positive social problem solving skills

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
Problem Solving and Decision Making
Social Problem Solving

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The SkillsYouNeed Guide to Interpersonal Skills

Social problem-solving might also be called ‘ problem-solving in real life ’. In other words, it is a rather academic way of describing the systems and processes that we use to solve the problems that we encounter in our everyday lives.

The word ‘ social ’ does not mean that it only applies to problems that we solve with other people, or, indeed, those that we feel are caused by others. The word is simply used to indicate the ‘ real life ’ nature of the problems, and the way that we approach them.

Social problem-solving is generally considered to apply to four different types of problems:

Impersonal problems, for example, shortage of money;
Personal problems, for example, emotional or health problems;
Interpersonal problems, such as disagreements with other people; and
Community and wider societal problems, such as litter or crime rate.

A Model of Social Problem-Solving

One of the main models used in academic studies of social problem-solving was put forward by a group led by Thomas D’Zurilla.

This model includes three basic concepts or elements:

Problem-solving

This is defined as the process used by an individual, pair or group to find an effective solution for a particular problem. It is a self-directed process, meaning simply that the individual or group does not have anyone telling them what to do. Parts of this process include generating lots of possible solutions and selecting the best from among them.

A problem is defined as any situation or task that needs some kind of a response if it is to be managed effectively, but to which no obvious response is available. The demands may be external, from the environment, or internal.

A solution is a response or coping mechanism which is specific to the problem or situation. It is the outcome of the problem-solving process.

Once a solution has been identified, it must then be implemented. D’Zurilla’s model distinguishes between problem-solving (the process that identifies a solution) and solution implementation (the process of putting that solution into practice), and notes that the skills required for the two are not necessarily the same. It also distinguishes between two parts of the problem-solving process: problem orientation and actual problem-solving.

Problem Orientation

Problem orientation is the way that people approach problems, and how they set them into the context of their existing knowledge and ways of looking at the world.

Each of us will see problems in a different way, depending on our experience and skills, and this orientation is key to working out which skills we will need to use to solve the problem.

An Example of Orientation

Most people, on seeing a spout of water coming from a loose joint between a tap and a pipe, will probably reach first for a cloth to put round the joint to catch the water, and then a phone, employing their research skills to find a plumber.

A plumber, however, or someone with some experience of plumbing, is more likely to reach for tools to mend the joint and fix the leak. It’s all a question of orientation.

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving includes four key skills:

Defining the problem,
Coming up with alternative solutions,
Making a decision about which solution to use, and
Implementing that solution.

Based on this split between orientation and problem-solving, D’Zurilla and colleagues defined two scales to measure both abilities.

They defined two orientation dimensions, positive and negative, and three problem-solving styles, rational, impulsive/careless and avoidance.

They noted that people who were good at orientation were not necessarily good at problem-solving and vice versa, although the two might also go together.

It will probably be obvious from these descriptions that the researchers viewed positive orientation and rational problem-solving as functional behaviours, and defined all the others as dysfunctional, leading to psychological distress.

The skills required for positive problem orientation are:

Being able to see problems as ‘challenges’, or opportunities to gain something, rather than insurmountable difficulties at which it is only possible to fail.

For more about this, see our page on The Importance of Mindset ;

Believing that problems are solvable. While this, too, may be considered an aspect of mindset, it is also important to use techniques of Positive Thinking ;

Believing that you personally are able to solve problems successfully, which is at least in part an aspect of self-confidence.

See our page on Building Confidence for more;

Understanding that solving problems successfully will take time and effort, which may require a certain amount of resilience ; and

Motivating yourself to solve problems immediately, rather than putting them off.

See our pages on Self-Motivation and Time Management for more.

Those who find it harder to develop positive problem orientation tend to view problems as insurmountable obstacles, or a threat to their well-being, doubt their own abilities to solve problems, and become frustrated or upset when they encounter problems.

The skills required for rational problem-solving include:

The ability to gather information and facts, through research. There is more about this on our page on defining and identifying problems ;

The ability to set suitable problem-solving goals. You may find our page on personal goal-setting helpful;

The application of rational thinking to generate possible solutions. You may find some of the ideas on our Creative Thinking page helpful, as well as those on investigating ideas and solutions ;

Good decision-making skills to decide which solution is best. See our page on Decision-Making for more; and

Implementation skills, which include the ability to plan, organise and do. You may find our pages on Action Planning , Project Management and Solution Implementation helpful.

There is more about the rational problem-solving process on our page on Problem-Solving .

Potential Difficulties

Those who struggle to manage rational problem-solving tend to either:

Rush things without thinking them through properly (the impulsive/careless approach), or
Avoid them through procrastination, ignoring the problem, or trying to persuade someone else to solve the problem (the avoidance mode).

This ‘ avoidance ’ is not the same as actively and appropriately delegating to someone with the necessary skills (see our page on Delegation Skills for more).

Instead, it is simple ‘buck-passing’, usually characterised by a lack of selection of anyone with the appropriate skills, and/or an attempt to avoid responsibility for the problem.

An Academic Term for a Human Process?

You may be thinking that social problem-solving, and the model described here, sounds like an academic attempt to define very normal human processes. This is probably not an unreasonable summary.

However, breaking a complex process down in this way not only helps academics to study it, but also helps us to develop our skills in a more targeted way. By considering each element of the process separately, we can focus on those that we find most difficult: maximum ‘bang for your buck’, as it were.

