interpretation and report writing in research methodology slideshare

My presentations

Auth with social network:

Download presentation

We think you have liked this presentation. If you wish to download it, please recommend it to your friends in any social system. Share buttons are a little bit lower. Thank you!

Presentation is loading. Please wait.

Lecture Notes on Research Methodology

Published by Eileen Garrison Modified over 6 years ago

Presentation on theme: "Lecture Notes on Research Methodology"— Presentation transcript:

Introduction to Research Methodology

Sabine Mendes Lima Moura Issues in Research Methodology PUC – November 2014.

Today Concepts underlying inferential statistics

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Research Methodology Lecture 1.

Chapter 12 Inferential Statistics Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Sample Design.

Magister of Electrical Engineering Udayana University September 2011

Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics

RESEARCH A systematic quest for undiscovered truth A way of thinking

Research Methodology.

Research Seminars in IT in Education (MIT6003) Quantitative Educational Research Design 2 Dr Jacky Pow.

PROCESSING OF DATA The collected data in research is processed and analyzed to come to some conclusions or to verify the hypothesis made. Processing of.

Academic Research Academic Research Dr Kishor Bhanushali M

Question paper 1997.

Chapter 6: Analyzing and Interpreting Quantitative Data

Module III Multivariate Analysis Techniques- Framework, Factor Analysis, Cluster Analysis and Conjoint Analysis Research Report.

Chapter 7 Measuring of data Reliability of measuring instruments The reliability* of instrument is the consistency with which it measures the target attribute.

About project

Please log in to save materials. Log in

Resource Library
Research Methods
VIVA Grant Recipients
Vgr-social-work-research

Education Standards

Radford university.

Learning Domain: Social Work

Standard: Basic Research Methodology

Lesson 10: Sampling in Qualitative Research

Lesson 11: qualitative measurement & rigor, lesson 12: qualitative design & data gathering, lesson 1: introduction to research, lesson 2: getting started with your research project, lesson 3: critical information literacy, lesson 4: paradigm, theory, and causality, lesson 5: research questions, lesson 6: ethics, lesson 7: measurement in quantitative research, lesson 8: sampling in quantitative research, lesson 9: quantitative research designs, powerpoint slides: sowk 621.01: research i: basic research methodology.

PowerPoint Slides: SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology

The twelve lessons for SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology as previously taught by Dr. Matthew DeCarlo at Radford University. Dr. DeCarlo and his team developed a complete package of materials that includes a textbook, ancillary materials, and a student workbook as part of a VIVA Open Course Grant.

The PowerPoint slides associated with the twelve lessons of the course, SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology, as previously taught by Dr. Matthew DeCarlo at Radford University.

Research Methodology

Aug 20, 2014

2.77k likes | 6.2k Views

Research Methodology. Introduction to Research Methodology. Stages of Research Project. Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Literature Review Chapter 3: Methodology Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Interpretation of Findings Chapter 5: Discussion and conclusion. Why do we research?.

Share Presentation

highest contributor
human resource managers
data collection
better employees job satisfaction
direct relationship
adequate solutions

Presentation Transcript

Research Methodology Introduction to Research Methodology

Stages of Research Project • Chapter 1: Introduction • Chapter 2: Literature Review • Chapter 3: Methodology • Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Interpretation of Findings • Chapter 5: Discussion and conclusion

Why do we research? • To acquire information/knowledge • Research – a particular way of knowing • Emphasis on systematic investigation • Scientific method- collecting observations in a systematic and objective manner • Identify problem • Generate Objectives/hypotheses/RQ • Collect data • Determine whether or not the hypotheses are supported. • Researches that use non-scientific method • Historical, etnography

Types of researches (by purpose) • Basic research (Fundamental Research) • Concerned with fundamental and theoretical questions. • A foundation upon which others can develop applications and solutions • while basic research may not appear to be helpful in the real world, it can direct us toward practical applications in the long run. • E.g. A study on job rotation impact (positive and negative impact) on employees.

Applied research • concerned with finding solutions to practical problems and putting these solutions to work in order to help others • E.g. Action Research on Best Job Rotation practices for Academic Institution

Chap.1: Introduction • Research Introduction and background • Problem statement • Objectives (main & specific objective) • Hypotheses or research questions • Theoretical/conceptual framework (quantitative only) • Variables definition (quantitative only) • Definition of terms (include operational definition) • Contribution/Significance/important of research • Limitation of research

Choosing a research topic • 2 things to be considered • Level of interest • Topic of interest will motivate one to do research on it • Choosing the wrong topic – you might end up or fail to discover some interesting value. • Feasibility • Your capability to complete a research conducted – e.g. data collection and analysis, report writing • Always take a research as you want to unveil a mystery

Getting ideas for researchers • Yourself (observation on a particular phenomena/experiences) • Discussion with expert in the field • Journal articles • Academic books (based on research work) • Proceeding and conference papers • Thesis, dissertation, final year project • Organizational Report (e.g statistic) • Others (Internet, Newspapers/magazines

Preparing a Problem Statement • A problem statement is a clear concise description of the issues (or problems) that need to be addressed by a researcher. • The primary purpose of a problem statement is to focus the attention of the researcher. • A research-worthy problem statement is the description of an active challenge (i.e. problem) faced by a researcher that does not have adequate solutions or theoretical foundation. • Should briefly address the question: What is the problem that the research will address?

More… • Define a problem or a gap that need to be researched to find a solution • Justify the need for a research • These gaps are discovered through journal articles (refer to limitations or suggestions in journal articles) • Sometimes a problem is discovered through: • personal experience of a researcher or a research sponsor • phenomena that happens around us.

Example of a problem statement • No known study that has looked into this specific topic. - exploratory research • There are only few studies that address this issue but most of the studies were done in Western countries especially in the United States(Mueller, 1998; Adruce, 2002; Adam, 2008) – Confirmatory research • There are several research works in this specific area but the findings are not consistent. Therefore, there is a need to do further research in this area – Confirmatory research

Continue … • There are several research works that have looked into a direct relationship between smoking habit and cancer; however, no known research has specifically looked into a mediator/moderator effect of a third variable (types of food consumed) • This incident (eg. Tsunami) has never happened in Malaysia, therefore, there is a need to study the post Tsunami effects in the affected region of Malaysia. • Most of the previous research in this area were done using qualitative method; therefore, there is a need to use quantitative/experimental method to test the preposition/ hypothesis.

Continue • Most of the previous research in this area were done using quantitative method; therefore, there is a need to use qualitative/experimental method to validate the findings.

How to prepare the Objective for the study • Based on the Problem Statement mentioned earlier • It is a statement that explains what the study will focus on • There are two types of objective • Main (This study is interested in studying the employees behavior related to job rotation amongst support staff) • Specific (to study the relation ship between job rotation and job satisfaction)

Hypothesis or research question • The purpose is to refine the objective of the study and make it easier to understand what we want to study • When to use Hypothesis or research question • Phenomena has been studied before and to test the findings we use hypotheses testing (e.g There is a relationship between job rotation and job satisfaction) • If no known study has been done in that specific area we should use research question instead (e.g Is there any relationship between job rotation and job satisfaction? • When can we use hypothesis even if there is no know research done in a specific area? • Experimental research

Theoretical/conceptual framework • Only to be used in quantitative study. • There is no need for theoretical/conceptual framework in a Qualitative study

Employees Satisfaction Based on Maslow Hierarchy of Needs Thory Basic Needs (Salary, Benefits) Job Satisfaction Job Security Peer Support

Hypothesis • There is a relationship between Basic Needs and Employees Job Satisfaction • Better Job Security will result in Better Employees Job Satisfaction • There is a relationship between work environment and employees job Satisfaction • RQ if there is no hypothesis • Which of the above factors rank the highest contributor to job satisfaction?

Successful Organization Based on Systems Theory Employees Performance External Environment Management Capability Organization Performance Services Provided

Definition of Terms used in your study • Dictionary definition • Defined by dictionary • Operational definition • An operational definition defines something (e.g. a variable, term, or object) in terms of the specific process or set of validation tests used to determine its presence and quantity.

Continue… • Theoretical Definition • A theoretical definition relies on the acceptance of theories and so it does not simply reduce to a set of observationsLike the theories that build them, theoretical definitions also improve as scientific understanding grows

Research Contribution • Contributions • theory/concept/model/hypothesis/proposition or knowledge in the field • Methodology • Research Framework (statement of problem, objective, hypothesis, research question) • Instrument (questionnaire, interview guide, observation guide etc.) • Data Collected • Data Analysis Framework • Practitioner and community

Contribution toward theory and knowledge • This study is expected to contribute toward a theory (e.g. diffusion of innovation) related to the use of technology in organization because findings from previous studies implicate lack of consistencies either in supporting or refuting the theory. • Use of ICT in organization is a developing area and not many studies have really studied Malaysian organizations pertaining to their employees usage of ICT

Contribution toward Methodology • Since not many research were done in this area before, the Research Framework (statement of problem, objective, Hypothesis and Research Questions) use in this study could be use by future researcher who wanted to replicate this study. • The Instrument (questionnaire, interview guide, observation guide etc.) used in this research could be used for future research in the same area.

Contribution toward Practitioner and community • Findings from this research especially on the office and environmental factors that ensure success in job rotation should be a good guide to Human Resource Managers. • Finding from this research should also inform the community of employees in the organization on the important of office and environmental factors to ensure success in job rotation practices.

