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9 Best Examples of Research Instruments in Qualitative Research Explained

Introduction.

Qualitative research is a valuable approach that allows researchers to explore complex phenomena and gain in-depth insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals. In order to conduct qualitative research effectively, researchers often utilize various research methodologies and instruments. These methodologies and instruments serve as tools to collect and analyze data, enabling researchers to uncover rich and nuanced information.

In this article, we will delve into the world of qualitative research instruments, specifically focusing on research instrument examples. We will explore the different types of qualitative research instruments, provide specific examples, and discuss the advantages and limitations of using these instruments in qualitative research. By the end of this article, you will have a comprehensive understanding of the role and significance of research instruments in qualitative research.

Goals of Research Instruments in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research instruments are tools that researchers use to collect and analyze data in qualitative research studies. These instruments help researchers gather rich and detailed information about a particular phenomenon or topic.

One of the main goals of qualitative research is to understand the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals. To achieve this, researchers need to use instruments that allow for in-depth exploration and interpretation of data. Qualitative research instruments can take various forms, including interviews, questionnaires, observations, and focus groups. Each instrument has its own strengths and limitations, and researchers need to carefully select the most appropriate instrument for their study objectives.

Exploring qualitative research instruments involves understanding the characteristics and features of each instrument, as well as considering the research context and the specific research questions being addressed. Researchers also need to consider the ethical implications of using qualitative research instruments, such as ensuring informed consent and maintaining confidentiality and anonymity of participants.

Examples of Qualitative Research Instruments

Qualitative research instruments are tools used to collect data and gather information in qualitative research studies. These instruments help researchers explore and understand complex social phenomena in depth. There are several types of qualitative research instruments that can be used depending on the research objectives and the nature of the study.

Interviews are one of the most commonly used qualitative research instruments. They involve direct communication between the researcher and the participant, allowing for in-depth exploration of the participant’s experiences, perspectives, and opinions. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured , depending on the level of flexibility in the questioning process. They involve researchers asking open-ended questions to participants to gather in-depth information and insights. Interviews can be conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Focus Groups

Focus groups are another example of qualitative research instrument that involves a group discussion led by a researcher or moderator. Participants in a focus group share their thoughts, ideas, and experiences on a specific topic. This instrument allows for the exploration of group dynamics and the interaction between participants. It also allow researchers to gather multiple perspectives and generate rich qualitative data.

Observations

Observations are a powerful qualitative research instrument that involves systematic and careful observation of participants in their natural settings. This type of qualitative research instrument allows researchers to gather data on behavior, interactions, and social processes. Observations can be participant observations, where the researcher actively participates in the setting, or non-participant observations, where the researcher remains an observer.

Document Analysis

Document analysis is a qualitative research instrument that involves the examination, analyzation and interpretation of written or recorded materials such as documents, texts, audio/video recordings or other written materials. Researchers analyze documents to gain insights into social, cultural, or historical contexts, as well as to understand the perspectives and meanings embedded in the documents.

Visual Methods

Visual methods, such as photography, video recording, or drawings, can be used as qualitative research instruments. These methods allow participants to express their experiences and perspectives visually, providing rich and nuanced data. Visual methods can be particularly useful in studying topics related to art, culture, or visual communication.

Diaries or Journals

Diaries or journals can be used as qualitative research instruments to collect data on participants’ thoughts, feelings, and experiences over a period of time. Participants record their daily activities, reflections, and emotions, providing valuable insights into their lived experiences.

While surveys are commonly associated with quantitative research, they can also be used as qualitative research instruments. Qualitative surveys typically include open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses. Surveys can be administered online, through interviews, or in written form.

Case Studies

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a particular individual, group, or phenomenon. They involve collecting and analyzing qualitative data from various sources such as interviews, observations, and document analysis. Case studies provide rich and detailed insights into specific contexts or situations.

Ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative research instrument that involves immersing researchers in a particular social or cultural group to observe and understand their behaviors, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic research often includes participant observation, interviews, and document analysis.

These are just a few examples of qualitative research instruments. Researchers can choose the most appropriate data collection method or combination of methods based on their research objectives, the nature of the research question, and the available resources.

Advantages of Using Qualitative Research Instruments

Gathering in-depth and detailed information.

Qualitative research instruments offer several advantages that make them valuable tools in the research process. Firstly, qualitative research instruments allow researchers to gather in-depth and detailed information. Unlike quantitative research instruments that focus on numerical data, qualitative instruments provide rich and descriptive data about participants’ feelings, opinions, and experiences. This depth of information allows researchers to gain a comprehensive understanding of the research topic .

Flexibility and Adaptability in Qualitative Research

Another advantage of qualitative research instruments is their flexibility. Researchers can adapt their methods and questions during data collection to respond to emerging insights. This flexibility allows for a more dynamic and responsive research process, enabling researchers to explore new avenues and uncover unexpected findings.

Capturing Data in Natural Settings

Qualitative research instruments also offer the advantage of capturing data in natural settings. Unlike controlled laboratory settings often used in quantitative research, qualitative research takes place in real-world contexts. This natural setting allows researchers to observe participants’ behaviors and interactions in their natural environment, providing a more authentic and realistic representation of their experiences.

Promoting Participant Engagement and Collaboration

Furthermore, qualitative research instruments promote participant engagement and collaboration. By using methods such as interviews and focus groups, researchers can actively involve participants in the research process. This engagement fosters a sense of ownership and empowerment among participants, leading to more meaningful and insightful data.

Exploring Complex Issues Through Qualitative Research

Lastly, qualitative research instruments allow for the exploration of complex issues. Qualitative research is particularly useful when studying complex phenomena that cannot be easily quantified or measured. It allows researchers to delve into the underlying meanings, motivations, and social dynamics that shape individuals’ behaviors and experiences.

Limitations of Qualitative Research Instruments

Qualitative research instruments have several limitations that researchers need to consider when conducting their studies. In this section, we will delve into the limitations of qualitative research instruments as compared to quantitative research.

Time-Consuming Nature of Qualitative Research

One of the main drawbacks of qualitative research is that the process is time-consuming. Unlike quantitative research, which can collect data from a large sample size in a relatively short period of time, qualitative research requires in-depth interviews, observations, and analysis, which can take a significant amount of time.

Subjectivity and Potential Bias in Qualitative Research

Another limitation of qualitative research instruments is that the interpretations are subjective. Since qualitative research focuses on understanding the meaning and context of phenomena, the interpretations of the data can vary depending on the researcher’s perspective and biases. This subjectivity can introduce potential bias and affect the reliability and validity of the findings.

Complexity of Data Analysis

Additionally, qualitative research instruments often involve complex data analysis. Unlike quantitative research, which can use statistical methods to analyze data, qualitative research requires researchers to analyze textual or visual data, which can be time-consuming and challenging. The analysis process involves coding, categorizing, and interpreting the data, which requires expertise and careful attention to detail.

Challenges in Maintaining Anonymity and Privacy

Furthermore, qualitative research instruments may face challenges in maintaining anonymity. In some cases, researchers may need to collect sensitive or personal information from participants, which can raise ethical concerns . Ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of participants’ data can be challenging, and researchers need to take appropriate measures to protect the participants’ identities and maintain their trust.

Limited Generalizability of Qualitative Research Findings

Another limitation of qualitative research instruments is the limited generalizability of the findings. Qualitative research often focuses on a specific context or a small sample size, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to a larger population. While qualitative research provides rich and detailed insights into a particular phenomenon, it may not be representative of the broader population or applicable to other settings.