Continue to: Decision Making Creative Problem-Solving

See also: What is Empathy? Social Skills

Social Skills: Promoting Positive Behavior, Academic Success, and School Safety

Good social skills are critical to successful functioning in life. These skills enable us to know what to say, how to make good choices, and how to behave in diverse situations. The extent to which children and adolescents possess good social skills can influence their academic performance, behavior, social and family relationships, and involvement in extracurricular activities. Social skills are also linked to the quality of the school environment and school safety.

While most children pick up positive skills through their everyday interactions with adults and peers, it is important that educators and parents reinforce this casual learning with direct and indirect instruction. We must also recognize when and where children pick up behaviors that might be detrimental to their development or safety. In the past, schools have relied exclusively on families to teach children important interpersonal and conflict resolution skills. However, increased negative societal influences and demands on family life make it imperative that schools partner with parents to facilitate this social learning process. This is particularly true today given the critical role that social skills play in maintaining a positive school environment and reducing school violence.?

Consequences of Good Social Skills?

With a full repertoire of social skills, students will have the ability to make social choices that will strengthen their interpersonal relationships and facilitate success in school. Some consequences of good social skills include:

Positive and safe school environment.
Child resiliency in the face of future crises or other stressful life events.
Students who seek appropriate and safe avenues for aggression and frustration.
Children who take personal responsibility for promoting school safety.

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Consequences of Poor Social Skills

Students with poor social skills have been shown to:

Experience difficulties in interpersonal relationships with parents, teachers, and peers.
Evoke highly negative responses from others that lead to high levels of peer rejection.? Peer rejection has been linked on several occasions with school violence.
Show signs of depression, aggression and anxiety.
Demonstrate poor academic performance as an indirect consequence.
Show a higher incidence of involvement in the criminal justice system as adults.

Impact on School Safety

Given the demonstrated relationship between social skills and school safety, schools are increasingly seeking ways to help students develop positive social skills, both in school and in the community. Social skills related to school safety include:

Anger management
Recognizing/understanding others’ point of view
Social problem solving
Peer negotiation
Conflict management
Peer resistance skills
Active listening
Effective communication
Increased acceptance and tolerance of diverse groups

In isolation, social skills are not sufficient to ensure school safety; interventions should not be limited to student instruction and training. Change in the school culture should be facilitated by infusing social skills training into a comprehensive system of school safety and discipline policies, emphasizing relationship-building between students and faculty (teachers and administrators) and between schools and families, and providing effective behavior management and academic instruction.

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Defining Types of Social Skills

While there are hundreds of important social skills for students to learn, we can organize them into skill areas to make it easier to identify and determine appropriate interventions. For example, the “Stop and Think” program organizes skills into four areas:

Survival skills (e.g., listening, following directions, ignoring distractions, using nice or brave talk, rewarding yourself)
Interpersonal skills (e.g., sharing, asking for permission, joining an activity, waiting your turn)
Problem-solving skills (e.g., asking for help, apologizing, accepting consequences, deciding what to do)
Conflict resolution skills (e.g., dealing with teasing, losing, accusations, being left out, peer pressure)

Identifying Social Skills Deficits?

Prior to determining the best means to help a student develop better social skills, it is important to understand specifically what a student can and can’t do. It is crucial to assess and classify the nature of a child’s social skill deficits in order to devise and implement the most appropriate intervention.?

Children may experience difficulty performing a skill:

Due to lack of knowledge (acquisition deficits), e.g., the child does not know the skills or does not discriminate when a skill is appropriate. For example, a child grabs a pencil from a peer in class when she needs one because she does not know how to appropriately ask to borrow it.
Consistently despite knowledge (performance deficits), e.g., the child knows how to perform the skills but fails to do so consistently or at an acceptable level of competence. For example, although the child understand that he should raise his hand to speak in class, and does so much of the time, he will sometimes blurt out a comment without raising his hand.
To a sufficient degree or level of strength (fluency deficits), e.g., the child knows how to perform skill and is motivated to perform, but demonstrates inadequate performance due to lack of practice or adequate feedback. For example, a student has learned what to say and do when confronted with bullying behavior, but her responses are not yet strong enough to be successful.
Due to competing skill deficits or behaviors, e.g., internal or external factors interfere with the child demonstrating a learned skill appropriately. For example, depression, anxiety, hyperactivity, or negative motivation can interfere with demonstration of appropriate conflict resolution skills, even though the skills have been taught and learned.

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Social Skills Interventions

Effective social skills programs are comprised of two essential elements: a teaching process that uses a behavioral/social learning approach and a universal language or set of steps that facilitates the learning of new behavior. Interventions can be implemented at a school-wide, specific setting, classroom, or individual level, but at all levels the emphasis is on teaching the desired skill, not punishing negative behaviors.

Facilitate learning through normal activities. Teachers and parents must take advantage of incidental learning, in which naturally occurring behaviors or events are used to teach and reinforce appropriate social behavior. Adults can reinforce demonstrated positive social skills by praising children when they behave correctly, or offer alternatives to poor decisions to teach the more appropriate behavior. It may be necessary when working with children who have particular difficulty to intentionally “catch” them doing the right thing or devise situations in which they can make a good choice.?