Limitation of the Study • Topical/subject/field limitation (limited to study of HRD and not on Psychology or management aspect of human resource) • Methodological limitation (Data collection method) • Population and Sample • Time Frame • Area/place of research • Resources Limitation (for example Literature Review is limited to Emerald online database)

Chap. 2:Literature Review • Gather all related and relevant findings from previous studies. • Introduction to the Chapter • Discussion on Theories, models, concepts and philosophy related to the research • Discussion on previous studies related to the topics. Guided by the specific objectives in the study. • Summary of the chapter

What is a Lit Review • What it is not • Not an essay • Not just a mere summary or annotated bibliography or abstract • What it is • Reflection of previous studies • Improve understanding on topic of interest • Status of works done in similar area • Updating you on what have been done in the past

How to do a Literature Review • Locate all related Previous Works on same topic to update you on what have been done. • Highlight the status of Previous research and finding Gaps or opportunities (availability, strength, weaknesses) • Uncertainties and doubts in previous findings • Limitations of previous studies that need to be dealt with • Methodological limitation • Geographical location • Time factor

Chap. 3:Methodology • Research Framework (Qualitative, Quantitative or Experimental) • Place and time of study • Population under study • Unit of analysis • Sample/respondent/informant (qualitative) • Sampling method and sampling framework • Method of Data Collection • Survey using Questionnaire (quantitative) • Interview (qualitative) • Document Analysis • Observation Technique • Determining method of data collection for each objective/research question/hypothesis

Methodology… continue • Research Instrument • Pre-Test and pilot test (quantitative) • Validity and reliability issues • Equipments (video, audio recorder etc.) to be used during data collections • Consent Form • Research Schedules and Timelines

Research Framework • Quantitative (mostly using Deductive Reasoning) - Confirmatory • to research questions that are best answered by collecting and analyzing numerical data (using statistical) • Qualitative (mostly using inductive Reasoning) – Exploratory • Mixed Method – Qualitative and Quantitative • To research questions that are best answered by giving descriptions on how one understand and interpret various aspects in their surroundings • Experimental (mostly using Deductive Reasoning) – Looking at Cause & Effect

Place and Time of Study • To be determined – provide justification • Determined also time to conduct the study because both place and time could determine the outcome of the study

Population and Sample • Determine the population where the study will be conducted • Identify the unit of analysis (individual or group) • Determine the sampling method (simple random method, cluster, stratified, systematic, purposeful/convenient, snow balling etc.) to be used and design the sampling framework

Main types of research methodologies • Survey - Quantitative • Experimental – Quantitative, Qualitative • Correlation - Quantitative • Case study – Quantitative, Qualitative • Historical - Qualitative • Ethnography – Qualitative

Chap. 4 Data Analysis and Interpretation • Present your analysis of data – summarize the relevant findings that are crucial to your study.

Chap. 5 Discussion • Interpret your data to meaningful information that is understandable. • Discussion and comparison with previous studies (focusing on similarities or differences in term of result)

More by User

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. (Business Research Methods). Week 3. Decision-Making. Decision-Making is the process of resolving a problem or choosing amongst alternative opportunities What is the problem or opportunity? How much Information is available? What Information is needed?. Absolute

707 views • 16 slides

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. (Business Research Methods). Week 13. Editing and Coding Data. Editing is the process of checking data for errors such as omissions, illegibility and inconsistency, and correcting data where and when the need arises

1.01k views • 18 slides

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. (Business Research Methods). Week 1. How This Course Will Be Conducted. Comprehensive introduction to Research Methodology (Business Research Methods) Knowledge acquisition and application of subject matter to real-life situations

1.15k views • 36 slides

Research Methodology. Basic Information. Research Methodology. Basic Information Your Instructors Program of the Lessons Goal of the Course Material Modalities of Examination. Your Instructor Fausto Giunchiglia (http://www.dit.unitn.it/~fausto). Program of the Lessons

858 views • 57 slides

Research Methodology. Lecture #3. Roadmap . Understand What is Research . Define Research Problem . How to solve it? Research methods Experiment Design . How to write and publish an IT paper?. How to solve the problem?. Understanding the problem

2.52k views • 66 slides

Research methodology

Research methodology. What is a resume??? "Resume CV" is a bit of a misnomer. A resume is a CV. They are two different expressions for the same thing. What is a CV?? CV stands for "Curriculum Vitae" which is Latin for "course of life" . The difference between them is:.

628 views • 44 slides

LITERATURE REVIEW. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. PROFESSOR DR. MOHAMMAD ISMAIL UTM Construction Research Centre, Faculty of Civil Engineering UTM. CONTACT INFO. Room : C09–117-09 Tel : +60731757. Course Contents. Introduction Literature Review Research Design Result and Analysis

1.99k views • 46 slides

Research methodology. A plan and structure of the investigation in order to obtain evidence to answer the research questions. RM Involves a. choosing the subjects b. data collection techniques/tools c. procedures/steps for collecting data d. data analysis techniques/tools

2.09k views • 29 slides

Research Methodology. Group Members: April Tulloch Kerekia Walker Sashield Walker Daneik Wallace Juliann Wallace Nicole Wallace Lecturer: Dr. J. Lindo. PICO.

509 views • 24 slides

Research Methodology. Session 11 Research Design Sampling. Latest Schedule (1). Latest Schedule (2). Recap. Assignments Language feedback Language self-reflection Structural PS -> RO -> RQ Sub-problems => hypotheses / research questions Presentation Participation Feedback. Preview.

988 views • 25 slides

Research Methodology. SDLC MDLC Waterfall Model RAD. Introduction. A framework that describes the activities performed at each stage of a software development project.

1.28k views • 30 slides

Research Methodology*

Research Methodology*. Mian Ali Haider L.L.B., L.L.M ( Cum Laude) U.K. *(Contents of this PPT are not mine, infact, gathered from different electronic materials). What is Research ?.

1.35k views • 37 slides

Research Methodology. Aisha Hassan Abdalla Hashim (PhD) Professor Electrical & Computer Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering, IIUM. Report Writing. PROJECT II The Design Chapter The Evaluation chapter Evaluation Techniques Experimental Analytical Simulation

493 views • 3 slides

Research Methodology. Lecture No :24. Recap Lecture. In the last lecture we discussed about: Frequencies Bar charts and pie charts Histogram Stem and leaf display Pareto diagram Box plot SPSS cross tabulation. Lecture Objectives. Getting the feel for the data

458 views • 27 slides

CHP400: Community Health Program - lI. gy. What is Research ?. gy. Research Methodology. Mohamed M. B. Alnoor. Research Methodology. What is Research ?. gy. Content. Definition of Research. Steps in conducting Research. gy. Research Objectives. Hypotheses. Title of the study.

666 views • 16 slides

Research Methodology. EPH 7112 LECTURE 8: VALIDATION. Contents. Validation Compute Performance Draw Conclusions Peer Review. Scientific Method. Objectives. Objective of Validation phase is To decide whether the objective of the task has been achieved Based on formal conclusions

722 views • 9 slides

Research Methodology. Research Traditions What is research? Research is “the systematic approach to finding answers to questions.” “Questions” comes first – questions drive inquiry; questions will inform the kind of research we do. Quantitative and Qualitative research traditions

1.4k views • 41 slides

Research Methodology. Definition: Business Research. Systematic and Scientific inquiry aimed at providing information to solve managerial problems. Basic (Fundamental) Research. Generalization of natural phenomenon or human behavior

2.06k views • 83 slides

Research Methodology. 尚惠芳教授兼系主任義守大學應用英語學系. 98 學年度第一學期. 1. Outline. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Literature Review and Research Problems Survey Research Qualitative Methods Mixed-Methods and Mixed-Model Designs Sampling Data Collection

1.87k views • 144 slides

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. Sampling. Introduction. Our Knowledge, Attitudes and Actions are based to a large extent on samples. This is equally true in every day life and scientific research. Introduction (Cont’d).

925 views • 38 slides

901 views • 37 slides

749 views • 37 slides

Chapter 20. Presentations

Introduction.

If a tree falls in a forest, and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound? If a qualitative study is conducted, but it is not presented (in words or text), did it really happen? Perhaps not. Findings from qualitative research are inextricably tied up with the way those findings are presented. These presentations do not always need to be in writing, but they need to happen. Think of ethnographies, for example, and their thick descriptions of a particular culture. Witnessing a culture, taking fieldnotes, talking to people—none of those things in and of themselves convey the culture. Or think about an interview-based phenomenological study. Boxes of interview transcripts might be interesting to read through, but they are not a completed study without the intervention of hours of analysis and careful selection of exemplary quotes to illustrate key themes and final arguments and theories. And unlike much quantitative research in the social sciences, where the final write-up neatly reports the results of analyses, the way the “write-up” happens is an integral part of the analysis in qualitative research. Once again, we come back to the messiness and stubborn unlinearity of qualitative research. From the very beginning, when designing the study, imagining the form of its ultimate presentation is helpful.

Because qualitative researchers are motivated by understanding and conveying meaning, effective communication is not only an essential skill but a fundamental facet of the entire research project. Ethnographers must be able to convey a certain sense of verisimilitude, the appearance of true reality. Those employing interviews must faithfully depict the key meanings of the people they interviewed in a way that rings true to those people, even if the end result surprises them. And all researchers must strive for clarity in their publications so that various audiences can understand what was found and why it is important. This chapter will address how to organize various kinds of presentations for different audiences so that your results can be appreciated and understood.

In the world of academic science, social or otherwise, the primary audience for a study’s results is usually the academic community, and the primary venue for communicating to this audience is the academic journal. Journal articles are typically fifteen to thirty pages in length (8,000 to 12,000 words). Although qualitative researchers often write and publish journal articles—indeed, there are several journals dedicated entirely to qualitative research [1] —the best writing by qualitative researchers often shows up in books. This is because books, running from 80,000 to 150,000 words in length, allow the researcher to develop the material fully. You have probably read some of these in various courses you have taken, not realizing what they are. I have used examples of such books throughout this text, beginning with the three profiles in the introductory chapter. In some instances, the chapters in these books began as articles in academic journals (another indication that the journal article format somewhat limits what can be said about the study overall).

While the article and the book are “final” products of qualitative research, there are actually a few other presentation formats that are used along the way. At the very beginning of a research study, it is often important to have a written research proposal not just to clarify to yourself what you will be doing and when but also to justify your research to an outside agency, such as an institutional review board (IRB; see chapter 12), or to a potential funder, which might be your home institution, a government funder (such as the National Science Foundation, or NSF), or a private foundation (such as the Gates Foundation). As you get your research underway, opportunities will arise to present preliminary findings to audiences, usually through presentations at academic conferences. These presentations can provide important feedback as you complete your analyses. Finally, if you are completing a degree and looking to find an academic job, you will be asked to provide a “job talk,” usually about your research. These job talks are similar to conference presentations but can run significantly longer.

All the presentations mentioned so far are (mostly) for academic audiences. But qualitative research is also unique in that many of its practitioners don’t want to confine their presentation only to other academics. Qualitative researchers who study particular contexts or cultures might want to report back to the people and places they observed. Those working in the critical tradition might want to raise awareness of a particular issue to as large an audience as possible. Many others simply want everyday, nonacademic people to read their work, because they think it is interesting and important. To reach a wide audience, the final product can look like almost anything—it can be a poem, a blog, a podcast, even a science fiction short story. And if you are very lucky, it can even be a national or international bestseller.

In this chapter, we are going to stick with the more basic quotidian presentations—the academic paper / research proposal, the conference slideshow presentation / job talk, and the conference poster. We’ll also spend a bit of time on incorporating universal design into your presentations and how to create some especially attractive and impactful visual displays.

Researcher Note

What is the best piece of advice you’ve ever been given about conducting qualitative research?