Difficulty in Replicating Qualitative Research Findings

Lastly, replicating findings in qualitative research can be difficult. Since qualitative research often involves in-depth exploration of a specific phenomenon, replicating the exact conditions and context of the original study can be challenging. This can make it difficult for other researchers to validate or replicate the findings, which is an essential aspect of scientific research.

Despite these limitations, qualitative research instruments offer valuable insights and understanding of complex phenomena. By acknowledging and addressing these limitations, researchers can enhance the rigor and validity of their qualitative research studies.

In conclusion, qualitative research instruments are powerful tools that enable researchers to explore and uncover the complexities of human experiences. By utilizing a range of instruments and considering their advantages and limitations, researchers can enhance the rigor and depth of their qualitative research studies.

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Q: What is a research instrument?

Asked on 12 Feb, 2020

A research instrument is a tool used to obtain, measure, and analyze data from subjects around the research topic. You need to decide the instrument to use based on the type of study you are conducting: quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method. For instance, for a quantitative study, you may decide to use a questionnaire, and for a qualitative study, you may choose to use a scale. While it helps to use an established instrument, as its efficacy is already established, you may if needed use a new instrument or even create your own instrument. You need to describe the instrument(s) used in the Methods section of the paper.

For information on describing the use of instruments and requesting permission to use new instruments, you may refer to the following resources:

• Should I write the definition and working of an instrument or scale that I used in my study?
• Do I need to take permission to use a scale that was published in a paper?

If you’re looking for an expert statistical analysis service to support you in your next research project,  book a conversation  with our expert consultant today.

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Hands-on guide to questionnaire research

Selecting, designing, and developing your questionnaire, petra m boynton.

1 Department of Primary Care and Population Sciences, University College London, Archway Campus, London N19 5LW

Trisha Greenhalgh

Associated data, short abstract.

Anybody can write down a list of questions and photocopy it, but producing worthwhile and generalisable data from questionnaires needs careful planning and imaginative design

The great popularity with questionnaires is they provide a “quick fix” for research methodology. No single method has been so abused. 1

Questionnaires offer an objective means of collecting information about people's knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviour. 2 , 3 Do our patients like our opening hours? What do teenagers think of a local antidrugs campaign and has it changed their attitudes? Why don't doctors use computers to their maximum potential? Questionnaires can be used as the sole research instrument (such as in a cross sectional survey) or within clinical trials or epidemiological studies.

Randomised trials are subject to strict reporting criteria, 4 but there is no comparable framework for questionnaire research. Hence, despite a wealth of detailed guidance in the specialist literature, 1 - 3 , 5 w1-w8 elementary methodological errors are common. 1 Inappropriate instruments and lack of rigour inevitably lead to poor quality data, misleading conclusions, and woolly recommendations. w8 In this series we aim to present a practical guide that will enable research teams to do questionnaire research that is well designed, well managed, and non-discriminatory and which contributes to a generalisable evidence base. We start with selecting and designing the questionnaire. ​ questionnaire.

What information are you trying to collect?

You and your co-researchers may have different assumptions about precisely what information you would like your study to generate. A formal scoping exercise will ensure that you clarify goals and if necessary reach an agreed compromise. It will also flag up potential practical problems—for example, how long the questionnaire will be and how it might be administered.

As a rule of thumb, if you are not familiar enough with the research area or with a particular population subgroup to predict the range of possible responses, and especially if such details are not available in the literature, you should first use a qualitative approach (such as focus groups) to explore the territory and map key areas for further study. 6

Is a questionnaire appropriate?

People often decide to use a questionnaire for research questions that need a different method. Sometimes, a questionnaire will be appropriate only if used within a mixed methodology study—for example, to extend and quantify the findings of an initial exploratory phase. Table A on bmj.com gives some real examples where questionnaires were used inappropriately. 1

Box 1: Pitfalls of designing your own questionnaire

Natasha, a practice nurse, learns that staff at a local police station have a high incidence of health problems, which she believes are related to stress at work. She wants to test the relation between stress and health in these staff to inform the design of advice services. Natasha designs her own questionnaire. Had she completed a thorough literature search for validated measures, she would have found several high quality questionnaires that measure stress in public sector workers. 8 Natasha's hard work produces only a second rate study that she is unable to get published.

