactly what I've been looking for to help me get my kids to write about our animal units! You are doing a great job, keep up the amazing work you do. I appreciate the hard work you put into putting these together.

Planning a Dynamic Writing Workshop - The Curriculum Corner 123

Saturday 14th of July 2018

[…] Animal Research […]

Editable Writing Management Binder - The Curriculum Corner 123

Friday 3rd of March 2017

[…] Writing Unit of Study: Animal Research […]

How to Explode Student Engagement with this Habitat Research Project

One HUGE 2nd grade standard is researching and learning about animals and their adaptations. Students LOVE this unit, but teachers can be intimidated by the overwhelming pressure involved in guiding student research at such a young age. I love doing this 2nd grade animal research project with my students every March! This project has been reworked for a digital platform as well .

I love to start by playing a Brain Pop Jr, Flocabulary or YouTube video for my kids on all of the different habitats that exist. Typically, we have previously researched habitats during our social studies unit before starting this writing project, so they already have the background knowledge.

Then, I let students pick the habitat they are most interested in studying. From there, they pick 3-4 animals that live in the habitat that they would like to research more about. We use National Geographic Kids , Epic! Books and library books [all free resources] to learn about our animals.

2. RESEARCH/PLANNING

The next day, I model my own notes for students. Then, I give students lots of time to research their animals and take notes. It is really important that you are walking around the room and guiding students during this time.

If you have a struggling group of writers, I like to work with them at the back table during this time. We all research the same animals and take notes together. This helps them build confidence and feel sure about their writing in future days.

3. DRAFTING

I break drafting days up into 2 days so that students can really focus on the craft of what they are writing. I also always model before releasing students to write on their own.

Depending on what we have covered so far in the year, I encourage students to be sure to add:

• embedded definitions
• transition words
• conjunctions
• adjectives, adverbs and prepositions where appropriate
• 3-4 details per fact

4. PUBLISHING/GRADING

On the last day for each animal (typically Friday), I give students time to publish. While they publish, I model then ask them to add a map and diagram to their writing. I also show them how to grade themselves on the rubric, so they can double check that they are not missing anything.

After they finish, I give them free time to explore other animals in their habitat while I grade their writing. I find grading at the end of each animal rather than at the end of the entire project saves me a TON of time.

We repeat steps 2-4 for either 3 or 4 animals. Some students may work faster, while some may take a bit more time on each step. I try to adjust the project to be appropriate for the majority of the class.

When the project is done, I try to find a special way for us to share our work. This can include sharing to younger buddies, parents or doing an author’s chair.

Since they work so hard on this project, we make a BIG DEAL out of the finished project, and I typically send it home with parents during conferences. It makes a great writing portfolio and talking piece with parents.

Teaching digitally or wanting to add a digital component to your writing block? This project can also be completed in a digital format . Students will go through the same process, completing all of their work on Google Slides rather than writing using paper and pencil.

Grab the resources pictured above here:

Do you teach about a 2nd grade animal research project each year? Drop your ideas in the comments below!

Some other posts you might find helpful are:

• Teaching Animal Habitats During Science Ideas
• Animal Adaptations Writing Project
• Life Science Unit: Animal Adaptation

Emily - The Mountain Teacher

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• Research paper

Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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Guide to writing non-technical summaries

Posted: by Bella Williams on 23/07/18

More on these Topics:

UAR helps people to understand why animals are used in scientific research, and the best way to do that is through openness and transparency.

In 2018 we have worked with partners to develop tips that will help researchers write better and more engaging non-technical summaries of their ASPA licensed projects. These summaries are the only section of the project license that are written for the public, and have the potential to show the scope of work being carried out in the UK, as well as steps taken to minimise harms to the animals and to use alternatives.

We hope that in time the non-technical summaries will be seen as more than a statutory requirement; they will provide a way of engaging interested people with the research projects taking place in an institution.

The following guide provides tips for writing a more user-friendly NTS.

To download the guide as a PDF, please click here .

Last edited: 28 October 2022 14:48

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244 Awesome Animal Topics for Research Papers

So, did your professor just asked you to write an exceptional animals research paper? You may think that it is an easy assignment, but it may not be. Don’t wait until the last possible moment to write this essay because you may not be able to do a good job on it. Even though you know how to write the paper, there is another problem you need to take into consideration: finding a great topic.

Truth be told, finding excellent animal topics for research papers is a lot more difficult than you think. Yes, you can find many such topics on the Internet, but you won’t be able to find an original one. Unfortunately, your classmates are using the same websites to look for ideas. This means that you could pick a topic that one or more of your classmates have already selected. Your teacher will definitely not appreciate it, and this will reflect on your final grade.

Looking for Awesome Animal Topics for Research Papers?

All students looking for research paper on animals should visit this page periodically. Our topics are the best and they are all 100% original. Also, many of them are relatively easy to use. Keep in mind that a good topic is one that has plenty of information about it on the Internet. Why spend days doing the research when you can start writing the paper right away?

But why would you choose our animal research topics? There are surely other good topics on the Internet. Well, there really aren’t that many good ideas on other websites. Here are just some of the reasons to take a look at our ideas and pick the best topics for your next research paper:

All our ideas are original at the time this article was written. These topics have been created by our experienced ENL writers. We are working hard to add new topics periodically. Also, we are removing topics that are not of interest anymore. You can use any of our topics without having to pay anything. Yes, this list of topics really is 100 percent free. You do not have to give credit to our website when you use a topic you find on this page. You are free to reword our topics as you see fit. You can always get in touch with our experienced writers and editors if you need more topics. We can compile a brand new list just for you in no time.

Choose One of Our 244 Research Topics About Animals

You can find everything from animal rights to veterinary doctor topics in our latest list of 244 animal topics for a research paper. Enjoy:

Easy Animal Topics to Write About

If you are looking for some easy animal topics to write about, we have the best ideas. Check out the ideas below and pick the best one for your next research paper:

• Discuss a well-known Asiatic horse breed
• Dog vs. cat as a pet
• How to train a pony quickly
• Polar bears at the South Pole?
• Saving the last remaining orangutans
• The weirdest 3 animals on Earth
• Poaching and its negative effects
• Best ways to train a dog
• Negative effects of veal on humans
• Best ways to train a cat
• Discuss the classification of migratory birds
• Why are penguins flightless birds?
• Africa and its wildlife: an in-depth analysis
• Can you have a pet spider?
• Can Grizzly bears sense fear?
• Methods to prevent poaching in wildlife preserves
• Negative effects of pork meat on humans
• The disastrous effects of palm oil

Interesting Animal Research Topics

If you are looking for some of the most interesting animal research topics on the Internet, you have arrived at the right place. Here are some ideas for you:

• Are mosquitos useless insects?
• Lion prides in African wildlife preserves
• Talk about the anatomy of the hyena
• An in-depth look at the Tardigrade
• Discuss the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
• Best wildlife parks in the United States
• Animal adaptations to survive the desert
• Endangered animal species in the UK
• Analyze a butterfly’s life cycle
• Are dolphins really as intelligent as they are portrayed?
• Is medical testing on animals justified?
• Pros and cons of zoos
• Giant Panda and related conservation efforts
• Benefits of poisonous animals
• Should you spay or neuter your pet?
• How do monkeys climb trees so quickly?
• Largest whales in the world
• Animal adaptations to survive the cold
• What is a porpoise?
• Ethical problems with animal testing

Research Questions About Animals

Take a look at our research questions about animals and pick the one you like. All of these questions should work great for 2023:

• Should we test antibiotics on animals?
• Why did the dinosaurs go extinct?
• How do you care for an exotic pet?
• Which is a better pet, a cat or a dog?
• Which is the largest predator in the United States?
• Are zoos inhumane prisons for animals?
• Are dolphins friendly?
• Do we have the right to kill animals?
• Should we ban hunting for sport?
• Should we give animals more rights?
• Should we stop euthanizing stray animals?
• How can we protect endangered species?
• Which is the largest land mammal in Europe?
• Should you buy a dog or adopt one?
• Do you really need a pet?
• Should exotic pets be banned in the UK?
• Can we improve the life of zoo animals?
• Should punishments for animal cruelty be more severe?
• Can a fox be a good pet?
• Is medical testing on animals justifiable?

Animal Rights Topics for Research Paper

Are you looking for awesome animal rights topics for research paper? No problem, we have a list of the most interesting topics right here:

• Talk about animal rights in the US
• Giving more rights to animals in the US
• Discuss animal rights in China
• Do feral dogs have any rights?
• Analyze animal rights in Europe
• Do invasive species have rights too?
• Discuss animal rights in the United Kingdom
• Fishing practices and animal rights
• Analyze animal rights in North Korea
• Discuss animal rights in zoos
• Destroying predator animals without breaking the law
• Discuss animal rights in India
• Do feral cats have rights too?
• Analyze the ethics behind pet euthanasia
• Factory farming and animal rights
• Discuss cow rights in India
• Animal rights violations in the whaling industry
• Cosmetics testing on animals
• Analyze the decline of ivory trade worldwide
• Cockfighting in the United States

Simple Animal Rescue Topics

We know you probably don’t want to spend too much time working on your research paper. Check out the following list of simple animal rescue topics and choose one:

• Why should we rescue animals in need?
• Effects of Australian bushfires
• Poor social skills of rescue animals
• What does animal rescue do?
• Negative effects of wildfires on animals in the US
• Should zoos be forced to rescue animals?
• Euthanizing rescued animals
• Exotic animals in the United States
• Resource guarding problems with rescue dogs
• Lack of veterinary care for rescued animals
• Inadequate screening procedures for adoption
• Anxiety problems in rescue dogs
• Destructive behavior in rescue cats
• The dangers of animal rescue operations
• Where do rescued animals end up?
• Are all rescued animals traumatized?

Veterinary Topics for Research Paper

Interested in writing about veterinary topics? Our experienced writers and editors have compiled a list of great veterinary topics for research paper:

• What does being a veterinarian mean?
• Challenges of the veterinary profession
• What is Brucellosis?
• Most common cat diseases in the United Kingdom
• Discuss biomedical research conducted on animals
• Talk about poor veterinary care in rural areas of Europe
• Discuss natural animal feeds
• Breakthroughs in veterinary technology
• Best way to fight a Tapeworm infection
• Diseases humans can get from pets
• Most popular exotic animals as pets in 2023
• Using punishments effectively for training purposes
• Why it’s good to microchip your pets
• Causes of mycotoxicoses
• Ways to treat a Hookworm infection
• Is there an effective cure for Rabies?
• Most common dog diseases in the US
• Can Campylobacteriosis infections cause death?

Animal Abuse Topics

If you want to write about animal abuse and other related subjects, we have a list of animal abuse topics that should get you a top grade on your next research paper:

• Talk about animal abuse issues in the United States
• Animal abuse issues in the United Kingdom
• Animal cruelty versus animal abuse
• Discuss animal abuse issues in China
• Effects of animal hoarding behaviors
• Staging animal fights is abuse
• Animal abuse issues in Eastern Europe
• Cruelty to animals leading to violence against people
• Animal abuse issues in India
• Is animal testing animal abuse?
• Can neglect be considered animal abuse?
• Animal abuse: rural versus urban cases
• Shooting is an animal abuse
• Animal abuse laws in the US
• Animal abuse laws in the UK

Animal Topics for High School

Looking for some of the best animal topics for high school? Take a look at the list below and pick the most interesting idea:

• Why is veterinary care so expensive?
• Differences between dromedaries and camels
• Should pets be allowed in school?
• Compare and contrast lions and cheetahs
• Wild animals as pets in the UK
• The worst pet on Earth
• Adopting an animal from the local animal shelter
• Can elephants swim?
• An in-depth look at the camel
• Compare and contrast cats and dogs
• Discuss irresponsible dog breeding in your city
• Analyze the habitat loss of orangutans
• How do killer whales hunt?
• Animal rights issues in Asia
• Discuss disastrous fishing practices
• Animal welfare issues in adoption centers

Animal Testing Research Topics

Talking about animal testing research topics shouldn’t worry you, as long as you remain objective and impartial. Here are some relatively simple topics on this:

• Is it ethical to test cosmetics on animals?
• Animals used for chemical warfare testing
• Lab mice and their awful fate
• Testing vaccines on animals
• Finding a cure for Covid-19 using animals
• Stem cell research using animals
• Worst medical tests done on animals
• Banning animal experimentation in the UK

Animal Cruelty Topics

Looking for the best and most interesting animal cruelty topics you can find? We have a list of ideas right here for high school and college students:

• Animal cruelty punishments in the US
• What constitutes animal cruelty?
• Puppy mills in the United States
• Animal cruelty punishments in the UK
• Exotic animals as pets: a form of cruelty
• Dog fighting
• Pet overpopulation in large cities
• Factory farming
• Animal abuse vs. animal cruelty

Persuasive Topics About Animals

Writing about animals in a persuasive manner shouldn’t be too difficult. If you have access to some good persuasive topics about animals to write about, things will get even easier:

• Stop deforestation before it is too late
• Avoid eating animal foods
• The effects of global warming on wildlife
• Stop using animals in circuses
• Avoid eating pork
• Get your pet a microchip
• Is pet insurance worth the money?
• Foxes are not meant to be pets
• Adopt your pet instead (as opposed to buying it)
• Negative consequences of pollution on animals
• Banning factory farming practices

Endangered Animals Topics

Do you want to raise awareness about endangered species of animals? No problem, we have some of the greatest endangered animals topics right here:

• Can we save the whooping crane?
• Saving the bonobo monkey
• Can we save the peregrine falcon?
• The endangered Galapagos penguin
• Can we save the black-footed ferret?
• Save the South Asian river dolphin
• Can we save the whale shark?
• The dwindling population of Loggerhead sea turtles
• Can we save the Monarch butterfly?