The best advice I’ve received came from my adviser, Alford Young Jr. He told me to find the “Jessi Streib” answer to my research question, not the “Pierre Bourdieu” answer to my research question. In other words, don’t just say how a famous theorist would answer your question; say something original, something coming from you.

—Jessi Streib, author of The Power of the Past and Privilege Lost

Writing about Your Research

The journal article and the research proposal.

Although the research proposal is written before you have actually done your research and the article is written after all data collection and analysis is complete, there are actually many similarities between the two in terms of organization and purpose. The final article will (probably—depends on how much the research question and focus have shifted during the research itself) incorporate a great deal of what was included in a preliminary research proposal. The average lengths of both a proposal and an article are quite similar, with the “front sections” of the article abbreviated to make space for the findings, discussion of findings, and conclusion.

Figure 20.1 shows one model for what to include in an article or research proposal, comparing the elements of each with a default word count for each section. Please note that you will want to follow whatever specific guidelines you have been provided by the venue you are submitting the article/proposal to: the IRB, the NSF, the Journal of Qualitative Research . In fact, I encourage you to adapt the default model as needed by swapping out expected word counts for each section and adding or varying the sections to match expectations for your particular publication venue. [2]

You will notice a few things about the default model guidelines. First, while half of the proposal is spent discussing the research design, this section is shortened (but still included) for the article. There are a few elements that only show up in the proposal (e.g., the limitations section is in the introductory section here—it will be more fully developed in the conclusory section in the article). Obviously, you don’t have findings in the proposal, so this is an entirely new section for the article. Note that the article does not include a data management plan or a timeline—two aspects that most proposals require.

It might be helpful to find and maintain examples of successfully written sections that you can use as models for your own writing. I have included a few of these throughout the textbook and have included a few more at the end of this chapter.

Make an Argument

Some qualitative researchers, particularly those engaged in deep ethnographic research, focus their attention primarily if not exclusively on describing the data. They might even eschew the notion that they should make an “argument” about the data, preferring instead to use thick descriptions to convey interpretations. Bracketing the contrast between interpretation and argument for the moment, most readers will expect you to provide an argument about your data, and this argument will be in answer to whatever research question you eventually articulate (remember, research questions are allowed to shift as you get further into data collection and analysis). It can be frustrating to read a well-developed study with clear and elegant descriptions and no argument. The argument is the point of the research, and if you do not have one, 99 percent of the time, you are not finished with your analysis. Calarco ( 2020 ) suggests you imagine a pyramid, with all of your data forming the basis and all of your findings forming the middle section; the top/point of the pyramid is your argument, “what the patterns in your data tell us about how the world works or ought to work” ( 181 ).

The academic community to which you belong will be looking for an argument that relates to or develops theory. This is the theoretical generalizability promise of qualitative research. An academic audience will want to know how your findings relate to previous findings, theories, and concepts (the literature review; see chapter 9). It is thus vitally important that you go back to your literature review (or develop a new one) and draw those connections in your discussion and/or conclusion. When writing to other audiences, you will still want an argument, although it may not be written as a theoretical one. What do I mean by that? Even if you are not referring to previous literature or developing new theories or adapting older ones, a simple description of your findings is like dumping a lot of leaves in the lap of your audience. They still deserve to know about the shape of the forest. Maybe provide them a road map through it. Do this by telling a clear and cogent story about the data. What is the primary theme, and why is it important? What is the point of your research? [3]

A beautifully written piece of research based on participant observation [and/or] interviews brings people to life, and helps the reader understand the challenges people face. You are trying to use vivid, detailed and compelling words to help the reader really understand the lives of the people you studied. And you are trying to connect the lived experiences of these people to a broader conceptual point—so that the reader can understand why it matters. ( Lareau 2021:259 )

Do not hide your argument. Make it the focal point of your introductory section, and repeat it as often as needed to ensure the reader remembers it. I am always impressed when I see researchers do this well (see, e.g., Zelizer 1996 ).

Here are a few other suggestions for writing your article: Be brief. Do not overwhelm the reader with too many words; make every word count. Academics are particularly prone to “overwriting” as a way of demonstrating proficiency. Don’t. When writing your methods section, think about it as a “recipe for your work” that allows other researchers to replicate if they so wish ( Calarco 2020:186 ). Convey all the necessary information clearly, succinctly, and accurately. No more, no less. [4] Do not try to write from “beginning to end” in that order. Certain sections, like the introductory section, may be the last ones you write. I find the methods section the easiest, so I often begin there. Calarco ( 2020 ) begins with an outline of the analysis and results section and then works backward from there to outline the contribution she is making, then the full introduction that serves as a road map for the writing of all sections. She leaves the abstract for the very end. Find what order best works for you.

Presenting at Conferences and Job Talks

Students and faculty are primarily called upon to publicly present their research in two distinct contexts—the academic conference and the “job talk.” By convention, conference presentations usually run about fifteen minutes and, at least in sociology and other social sciences, rely primarily on the use of a slideshow (PowerPoint Presentation or PPT) presentation. You are usually one of three or four presenters scheduled on the same “panel,” so it is an important point of etiquette to ensure that your presentation falls within the allotted time and does not crowd into that of the other presenters. Job talks, on the other hand, conventionally require a forty- to forty-five-minute presentation with a fifteen- to twenty-minute question and answer (Q&A) session following it. You are the only person presenting, so if you run over your allotted time, it means less time for the Q&A, which can disturb some audience members who have been waiting for a chance to ask you something. It is sometimes possible to incorporate questions during your presentation, which allows you to take the entire hour, but you might end up shorting your presentation this way if the questions are numerous. It’s best for beginners to stick to the “ask me at the end” format (unless there is a simple clarifying question that can easily be addressed and makes the presentation run more smoothly, as in the case where you simply forgot to include information on the number of interviews you conducted).

For slideshows, you should allot two or even three minutes for each slide, never less than one minute. And those slides should be clear, concise, and limited. Most of what you say should not be on those slides at all. The slides are simply the main points or a clear image of what you are speaking about. Include bulleted points (words, short phrases), not full sentences. The exception is illustrative quotations from transcripts or fieldnotes. In those cases, keep to one illustrative quote per slide, and if it is long, bold or otherwise, highlight the words or passages that are most important for the audience to notice. [5]

Figure 20.2 provides a possible model for sections to include in either a conference presentation or a job talk, with approximate times and approximate numbers of slides. Note the importance (in amount of time spent) of both the research design and the findings/results sections, both of which have been helpfully starred for you. Although you don’t want to short any of the sections, these two sections are the heart of your presentation.

Fig 20.2. Suggested Slideshow Times and Number of Slides

Should you write out your script to read along with your presentation? I have seen this work well, as it prevents presenters from straying off topic and keeps them to the time allotted. On the other hand, these presentations can seem stiff and wooden. Personally, although I have a general script in advance, I like to speak a little more informally and engagingly with each slide, sometimes making connections with previous panelists if I am at a conference. This means I have to pay attention to the time, and I sometimes end up breezing through one section more quickly than I would like. Whatever approach you take, practice in advance. Many times. With an audience. Ask for feedback, and pay attention to any presentation issues that arise (e.g., Do you speak too fast? Are you hard to hear? Do you stumble over a particular word or name?).

Even though there are rules and guidelines for what to include, you will still want to make your presentation as engaging as possible in the little amount of time you have. Calarco ( 2020:274 ) recommends trying one of three story structures to frame your presentation: (1) the uncertain explanation , where you introduce a phenomenon that has not yet been fully explained and then describe how your research is tackling this; (2) the uncertain outcome , where you introduce a phenomenon where the consequences have been unclear and then you reveal those consequences with your research; and (3) the evocative example , where you start with some interesting example from your research (a quote from the interview transcripts, for example) or the real world and then explain how that example illustrates the larger patterns you found in your research. Notice that each of these is a framing story. Framing stories are essential regardless of format!

A Word on Universal Design

Please consider accessibility issues during your presentation, and incorporate elements of universal design into your slideshow. The basic idea behind universal design in presentations is that to the greatest extent possible, all people should be able to view, hear, or otherwise take in your presentation without needing special individual adaptations. If you can make your presentation accessible to people with visual impairment or hearing loss, why not do so? For example, one in twelve men is color-blind, unable to differentiate between certain colors, red/green being the most common problem. So if you design a graphic that relies on red and green bars, some of your audience members may not be able to properly identify which bar means what. Simple contrasts of black and white are much more likely to be visible to all members of your audience. There are many other elements of good universal design, but the basic foundation of all of them is that you consider how to make your presentation as accessible as possible at the outset. For example, include captions whenever possible, both as descriptions on slides and as images on slides and for any audio or video clips you are including; keep font sizes large enough to read from the back of the room; and face the audience when you are.

Poster Design

Undergraduate students who present at conferences are often encouraged to present at “poster sessions.” This usually means setting up a poster version of your research in a large hall or convention space at a set period of time—ninety minutes is common. Your poster will be one of dozens, and conference-goers will wander through the space, stopping intermittently at posters that attract them. Those who stop by might ask you questions about your research, and you are expected to be able to talk intelligently for two or three minutes. It’s a fairly easy way to practice presenting at conferences, which is why so many organizations hold these special poster sessions.

A good poster design will be immediately attractive to passersby and clearly and succinctly describe your research methods, findings, and conclusions. Some students have simply shrunk down their research papers to manageable sizes and then pasted them on a poster, all twelve to fifteen pages of them. Don’t do that! Here are some better suggestions: State the main conclusion of your research in large bold print at the top of your poster, on brightly colored (contrasting) paper, and paste in a QR code that links to your full paper online ( Calarco 2020:280 ). Use the rest of the poster board to provide a couple of highlights and details of the study. For an interview-based study, for example, you will want to put in some details about your sample (including number of interviews) and setting and then perhaps one or two key quotes, also distinguished by contrasting color background.

Incorporating Visual Design in Your Presentations

In addition to ensuring that your presentation is accessible to as large an audience as possible, you also want to think about how to display your data in general, particularly how to use charts and graphs and figures. [6] The first piece of advice is, use them! As the saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. If you can cut to the chase with a visually stunning display, do so. But there are visual displays that are stunning, and then there are the tired, hard-to-see visual displays that predominate at conferences. You can do better than most presenters by simply paying attention here and committing yourself to a good design. As with model section passages, keep a file of visual displays that work as models for your own presentations. Find a good guidebook to presenting data effectively (Evergreen 2018 , 2019 ; Schwabisch 2021) , and refer to it often.