Research participants must be able to give meaningful answers (with help from a professional interviewer if necessary). Particular physical, mental, social, and linguistic needs are covered in the third article of this series. 7

Could you use an existing instrument?

Using a previously validated and published questionnaire will save you time and resources; you will be able to compare your own findings with those from other studies, you need only give outline details of the instrument when you write up your work, and you may find it easier to get published (box 1).

Increasingly, health services research uses standard questionnaires designed for producing data that can be compared across studies. For example, clinical trials routinely include measures of patients' knowledge about a disease, 9 satisfaction with services, 10 or health related quality of life. 11 - 13 w3 w9 The validity (see below) of this approach depends on whether the type and range of closed responses reflects the full range of perceptions and feelings that people in all the different potential sampling frames might hold. Importantly, health status and quality of life instruments lose their validity when used beyond the context in which they were developed. 12 , 14 , 15 w3 w10-12

If there is no “off the peg” questionnaire available, you will have to construct your own. Using one or more standard instruments alongside a short bespoke questionnaire could save you the need to develop and validate a long list of new items.

Is the questionnaire valid and reliable?

A valid questionnaire measures what it claims to measure. In reality, many fail to do this. For example, a self completion questionnaire that seeks to measure people's food intake may be invalid because it measures what they say they have eaten, not what they have actually eaten. 16 Similarly, responses on questionnaires that ask general practitioners how they manage particular clinical conditions differ significantly from actual clinical practice. w13 An instrument developed in a different time, country, or cultural context may not be a valid measure in the group you are studying. For example, the item “I often attend gay parties” may have been a valid measure of a person's sociability level in the 1950s, but the wording has a very different connotation today.

Reliable questionnaires yield consistent results from repeated samples and different researchers over time. Differences in results come from differences between participants, not from inconsistencies in how the items are understood or how different observers interpret the responses. A standardised questionnaire is one that is written and administered so all participants are asked the precisely the same questions in an identical format and responses recorded in a uniform manner. Standardising a measure increases its reliability.

Just because a questionnaire has been piloted on a few of your colleagues, used in previous studies, or published in a peer reviewed journal does not mean it is either valid or reliable. The detailed techniques for achieving validity, reliability, and standardisation are beyond the scope of this series. If you plan to develop or modify a questionnaire yourself, you must consult a specialist text on these issues. 2 , 3

How should you present your questions?

Questionnaire items may be open or closed ended and be presented in various formats ( figure ). Table B on bmj.com examines the pros and cons of the two approaches. Two words that are often used inappropriately in closed question stems are frequently and regularly. A poorly designed item might read, “I frequently engage in exercise,” and offer a Likert scale giving responses from “strongly agree” through to “strongly disagree.” But “frequently” implies frequency, so a frequency based rating scale (with options such as at least once a day, twice a week, and so on) would be more appropriate. “Regularly,” on the other hand, implies a pattern. One person can regularly engage in exercise once a month whereas another person can regularly do so four times a week. Other weasel words to avoid in question stems include commonly, usually, many, some, and hardly ever. 17 w14

Examples of formats for presenting questionnaire items

Box 2: A closed ended design that produced misleading information

Customer: I'd like to discontinue my mobile phone rental please.

Company employee: That's fine, sir, but I need to complete a form for our records on why you've made that decision. Is it (a) you have moved to another network; (b) you've upgraded within our network; or (c) you can't afford the payments?

Customer: It isn't any of those. I've just decided I don't want to own a mobile phone any more. It's more hassle than it's worth.

Company employee: [after a pause] In that case, sir, I'll have to put you down as “can't afford the payments.”