Address environmental factors . The school or home environment can affect a child’s ability to learn and perform good social skills. If a child is experiencing difficulty demonstrating a particular skill, it is best to first evaluate the environment to determine what might interfere with the child’s appropriate acquisition of that skill. For instance, a student may be unruly at the beginning of the day because the teacher needs to establish more specific routines for coming into class, hanging up coats, checking in, etc. Addressing environmental obstacles like this also will benefit all children in that environment.

Address individual factors . Some children need more intensive, personalized training because of individual factors, such as a disability. These interventions might be aimed at children experiencing a specific difficulty or those who have previously been identified as at risk for behavior problems. For example, studies have shown that children with mild disabilities tend to exhibit deficient social skills and excess problem behaviors more than students without such disabilities. Interventions aimed at at-risk students are based on individual assessment of the particular child’s skills and deficits.? Selected interventions aim to prevent existing behavior problems from developing into more serious ones.

Social skills training should:

Focus on facilitating the desirable behavior as well as eliminating the undesirable behavior.
Emphasize the learning, performance, generalization, and maintenance of appropriate behaviors through modeling, coaching, and role-playing. It is also crucial to provide students with immediate performance feedback.
Employ primarily positive strategies and add punitive strategies only if the positive approach is unsuccessful and the behavior is of a serious and/or dangerous nature.
Provide training and practice opportunities in a wide range of settings with different groups and individuals in order to encourage students to generalize new skills to multiple, real life situations.
Draw on assessment strategies, including functional assessments of behavior, to identify those children in need of more intensive interventions as well as target skills for instruction.
Look to enhance social skills by increasing the frequency of an appropriate behavior in a particular situation. This should take place in “normal” environments to address the naturally occurring causes and consequences.

When planning social skills training programs, schools should:

Include parents and other caregivers, both to help develop and select interventions and as significant participants in interventions. (Parents and caregivers can help reinforce the skills taught at school to further promote generalization across settings.)
Focus on all age groups, including children below the age of 9 who are often bypassed due to the erroneous belief that they will “grow out of it.”
Avoid a “one size fits all” approach and adapt the intervention to meet the individual or particular group needs. Students who speak English as a Second Language might need intensive social skill instruction to promote acculturation and peer acceptance. Children with disabilities might need adaptive curriculum and learning strategies. Most children will need a combination of different strategies that are matched to their particular deficits and backgrounds.

Examples of evidence-based social skills programs

Often school administrators or mental health professionals opt to introduce one of the many empirically supported, commercially published programs into their schools. Effective existing social skills training programs include:

“Stop and Think” Social Skills Program (Knoff): Part of Project ACHIEVE (Knoff and Batsche). Has demonstrated success in reducing student discipline referrals to the principal’s office, school suspensions, and expulsions; fostering positive school climates and prosocial interactions; increasing students’ on-task behavior; and improving academic performance. http://www.projectachieve.info
Primary Mental Health Project (Cowen et al.)? Targets children K-3 and addresses social and emotional problems that interfere with effective learning.? It has been shown to improve learning and social skills, reduce acting, shyness and anxious behaviors, and increase frustration tolerances.? http://www.sharingsuccess.org/code/eptw/profiles/48.html
The EQUIP Program (Gibbs, Potter, & Goldstein) Offers a three-part intervention method for working with antisocial or behavior disordered adolescents. The approach includes training in moral judgment, anger management/correction of thinking errors, and prosocial skills. http://www.researchpress.com/scripts/product.asp?item=4848#5134
The PREPARE Curriculum (Goldstein) Presents a series of 10 course-length interventions grouped into three areas: reducing aggression, reducing stress, and reducing prejudice. It is designed for use with middle school and high school students but can be adapted for use with younger students. http://www.researchpress.com/scripts/product.asp?item=5063
The ACCEPTS Program (Walker et al) Offers a complete curriculum for teaching effective social skills to students at middle and high school levels. The program teaches peer-to-peer skills, skills for relating to adults, and self-management skills.

For further resources go to www.nasponline.org .

? 2002, National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402,?Bethesda, MD, 20814, (301) 657-0270, fax (301) 657-0275 , TTY (301) 657-4155.

7 Social Skills You Can Start Teaching Your Child Now

Cooperating, following directions, respecting personal space, making eye contact, using manners.

Learning social skills is a key part of child development. Good social skills allow kids to interact positively with others and communicate their needs, wants, and feelings effectively. Plus, the benefits of robust social skills reach far beyond social relationships and acceptance. Children with better social skills are likely to reap immediate benefits. For example, one study found that good social skills may reduce stress in children who are in daycare settings .

Social skills need ongoing refinement as kids grow. They aren’t something a child either has or doesn’t have. These skills continue to develop with age and can be learned and strengthened with effort and practice.

Some social skills are quite complicated—like understanding it is important to be assertive when a friend is being bullied or to stay silent when you do not agree with a call from the umpire. Look for teachable moments where you can help your kids do better. Learn more about the seven most important social skills for kids and how to teach them.

Social skills give kids a wide range of benefits. They are linked to greater success in school and better relationships with peers.

Better Outcomes

Researchers from Penn State and Duke University found that children who were better at sharing, listening, cooperating, and following the rules at age five were more likely to go to college. They also were more likely to be employed full-time by age 25.

More Success

Good social skills also can help kids have a brighter future. According to a study published in the American Journal of Public Health , a child’s social and emotional skills in kindergarten might be the biggest predictor of success in adulthood.