Let me make a few suggestions here to get you started. First, test every visual display on a friend or colleague to find out how quickly they can understand the point you are trying to convey. As with reading passages aloud to ensure that your writing works, showing someone your display is the quickest way to find out if it works. Second, put the point in the title of the display! When writing for an academic journal, there will be specific conventions of what to include in the title (full description including methods of analysis, sample, dates), but in a public presentation, there are no limiting rules. So you are free to write as your title “Working-Class College Students Are Three Times as Likely as Their Peers to Drop Out of College,” if that is the point of the graphic display. It certainly helps the communicative aspect. Third, use the themes available to you in Excel for creating graphic displays, but alter them to better fit your needs . Consider adding dark borders to bars and columns, for example, so that they appear crisper for your audience. Include data callouts and labels, and enlarge them so they are clearly visible. When duplicative or otherwise unnecessary, drop distracting gridlines and labels on the y-axis (the vertical one). Don’t go crazy adding different fonts, however—keep things simple and clear. Sans serif fonts (those without the little hooks on the ends of letters) read better from a distance. Try to use the same color scheme throughout, even if this means manually changing the colors of bars and columns. For example, when reporting on working-class college students, I use blue bars, while I reserve green bars for wealthy students and yellow bars for students in the middle. I repeat these colors throughout my presentations and incorporate different colors when talking about other items or factors. You can also try using simple grayscale throughout, with pops of color to indicate a bar or column or line that is of the most interest. These are just some suggestions. The point is to take presentation seriously and to pay attention to visual displays you are using to ensure they effectively communicate what you want them to communicate. I’ve included a data visualization checklist from Evergreen ( 2018 ) here.

Ethics of Presentation and Reliability

Until now, all the data you have collected have been yours alone. Once you present the data, however, you are sharing sometimes very intimate information about people with a broader public. You will find yourself balancing between protecting the privacy of those you’ve interviewed and observed and needing to demonstrate the reliability of the study. The more information you provide to your audience, the more they can understand and appreciate what you have found, but this also may pose risks to your participants. There is no one correct way to go about finding the right balance. As always, you have a duty to consider what you are doing and must make some hard decisions.

The most obvious place we see this paradox emerge is when you mask your data to protect the privacy of your participants. It is standard practice to provide pseudonyms, for example. It is such standard practice that you should always assume you are being given a pseudonym when reading a book or article based on qualitative research. When I was a graduate student, I tried to find information on how best to construct pseudonyms but found little guidance. There are some ethical issues here, I think. [7] Do you create a name that has the same kind of resonance as the original name? If the person goes by a nickname, should you use a nickname as a pseudonym? What about names that are ethnically marked (as in, almost all of them)? Is there something unethical about reracializing a person? (Yes!) In her study of adolescent subcultures, Wilkins ( 2008 ) noted, “Because many of the goths used creative, alternative names rather than their given names, I did my best to reproduce the spirit of their chosen names” ( 24 ).

Your reader or audience will want to know all the details about your participants so that they can gauge both your credibility and the reliability of your findings. But how many details are too many? What if you change the name but otherwise retain all the personal pieces of information about where they grew up, and how old they were when they got married, and how many children they have, and whether they made a splash in the news cycle that time they were stalked by their ex-boyfriend? At some point, those details are going to tip over into the zone of potential unmasking. When you are doing research at one particular field site that may be easily ascertained (as when you interview college students, probably at the institution at which you are a student yourself), it is even more important to be wary of providing too many details. You also need to think that your participants might read what you have written, know things about the site or the population from which you drew your interviews, and figure out whom you are talking about. This can all get very messy if you don’t do more than simply pseudonymize the people you interviewed or observed.

There are some ways to do this. One, you can design a study with all of these risks in mind. That might mean choosing to conduct interviews or observations at multiple sites so that no one person can be easily identified. Another is to alter some basic details about your participants to protect their identity or to refuse to provide all the information when selecting quotes . Let’s say you have an interviewee named “Anna” (a pseudonym), and she is a twenty-four-year-old Latina studying to be an engineer. You want to use a quote from Anna about racial discrimination in her graduate program. Instead of attributing the quote to Anna (whom your reader knows, because you’ve already told them, is a twenty-four-year-old Latina studying engineering), you might simply attribute the quote to “Latina student in STEM.” Taking this a step further, you might leave the quote unattributed, providing a list of quotes about racial discrimination by “various students.”

The problem with masking all the identifiers, of course, is that you lose some of the analytical heft of those attributes. If it mattered that Anna was twenty-four (not thirty-four) and that she was a Latina and that she was studying engineering, taking out any of those aspects of her identity might weaken your analysis. This is one of those “hard choices” you will be called on to make! A rather radical and controversial solution to this dilemma is to create composite characters , characters based on the reality of the interviews but fully masked because they are not identifiable with any one person. My students are often very queasy about this when I explain it to them. The more positivistic your approach and the more you see individuals rather than social relationships/structure as the “object” of your study, the more employing composites will seem like a really bad idea. But composites “allow researchers to present complex, situated accounts from individuals” without disclosing personal identities ( Willis 2019 ), and they can be effective ways of presenting theory narratively ( Hurst 2019 ). Ironically, composites permit you more latitude when including “dirty laundry” or stories that could harm individuals if their identities became known. Rather than squeezing out details that could identify a participant, the identities are permanently removed from the details. Great difficulty remains, however, in clearly explaining the theoretical use of composites to your audience and providing sufficient information on the reliability of the underlying data.

There are a host of other ethical issues that emerge as you write and present your data. This is where being reflective throughout the process will help. How and what you share of what you have learned will depend on the social relationships you have built, the audiences you are writing or speaking to, and the underlying animating goals of your study. Be conscious about all of your decisions, and then be able to explain them fully, both to yourself and to those who ask.

Our research is often close to us. As a Black woman who is a first-generation college student and a professional with a poverty/working-class origin, each of these pieces of my identity creates nuances in how I engage in my research, including how I share it out. Because of this, it’s important for us to have people in our lives who we trust who can help us, particularly, when we are trying to share our findings. As researchers, we have been steeped in our work, so we know all the details and nuances. Sometimes we take this for granted, and we might not have shared those nuances in conversation or writing or taken some of this information for granted. As I share my research with trusted friends and colleagues, I pay attention to the questions they ask me or the feedback they give when we talk or when they read drafts.

—Kim McAloney, PhD, College Student Services Administration Ecampus coordinator and instructor

Final Comments: Preparing for Being Challenged

Once you put your work out there, you must be ready to be challenged. Science is a collective enterprise and depends on a healthy give and take among researchers. This can be both novel and difficult as you get started, but the more you understand the importance of these challenges, the easier it will be to develop the kind of thick skin necessary for success in academia. Scientists’ authority rests on both the inherent strength of their findings and their ability to convince other scientists of the reliability and validity and value of those findings. So be prepared to be challenged, and recognize this as simply another important aspect of conducting research!

Considering what challenges might be made as you design and conduct your study will help you when you get to the writing and presentation stage. Address probable challenges in your final article, and have a planned response to probable questions in a conference presentation or job talk. The following is a list of common challenges of qualitative research and how you might best address them:

Questions about generalizability . Although qualitative research is not statistically generalizable (and be prepared to explain why), qualitative research is theoretically generalizable. Discuss why your findings here might tell us something about related phenomena or contexts.
Questions about reliability . You probably took steps to ensure the reliability of your findings. Discuss them! This includes explaining the use and value of multiple data sources and defending your sampling and case selections. It also means being transparent about your own position as researcher and explaining steps you took to ensure that what you were seeing was really there.
Questions about replicability. Although qualitative research cannot strictly be replicated because the circumstances and contexts will necessarily be different (if only because the point in time is different), you should be able to provide as much detail as possible about how the study was conducted so that another researcher could attempt to confirm or disconfirm your findings. Also, be very clear about the limitations of your study, as this allows other researchers insight into what future research might be warranted.

None of this is easy, of course. Writing beautifully and presenting clearly and cogently require skill and practice. If you take anything from this chapter, it is to remember that presentation is an important and essential part of the research process and to allocate time for this as you plan your research.

Data Visualization Checklist for Slideshow (PPT) Presentations

Adapted from Evergreen ( 2018 )

Text checklist

Short catchy, descriptive titles (e.g., “Working-class students are three times as likely to drop out of college”) summarize the point of the visual display
Subtitled and annotations provide additional information (e.g., “note: male students also more likely to drop out”)
Text size is hierarchical and readable (titles are largest; axes labels smallest, which should be at least 20points)
Text is horizontal. Audience members cannot read vertical text!
All data labeled directly and clearly: get rid of those “legends” and embed the data in your graphic display
Labels are used sparingly; avoid redundancy (e.g., do not include both a number axis and a number label)

Arrangement checklist

Proportions are accurate; bar charts should always start at zero; don’t mislead the audience!
Data are intentionally ordered (e.g., by frequency counts). Do not leave ragged alphabetized bar graphs!
Axis intervals are equidistant: spaces between axis intervals should be the same unit
Graph is two-dimensional. Three-dimensional and “bevelled” displays are confusing
There is no unwanted decoration (especially the kind that comes automatically through the PPT “theme”). This wastes your space and confuses.

Color checklist

There is an intentional color scheme (do not use default theme)
Color is used to identify key patterns (e.g., highlight one bar in red against six others in greyscale if this is the bar you want the audience to notice)
Color is still legible when printed in black and white
Color is legible for people with color blindness (do not use red/green or yellow/blue combinations)
There is sufficient contrast between text and background (black text on white background works best; be careful of white on dark!)

Lines checklist

Be wary of using gridlines; if you do, mute them (grey, not black)
Allow graph to bleed into surroundings (don’t use border lines)
Remove axis lines unless absolutely necessary (better to label directly)

Overall design checklist

The display highlights a significant finding or conclusion that your audience can ‘”see” relatively quickly
The type of graph (e.g., bar chart, pie chart, line graph) is appropriate for the data. Avoid pie charts with more than three slices!
Graph has appropriate level of precision; if you don’t need decimal places
All the chart elements work together to reinforce the main message

Universal Design Checklist for Slideshow (PPT) Presentations

Include both verbal and written descriptions (e.g., captions on slides); consider providing a hand-out to accompany the presentation
Microphone available (ask audience in back if they can clearly hear)
Face audience; allow people to read your lips
Turn on captions when presenting audio or video clips
Adjust light settings for visibility
Speak slowly and clearly; practice articulation; don’t mutter or speak under your breath (even if you have something humorous to say – say it loud!)
Use Black/White contrasts for easy visibility; or use color contrasts that are real contrasts (do not rely on people being able to differentiate red from green, for example)
Use easy to read font styles and avoid too small font sizes: think about what an audience member in the back row will be able to see and read.
Keep your slides simple: do not overclutter them; if you are including quotes from your interviews, take short evocative snippets only, and bold key words and passages. You should also read aloud each passage, preferably with feeling!