Closed ended designs enable researchers to produce aggregated data quickly, but the range of possible answers is set by the researchers not respondents, and the richness of potential responses is lower. Closed ended items often cause frustration, usually because researchers have not considered all potential responses (box 2). 18

Ticking a particular box, or even saying yes, no, or maybe can make respondents want to explain their answer, and such free text annotations may add richly to the quantitative data. You should consider inserting a free text box at the end of the questionnaire (or even after particular items or sections). Note that participants need instructions (perhaps with examples) on how to complete free text items in the same way as they do for closed questions.

If you plan to use open ended questions or invite free text comments, you must plan in advance how you will analyse these data (drawing on the skills of a qualitative researcher if necessary). 19 You must also build into the study design adequate time, skills, and resources for this analysis; otherwise you will waste participants' and researchers' time. If you do not have the time or expertise to analyse free text responses, do not invite any.

Some respondents (known as yea sayers) tend to agree with statements rather than disagree. For this reason, do not present your items so that strongly agree always links to the same broad attitude. For example, on a patient satisfaction scale, if one question is “my GP generally tries to help me out,” another question should be phrased in the negative, such as “the receptionists are usually impolite.”

Apart from questions, what else should you include?

A common error by people designing questionnaires for the first time is simply to hand out a list of the questions they want answered. Table C on bmj.com gives a checklist of other things to consider. It is particularly important to provide an introductory letter or information sheet for participants to take away after completing the questionnaire.

What should the questionnaire look like?

Researchers rarely spend sufficient time on the physical layout of their questionnaire, believing that the science lies in the content of the questions and not in such details as the font size or colour. Yet empirical studies have repeatedly shown that low response rates are often due to participants being unable to read or follow the questionnaire (box 3). 3 w6 In general, questions should be short and to the point (around 12 words or less), but for issues of a sensitive and personal nature, short questions can be perceived as abrupt and threatening, and longer sentences are preferred. w6

How should you select your sample?

Different sampling techniques will affect the questions you ask and how you administer your questionnaire (see table D on bmj.com ). For more detailed advice on sampling, see Bowling 20 and Sapsford. 3

If you are collecting quantitative data with a view to testing a hypothesis or assessing the prevalence of a disease or problem (for example, about intergroup differences in particular attitudes or health status), seek statistical advice on the minimum sample size. 3

What approvals do you need before you start?

Unlike other methods, questionnaires require relatively little specialist equipment or materials, which means that inexperienced and unsupported researchers sometimes embark on questionnaire surveys without completing the necessary formalities. In the United Kingdom, a research study on NHS patients or staff must be:

• Formally approved by the relevant person in an organisation that is registered with the Department of Health as a research sponsor (typically, a research trust, university or college) 21 ;
• Consistent with data protection law and logged on the organisation's data protection files (see next article in series) 19
• Accordant with research governance frameworks 21
• Approved by the appropriate research ethics committee (see below).

Box 3: Don't let layout let you down

Meena, a general practice tutor, wanted to study her fellow general practitioners' attitudes to a new training scheme in her primary care trust. She constructed a series of questions, but when they were written down, they covered 10 pages, which Meena thought looked off putting. She reduced the font and spacing of her questionnaire, and printed it double sided, until it was only four sides in length. But many of her colleagues refused to complete it, telling her they found it too hard to read and work through. She returned the questionnaire to its original 10 page format, which made it easier and quicker to complete, and her response rate increased greatly.

Summary points

Questionnaire studies often fail to produce high quality generalisable data

When possible, use previously validated questionnaires

Questions must be phrased appropriately for the target audience and information required

Good explanations and design will improve response rates

In addition, if your questionnaire study is part of a formal academic course (for example, a dissertation), you must follow any additional regulations such as gaining written approval from your supervisor.