Advanced Topics About Animals

If you want to impress your professor, why not write your research papers on some advanced topics about animals? Here are a couple of interesting ideas for students:

• The life cycle of an alligator
• Most dangerous exotic pets
• Deep sea fish adaptations
• Discuss bioluminescence

Informative Animal Topics for an Essay

Writing an informative essay is definitely not a complicated thing to do. However, the grade you get on your paper depends on the quality of the informative animal topics for an essay:

• Describe the rabbit
• Discuss the red panda
• Describe the horse
• What is a Saola?
• Talk about the Thylacine
• An in-depth look at the Asian elephant
• Talk about the Dodo bird
• Wolfs on the edge of extinction
• What is a Kakapo bird?
• Are polar bears in danger?
• The life of the green sea turtle

Complex Veterinarian Research Paper Topics

If you want to try your hand at some complicated research papers, we have some quite complex veterinarian research paper topics right here:

• How do dog vaccines work?
• Why are lab mice perfect for experiments?
• Animals in extreme cold conditions
• Animals at extreme depths: adaptations

Most Engaging Animal Topics

We know, you want to engage your audience and impress everyone in the class. Here are some of our most engaging animal topics. Pick one and start writing now:

• Buying your child a pet
• Animal fight games in the UK
• Should you vaccinate your cat?
• Zoo animals psychological issues

Topics About Your Favorite Animal

Everyone has a favorite animal, including your teacher. So, why not write something about it? Here are some topics about your favorite animal that should work great:

• What is your favorite animal and why?
• The funniest animals in existence
• Why do dogs make such good pets?
• Should you own an exotic pet?
• What do you appreciate about your favorite animal?
• The best animal in the world
• The traits of your favorite animal
• Can an animal be loyal?

Animal Topics for College

College students should not pick easy topics because professors tend to penalize them. Check out these animal topics for college students and select one of them:

• The best pet for a college student
• How do Tardigrades survive in space?
• Using snake venom to make anticancer drugs

Controversial Animals Topics

Why would you be afraid to write about controversial topics? Check out our list controversial animals topics and pick the best one for your needs right now:

• Chemical testing on animals
• Weapon testing on animals
• Testing cosmetic products on animals
• Testing new drugs on animals
• Animals used in scientific experiments
• Saving laboratory mice from their fate
• Poaching in Africa
• Stopping the trade of ivory
• Hunting animals for their fur

Topics on the Conservation of Animal Species

There are so many endangered species of animals in the world that it’s difficult to pick one to write about. Here are some of our most interesting topics on the conservation of animal species:

• An in-depth look at the conservation of wild orangutans
• Analyze conservation efforts of the lion population
• Saving the blue whales from extinction
• An in-depth look at the conservation of wild cheetahs
• An in-depth look at the conservation of wild tigers
• Is the California condor an endangered species?
• Saving the snow leopards from extinction
• Analyze conservation efforts of the giant panda population
• An in-depth look at the conservation of wild Javan rhinoceros

Argumentative Essay Topics About Animals

Finding some exceptional argumentative essay topics about animals can be difficult, especially if you want your paper to stand out from the rest. Here are some great ideas for you:

• Cats make the best pets
• Animals should not be held in captivity
• Exotic pet ownership must be banned
• Palm oil should be banned
• Zoos should be more tightly regulated
• Never feed wildlife no matter what
• We need more elephant sanctuaries
• Stopping Maasai from hunting lions
• Dogs make the best service animals
• Hyenas are becoming an endangered species
• The importance of flies

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Best Animal Research Topics for Your Research Papers

Animals, of course is what almost everyone can relate with. However, you may never know you don’t know much about animals until your professor ask you to write a research paper on animals. Then you will begin to realize you have limited or no idea about some animals you have seen regularly.

Animal research paper may not be as easy as you think. Getting the right topic idea before the proper writing is as difficult as writing itself. Since you are writing about a general subject such as animals, the most impressive thing is to write about a seemingly unpopular idea about animals. This will make your research paper more valuable and commendable.

Your next question will then be, how do I get the right animal research topics? No doubt, it seems difficult to get the right topic to write about animals. However, we have helped to compile the best topics to consider in your next research paper. In this piece, you will find several topics for different types of essays and research papers.

Easy Animals Research Topics

There is no doubt about it, there are topics that can be considered as easy for research writing. Such topics are easy to research and develop. Students who do not enjoy tedious research will rather go for this kind of topic. The following are easy animal research paper topics you can consider;

• What is an Asiatic horse breed and what are its characteristics?
• Dog vs cat: What are the similarities and differences between these two pets?
• Simple ways to train a pony quickly.
• Can Polar bears be seen at the South Pole?
• Identifying the top 3 weirdest animals on Earth and their characteristics.
• What is poaching and what are the negative effects?
• What are penguins and why are they known as flightless birds?
• An in-depth analysis of Africa and its vast wildlife.
• What are migratory birds: Identifying the classification and characteristics.
• Poaching and its negative effects on wildlife and methods to discourage it.

Best Animal Research Topics and Questions

Every research paper must be able to give answers to a research question. In the case of animals, some questions beg for answers that can be considered for research writing. These kinds of questions present your research writing as a valid and relatable one. You can consider the following animal research questions in your next paper writing;

• Testing of antibiotics on animals: is it appropriate or the wrong approach?
• The extinction of dinosaurs: what are the factors responsible for their extinction?
• What is an exotic pet and how do you care for it?
• What is a better pet between a dog and a cat?
• What animal should be considered the largest predator and what are its characteristics?
• Keeping animals in zoos: will you consider this inhumane treatment?
• Do humans have the right to kill animals and what are animal rights?
• Hunting for sport: Is this activity improper and should it be banned?
• What are endangered species and how can they be protected?
• Exotic pets in the United Kingdom: What are the excesses and why should they be banned?

Simple Animal Topics for Research Papers on Animal Rescue

Animal rescue is an important discussion on animals in recent times. There are mixed submissions about this subject and these discussions have given birth to a lot of controversies. Addressing any of such topics in your research paper writing proves your knowledge about animals. Here are topics on animal rescue you can consider for your research writing;

• Rescuing animals in need or danger: what we should all know.
• A simple review of the Australian bushfire and its effects on wildlife.
• Poor social skills in rescuing animals and how to develop effectiveness.
• A simple review of wildfire in the United State and the consequent effect on wildlife.
• Rescuing dogs in the military: what are the resources guarding problems and how to address them?
• Analyzing the lack of proper veterinary care for rescued animals.
• What is an anxiety problem in animals using rescuing dogs as a case study?
• Evaluating rescue cats and their destructive problem.
• Analyzing the end of life of rescue animals: What eventually happened to these animals?
• Inadequate screening for the adoption of rescue animals and its effects on the entire process.