Supplement: Models of Written Sections for Future Reference

Data collection section example.

Interviews were semi structured, lasted between one and three hours, and took place at a location chosen by the interviewee. Discussions centered on four general topics: (1) knowledge of their parent’s immigration experiences; (2) relationship with their parents; (3) understanding of family labor, including language-brokering experiences; and (4) experiences with school and peers, including any future life plans. While conducting interviews, I paid close attention to respondents’ nonverbal cues, as well as their use of metaphors and jokes. I conducted interviews until I reached a point of saturation, as indicated by encountering repeated themes in new interviews (Glaser and Strauss 1967). Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed with each interviewee’s permission, and conducted in accordance with IRB protocols. Minors received permission from their parents before participation in the interview. ( Kwon 2022:1832 )

Justification of Case Selection / Sample Description Section Example

Looking at one profession within one organization and in one geographic area does impose limitations on the generalizability of our findings. However, it also has advantages. We eliminate the problem of interorganizational heterogeneity. If multiple organizations are studied simultaneously, it can make it difficult to discern the mechanisms that contribute to racial inequalities. Even with a single occupation there is considerable heterogeneity, which may make understanding how organizational structure impacts worker outcomes difficult. By using the case of one group of professionals in one religious denomination in one geographic region of the United States, we clarify how individuals’ perceptions and experiences of occupational inequality unfold in relation to a variety of observed and unobserved occupational and contextual factors that might be obscured in a larger-scale study. Focusing on a specific group of professionals allows us to explore and identify ways that formal organizational rules combine with informal processes to contribute to the persistence of racial inequality. ( Eagle and Mueller 2022:1510–1511 )

Ethics Section Example

I asked everyone who was willing to sit for a formal interview to speak only for themselves and offered each of them a prepaid Visa Card worth $25–40. I also offered everyone the opportunity to keep the card and erase the tape completely at any time they were dissatisfied with the interview in any way. No one asked for the tape to be erased; rather, people remarked on the interview being a really good experience because they felt heard. Each interview was professionally transcribed and for the most part the excerpts are literal transcriptions. In a few places, the excerpts have been edited to reduce colloquial features of speech (e.g., you know, like, um) and some recursive elements common to spoken language. A few excerpts were placed into standard English for clarity. I made this choice for the benefit of readers who might otherwise find the insights and ideas harder to parse in the original. However, I have to acknowledge this as an act of class-based violence. I tried to keep the original phrasing whenever possible. ( Pascale 2021:235 )

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Institutional Review Board – Application Sample...

Evaluating Research – Process, Examples and...

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

We're Hiring!
Help Center

REPORT WRITING PRSENTATION

Related Papers

Presentation of e

ANGEL KRIS CADENAS

VIDYA - A JOURNAL OF GUJARAT UNIVERSITY

Alpesh Prajapati

The paper is designed to acquaint the researchers about how to write a research report. The paper intends to discuss the common format of research report. There can be several reasons for writing a research report. It can be written for publishing in scholarly journals, peer-reviewed journals, publications and books. The paper will improve our understanding of writing a good academic research report with example of our research topics on various issues. The examples are based on our research on HIV positive people, adolescent health and infertility issues. The primary source of data collection for the paper is our field work.

IJAR Indexing

Nowadays many University students in Tanzania are facing challenges in writing their research reports, be it in government or private Universities. Specifically, students encounter problems in writing and formulating background of the study, statement of the problem, study objectives, literature review and research methodology. Their failure in these preceding chapters, leads to failure in data analysis and presentation, hence shortfalls in discussion and conclusion chapters. Methodologically, the article reviewed some scholarly studies conducted in Tanzania to substantiate the problem and indicate examples on how best the research reports can be written. Apart from narrations given, the article indicates examples with the aim of helping both junior and senior researchers to organize well their research reports in a manner of aligning ideas and chapters within the report. The article will as well help both undergraduate and postgraduate students whose programmes require researches in fulfillment of the requirement, for the award of their particular degrees.

Kylie Dixon

Michael Evans

Richard Baskas, Ed.D. Candidate

[email protected]

dominic omondi

Introduction This report provides an in-depth analysis of the specific area of research that I intend to conduct. The report will clearly state the key research question that I have developedfor my study.It will be divided into two parts. The first section will succinctly describe how theresearch question for the research was developed. Here, the report will provide a detailed view of the entire process through which the research question has been derived, along with the tool that has been used for deriving the research question. In addition to this, this part of the report will also state how the research question aligns with my values. On the other hand, the second part of the report will provide a statement of the methodology that will be the best for the research. This objective will be realized through the provision of a detailed justification for the methodological selection of the study. The report will mention different methodological elements that the research will follow at the time of conducting the investigation with proper justification. It means this particular part will provide detailed information about the research design, research approach, data collection and data analysis techniques that will be used for the investigation.

British journal of community nursing

Keith Meadows

This last article of the series reviews some of the key issues that need to be considered when preparing your research findings for dissemination. Dissemination is an integral part of the research process and this article outlines some of the initial steps that need to be taken, including the establishment of agreements between authors. The importance of writing for a specific audience and how this determines the content of the report is then discussed. An overview together with guidelines on how to report qualitative and quantitative research is presented. General guidance on the choice of title, writing an abstract, listing references and acknowledgements are discussed. The article concludes with an outline of some of the key criteria editors use when reviewing a paper for publication.

mohan dissanayaka

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Clade 2.3.4.4b Virus Infection in Domestic Dairy Cattle and Cats, United States, 2024

Materials and Methods

Milk samples (cases 2–5) and fresh and formalin-fixed tissues (cases 1, 3–5) from dairy cattle were received at the ISUVDL from Texas on March 21 and from Kansas on March 22, 2024. The cattle exhibited nonspecific illness and reduced lactation, as described previously. The tissue samples for diagnostic testing came from 3 cows that were euthanized and 3 that died naturally; all postmortem examinations were performed on the premises of affected farms.

The bodies of 2 adult domestic shorthaired cats from a north Texas dairy farm were received at the ISUVDL for a complete postmortem examination on March 21, 2024. The cats were found dead with no apparent signs of injury and were from a resident population of ≈24 domestic cats that had been fed milk from sick cows. Clinical disease in cows on that farm was first noted on March 16; the cats became sick on March 17, and several cats died in a cluster during March 19–20. In total, >50% of the cats at that dairy became ill and died. We collected cerebrum, cerebellum, eye, lung, heart, spleen, liver, lymph node, and kidney tissue samples from the cats and placed them in 10% neutral-buffered formalin for histopathology.

At ISUVDL, we trimmed, embedded in paraffin, and processed formalin-fixed tissues from affected cattle and cats for hematoxylin/eosin staining and histologic evaluation. For immunohistochemistry (IHC), we prepared 4-µm–thick sections from paraffin-embedded tissues, placed them on Superfrost Plus slides (VWR, https://www.vwr.com ), and dried them for 20 minutes at 60°C. We used a Ventana Discovery Ultra IHC/ISH research platform (Roche, https://www.roche.com ) for deparaffinization until and including counterstaining. We obtained all products except the primary antibody from Roche. Automated deparaffination was followed by enzymatic digestion with protease 1 for 8 minutes at 37°C and endogenous peroxidase blocking. We obtained the primary influenza A virus antibody from the hybridoma cell line H16-L10–4R5 (ATCC, https://www.atcc.org ) and diluted at 1:100 in Discovery PSS diluent; we incubated sections with antibody for 32 minutes at room temperature. Next, we incubated the sections with a hapten-labeled conjugate, Discovery anti-mouse HQ, for 16 minutes at 37°C followed by a 16-minute incubation with the horse radish peroxidase conjugate, Discovery anti-HQ HRP. We used a ChromoMap DAB kit for antigen visualization, followed by counterstaining with hematoxylin and then bluing. Positive controls were sections of IAV-positive swine lung. Negative controls were sections of brain, lung, and eyes from cats not infected with IAV.

We diluted milk samples 1:3 vol/vol in phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.4 (Gibco/Thermo Fisher Scientific, https://www.thermofisher.com ) by mixing 1 unit volume of milk and 3 unit volumes of phosphate buffered saline. We prepared 10% homogenates of mammary glands, brains, lungs, spleens, and lymph nodes in Earle’s balanced salt solution (Sigma-Aldrich, https://www.sigmaaldrich.com ). Processing was not necessary for ocular fluid, rumen content, or serum samples. After processing, we extracted samples according to a National Animal Health Laboratory Network (NAHLN) protocol that had 2 NAHLN-approved deviations for ISUVDL consisting of the MagMax Viral RNA Isolation Kit for 100 µL sample volumes and a Kingfisher Flex instrument (both Thermo Fisher Scientific).

We performed real-time reverse transcription PCR (rRT-PCR) by using an NAHLN-approved assay with 1 deviation, which was the VetMAX-Gold SIV Detection kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific), to screen for the presence of IAV RNA. We tested samples along with the VetMAX XENO Internal Positive Control to monitor the possible presence of PCR inhibitors. Each rRT-PCR 96-well plate had 2 positive amplification controls, 2 negative amplification controls, 1 positive extraction control, and 1 negative extraction control. We ran the rRT-PCR on an ABI 7500 Fast thermocycler and analyzed data with Design and Analysis Software 2.7.0 (both Thermo Fisher Scientific). We considered samples with cycle threshold (Ct) values <40.0 to be positive for virus.

After the screening rRT-PCR, we analyzed IAV RNA–positive samples for the H5 subtype and H5 clade 2.3.4.4b by using the same RNA extraction and NAHLN-approved rRT-PCR protocols as described previously, according to standard operating procedures. We performed PCR on the ABI 7500 Fast thermocycler by using appropriate controls to detect H5-specific IAV. We considered samples with Ct values <40.0 to be positive for the IAV H5 subtype.

We conducted genomic sequencing of 2 milk samples from infected dairy cattle from Texas and 2 tissue samples (lung and brain) from cats that died at a different Texas dairy. We subjected the whole-genome sequencing data to bioinformatics analysis to assemble the 8 different IAV segment sequences according to previously described methods ( 8 ). We used the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) sequences for phylogenetic analysis. We obtained reference sequences for the HA and NA segments of IAV H5 clade 2.3.4.4 from publicly available databases, including GISAID ( https://www.gisaid.org ) and GenBank. We aligned the sequences by using MAFFT version 7.520 software ( https://mafft.cbrc.jp/alignment/server/index.html ) to create multiple sequence alignments for subsequent phylogenetic analysis. We used IQTree2 ( https://github.com/iqtree/iqtree2 ) to construct the phylogenetic tree from the aligned sequences. The software was configured to automatically identify the optimal substitution model by using the ModelFinder Plus option, ensuring the selection of the most suitable model for the dataset and, thereby, improving the accuracy of the reconstructed tree. We visualized the resulting phylogenetic tree by using iTOL ( https://itol.embl.de ), a web-based platform for interactive tree exploration and annotation.