A study is unethical if it is scientifically unsound, causes undue offence or trauma, breaches confidentiality, or wastes people's time or money. Written approval from a local or multicentre NHS research ethics committee (more information at www.corec.org.uk ) is essential but does not in itself make a study ethical. Those working in non-NHS institutions or undertaking research outside the NHS may need to submit an additional (non-NHS) ethical committee application to their own institution or research sponsor.

The committee will require details of the study design, copies of your questionnaire, and any accompanying information or covering letters. If the questionnaire is likely to cause distress, you should include a clear plan for providing support to both participants and researchers. Remember that just because you do not find a question offensive or distressing does not mean it will not upset others. 6

As we have shown above, designing a questionnaire study that produces usable data is not as easy as it might seem. Awareness of the pitfalls is essential both when planning research and appraising published studies. Table E on bmj.com gives a critical appraisal checklist for evaluating questionnaire studies. In the following two articles we will discuss how to select a sample, pilot and administer a questionnaire, and analyse data and approaches for groups that are hard to research.

Supplementary Material

This is the first in a series of three articles on questionnaire research

Susan Catt supplied additional references and feedback. We also thank Alicia O'Cathain, Jill Russell, Geoff Wong, Marcia Rigby, Sara Shaw, Fraser MacFarlane, and Will Callaghan for feedback on earlier versions. Numerous research students and conference delegates provided methodological questions and case examples of real life questionnaire research, which provided the inspiration and raw material for this series. We also thank the hundreds of research participants who over the years have contributed data and given feedback to our students and ourselves about the design, layout, and accessibility of instruments.

Contributors and sources: PMB and TG have taught research methods in a primary care setting for the past 13 years, specialising in practical approaches and using the experiences and concerns of researchers and participants as the basis of learning. This series of papers arose directly from questions asked about real questionnaire studies. To address these questions we explored a wide range of sources from the psychological and health services research literature.

Competing interests: None declared.

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Databases for finding research instruments, ebooks about research and measurement, find research instruments in instrument databases, find research instruments in literature databases.

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• Research instruments are measurement tools, such as questionnaires, scales, and surveys, that researchers use to measure variables in research studies.  
• In most cases, it is better use a previously validated instrument rather than create one from scratch.
• Always evaluate instruments for relevancy, validity, and reliability. 
• Many older yet relevant, valid and reliable instruments are still popular today. It is time consuming and costly to validate instruments, so re-using instruments is common and helpful for connecting your study with an existing body of research.
• Although you can conduct an internet search to find research instruments on publisher and organization websites, library databases are usually the best resources for identifying relevant, validated and reliable research instruments. 
• Locating instruments takes time and requires you to follow multiple references until you reach the source. 
• Databases provide information about instruments, but they do not provide access to the instruments themselves. 
• In most cases, to access and use the actual instruments, you must contact the author or purchase the instrument from the publisher. 
• In many cases, you will have to pay a fee to use the instrument.
• Even if the full instrument is freely available, you should contact the owner for permission to use and for any instructions and training necessary to use the instrument properly. 
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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

• Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
• Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
• Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

• For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
• For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Table of contents

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

• From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
• Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

• During an experiment .
• Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square test of independence
• Statistical power
• Descriptive statistics
• Degrees of freedom
• Pearson correlation
• Null hypothesis
• Double-blind study
• Case-control study
• Research ethics
• Data collection
• Hypothesis testing
• Structured interviews

Research bias

• Hawthorne effect
• Unconscious bias
• Recall bias
• Halo effect
• Self-serving bias
• Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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Research Methodology

Student resources, checkpoint: quantitative research instruments.

Visit this website:  What are some examples of quantitative research instruments, and how do they differ from qualitative instruments?

Visit this website:  How do you choose a quantitative research instrument that is well-suited to your research?

Research Instruments (Tests & Measures)

How to use this guide, what are research instruments.

• Locating Research Instruments
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For more help on this topic, please contact our Research Help Desk: [email protected] or 781-768-7303. Stay up-to-date on our current hours . Note: all hours are EST.

This Guide was created by Carolyn Swidrak (retired).