Animal Research Project Ideas College

College students who study animal science-related courses are likely to write often about animals. As such, there should be a dedicated topic section for college students. Writing about animals as a college student is no less than writing as a university student. However, college students should consider writing on the following topics about animals;

• Should a college student consider having a pet and what pet is the best consideration?
• Tardigrades: Do tardigrades live in space and how do they survive?
• Evaluating the process of using snake venom in the production of anticancer drugs.
• What are the factors to consider before buying your kids a pet?
• Analyzing the animal fight in the United Kingdom and the effect on animal rights.
• What are psychological issues present in zoo animals?
• Cats’ vaccination: What are the effects and why is it important?
• Evaluating animals in extreme weather conditions: What are their features and adaptation methods?
• Lab mice: why are these animals considered a perfect fit for experiments?
• What are dog vaccines and what is their importance?

Best Dog Research Topics

Dogs by far seem to be the most popular animals and pets on Earth. There are a lot of interesting things to explore about this unique animal. You may then want to write some research papers on dogs and their uniqueness. Here are research topics about dogs to consider;

• Research paper on the evolution of dogs from Gray Wolf.
• Dog as a human best pet ever: What are the factors responsible for dog wide acceptance as the best pet?
• All you need to know about classical conditioning and how to teach new tricks to your dog.
• What is ropeless dog lead and how feasible is this dog leading model?
• How to address the moral dilemma of incessant barking in dogs.
• Identifying the aggressive and unaggressive breeds of dogs and factors responsible for such behaviors.
• How does tail wagging signify the emotion and expression of happiness in dogs?
• What is animal-assisted therapy and how does your dog qualify for one?
• What is operant conditioning in dogs and what are the consequences?
• Why is a protection dog important and what breeds are the most suitable?

Animal Rights Topics for Research Paper

Animal rights have been one of the most trending topics about animals in recent times. While it is difficult to believe that animals have rights, a lot of people need to understand that they really do. Writing a research paper on animal rights can be an attempt to establish the truth about animals and their rights. The following are animal rights research topics to consider in your next research writing;

• Animal rights movement in the United State: an overview of the goals of the movement.
• Do animals require more rights and what should they be?
• An overview of animal rights in China and how effective it is.
• Discussing animal rights in the United Kingdom and evaluating the implementation so far.
• Does keeping animals in zoos violate animal rights and what are the best zoological practices?
• What are the violations of animal rights in fishing practices?
• What is the implication of animal rights on invasive species?
• Analyzing animal rights in Europe and what are the clauses that make up the right?
• Evaluating cow rights in India and Africa: what are the best practices to maintain animal rights?
• Can predator animals be killed without breaking animal rights rules?

Persuasive Essay Topics About Animals

Discussions on animals will either take the form of support or oppose the motion. While everyone may not have the same idea, persuasive essays help establish your idea in the best way to convince others. There are a lot of topics about animals that are best discussed in a persuasive essay. The following are persuasive animal topics to write about;

• Stopping deforestation and how it can help in preserving wildlife.
• A persuasive essay on stopping the eating of animal food to preserve animal life.
• What are the effects of global warming on wildlife and what we can do to ease the effect?
• What is using animals in circuses and why you should stop the act.
• What is pet insurance, does it worth it and why should you consider it?
• What are the negative effects of pollution on animals and what we should do to help the situation?
• Why should pet owners adopt their pets rather than buy them?
• Why you should not consider foxes as pets.
• Why you should stop eating pork and what are the health benefits attached to this action?
• Why you should get your pet a microchip for easy control and communication?

Argumentative Topics About Animals

An argumentative essay is the type of essay that seeks to argue out a point to convince others. The topic for such an essay must be one that allows for heated discussion on the subject of animals. There are quite a lot of animal topics that have generated debates over time. You can write an argumentative essay on the following research topics about animals;

• Do cats make the best pets as opposed to dogs?
• Why is it inappropriate to hold animals in captivity and what should be the right practices?
• Should exotic pet ownership be banned and why should this happen?
• Should a man feed wildlife and why?
• Debate on whether zoos should be more regulated and why?
• Debates on whether the Massai should be stopped from hunting lions and why?
• Are Hyenas becoming endangered species and arguing the causes.
• Why do we need more elephant sanctuaries and what is their importance?
• Debates on why dogs should be considered the best service animals and why?
• Arguing on the importance of flies to mankind as opposed to their disadvantages.

Veterinarian Research Paper Topics

Veterinarians are known to be the closest to animals. They are considered to have more understanding of animals than any other kind of person. As such, veterinarian subjects about animals must be more complex and detailed. Here are topics about animals for veterinarian research paper writing;

• Veterinarian: Explain the concept of veterinary and what are its unique functions?
• What are the dangers and the challenges of being a veterinary?
• How does a veterinarian explain Brucellosis?
• What are the most common health challenges of cats in the United Kingdom?
• Discussion on the recent biomedical research on animals.
• Poor veterinary care in rural Europe and the effects on animals.
• Identifying the technological breakthroughs in veterinary medicine and how they have enhanced animal care.
• Tapeworm infection in animals: what is the best approach to address it in dogs and cats?
• What is the veterinarian’s conclusion on using punishment for pet training purposes?
• What is mycotoxicosis and why are the implications on the health of animals?

Interesting Animal Research Topics

Animals research papers can be an interesting topic to discuss. Animals of course can be interesting to study in certain aspects. You must consider intriguing topics about animals to create an interesting animal research paper. The following are good topics for interesting animal research topics;

• Should mosquitoes be considered useless insects and what are the reasons?
• Analyzing the Lion pride of African wildlife.
• Exploring the anatomy of the hyena and what are its most striking features?
• What are Tardigrades: Exploring the features of this special animal.
• What is the IUCN red list of threatened species and what are the implications?
• Animal adaptation and survival in the desert: what features are responsible for the adaptation process?
• A cross-analysis of the butterfly life cycle and what are the interesting things to note?
• Dolphin: What factors make them intelligent animals as they are portrayed?
• Medical testing on animals: Is it a justifiable act or an inappropriate action?
• What are the unique features of monkeys that make tree climbing so easy for them?

Animal Topics About Your Favorite Pet

Writing about your favorite pet might be one of the easiest animal essay writings. Since you are close to your favorite pet, you should have more to say about the pet. As such, your writing must be written from a standpoint of a firsthand experience. The following are animal research paper topics good for your research writing on your favorite pet;

• What animal would you consider your favorite animal and why have you made the decision?
• Which animal can be considered the funniest animal and what are its characteristics?
• What features of the dog contribute to it being the most favorite pet of man?
• Should you consider owning an exotic pet? Why and why not?
• What can be considered the trait of your favorite animal?
• Can animals ever be loyal? Using a case study of your favorite animal.
• What is the best animal in the world and why will you consider it so?
• An essay on the death of your favorite pet and what led to the death.
• What animal would be your favorite pet if you could tame wildlife?
• Comparing dogs and cats: Which animal is best for pets and what are the reasons?  