Children who lacked social and emotional skills were more likely to become dependent on public assistance, experience legal trouble, have substance abuse issues, and experience relationship issues.

Stronger Friendships

Kids who have strong social skills and can get along well with peers are likely to make friends more easily. Research indicates that childhood friendships are good for kids’ mental health. Friendships also give children opportunities to practice more advanced social skills, like problem-solving and conflict resolution.

Reduced Stress

Not having the social skills to interact with others also likely compounds that stress. For instance, being away from family places stress on children . When they are unable to communicate effectively with others, it only gets worse.

Researchers have found that children experienced a decrease in cortisol, a hormone released during stressful situations, once they learned new social skills.

The good news is that social skills can be taught. It is never too soon to start showing kids how to get along with others. And it’s never too late to sharpen their skills either. Start with the most basic social skills first and keep working on your child’s skills over time.

A willingness to share a snack or a toy can go a long way to helping kids make and keep friends . According to a study published in Psychological Science, children as young as age 2 may show a desire to share with others—but usually only when their resources are abundant.

However, children between the ages of 3 and 6 are often selfish when it comes to sharing resources that come at a cost. Kids might be reluctant to share half of their cookie with a friend because it means they’ll have less to enjoy. But those same children might readily share a toy that they're no longer interested in playing with.

By age 7 or 8, kids become more concerned with fairness and are more willing to share. Kids who feel good about themselves are often more likely to share and sharing helps them feel good about themselves. Teaching kids to share may help boost their self-esteem.

How to Practice

While it's usually not a good idea to force your child to share , you can regularly point out sharing when you see it. Praise your child for sharing and note how it makes others feel. Say something like, “You chose to share your snack with your sister. I bet she feels happy about that. That’s a nice thing to do.”

Cooperating means working together to achieve a common goal. Kids who cooperate are respectful when others make requests. They also contribute, participate, and help out.

Good cooperation skills are essential for successfully getting along within a community. Your child will need to cooperate with classmates on the playground as well as in the classroom. Cooperation is important as an adult, too.

By about age 3 1/2, young children can begin to work with their peers on a common goal. For children, cooperation may involve anything from building a toy tower together to playing a game that requires everyone to participate. Part of cooperating also means learning to be a good sport when things do not go their way. Kids learn that celebrating another person's success does not diminish their worth.

When it comes to cooperation and collaboration , some kids may take a leadership position while others will feel more comfortable following instructions. Either way, cooperation is a great opportunity for kids to learn more about themselves and how they best function in a group.

Talk about the importance of teamwork and how jobs are better when everyone pitches in. Create opportunities for the whole family to work together, such as preparing a meal or doing chores, and emphasize the importance of cooperation.

Listening isn’t just about staying quiet—it means really absorbing what someone else is saying. Listening also is a critical component of healthy communication. After all, much of the learning in school depends on a child’s ability to listen to what the teacher is saying.

Absorbing the material, taking notes, and thinking about what is being said becomes even more important as your child advances academically. Giving your child plenty of opportunities to practice listening can strengthen this skill.

Listening also is an important part of developing empathy . A child cannot show compassion or offer support to others without first listening and understanding what the other person is saying.

It is essential that your child grows up knowing how to listen to the boss, a romantic partner, and friends. This skill may require some skill to master in the age of digital devices. Stress to your kids from an early age that smartphones and other devices should not be out when they are engaged in conversation.

When reading a book to your children, periodically stop and ask them to tell you about what you’re reading. Pause and say, “Tell me what you remember about the story so far.”

Help them fill in any gaps they're missing and encourage them to keep listening as you continue. Don’t allow them to interrupt others when they’re talking.

Kids who struggle to follow directions are likely to experience a variety of consequences. From having to redo their homework assignments to getting in trouble for misbehavior, not following directions can be a big problem.

Whether you instruct your children to clean their rooms or you’re telling them how to improve their soccer skills, it’s important for kids to be able to take direction—and follow instructions.

Before you can expect your child to get good at following directions, however, it’s essential that you become well-versed in giving directions . To give good directions and avoid common mistakes, follow these strategies.

Give a young child one direction at a time . Instead of saying, “Pick up your shoes, put your books away, and wash your hands,” wait until the shoes are picked up before giving the next command.
Avoid phrasing your directions as a question . Asking, “Would you please pick up your toys now?” implies that your kids have the option to say no. Once you’ve given your children directions, ask them to repeat back what you said. Ask, “What are you supposed to do now?” and wait for them to explain what they heard you say.
Remember that mistakes are normal . It’s normal for young kids to get distracted, behave impulsively, or forget what they’re supposed to do. View each mistake as an opportunity to help them sharpen their skills.

Praise your child for following directions by saying things like, “Thank you for turning off the TV the first time I told you to.”

If your children struggle to follow directions, give them opportunities to practice following simple commands. Say things like, “Please pass that book to me,” and then provide immediate praise for following directions.

Some kids are close talkers. Others crawl into the laps of acquaintances without any idea that it makes them feel uncomfortable. It’s important to teach kids how to respect other people’s personal space.

Create household rules that encourage kids to respect other people’s personal space. “Knock on closed doors,” and “Keep your hands to yourself,” are just a few examples.

If your child grabs things out of people’s hands or pushes when impatient, establish consequences. If your child stands too close to people while talking, use it as a teachable moment.

Take your child aside and provide some coaching about personal space issues. As they get older, you can talk to them about the concept of boundaries —both setting them for themselves and respecting the boundaries of others.