Gross Lesions in Cows and Cats

All cows were in good body condition with adequate rumen fill and no external indications of disease. Postmortem examinations of the affected dairy cows revealed firm mammary glands typical of mastitis; however, mammary gland lesions were not consistent. Two cows that were acutely ill before postmortem examination had grossly normal milk and no abnormal mammary gland lesions. The gastrointestinal tract of some cows had small abomasal ulcers and shallow linear erosions of the intestines, but those observations were also not consistent in all animals. The colon contents were brown and sticky, suggesting moderate dehydration. The feces contained feed particles that appeared to have undergone minimal ruminal fermentation. The rumen contents had normal color and appearance but appeared to have undergone minimal fermentation.

The 2 adult cats (1 intact male, 1 intact female) received at the ISUVDL were in adequate body and postmortem condition. External examination was unremarkable. Mild hemorrhages were observed in the subcutaneous tissues over the dorsal skull, and multifocal meningeal hemorrhages were observed in the cerebrums of both cats. The gastrointestinal tracts were empty, and no other gross lesions were observed.

Microscopic Lesions in Cows and Cats

Mammary gland lesions in cattle in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. A, B) Mammary gland tissue sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin. A) Arrowheads indicate segmental loss within open secretory mammary alveoli. Original magnification ×40. B) Arrowheads indicate epithelial degeneration and necrosis lining alveoli with intraluminal sloughing. Asterisk indicates intraluminal neutrophilic inflammation. Original magnification ×400. C, D) Mammary gland tissue sections stained by using avian influenza A immunohistochemistry. C) Brown staining indicates lobular distribution of avian influenza A virus. Original magnification ×40. D) Brown staining indicates strong nuclear and intracytoplasmic immunoreactivity of intact and sloughed epithelial cells within mammary alveoli. Original magnification ×400.

Figure 1 . Mammary gland lesions in cattle in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. A, B) Mammary gland...

The chief microscopic lesion observed in affected cows was moderate acute multifocal neutrophilic mastitis ( Figure 1 ); however, mammary glands were not received from every cow. Three cows had mild neutrophilic or lymphocytic hepatitis. Because they were adult cattle, other observed microscopic lesions (e.g., mild lymphoplasmacytic interstitial nephritis and mild to moderate lymphocytic abomasitis) were presumed to be nonspecific, age-related changes. We did not observe major lesions in the other evaluated tissues. We performed IHC for IAV antigen on all evaluated tissues; the only tissues with positive immunoreactivity were mastitic mammary glands from 2 cows that showed nuclear and cytoplasmic labeling of alveolar epithelial cells and cells within lumina ( Figure 1 ) and multifocal germinal centers within a lymph node from 1 cow ( Table 1 ).

Lesions in cat tissues in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin; insets show brown staining of avian influenza A viruses via immunohistochemistry by using the chromogen 3,3′-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride. Original magnification ×200 for all images and insets. A) Section from cerebral tissue. Arrowheads show perivascular lymphocytic encephalitis, gliosis, and neuronal necrosis. Inset shows neurons. B) Section of lung tissue showing lymphocytic and fibrinous interstitial pneumonia with septal necrosis and alveolar edema; arrowheads indicate lymphocytes. Inset shows bronchiolar epithelium, necrotic cells, and intraseptal mononuclear cells. C) Section of heart tissue. Arrowhead shows interstitial lymphocytic myocarditis and focal peracute myocardial coagulative necrosis. Inset shows cardiomyocytes. D) Section of retinal tissue. Arrowheads show perivascular lymphocytic retinitis with segmental neuronal loss and rarefaction in the ganglion cell layer. Asterisks indicate attenuation of the inner plexiform and nuclear layers with artifactual retinal detachment. Insets shows all layers of the retina segmentally within affected areas have strong cytoplasmic and nuclear immunoreactivity to influenza A virus.

Figure 2 . Lesions in cat tissues in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Tissue sections were stained with...

Both cats had microscopic lesions consistent with severe systemic virus infection, including severe subacute multifocal necrotizing and lymphocytic meningoencephalitis with vasculitis and neuronal necrosis, moderate subacute multifocal necrotizing and lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia, moderate to severe subacute multifocal necrotizing and lymphohistiocytic myocarditis, and moderate subacute multifocal lymphoplasmacytic chorioretinitis with ganglion cell necrosis and attenuation of the internal plexiform and nuclear layers ( Table 2 ; Figure 2 ). We performed IHC for IAV antigen on multiple tissues (brain, eye, lung, heart, spleen, liver, and kidney). We detected positive IAV immunoreactivity in brain (intracytoplasmic, intranuclear, and axonal immunolabeling of neurons), lung, and heart, and multifocal and segmental immunoreactivity within all layers of the retina ( Figure 2 ).

PCR Data from Cows and Cats

We tested various samples from 8 clinically affected mature dairy cows by IAV screening and H5 subtype-specific PCR ( Table 3 ). Milk and mammary gland homogenates consistently showed low Ct values: 12.3–16.9 by IAV screening PCR, 17.6–23.1 by H5 subtype PCR, and 14.7–20.0 by H5 2.3.4.4 clade PCR (case 1, cow 1; case 2, cows 1 and 2; case 3, cow 1; and case 4, cow 1). We forwarded the samples to the National Veterinary Services Laboratory, which confirmed the virus was an HPAI H5N1 virus strain.

When available, we also tested tissue homogenates (e.g., lung, spleen, and lymph nodes), ocular fluid, and rumen contents from 6 cows by IAV and H5 subtype-specific PCR ( Table 3 ). However, the PCR findings were not consistent. For example, the tissue homogenates and ocular fluid tested positive in some but not all cows. In case 5, cow 1, the milk sample tested negative by IAV screening PCR, but the spleen homogenate tested positive by IAV screening, H5 subtype, and H5 2.3.4.4 PCR. For 2 cows (case 3, cow 1; and case 4, cow 1) that had both milk and rumen contents available, both samples tested positive for IAV. Nevertheless, all IAV-positive nonmammary gland tissue homogenates, ocular fluid, and rumen contents had markedly elevated Ct values in contrast to the low Ct values for milk and mammary gland homogenate samples.

We tested brain and lung samples from the 2 cats (case 6, cats 1 and 2) by IAV screening and H5 subtype-specific PCR ( Table 3 ). Both sample types were positive by IAV screening PCR; Ct values were 9.9–13.5 for brain and 17.4–24.4 for lung samples, indicating high amounts of virus nucleic acid in those samples. The H5 subtype and H5 2.3.4.4 PCR results were also positive for the brain and lung samples; Ct values were consistent with the IAV screening PCR ( Table 3 ).

Phylogenetic Analyses

We assembled the sequences of all 8 segments of the HPAI viruses from both cow milk and cat tissue samples. We used the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) sequences specifically for phylogenetic analysis to delineate the clade of the HA gene and subtype of the NA gene.

Phylogenetic analysis of hemagglutinin gene sequences in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Colors indicate different clades. Red text indicates the virus gene sequences from bovine milk and cats described in this report, confirming those viruses are highly similar and belong to H5 clade 2.3.4.4b. The hemagglutinin sequences from this report are most closely related to A/avian/Guanajuato/CENAPA-18539/2023|EPI_ISL_18755544|A_/_H5 (GISAID, https://www.gisaid.org) and have 99.66%–99.72% nucleotide identities.

Figure 3 . Phylogenetic analysis of hemagglutinin gene sequences in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Colors indicate different...

For HA gene analysis, both HA sequences derived from cow milk samples exhibited a high degree of similarity, sharing 99.88% nucleotide identity, whereas the 2 HA sequences from cat tissue samples showed complete identity at 100%. The HA sequences from the milk samples had 99.94% nucleotide identities with HA sequences from the cat tissues, resulting in a distinct subcluster comprising all 4 HA sequences, which clustered together with other H5N1 viruses belonging to clade 2.3.4.4b ( Figure 3 ). The HA sequences were deposited in GenBank (accession nos. PP599465 [case 2, cow 1], PP599473 [case 2, cow 2], PP692142 [case 6, cat 1], and PP692195 [case 6, cat 2]).

Phylogenetic analysis of neuraminidase gene sequences in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Colors indicate different subtypes. Red text indicates the virus gene sequences from bovine milk and cats described in this report, confirming those viruses belong to the N1 subtype. The neuraminidase sequences from this report had 99.52%–99.59% nucleotide identities to sequences from viruses isolated from a chicken and wild birds in 2023.

Figure 4 . Phylogenetic analysis of neuraminidase gene sequences in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Colors indicate different...

For NA gene analysis, the 2 NA sequences obtained from cow milk samples showed 99.93% nucleotide identity. Moreover, the NA sequences derived from the milk samples exhibited complete nucleotide identities (100%) with those from the cat tissues. The 4 NA sequences were grouped within the N1 subtype of HPAI viruses ( Figure 4 ). The NA sequences were deposited in GenBank (accession nos. PP599467 [case 2, cow 1], PP599475 [case 2, cow 2], PP692144 [case 6, cat 1], and PP692197 [case 6, cat 2]).

This case series differs from most previous reports of IAV infection in bovids, which indicated cattle were inapparently infected or resistant to infection ( 9 ). We describe an H5N1 strain of IAV in dairy cattle that resulted in apparent systemic illness, reduced milk production, and abundant virus shedding in milk. The magnitude of this finding is further emphasized by the high death rate (≈50%) of cats on farm premises that were fed raw colostrum and milk from affected cows; clinical disease and lesions developed that were consistent with previous reports of H5N1 infection in cats presumably derived from consuming infected wild birds ( 10 – 12 ). Although exposure to and consumption of dead wild birds cannot be completely ruled out for the cats described in this report, the known consumption of unpasteurized milk and colostrum from infected cows and the high amount of virus nucleic acid within the milk make milk and colostrum consumption a likely route of exposure. Therefore, our findings suggest cross-species mammal-to-mammal transmission of HPAI H5N1 virus and raise new concerns regarding the potential for virus spread within mammal populations. Horizontal transmission of HPAI H5N1 virus has been previously demonstrated in experimentally infected cats ( 13 ) and ferrets ( 14 ) and is suspected to account for large dieoffs observed during natural outbreaks in mink ( 15 ) and sea lions ( 16 ). Future experimental studies of HPAI H5N1 virus in dairy cattle should seek to confirm cross-species transmission to cats and potentially other mammals.