Animal Research Topics for High School Students

High School students study a subject called animal science. This subject exposes them to some theories about animals and their characteristics. As such, high school students may write an essay or mini research on any animal of their choice. Here are some animal research topics high school students can consider;

• Expensive veterinary care: what factors are responsible for the high cost of service?
• Identifying the similarities and the difference between camels and dromedaries.
• Should high school students be allowed to come with their pets?
• Analyzing the conversion of wild animals to pets in the United States.
• What is a local animal shelter and how can you adopt animals from there?
• Can an elephant ever swim or it is just an assumption?
• First-hand comparison of a cat and dog from a student who has both as pets.
• Identifying irresponsible breeding of dogs and what are the consequences?
• Killer whale and how it hunts its prey.
• What is an Orangutan and analyzing its habitat loss?

Animal Abuse Research Topics

Animal rights advocates have over time insisted that animals are being abused. In fact, keeping animals in zoos is considered to be one such act of animal cruelty. Being a controversial topic, you can choose to write a research paper on it. Here are topics on animal abuse you can write about in your research paper;

• Prevailing animal abuse acts in the United States.
• What is the difference between animal abuse and animal cruelty?
• Animal abuses in China and what are the moves to curtail the act.
• What is animal hoarding behavior and what are the effects on animal health?
• The relationship between cruelty towards animals and their aggressive response.
• Can we consider animal testing as animal abuse?
• Analyzing animal neglect as a form of animal abuse.
• India and the rising case of animal abuse: Cow and bull as a case study.
• Animal fights and sports as a form of animal abuse and cruelty.
• An overview of the animal abuse law in the United States.

Endangered Animal Research Topics

Certain animals are considered to be endangered species. This is because due to manhunts and poaching they are becoming extremely rare. There are many of these animals and you can choose to write a research paper on any of them. Here are the best research questions about animals called endangered species;

• What is the whooping crane and can it be saved?
• The Bonobo monkey and how it can be saved from extinction.
• Peregrine falcon: Where was it found, what treatment is it subjected to, and how can it be preserved?
• What is the Galapagos penguin and what factors make it an endangered species?
• The black-footed ferret and its high chances of getting extinct.
• Whale shark: what are its vulnerabilities and the moves to save it from extinction?
• What is the monarch butterfly, where is it found, and how can it be preserved?
• What are the factors responsible for the dwindling population of the loggerhead sea turtle?
• The shout Asian dolphin, its vulnerability, and how it can be saved.
• Evaluating the extinction of the dinosaur and factors that may be responsible for this.

How Can I Get My Animal Research Paper?

Writing your animal research topics become an easy task when you have the right topic to research. You only do the task of carrying out research and developing your point. However, when you are a student with a lot of social activities alongside your academics, these simple tasks may seem cumbersome also.

We have got you covered as we have a service that allows you to order your research paper. Our league of writers features experts in animal science and related courses who can write you a perfect research paper. You can achieve this by contacting our support agent to inquire about the ordering process. You can rest assured of a high-quality paper with no grammatical errors or plagiarism when you use this service.

Research papers on animal topics are inevitable for students who study animal science, zoology, biology, and some other related courses. All levels of education including universities, colleges, and high school students can write on this subject matter. There are various subject matters in animal science to discuss and evaluate.

There is a lot of discourse such as animal abuse, animal rights, and animal cruelty that can be the central idea of a research paper. While some of these ideas might be difficult to analyze, having the right topics can make it a seamless task as it will give you headway. However, if you still find it difficult to write your research paper, you can order an animal research paper expert on our platform.

Hire a dissertation writer and explore a wide range of captivating animal research topics with the expertise of our professional writers. Our skilled team is ready to assist you in selecting compelling topics and crafting high-quality research papers that meet the highest academic standards.

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162 Best Animal Research Topics To Nail Your Paper In 2023

The world is filled with living things. There are some animals that we know about, some that we will discover, and there are many that we might never know about. All our knowledge about animals is mostly dependant on researchers. Well, we are rooting for you to be the next great researcher. Be it zoology, veterinary, or live wild stock, your study needs a research topic. If you’re looking for the best animal research topics to nail this year, we’re here with your help.

Table of Contents

Best Animal Research Topics

We have 162 Animal Research Topics that will help you get the best grades this year.

Physiology of Animals Research Topics

• Description of the knowledge required to work in animal physiology
• Study of animal species with different specialties in the sciences of nature and life
• Life sciences and socioeconomic impacts
• Neurulation appendages birds
• Exercises on gastrulation and neurulation
• Gastrulation amphibians birds
• Fertilization segmentation in the sea species
• Gametogenesis: A Detailed Introduction
• Study of Delimitation: bird appendages
• Particularities of the developmental biology of certain species
• Technical-commercial animal physiology
• Terrestrial and marine ecosystems
• Animal biology and forensic science: Is there a connection?
• Animal Biology Biotechnology and molecules of interest regarding food and industry
• The interest in biology in the diagnosis of animal and plant diseases
• Toxicology and environmental health concerns in animal physiology
• Animal and plant production
• Fundamentals of animal physiology research and analysis
• Behavior and evolution Genetics of behavior in animals
• Adaptation and evolution of behavior
• Comparative studies of general ecology, zoology, and animal physiology
• Study of animals about the conditions prevailing in their immediate environment
• Endocrine and neuroendocrine systems in animals
• Studying the nervous systems in birds
• Genitals and reproductive physiology of birds
• Understanding of the anatomical and functional particularities of invertebrates
• Biology and physiology of invertebrates
• Reconstruction of phylogenetic trees
• Morpho-anatomical arguments and the importance of fossils
• Argued classification of animals
• Study of the evolution of living organisms by making updates on recent advances in Animalia
• Phylogeny and animal evolution
• Principles of echolocation in the bats
• Possible evolution of the increase in complexity of the primitive nervous system
• The nervous system of the insect
• Circulation in animal physiology
• Animals without a differentiated circulatory system
• Water and mineral balance in animals
• Thermoregulation in animals
• Musculoskeletal system in animals
• Study of animal blood
• Biological rhythms of animals
• Skin and teguments of mammals
• Animal nutrition and metabolism
• Hormones and endocrine system of animals
• Emerging organic pollutants
• Mechanisms of toxicity in animals
• Animal physiology in animals from temperate regions
• Genetic correlations between animal species
• Animal communities, forest ecology, and forest birds
• Wildlife-habitat modeling