This guide will help you discover resources related to research instruments. This includes information about various measurement tools, including reviews, how to obtain a copy, articles about studies that use various instruments, and more.

If you are a doctoral student you may need to find a research instrument for your own use. Other students may need to find information about the use of research instruments. A good way to discover research instruments that may be relevant to your own research is by reading the methods section in research articles.

This guide provides information on how to find information about research instruments

• using credible websites, or

Note: While the Regis Library can help you find information about tests and measures, we cannot obtain research instruments for you.

Research instruments are devices used to measure or collect data on various variables being studied. Examples include measurement tools such as:

• questionnaires
• observation schedules
• interview schedules
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What are Research Instruments

A research instrument is a survey, questionnaire, test, scale, rating, or tool designed to measure the variable(s), characteristic(s), or information of interest, often a behavioral or psychological characteristic. Research instruments can be helpful tools to your research study.

"Careful planning for data collection can help with setting realistic goals. Data collection instrumentation, such as surveys, physiologic measures (blood pressure or temperature), or interview guides, must be identified and described. Using previously validated collection instruments can save time and increase the study's credibility. Once the data collection procedure has been determined, a time line for completion should be established." (Pierce, 2009, p. 159)

Pierce, L.L. (2009). Twelve steps for success in the nursing research journey. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 40(4), 154-162.

How to choose the right one?

Are you trying to find background information about a research instrument? Or are you trying to find and obtain an actual copy of the instrument?

If you need information about a research instrument, what kind of information do you need? Do you need information on the structure of the instrument, its content, its development, its psychometric reliability or validity? What do you need?

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument, but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments may be copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright holder in writing (print or email).

If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they may be violating copyright and could be legally liable. 

What are you trying to measure? For example, if you are studying depression, are you trying to measure the duration of depression, the intensity of depression, the change over time of the episodes, … what? The instrument must measure what you need or it is useless to you.

Factors to consider when selecting an instrument are • Well-tested factorial structure, validity & reliability • Availability of supportive materials and technology for entering, analyzing and interpreting results • Availability of normative data as a reference for evaluating, interpreting, or placing in context individual test scores • Applicable to wide range of participants • Can also be used as personal development tool/exercise • User-friendliness & administrative ease • Availability; can you obtain it? • Does it require permission from the owner to use it? • Financial cost • Amount of time required

Check the validity and reliability of tests and instruments. Do they really measure what they claim to measure? Do they measure consistently over time, with different research subjects and ethnic groups, and after repeated use? Research articles that used the test will often include reliability and validity data.

How to Locate Instrument?

Realize that searching for an instrument may take a lot of time. They may be published in a book or article on a particular subject. They may be published and described in a dissertation. They may posted on the Internet and freely available. A specific instrument may be found in multiple publications and have been used for a long time. Or it may be new and only described in a few places. It may only be available by contacting the person who developed it, who may or may not respond to your inquiry in a timely manner.

There are a variety of sources that may used to search for research instruments. They include books, databases, Internet search engines, Web sites, journal articles, and dissertations.

A few key sources and search tips are listed in this guide.

Permission to Use the Test

If you plan to obtain an actual copy of the instrument to use in research, you need to be concerned not only with obtaining the instrument, but also obtaining permission to use the instrument. Research instruments are copyrighted. To obtain permission, contact the copyright holder to obtain permission in writing (print or email). Written permission is a record that you obtained permission.

It is a good idea to have them state in writing that they are indeed the copyright holder and that they grant you permission to use the instrument. If you wish to publish the actual instrument in your paper, get permission for that, too. You may write about the instrument without obtaining permission. (But remember to cite it!)

If someone posts a published test or instrument without the permission of the copyright holder, they are violating copyright and could be legally liable. 

This guide was created using a phenomenal template that was made by Shelley Arvin at Indiana State University called Finding Research Instruments, Surveys, and Tests . 

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