Teach your children to stand about an arm's length away from people when they're talking. When they're standing in line, talk about how close to be to the person in front of them and remind them to keep their hands to themselves. You might role-play various scenarios to help kids practice appropriate personal space.

Good eye contact is an important part of communication. Some kids struggle to look at the person they are speaking to. Whether your child is shy and prefers to stare at the floor or simply won’t look up when engrossed in another activity, emphasize the importance of good eye contact.

If your child struggles with eye contact , offer quick reminders after the fact. In a gentle voice, ask, “Where should your eyes go when someone is talking to you?” You don't want to cause a shy child additional anxiety. And, provide praise when your child remembers to look at people when the are talking.

Consider showing your child how it feels to hold a conversation with someone who isn’t making eye contact:

Ask them to share a story while you stare at the ground, close your eyes, or look everywhere except for at them.
Invite them to tell another story and make appropriate eye contact while they're talking.
Discuss how each scenario felt.

Saying please and thank you and using good table manners can go a long way toward helping your child gain attention for the right reasons. Teachers, other parents, and other kids will respect a well-mannered child.

Of course, teaching manners can feel like an uphill battle sometimes. From burping loudly at the table to acting ungratefully, all kids will let their manners go out the window sometimes. It is important, however, for kids to know how to be polite and respectful—especially when they’re in other people’s homes or at school.

Be a good role model with your manners. That means saying, “No, thank you,” and “Yes, please,” to your child on a regular basis.

Make sure to use your manners when you are interacting with other people. Offer reminders when your children forget to use manners and praise them when you catch them being polite.

A Word From Verywell

If your child seems to be struggling with social skills more than other kids, talk to a healthcare provider. While it may just take a little extra reinforcement and maturity to catch up, a lack of social skills also can be a sign of other problems.

Children with mental health issues like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or autism may be behind socially. A physician can assess your child and determine whether treatment is needed to improve social skills.

Larose MP, Ouellet-Morin I, Vitaro F, et al. Impact of a social skills program on children's stress: a cluster randomized trial . Psychoneuroendocrinology . 2019;104:115-121. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.02.017

Jones DE, Greenberg M, Crowley M. Early social-emotional functioning and public health: the relationship retween kindergarten social competence and future wellness . Am J Public Health . 2015;105(11):2283-2290. doi:10.2105/ajph.2015.302630

Borner KB, Gayes LA, Hall JA. Friendship during childhood and cultural variations . In: International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences . Elsevier. 2015:442-447. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.23184-x

Warneken F, Lohse K, Melis AP, Tomasello M. Young children share the spoils after collaboration . Psychol Sci . 2010;22(2):267-273. doi:10.1177/0956797610395392

Marker AM, Staiano AE. Better together: outcomes of cooperation versus competition in social exergaming . Games Health J . 2015;4(1):25-30. doi:10.1089/g4h.2014.0066

By Amy Morin, LCSW Amy Morin, LCSW, is the Editor-in-Chief of Verywell Mind. She's also a psychotherapist, an international bestselling author of books on mental strength and host of The Verywell Mind Podcast. She delivered one of the most popular TEDx talks of all time.

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Home » Blog » General » Developing Social Problem-Solving Skills: A Guide for Elementary Teachers

Developing Social Problem-Solving Skills: A Guide for Elementary Teachers

Teaching social problem-solving skills is an essential aspect of elementary education. These skills not only help students navigate social interactions effectively but also contribute to their overall social-emotional development. In this guide, we will explore the importance of social problem-solving skills and provide strategies for elementary teachers to incorporate them into their classrooms.

Understanding Social Problem-Solving Skills

Social problem-solving skills refer to the ability to identify, analyze, and resolve social conflicts or challenges. These skills enable students to navigate various social situations, make informed decisions, and develop positive relationships with their peers. The components of social problem-solving skills include:

Identifying the problem: Students learn to recognize and define the social problem or conflict they are facing.
Generating possible solutions: Students brainstorm and come up with multiple solutions to address the problem.
Evaluating solutions: Students evaluate the pros and cons of each solution and consider the potential consequences.
Implementing the chosen solution: Students put their chosen solution into action and monitor its effectiveness.
Reflecting on the outcome: Students reflect on the outcome of their chosen solution and learn from their experiences.

Strategies for Teaching Social Problem-Solving Skills

To effectively teach social problem-solving skills, elementary teachers can implement the following strategies:

Creating a Positive and Supportive Classroom Environment

A positive and supportive classroom environment sets the foundation for developing social problem-solving skills. Teachers can create such an environment by:

Establishing clear expectations and rules: Clearly communicate behavioral expectations and establish classroom rules that promote respectful and empathetic interactions.
Encouraging empathy and understanding: Foster a sense of empathy by encouraging students to consider others’ perspectives and feelings.
Promoting effective communication: Teach students active listening skills, assertive communication, and conflict resolution strategies.

Explicitly Teaching Problem-Solving Steps

Breaking down the problem-solving process into manageable steps helps students understand and apply the skills effectively. Teachers can do this by:

Breaking down the problem-solving process: Introduce each step of the problem-solving process explicitly, providing examples and modeling the process.
Providing guided practice opportunities: Offer opportunities for students to practice problem-solving skills in a structured and supportive environment.
Offering feedback and reinforcement: Provide constructive feedback and reinforce positive problem-solving behaviors to encourage growth and improvement.