Looking for research topics in general? Read 402  General Research Paper Topics

Animal Research Topics For Student

• Impact of the agricultural raw materials crisis on the marketing of livestock feed
• Analysis of the competitiveness of poultry produced in the USA
• Animal cruelty in USA and European countries
• Seroprevalence of neosporosis in cattle herds
• The peri-urban dairy sector
• Effect of the liberalization of the veterinary profession on the vaccination coverage of livestock
• Why do people kill animals? The psyche behind animal cruelty
• Evaluation of the growth performance of three sheep breeds
• Study on the protection of terrestrial ecosystems
• Ecology of African dung beetles
• Effects of road infrastructure on wildlife in developing countries
• Analysis of the consequences of climate change related to pastoral livestock
• Strategies for management in the animal feed sector
• The feeding behavior of mosquitoes
• Bee learning and memory
• Immediate response to the animal cruelty
• Study of mass migration of land birds over the ocean
• A study of crocodile evolution
• The cockroach escape system
• The resistance of cockroaches against radiation: Myth or fact?
• Temperature regulation in the honey bee swarm
• Irresponsible dog breeding can often lead to an excess of stray dogs and animal cruelty
• Reliable communication signals in birds

Also see:  How to Write an 8 Page Research Paper ?

Animal Research Topics For University

• Color patterns of moths and moths
• Mimicry in the sexual signals of fireflies
• Ecophysiology of the garter snake
• Memory, dreams regarding cat neurology
• Spatiotemporal variation in the composition of animal communities
• Detection of prey in the sand scorpion
• Internal rhythms in bird migration
• Genealogy: Giant Panda
• Animal dissection: Severe type of animal cruelty and a huge blow to animal rights
• Cuckoo coevolution and patterns
• Use of plant extracts from Amazonian plants for the design of integrated pest management
• Research on flying field bug
• The usefulness of mosquitoes in biological control serves to isolate viruses
• Habitat use by the Mediterranean Ant
• Genetic structure of the  African golden wolf  based on its habitat
• Birds body odor on their interaction with mosquitoes and parasites
• The role of ecology in the evolution of coloration in owls
• The invasion of the red swamp crayfish
• Molecular taxonomy and biogeography of caprellids
• Bats of Mexico and United States
• What can animal rights NGOs do in case of animal cruelty during animal testing initiatives?

Or you can try 297 High School Research Paper Topics to Top The Class

Controversial Animal Research Topics

• Is it okay to adopt an animal for experimentation?
• The authorization procedures on animals for scientific experiments
• The objective of total elimination of animal testing
• Are there concrete examples of successful scientific advances resulting from animal experimentation?
• Animal rights for exotic animals: Protection of forests and wildlife
• How can animal rights help the endangered animals
• Animal experimentations are a type of animal cruelty: A detailed analysis
• Animal testing: encouraging the use of alternative methods
• Use of animals for the evaluation of chemical substances
• Holding seminars on the protection of animals
• Measures to take against animal cruelty
• Scientific research on marine life
• Scientific experiments on animals for medical research
• Experimentation on great apes
• Toxicological tests and other safety studies on chemical substances
• Why isn’t research done directly on humans rather than animals?
• Are animals necessary to approve new drugs and new medical technologies?
• Are the results of animal experiments transferable to humans?
• Humans are not animals, which is why animal research is not effective
• What medical advances have been made possible by animal testing?
• Animals never leave laboratories alive
• Scientific interest does not motivate the use of animal research
• Animal research is torture 
• How can a layperson work against the animal testing?

Every crime is a controversy too, right? Here are some juicy  Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics  as well.

Animal Research Topics: Animal Rights

• Growing awareness of the animal suffering generated by these experiments
• What are the alternatives to animal testing?
• Who takes care of animal welfare?
• Major global organizations working for animal rights
• Animal rights in developing countries
• International animal rights standards to work against animal cruelty
• Animal cruelty in developing countries
• What can a layperson do when seeing animal cruelty
• Role of society in the prevention of animal cruelty
• Animal welfare and animal rights: measures taken against animal cruelty in developing countries
• Animal cruelty in the name of science
• How can we raise a better, empathetic and warm-hearted children to put a stop to animal cruelty
• Ethical animal testing methods with safety
• Are efforts being made to reduce the number of animals used?
• The welfare of donkeys and their socioeconomic roles in the subcontinent
• Animal cruelty and superstitious conceptions of dogs, cats, and donkeys in subcontinent
• Efforts made by international organizations against the tragedy of animal cruelty
• International organizations working for animal welfare
• Animal abuse: What are the immediate measures to take when we see animal cruelty
• Efforts to stop animal abuse in South Asian Countries
• Animal abuse in the name of biomedical research

Talking about social causes, let’s have a look at social work topics too: 206  Social Work Research Topics

Interesting Animal Research Topics

• The urbanization process and its effect on the dispersal of birds:
• Patterns of diversification in Neotropical amphibians
• Interactions between non-native parrot species
• Impact of landscape anthropization dynamics and wild birds’ health
• Habitat-driven diversification in small mammals
• Seasonal fluctuations and life cycles of amphipods
• Animal cruelty in African countries
• Evolution of the environmental niche of amphibians
• Biological studies on Louisiana crawfish
• Biological studies on Pink bollworm
• Biological studies on snails
• Biological studies on Bush Crickets
• Biological studies on Mountain Gorillas
• Biological studies on piranha
• Consequences of mosquito feeding
• Birds as bioindicators of environmental health
• Biological studies on victoria crowned pigeon
• Biological studies on black rhinoceros
• Biological studies on European spider
• Biological studies on dumbo octopus
• Biological studies on markhor
• Study of genetic and demographic variation in amphibian populations
• Ecology and population dynamics of the blackberry turtle
• Small-scale population differentiation in ecological and evolutionary mechanisms
• Challenges in vulture conservation

Also interesting: 232  Chemistry Research Topics  To Make Your Neurochemicals Dance

Submarine Animals Research Topics

• The physiology behind the luminous fish
• A study of Fish population dynamics
• Study of insects on the surface of the water
• Structure and function of schools of fish
• Physiological ecology of whales and dolphins
• Form and function in fish locomotion
• Why do whales and dolphins jump?
• Impact of Noise on Early Development and Hearing in Zebrafish
• Animal cruelty against marine life on the hand of fishermen

Read More:  Accounting Research Topics

Animal Biology Research Topics

• Systematic and zoogeographical study of the ocellated lizards
• Morphological study of neuro histogenesis in the diencephalon of the chick embryo
• Anatomical study of three species of Nudibranch
• The adaptive strategy of two species of lagomorphs
• The Black vulture: population, general biology, and interactions with other birds
• Ocellated lizards: their phylogeny and taxonomy
• Studies on the behavior of ocellated lizards in captivity
• Comparative studies of the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards
• The taxonomic and phylogenetic implications of ocellated lizards
• Research on the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards in their natural environment
• Comparative studies of the egg-laying and egg-hatching methods of ocellated lizards in different countries
• Studies on the ecology and behavior of ocellated lizards in their natural environment in the light of evolutionary and ecological insights

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Guest Essay

The Troubling Trend in Teenage Sex

By Peggy Orenstein

Ms. Orenstein is the author of “Boys & Sex: Young Men on Hookups, Love, Porn, Consent and Navigating the New Masculinity” and “Girls & Sex: Navigating the Complicated New Landscape.”