Clinical IAV infection in cattle has been infrequently reported in the published literature. The first report occurred in Japan in 1949, where a short course of disease with pyrexia, anorexia, nasal discharge, pneumonia, and decreased lactation developed in cattle ( 17 ). In 1997, a similar condition occurred in dairy cows in southwest England leading to a sporadic drop in milk production ( 18 ), and IAV seroconversion was later associated with reduced milk yield and respiratory disease ( 19 – 21 ). Rising antibody titers against human-origin influenza A viruses (H1N1 and H3N2) were later again reported in dairy cattle in England, which led to an acute fall in milk production during October 2005–March 2006 ( 22 ). Limited reports of IAV isolation from cattle exist; most reports occurred during the 1960s and 1970s in Hungary and in the former Soviet Union, where H3N2 was recovered from cattle experiencing respiratory disease ( 9 , 23 ). Direct detection of IAV in milk and the potential transmission from cattle to cats through feeding of unpasteurized milk has not been previously reported.

An IAV-associated drop in milk production in dairy cattle appears to have occurred during > 4 distinct periods and within 3 widely separated geographic areas: 1949 in Japan ( 17 ), 1997–1998 and 2005–2006 in Europe ( 19 , 21 ), and 2024 in the United States (this report). The sporadic occurrence of clinical disease in dairy cattle worldwide might be the result of changes in subclinical infection rates and the presence or absence of sufficient baseline IAV antibodies in cattle to prevent infection. Milk IgG, lactoferrin, and conglutinin have also been suggested as host factors that might reduce susceptibility of bovids to IAV infection ( 9 ). Contemporary estimates of the seroprevalence of IAV antibodies in US cattle are not well described in the published literature. One retrospective serologic survey in the United States in the late 1990s showed 27% of serum samples had positive antibody titers and 31% had low-positive titers for IAV H1 subtype-specific antigen in cattle with no evidence of clinical infections ( 24 ). Antibody titers for H5 subtype-specific antigen have not been reported in US cattle.

The susceptibility of domestic cats to HPAI H5N1 is well-documented globally ( 10 – 12 , 25 – 28 ), and infection often results in neurologic signs in affected felids and other terrestrial mammals ( 4 ). Most cases in cats result from consuming infected wild birds or contaminated poultry products ( 12 , 27 ). The incubation period in cats is short; clinical disease is often observed 2–3 days after infection ( 28 ). Brain tissue has been suggested as the best diagnostic sample to confirm HPAI virus infection in cats ( 10 ), and our results support that finding. One unique finding in the cats from this report is the presence of blindness and microscopic lesions of chorioretinitis. Those results suggest that further investigation into potential ocular manifestations of HPAI H5N1 virus infection in cats might be warranted.

The genomic sequencing and subsequent analysis of clinical samples from both bovine and feline sources provided considerable insights. The HA and NA sequences derived from both bovine milk and cat tissue samples from different Texas farms had a notable degree of similarity. Those findings strongly suggest a shared origin for the viruses detected in the dairy cattle and cat tissues. Further research, case series investigations, and surveillance data are needed to better understand and inform measures to curtail the clinical effects, shedding, and spread of HPAI viruses among mammals. Although pasteurization of commercial milk mitigates risks for transmission to humans, a 2019 US consumer study showed that 4.4% of adults consumed raw milk > 1 time during the previous year ( 29 ), indicating a need for public awareness of the potential presence of HPAI H5N1 viruses in raw milk.

Ingestion of feed contaminated with feces from wild birds infected with HPAI virus is presumed to be the most likely initial source of infection in the dairy farms. Although the exact source of the virus is unknown, migratory birds (Anseriformes and Charadriiformes) are likely sources because the Texas panhandle region lies in the Central Flyway, and those birds are the main natural reservoir for avian influenza viruses ( 30 ). HPAI H5N1 viruses are well adapted to domestic ducks and geese, and ducks appear to be a major reservoir ( 31 ); however, terns have also emerged as an important source of virus spread ( 32 ). The mode of transmission among infected cattle is also unknown; however, horizontal transmission has been suggested because disease developed in resident cattle herds in Michigan, Idaho, and Ohio farms that received infected cattle from the affected regions, and those cattle tested positive for HPAI H5N1 ( 33 ). Experimental studies are needed to decipher the transmission routes and pathogenesis (e.g., replication sites and movement) of the virus within infected cattle.

In conclusion, we showed that dairy cattle are susceptible to infection with HPAI H5N1 virus and can shed virus in milk and, therefore, might potentially transmit infection to other mammals via unpasteurized milk. A reduction in milk production and vague systemic illness were the most commonly reported clinical signs in affected cows, but neurologic signs and death rapidly developed in affected domestic cats. HPAI virus infection should be considered in dairy cattle when an unexpected and unexplained abrupt drop in feed intake and milk production occurs and for cats when rapid onset of neurologic signs and blindness develop. The recurring nature of global HPAI H5N1 virus outbreaks and detection of spillover events in a broad host range is concerning and suggests increasing virus adaptation in mammals. Surveillance of HPAI viruses in domestic production animals, including cattle, is needed to elucidate influenza virus evolution and ecology and prevent cross-species transmission.

Dr. Burrough is a professor and diagnostic pathologist at the Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine and Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory. His research focuses on infectious diseases of livestock with an emphasis on swine.

Acknowledgment

We thank the faculty and staff at the ISUVDL who contributed to the processing and analysis of clinical samples in this investigation, the veterinarians involved with clinical assessments at affected dairies and various conference calls in the days before diagnostic submissions that ultimately led to the detection of HPAI virus in the cattle, and the US Department of Agriculture National Veterinary Services Laboratory and NAHLN for their roles and assistance in providing their expertise, confirmatory diagnostic support, and communications surrounding the HPAI virus cases impacting lactating dairy cattle.

Caliendo V , Lewis NS , Pohlmann A , Baillie SR , Banyard AC , Beer M , et al. Transatlantic spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 by wild birds from Europe to North America in 2021. Sci Rep . 2022 ; 12 : 11729 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Bevins SN , Shriner SA , Cumbee JC Jr , Dilione KE , Douglass KE , Ellis JW , et al. Intercontinental movement of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4 virus to the United States, 2021. Emerg Infect Dis . 2022 ; 28 : 1006 – 11 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Puryear W , Sawatzki K , Hill N , Foss A , Stone JJ , Doughty L , et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus outbreak in New England seals, United States. Emerg Infect Dis . 2023 ; 29 : 786 – 91 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Elsmo EJ , Wünschmann A , Beckmen KB , Broughton-Neiswanger LE , Buckles EL , Ellis J , et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus clade 2.3.4.4b infections in wild terrestrial mammals, United States, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis . 2023 ; 29 : 2451 – 60 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Bruno A , Alfaro-Núñez A , de Mora D , Armas R , Olmedo M , Garcés J , et al. First case of human infection with highly pathogenic H5 avian influenza A virus in South America: a new zoonotic pandemic threat for 2023? J Travel Med. 2023 ;30:taad032.
Pulit-Penaloza JA , Brock N , Belser JA , Sun X , Pappas C , Kieran TJ , et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus of clade 2.3.4.4b isolated from a human case in Chile causes fatal disease and transmits between co-housed ferrets. Emerg Microbes Infect . 2024 ; 2332667 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service . Federal and state veterinary, public health agencies share update on HPAI detection in Kansas, Texas dairy herds. 2024 [ cited 2024 Mar 29 ]. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/news/agency-announcements/federal-state-veterinary-public-health-agencies-share-update-hpai
Sharma A , Zeller MA , Souza CK , Anderson TK , Vincent AL , Harmon K , et al. Characterization of a 2016–2017 human seasonal H3 influenza A virus spillover now endemic to U.S. swine. MSphere . 2022 ; 7 : e0080921 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Sreenivasan CC , Thomas M , Kaushik RS , Wang D , Li F . Influenza A in bovine species: a narrative literature review. Viruses . 2019 ; 11 : 561 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Sillman SJ , Drozd M , Loy D , Harris SP . Naturally occurring highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b infection in three domestic cats in North America during 2023. J Comp Pathol . 2023 ; 205 : 17 – 23 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Klopfleisch R , Wolf PU , Uhl W , Gerst S , Harder T , Starick E , et al. Distribution of lesions and antigen of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/Swan/Germany/R65/06 (H5N1) in domestic cats after presumptive infection by wild birds. Vet Pathol . 2007 ; 44 : 261 – 8 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Keawcharoen J , Oraveerakul K , Kuiken T , Fouchier RAM , Amonsin A , Payungporn S , et al. Avian influenza H5N1 in tigers and leopards. Emerg Infect Dis . 2004 ; 10 : 2189 – 91 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Kuiken T , Rimmelzwaan G , van Riel D , van Amerongen G , Baars M , Fouchier R , et al. Avian H5N1 influenza in cats. Science . 2004 ; 306 : 241 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Herfst S , Schrauwen EJA , Linster M , Chutinimitkul S , de Wit E , Munster VJ , et al. Airborne transmission of influenza A/H5N1 virus between ferrets. Science . 2012 ; 336 : 1534 – 41 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Agüero M , Monne I , Sánchez A , Zecchin B , Fusaro A , Ruano MJ , et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infection in farmed minks, Spain, October 2022. Euro Surveill . 2023 ; 28 : 2300001 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Leguia M , Garcia-Glaessner A , Muñoz-Saavedra B , Juarez D , Barrera P , Calvo-Mac C , et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) in marine mammals and seabirds in Peru. Nat Commun . 2023 ; 14 : 5489 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Saito K . An outbreak of cattle influenza in Japan in the fall of 1949. J Am Vet Med Assoc . 1951 ; 118 : 316 – 9 . PubMed Google Scholar
Gunning RF , Pritchard GC . Unexplained sporadic milk drop in dairy cows. Vet Rec . 1997 ; 140 : 488 . PubMed Google Scholar
Brown IH , Crawshaw TR , Harris PA , Alexander DJ . Detection of antibodies to influenza A virus in cattle in association with respiratory disease and reduced milk yield. Vet Rec . 1998 ; 143 : 637 – 8 . PubMed Google Scholar
Crawshaw TR , Brown I . Bovine influenza. Vet Rec . 1998 ; 143 : 372 . PubMed Google Scholar
Gunning RF , Brown IH , Crawshaw TR . Evidence of influenza A virus infection in dairy cows with sporadic milk drop syndrome. Vet Rec . 1999 ; 145 : 556 – 7 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Crawshaw TR , Brown IH , Essen SC , Young SCL . Significant rising antibody titres to influenza A are associated with an acute reduction in milk yield in cattle. Vet J . 2008 ; 178 : 98 – 102 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Lopez JW , Woods GT . Influenza virus in ruminants: a review. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol . 1984 ; 45 : 445 – 62 . PubMed Google Scholar
Jones-Lang K , Ernst-Larson M , Lee B , Goyal SM , Bey R . Prevalence of influenza A virus (H1N1) antibodies in bovine sera. New Microbiol . 1998 ; 21 : 153 – 60 . PubMed Google Scholar
Briand FX , Souchaud F , Pierre I , Beven V , Hirchaud E , Hérault F , et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus in domestic cat, France, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis . 2023 ; 29 : 1696 – 8 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Frymus T , Belák S , Egberink H , Hofmann-Lehmann R , Marsilio F , Addie DD , et al. Influenza virus infections in cats. Viruses . 2021 ; 13 : 1435 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Songserm T , Amonsin A , Jam-on R , Sae-Heng N , Meemak N , Pariyothorn N , et al. Avian influenza H5N1 in naturally infected domestic cat. Emerg Infect Dis . 2006 ; 12 : 681 – 3 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Thiry E , Zicola A , Addie D , Egberink H , Hartmann K , Lutz H , et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus in cats and other carnivores. Vet Microbiol . 2007 ; 122 : 25 – 31 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Lando AM , Bazaco MC , Parker CC , Ferguson M . Characteristics of U.S. consumers reporting past year intake of raw (unpasteurized) milk: results from the 2016 Food Safety Survey and 2019 Food Safety and Nutrition Survey. J Food Prot . 2022 ; 85 : 1036 – 43 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Fourment M , Darling AE , Holmes EC . The impact of migratory flyways on the spread of avian influenza virus in North America. BMC Evol Biol . 2017 ; 17 : 118 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
Guan Y , Smith GJD . The emergence and diversification of panzootic H5N1 influenza viruses. Virus Res . 2013 ; 178 : 35 – 43 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
de Araújo AC , Silva LMN , Cho AY , Repenning M , Amgarten D , de Moraes AP , et al. Incursion of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus, Brazil, 2023. Emerg Infect Dis . 2024 ; 30 : 619 – 21 . DOI PubMed Google Scholar
American Veterinary Medical Association . States with HPAI-infected dairy cows grows to six. USDA provides guidance for veterinarians, producers on protecting cattle from the virus. 2024 [ cited 2024 Apr 10 ]. https://www.avma.org/news/states-hpai-infected-dairy-cows-grows-six
Figure 1 . Mammary gland lesions in cattle in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. A, B) Mammary...
Figure 2 . Lesions in cat tissues in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Tissue sections were stained...
Figure 3 . Phylogenetic analysis of hemagglutinin gene sequences in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Colors indicate...
Figure 4 . Phylogenetic analysis of neuraminidase gene sequences in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Colors indicate...
Table 1 . Microscopic lesions observed in cattle in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024
Table 2 . Microscopic lesions observed in cats in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024
Table 3 . PCR results from various specimens in study of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024