Incorporating Cooperative Learning Activities

Cooperative learning activities provide opportunities for students to collaborate, communicate, and solve problems together. Teachers can incorporate these activities by:

Collaborative problem-solving tasks: Assign group projects or tasks that require students to work together to solve a problem.
Group discussions and role-playing scenarios: Engage students in discussions and role-playing activities to practice problem-solving skills in different social contexts.
Peer feedback and reflection: Encourage students to provide feedback to their peers and reflect on their problem-solving experiences.

Integrating Social Problem-Solving into the Curriculum

Integrating social problem-solving activities into various subjects helps students see the relevance and application of these skills in real-life situations. Teachers can do this by:

Connecting problem-solving skills to real-life situations: Provide examples and scenarios that relate to students’ everyday lives to make problem-solving skills more relatable.
Embedding problem-solving activities in various subjects: Incorporate problem-solving tasks and discussions into subjects such as language arts, social studies, and science.
Encouraging critical thinking and creativity: Promote critical thinking skills by challenging students to think outside the box and come up with innovative solutions.

Assessing and Monitoring Social Problem-Solving Skills

Assessing and monitoring students’ social problem-solving skills is crucial to track their progress and provide targeted support. Teachers can use the following strategies:

Using Observation and Anecdotal Records

Observe students during social interactions and make anecdotal records of their problem-solving behaviors. This qualitative data can provide valuable insights into students’ strengths and areas for improvement.

Implementing Self-Assessment Tools

Provide students with self-assessment tools, such as checklists or rubrics, to evaluate their own problem-solving skills. This encourages self-reflection and empowers students to take ownership of their social-emotional growth.

Collaborating with Other Professionals and Parents

Collaborate with other professionals, such as school counselors or speech-language pathologists, to gain additional perspectives on students’ social problem-solving skills. Communicate with parents and caregivers to gather insights from different environments and support students consistently.

Supporting Students with Social Problem-Solving Difficulties

Identifying students who may need additional support in developing social problem-solving skills is essential. Teachers can provide targeted interventions and strategies by:

Identifying Students Who May Need Additional Support

Observe students who consistently struggle with social problem-solving skills or show signs of social-emotional difficulties. Collaborate with other professionals to assess and identify students who may benefit from targeted interventions.

Providing Targeted Interventions and Strategies

Offer individual or small-group interventions to support students with social problem-solving difficulties. These interventions may include explicit instruction, role-playing, social stories, or social skills groups.

Collaborating with Parents and Caregivers

Involve parents and caregivers in the process of supporting students’ social problem-solving skills. Share strategies, resources, and progress updates to ensure consistent support across home and school environments.

Teaching social problem-solving skills is a vital aspect of elementary education. By prioritizing social-emotional learning and incorporating strategies to develop these skills, teachers can empower students to navigate social challenges effectively and build positive relationships. Start your EverydaySpeech Free trial today to access a wide range of resources and activities designed to enhance social problem-solving skills in elementary students.

Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12

Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12 Key Takeaways Strong social communication skills are crucial for academic success and building meaningful relationships in Grade 12. Social communication includes verbal and non-verbal communication,...

Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12 Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12 As students enter Grade 12, they are on the cusp of adulthood and preparing for the next chapter of their lives. While academic success...

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Education Articles & More

How to empower students to take action for social change, follow these four steps to help students develop a sense of agency over social problems..

Young people are increasingly aware and concerned about the problems our world is confronting, from climate change to racial disparities in society. When facing social problems, how can educators transform a child’s sense of helplessness toward hope and action?

Educators must not allow our adolescents to languish in the face of social problems and injustice. In James Baldwin’s 1963 Talk to Teachers , he reminds us of this charge: “Our obligation as educators is to entrust in our students the abilities to create conscious citizens who are vocal about reexamining their society.” It is the moral imperative of public education to foster student agency to nurture an engaged citizenry.

At the Rutgers University Social-Emotional Character Development Laboratory’s Students Taking Action Together project , we have developed a social problem-solving and action strategy, PLAN, that makes it possible for teachers to transform students’ sense of hopelessness into empowerment. It allows students to investigate a particular social problem to get to the root cause, then design an action plan to challenge the dominant power structure to make change. It emphasizes considering the issue from multiple viewpoints to develop a solution that is inclusive and viable.

Below, we’ll describe the four components of PLAN and demonstrate how to use PLAN to empower students in grades 5-12 to take action. We hope these strategies can help you encourage your students to be more deeply engaged with today’s problems and inspired to take social action.

P: Create a Problem description

Problems are an inherent part of our daily lives, and one of the key problem-solving skills is the ability to define a problem.

To define a problem, students working collaboratively in groups of four or five start by reviewing background sources, such as articles, speeches, and podcast episodes, and then draft a problem description . They can discuss the following questions to frame their thinking. Not all questions will be answered, yet the discussion will guide and stretch their thinking to begin defining the problem:

Is there a problem? How do you know?
What is the problem?
Who is impacted by the problem?
What are the issues from each perspective/party involved? What is the impact on the different individuals/groups involved?
Who is responsible for the problem? What internal and external factors might have influenced this issue?
What is causing those responsible to use these practices?
Who were the key people involved in making important decisions?