Debby Herbenick is one of the foremost researchers on American sexual behavior. The director of the Center for Sexual Health Promotion at Indiana University and the author of the pointedly titled book “Yes, Your Kid,” she usually shares her data, no matter how explicit, without judgment. So I was surprised by how concerned she seemed when we checked in on Zoom recently: “I haven’t often felt so strongly about getting research out there,” she told me. “But this is lifesaving.”

For the past four years, Dr. Herbenick has been tracking the rapid rise of “rough sex” among college students, particularly sexual strangulation, or what is colloquially referred to as choking. Nearly two-thirds of women in her most recent campus-representative survey of 5,000 students at an anonymized “major Midwestern university” said a partner had choked them during sex (one-third in their most recent encounter). The rate of those women who said they were between the ages 12 and 17 the first time that happened had shot up to 40 percent from one in four.

As someone who’s been writing for well over a decade about young people’s attitudes and early experience with sex in all its forms, I’d also begun clocking this phenomenon. I was initially startled in early 2020 when, during a post-talk Q. and A. at an independent high school, a 16-year-old girl asked, “How come boys all want to choke you?” In a different class, a 15-year-old boy wanted to know, “Why do girls all want to be choked?” They do? Not long after, a college sophomore (and longtime interview subject) contacted me after her roommate came home in tears because a hookup partner, without warning, had put both hands on her throat and squeezed.

I started to ask more, and the stories piled up. Another sophomore confided that she enjoyed being choked by her boyfriend, though it was important for a partner to be “properly educated” — pressing on the sides of the neck, for example, rather than the trachea. (Note: There is no safe way to strangle someone.) A male freshman said “girls expected” to be choked and, even though he didn’t want to do it, refusing would make him seem like a “simp.” And a senior in high school was angry that her friends called her “vanilla” when she complained that her boyfriend had choked her.

Sexual strangulation, nearly always of women in heterosexual pornography, has long been a staple on free sites, those default sources of sex ed for teens . As with anything else, repeat exposure can render the once appalling appealing. It’s not uncommon for behaviors to be normalized in porn, move within a few years to mainstream media, then, in what may become a feedback loop, be adopted in the bedroom or the dorm room.

Choking, Dr. Herbenick said, seems to have made that first leap in a 2008 episode of Showtime’s “Californication,” where it was still depicted as outré, then accelerated after the success of “Fifty Shades of Grey.” By 2019, when a high school girl was choked in the pilot of HBO’s “Euphoria,” it was standard fare. A young woman was choked in the opener of “The Idol” (again on HBO and also, like “Euphoria,” created by Sam Levinson; what’s with him ?). Ali Wong plays the proclivity for laughs in a Netflix special, and it’s a punchline in Tina Fey’s new “Mean Girls.” The chorus of Jack Harlow’s “Lovin On Me,” which topped Billboard’s Hot 100 chart for six nonconsecutive weeks this winter and has been viewed over 99 million times on YouTube, starts with, “I’m vanilla, baby, I’ll choke you, but I ain’t no killer, baby.” How-to articles abound on the internet, and social media algorithms feed young people (but typically not their unsuspecting parents) hundreds of #chokemedaddy memes along with memes that mock — even celebrate — the potential for hurting or killing female partners.

I’m not here to kink-shame (or anything-shame). And, anyway, many experienced BDSM practitioners discourage choking, believing it to be too dangerous. There are still relatively few studies on the subject, and most have been done by Dr. Herbenick and her colleagues. Reports among adolescents are now trickling out from the United Kingdom , Australia , Iceland , New Zealand and Italy .

Twenty years ago, sexual asphyxiation appears to have been unusual among any demographic, let alone young people who were new to sex and iffy at communication. That’s changed radically in a short time, with health consequences that parents, educators, medical professionals, sexual consent advocates and teens themselves urgently need to understand.

Sexual trends can spread quickly on campus and, to an extent, in every direction. But, at least among straight kids, I’ve sometimes noticed a pattern: Those that involve basic physical gratification — like receiving oral sex in hookups — tend to favor men. Those that might entail pain or submission, like choking, are generally more for women.

So, while undergrads of all genders and sexualities in Dr. Herbenick’s surveys report both choking and being choked, straight and bisexual young women are far more likely to have been the subjects of the behavior; the gap widens with greater occurrences. (In a separate study , Dr. Herbenick and her colleagues found the behavior repeated across the United States, particularly for adults under 40, and not just among college students.) Alcohol may well be involved, and while the act is often engaged in with a steady partner, a quarter of young women said partners they’d had sex with on the day they’d met also choked them.

Either way, most say that their partners never or only sometimes asked before grabbing their necks. For many, there had been moments when they couldn’t breathe or speak, compromising the ability to withdraw consent, if they’d given it. No wonder that, in a separate study by Dr. Herbenick, choking was among the most frequently listed sex acts young women said had scared them, reporting that it sometimes made them worry whether they’d survive.

Among girls and women I’ve spoken with, many did not want or like to be sexually strangled, though in an otherwise desired encounter they didn’t name it as assault . Still, a sizable number were enthusiastic; they requested it. It is exciting to feel so vulnerable, a college junior explained. The power dynamic turns her on; oxygen deprivation to the brain can trigger euphoria.

That same young woman, incidentally, had never climaxed with a partner: While the prevalence of choking has skyrocketed, rates of orgasm among young women have not increased, nor has the “orgasm gap” disappeared among heterosexual couples. “It indicates they’re not doing other things to enhance female arousal or pleasure,” Dr. Herbenick said.

When, for instance, she asked one male student who said he choked his partner whether he’d ever tried using a vibrator instead, he recoiled. “Why would I do that?” he asked.

Perhaps, she responded, because it would be more likely to produce orgasm without risking, you know, death.

In my interviews, college students have seen male orgasm as a given; women’s is nice if it happens, but certainly not expected or necessarily prioritized (by either partner). It makes sense, then, that fulfillment would be less the motivator for choking than appearing adventurous or kinky. Such performances don’t always feel good.

“Personally, my hypothesis is that this is one of the reasons young people are delaying or having less sex,” Dr. Herbenick said. “Because it’s uncomfortable and weird and scary. At times some of them literally think someone is assaulting them but they don’t know. Those are the only sexual experiences for some people. And it’s not just once they’ve gotten naked. They’ll say things like, ‘I’ve only tried to make out with someone once because he started choking and hitting me.’”