Suggested citation for this article : Burrough ER, Magstadt DR, Petersen B, Timmermans SJ, Gauger PC, Zhang J, et al. Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) clade 2.3.4.4b virus infection in domestic dairy cattle and cats, United States, 2024. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024 Jul [ date cited ]. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3007.240508

DOI: 10.3201/eid3007.240508

Original Publication Date: April 29, 2024

Table of Contents – Volume 30, Number 7—July 2024

Please use the form below to submit correspondence to the authors or contact them at the following address:

Eric R. Burrough, Iowa State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, 1937 Christensen Dr, Ames, IA 50011, USA

Comment submitted successfully, thank you for your feedback.

There was an unexpected error. Message not sent.

Exit Notification / Disclaimer Policy

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.
CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.

Metric Details

Article views: 24125.

Data is collected weekly and does not include downloads and attachments. View data is from .

What is the Altmetric Attention Score?

The Altmetric Attention Score for a research output provides an indicator of the amount of attention that it has received. The score is derived from an automated algorithm, and represents a weighted count of the amount of attention Altmetric picked up for a research output.

IMAGES

Types of Research Report
Interpretation and Report writing
Research Methodology report writing
15 Research Methodology Examples (2023)
Research Methodology
Interpretation and Report Writing

VIDEO

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PRESENTATION)
Methodology
ស្ថិតិបែបពិសោធន៍
Chapter 4
Presenting Written Research Methodology
Types of Reports

COMMENTS

Interpretation and Report writing
1 of 64. Interpretation and Report writing. 1. 2. Interpretationis the process of making in the sense of numerical data that has been collected, analyzed and presented. A common method of assessing numerical data is known as statistical data analysis and the activity of analyzing and interpreting data in order to make prediction is known as ...
Research methodology interpretation
This document discusses interpretation in research methodology. Interpretation involves drawing inferences from collected facts after analytical or experimental study. It has two main aspects: establishing continuity of research and explanatory concepts. Interpretation allows researchers to understand abstract principles, link findings across ...
Data Analysis & Interpretation and Report Writing
3. Data Analysis: "Data Analysis is the process of ordering, categorizing, manipulating and summarizing data to obtain answers to research questions". It is usually the first step taken towards data interpretation. Interpretation of data is important and such needs to be done properly. Researchers have identified some data interpretation ...
Research Report Writing
Research Report Writing - Download as a PDF or view online for free. ... Title Page -1st Step : Introduction -2nd Step : Review of Related Literature -3rd Step : Research Design -4th Step : Data Analysis & Expected Findings -5th Step : ... Various Business Research Methods. Business research mehods.
Presentation on interpretation and report writing
Precautions in Interpretation Data are appropriate Good homogeneity Proper analysis Avoid Errors. 6. Report Writing o Latin word 'Portare' means 'to carry' o RE+PORT = to carry information again o Document giving summarised and interpretative information of research done based on factual data, opinions and about procedure used by the ...
Writing research report
A research paper/report is a systematic write up on the findings of the study including methodologies, discussion, conclusions etc. following a definite style. 6. Purpose research report Present the results of a research. Allow research results to invariably enter the general store of knowledge. Provide a persuasive argument to readers of what ...
Research Methodology report writing
Research Methodology report writing. 1. Types of Report BIALL SULTAN Research Scholar SOCS, MGU, Kerala 11/11/2020 1 RM:Module 4. 2. Meaning:- • "A report is a statement of the result of an investigation or of any matter on which definite information is required." (Oxford English Dictionary) 11/11/2020 2. 3.
Interpretation and Report Writing. Interpretation & Report Writing
Meaning of Interpretation Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another ...
Lecture Notes on Research Methodology
1 Research Methodology: An Introduction: MEANING OF RESEARCH: Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. ... 125 14 Interpretation and Report Writing After collecting and analyzing DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual ...
PowerPoint Slides: SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology
DeCarlo and his team developed a complete package of materials that includes a textbook, ancillary materials, and a student workbook as part of a VIVA Open Course Grant. The PowerPoint slides associated with the twelve lessons of the course, SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology, as previously taught by Dr. Matthew DeCarlo at ...
PPT
Research Methodology. Introduction to Research Methodology. Stages of Research Project. Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Literature Review Chapter 3: Methodology Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Interpretation of Findings Chapter 5: Discussion and conclusion. Why do we research?. Download Presentation. highest contributor. human resource managers.
Interpretation and Report Writing
Interpretation and Report Writing - Free download as Powerpoint Presentation (.ppt), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or view presentation slides online. Interpretation is a search for broader meaning of research findings. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they are. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered ...
A COURSE IN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2018.pptx
The basic premise for writing this book is that research methods can be taught and learnt. The emphasis is on developing a research outlook and a frame of mind for carrying out research. ... Data Analysis, Management and Presentation Chapter-7: Tips for Writing Research Report Chapter-8: Glossary Related to Research Methodology Chapter-9 ...
PDF Chapter 4 Interpretation and Report Writing
Research Report Writing Dr. Shlesinger and M. Stephenson in the encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define Research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend correct or verify knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art. Writing the Research Report is the last step of ...
Chapter 20. Presentations
Findings from qualitative research are inextricably tied up with the way those findings are presented. These presentations do not always need to be in writing, but they need to happen. Think of ethnographies, for example, and their thick descriptions of a particular culture. Witnessing a culture, taking fieldnotes, talking to people—none of ...
Research Report
Thesis. Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master's or Doctoral degree, although it ...
RM MOD 5
Many times, research findings are not followed because of improper presentation. Preparation of research report is not an easy task. It is an art. It requires a good deal of knowledge, imagination, experience, and expertise. It demands a considerable time and money. TYPES OF RESEARCH REPORT There are two types of research report- 1. ORAL REPORT 2.
PDF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY REPORT WRITING
down the research. It is advisable that before starting the report writing, the entire research time frame, planning and organizing of the study material is done on the basis of the objectives and the hypothesis made. Following are some of the basic guidelines that a researcher may follow throughout the research so that report writing
PPT Eastern Illinois University
ÐÏ à¡± á> þÿ j z þÿÿÿi ...
(PPT) REPORT WRITING PRSENTATION
The paper will improve our understanding of writing a good academic research report with example of our research topics on various issues. The examples are based on our research on HIV positive people, adolescent health and infertility issues. The primary source of data collection for the paper is our field work. Download Free PDF.
PDF Data Collection and Analysis UNIT 5 REPORT WRITING
Data Collection and Analysis UNIT 5 REPORT WRITING Structure 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Types of Report 5.3 Writing the Research Report 5.4 The Preliminary Pages of Research Report 5.5 Main Components or Chaptering of Research Report 5.6 Style and Layout of the Report 5.7 Common Weaknesses in Report W riting and Finalizing the Text 5.8 Let Us Sum Up
PDF UNIT IV
Research Methods for Business 18BBA55S V Dr Prabhu R Assistant Professor INTERPRETATION AND REPORT PREPARATION Interpretation: It refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical and / or experimental study. It is a search for broader meaning of research findings It has two important aspects: i.
PDF Sos Political Science &Public Administration
A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research and is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research. The various sections of a research report are: 1. Summary 2. Background/Introduction 3. Implemented Methods 4. Results based on Analysis 5. Deliberation 6.
Volume 30, Number 7—July 2024
We report the characterizations performed at the ISUVDL for HPAI H5N1 viruses infecting cattle and cats in Kansas and Texas. Materials and Methods Milk samples (cases 2-5) and fresh and formalin-fixed tissues (cases 1, 3-5) from dairy cattle were received at the ISUVDL from Texas on March 21 and from Kansas on March 22, 2024.