To illustrate this process, let’s use the example of a recent issue: Texas’s refusal of federal funding to expand health care under the Affordable Care Act for all citizens of the state. For this issue, students might write the following problem description:

Along with Texas, 13 other states have refused to accept federal funding to expand Medicaid for citizens under the Affordable Care Act (ACA). State refusals can be attributed to a variety of factors. State lawmakers fear the loss of support from voters and their political party if they accept the federal funding to expand access to health care for lower-income communities and communities of color. Public perceptions of expanding social programs and the political costs of supporting bi-partisan reform also play a role. Political obstructionism harms all citizens, causing people to go without needed medical care and perpetuating inequalities in public health.

L: Generate a List of options to solve the problem and consider the pros and cons

 Organizing for change is a skill that can be taught, even though problem solving in the political arena may feel novel and uncertain for students. Stress that while there is no guarantee of a positive outcome as they tackle a problem, brainstorming effective and inclusive solutions can help stimulate deeper awareness and discussion on the need for change. According to Irving Tallman and his colleagues , this process teaches students to apply reasoning to anticipate how solutions may play out and, ultimately, arrive at an estimate of the probability of a specific result.

That’s where the second step of PLAN comes into play: listing the possible solutions and considering the optimal plan of action to pursue. Students will revisit the background sources that they consulted during step one to consider how the actual current-event problem has been addressed over time and reflect on their own solutions. We encourage you to facilitate a whole-class discussion, guided by the following questions:

What options did the group consider to be acceptable ways to resolve the problem?
What do you think about their solution?
What would your solution be?
What solution did they ultimately decide to pursue?

For example, here are some solutions that students may generate as they brainstorm around health care funding in Texas:

Launch a letter writing campaign to Senators and Congressional representatives communicating that obstructionism of federal funding to expand health care hurts all citizens and public health.
Develop a social media-based public service announcement about the costs of refusing federal funding to expand health care, tagging state Senators and local Congressional representatives.
Team up with a public health advocacy organization and learn about how to support their work in key states.

Students would then weigh the pros and cons of each solution, as well as apply perspective-taking skills to consider the needs and interests of all relevant stakeholders (e.g., government officials, insurance companies, and patients) to select what they deem to be the most effective and inclusive option. In evaluating the pros and cons of all of the solutions presented above, they may determine:

Solutions have direct routes to communicating to politicians and have a wide audience reach.
Solutions build student’s advocacy skills and can send a clear message to lawmakers.
Solutions enable students to rehearse the skills of correspondence, networking, and communicating their ideas and plans with outside agencies.
Solutions require substantial time for additional research.
In some solutions, students may not be addressing issues in the state they live.
In the letter-writing solution, letters lack a broad reach and the identified state(s) may already be developing reasonable alternatives to accepting federal funds to expand health care access.
The solutions will require efforts to be sustained over time and will demand additional time in or beyond the classroom to orchestrate.

This essential problem-solving skill will support students in making objective, thoughtful decisions.

A: Create an Action plan to solve the problem

After students select what they assess to be the most effective solution, they collaborate with one another to develop a specific, measurable, attainable goal and a step-by-step action plan to implement the solution. Together, researchers refer to this as the solution plan.

For example, the goal might be to develop a one-minute public service announcement about the costs of a state’s refusal to accept federal funding to expand Medicaid under the ACA.

The step-by-step solution plan should align with the goal to resolve the problem and increase positive consequences, while minimizing potential negative effects. Your students should keep the following in mind when developing their plans:

Make steps as specific as possible.
Consider who is responsible for implementing each step.
Determine how long each action step will take to execute.
Anticipate any challenges that you may face and how you will address them.
Identify the data that you can collect to determine whether or not your action plan was successful.

Below is a sample action plan that students may develop to meet their public service announcement goal: 

Convene a group of students to conduct research on the ACA’s expansion of Medicaid and the states that have accepted federal aid and those that refused federal aid.
Conduct research by interviewing school nurses, county health commissioners, and the state’s Department of Health for additional content.
Collaborate with visual arts teachers and students to design and develop the video, and course-level teacher to review the video.
Post the social media public service announcement on YouTube and share on social media, tagging the appropriate audiences.

N: Evaluate the action plan by Noticing successes

The final step of PLAN involves evaluating the success of the action plan, using the evidence collected throughout in order to notice successes. As a whole class, students consider how similar problems were solved historically, as compared to the success of their plan. They also consider aspects of the plan that went well and those that could be improved upon moving forward. Connecting to past examples of social action affirms the understanding that you don’t always get it right in the initial push for change, and that the legacy and knowledge of incomplete change is passed from one generation to the next.

A Sample Lesson

To check out how to infuse PLAN using a historic event, check out our ready-made lesson on Fredrick Douglass’s 1852 Speech: "What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?" .

Noticing successes is essential to instilling confidence in students to exercise their voice and choice by organizing for and taking social action. Research suggests that problem-solving skills help buffer against distress when people are experiencing stressful events in life. With PLAN, we have discovered that equipping our students with problem-solving skills is a strong predictor of student agency and social action . By teaching a deliberate social problem-solving strategy, we nurture hope that change can be made.

In her 2003 Teaching Community: A Pedagogy of Hope , bell hooks reminds us of the transformative power to upend the dominant power structure by bridging the gap between complaining and hope and action: “When we only name the problem, when we state a complaint without a constructive focus or resolution, we take away hope. In this way critique can become merely an expression of profound cynicism, which then works to sustain dominator culture.”