Keisuke Kawata, a neuroscientist at Indiana University’s School of Public Health, was one of the first researchers to sound the alarm on how the cumulative, seemingly inconsequential, sub-concussive hits football players sustain (as opposed to the occasional hard blow) were key to triggering C.T.E., the degenerative brain disease. He’s a good judge of serious threats to the brain. In response to Dr. Herbenick’s work, he’s turning his attention to sexual strangulation. “I see a similarity” to C.T.E., he told me, “though the mechanism of injury is very different.” In this case, it is oxygen-blocking pressure to the throat, frequently in light, repeated bursts of a few seconds each.

Strangulation — sexual or otherwise — often leaves few visible marks and can be easily overlooked as a cause of death. Those whose experiences are nonlethal rarely seek medical attention, because any injuries seem minor: Young women Dr. Herbenick studied mostly reported lightheadedness, headaches, neck pain, temporary loss of coordination and ear ringing. The symptoms resolve, and all seems well. But, as with those N.F.L. players, the true effects are silent, potentially not showing up for days, weeks, even years.

According to the American Academy of Neurology, restricting blood flow to the brain, even briefly, can cause permanent injury, including stroke and cognitive impairment. In M.R.I.s conducted by Dr. Kawata and his colleagues (including Dr. Herbenick, who is a co-author of his papers on strangulation), undergraduate women who have been repeatedly choked show a reduction in cortical folding in the brain compared with a never-choked control group. They also showed widespread cortical thickening, an inflammation response that is associated with elevated risk of later-onset mental illness. In completing simple memory tasks, their brains had to work far harder than the control group, recruiting from more regions to achieve the same level of accuracy.

The hemispheres in the choked group’s brains, too, were badly skewed, with the right side hyperactive and the left underperforming. A similar imbalance is associated with mood disorders — and indeed in Dr. Herbenick’s surveys girls and women who had been choked were more likely than others (or choked men) to have experienced overwhelming anxiety, as well as sadness and loneliness, with the effect more pronounced as the incidence rose: Women who had experienced more than five instances of choking were two and a half times as likely as those who had never been choked to say they had been so depressed within the previous 30 days they couldn’t function. Whether girls and women with mental health challenges are more likely to seek out (or be subjected to) choking, choking causes mood disorders, or some combination of the two is still unclear. But hypoxia, or oxygen deprivation — judging by what research has shown about other types of traumatic brain injury — could be a contributing factor. Given the soaring rates of depression and anxiety among young women, that warrants concern.

Now consider that every year Dr. Herbenick has done her survey, the number of females reporting extreme effects from strangulation (neck swelling, loss of consciousness, losing control of urinary function) has crept up. Among those who’ve been choked, the rate of becoming what students call “cloudy” — close to passing out, but not crossing the line — is now one in five, a huge proportion. All of this indicates partners are pressing on necks longer and harder.

The physical, cognitive and psychological impacts of sexual choking are disturbing. So is the idea that at a time when women’s social, economic, educational and political power are in ascent (even if some of those rights may be in jeopardy), when #MeToo has made progress against harassment and assault, there has been the popularization of a sex act that can damage our brains, impair intellectual functioning, undermine mental health, even kill us. Nonfatal strangulation, one of the most significant indicators that a man will murder his female partner (strangulation is also one of the most common methods used for doing so), has somehow been eroticized and made consensual, at least consensual enough. Yet, the outcomes are largely the same: Women’s brains and bodies don’t distinguish whether they are being harmed out of hate or out of love.

By now I’m guessing that parents are curled under their chairs in a fetal position. Or perhaps thinking, “No, not my kid!” (see: title of Dr. Herbenick’s book above, which, by the way, contains an entire chapter on how to talk to your teen about “rough sex”).

I get it. It’s scary stuff. Dr. Herbenick is worried; I am, too. And we are hardly some anti-sex, wait-till-marriage crusaders. But I don’t think our only option is to wring our hands over what young people are doing.

Parents should take a beat and consider how they might give their children relevant information in a way that they can hear it. Maybe reiterate that they want them to have a pleasurable sex life — you have already said that, right? — and also want them to be safe. Tell them that misinformation about certain practices, including choking, is rampant, that in reality it has grave health consequences. Plus, whether or not a partner initially requested it, if things go wrong, you’re generally criminally on the hook.

Dr. Herbenick suggests reminding them that there are other, lower-risk ways to be exploratory or adventurous if that is what they are after, but it would be wisest to delay any “rough sex” until they are older and more skilled at communicating. She offers language when negotiating with a new partner, such as, “By the way, I’m not comfortable with” — choking, or other escalating behaviors such as name-calling, spitting and genital slapping — “so please don’t do it/don’t ask me to do it to you.” They could also add what they are into and want to do together.

I’d like to point high school health teachers to evidence-based porn literacy curricula, but I realize that incorporating such lessons into their classrooms could cost them their jobs. Shafia Zaloom, a lecturer at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, recommends, if that’s the case, grounding discussions in mainstream and social media. There are plenty of opportunities. “You can use it to deconstruct gender norms, power dynamics in relationships, ‘performative’ trends that don’t represent most people’s healthy behaviors,” she said, “especially depictions of people putting pressure on someone’s neck or chest.”

I also know that pediatricians, like other adults, struggle when talking to adolescents about sex (the typical conversation, if it happens, lasts 40 seconds). Then again, they already caution younger children to use a helmet when they ride a bike (because heads and necks are delicate!); they can mention that teens might hear about things people do in sexual situations, including choking, then explain the impact on brain health and why such behavior is best avoided. They should emphasize that if, for any reason — a fall, a sports mishap or anything else — a young person develops symptoms of head trauma, they should come in immediately, no judgment, for help in healing.

The role and responsibility of the entertainment industry is a tangled knot: Media reflects behavior but also drives it, either expanding possibilities or increasing risks. There is precedent for accountability. The European Union now requires age verification on the world’s largest porn sites (in ways that preserve user privacy, whatever that means on the internet); that discussion, unsurprisingly, had been politicized here. Social media platforms have already been pushed to ban content promoting eating disorders, self-harm and suicide — they should likewise be pressured to ban content promoting choking. Traditional formats can stop glamorizing strangulation, making light of it, spreading false information, using it to signal female characters’ complexity or sexual awakening. Young people’s sexual scripts are shaped by what they watch, scroll by and listen to — unprecedentedly so. They deserve, and desperately need, models of interactions that are respectful, communicative, mutual and, at the very least, safe.

Peggy Orenstein is the author of “Boys & Sex: Young Men on Hookups, Love, Porn, Consent and Navigating the New Masculinity” and “Girls & Sex: Navigating the Complicated New Landscape.”

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An earlier version of this article misstated the network on which “Californication” first appeared. It is Showtime, not HBO. The article also misspelled a book and film title. It is “Fifty Shades of Grey,” not “Fifty Shades of Gray.”

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