It is not enough to witness and criticize injustice. Students need to learn how to overcome injustice by developing solutions and gaining a sense of empowerment and agency.

About the Authors

Lauren Fullmer

Lauren Fullmer, Ed.D. , is the math curriculum chair and middle school math teacher at the Willow School in Gladstone, NJ; instructor for The Academy for Social-Emotional Learning in Schools—a partnership between Rutgers University and St. Elizabeth University—adjunct professor at the University of Dayton’s doctoral program, and a consulting field expert for the Rutgers Social-Emotional Character Development (SECD) Lab.

Laura Bond, M.A. , has served as a K–8 curriculum supervisor in central New Jersey. She has taught 6–12 Social Studies and worked as an assistant principal at both the elementary and secondary level. Currently, she is a field consultant for Rutgers Social Emotional Character Development Lab and serves on her local board of education.

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Teaching Social Skills to Kids Who Don’t Yet Have Them

Teachers: Do your students have trouble getting along with others — and getting along with you? Do you tell them to stop doing it — but they keep on doing it? Learn to understand and teach your students with social skills problems. Learn why they have these problems and how to teach them better behavior. Read about Social Skills training and the steps to follow in implementing it.

Do any of these comments sound familiar?

"I tell him to stop doing that, but he keeps on doing it. Darn. This kid must have been raised by wolves!"

"That kid knows how she is supposed to behave. She CHOOSES to misbehave."

"I ask him what he is supposed to be doing and he can tell me. He knows better, so why isn't he doing it?"

Yep. Some kids know "intellectually" what to do, but they've never "physically" done it before. It's difficult for all of us to all-of-the-sudden display a completely different behavior than we've been showing for years. Changing a habit is no easy task. To get an idea of what it's like, try this activity:

Do now activity (Yes! Right now.)

Cross your arms on your chest. Notice how one arm goes over the other with it’s hand tucked under it’s biceps (upper arm). At the same time, the hand of the lower arm has it’s hand resting on top of the biceps of the other limb. OK, now unfold your arms and switch their positions so that the one that was on the bottom is now on the top (and vice versa). All right. It took you awhile, but you were able to do it. Feel a bit uncomfortable and odd? Now, uncross the arms and fold them again in the new way. Again. And again. In fact, for the rest of your life, do it this new way. Don’t ever make a mistake or revert to the old way.

Think that’ll be difficult? Yep. Now imagine what we are asking our socially unskilled kids to do. We’re expecting them to immediately change a behavior that is indelibly etched into their brains, feels “comfortable,” and has been “assigned” to them by others who have labeled them as the type of person who “does that thing.” Kids who display the wrong behaviors as they interact with others will have a long and arduous path to travel as they work to change to “a better way.” Thank goodness they have a patient and supportive teacher like you. You’ll support them as they struggle to show the new behavior. You’ll focus on progress rather than perfection, seeing evidence of the new rather than vestiges of the old.

Why don’t our kids have social skills?

Social skills are those communication, problem-solving, decision making, self-management, and peer relations abilities that allow one to initiate and maintain positive social relationships with others. Deficits or excesses in social behavior interfere with learning, teaching, and the classroom’s orchestration and climate. Social competence is linked to peer acceptance, teacher acceptance, inclusion success, and post school success.

Many of our youngsters never learned “appropriate behavior” for social settings-situations in which they must interact/cope with others. Perhaps they did not receive this guidance in the home, either because of lack of training by elders or another system of values & behaviors being taught. Perhaps they did have good role models in the home and neighborhood who promoted “appropriate” behavior, but didn’t pick it up as well as most kids, just like some kids learn to read without formal instruction previous to school, and some need the structured process of reading instruction.

Displaying poor social skills is likely to get one rejected by others (other kids don’t like them and won’t associate with them). Others of our kids work hard to show the new and better behaviors they’ve been told to show, but are still rejected by others, perhaps due to past reputation or maybe because others don’t like the awkward and unsure demonstration of the newly learned behaviors which don’t appear “natural.” At other times, our pupils may still fail because they have difficulty monitoring and controlling their behavior when unexpected reactions occur. They misread social cues given off by others. For example:

Not noticing the rejection actions by others that non-verbally/verbally say, “Get lost.”
Viewing the positive social forays of others as being threatening. If rejected because of their behavior (past or present), they’ll rarely-if ever-get the chance to display the “correct” behaviors under naturalistic circumstances and fail to incorporate them into their behavioral repertoire.

Others of our kids will not respond positively to social skills instruction because they don’t see the skills as being necessary or useful. For example:

assisting the teacher
avoiding conflict with adults
disagreeing in a non-confrontational manner

The behaviors they display now seem just fine to them. They obtain the attention, objects or power they seek.

A note to teachers of students with Emotional & Behavioral Disorders (EBD)

If you are a teacher of students with behavior disorders, are you teaching social skills to your students? Are you doing so in structured daily lessons? If not, why not? The defining characteristic of kids with EBD is their inability to build and sustain positive relationships. Kids with EBD are 3 times more likely than general ed kids to be rejected because of their behavior. It’s time to use more than point systems to “manage” the behavior of these pupils. We need more than “the curriculum of control.” We must teach the skills we wish to see.

What exactly is social skills training?

If our kids don’t have ‘em, we’ve got to teach ‘em. “Social skills training” is a general term for instruction conducted in (behavioral) areas that promotes more productive/positive interaction with others. We teach social skills to students who are, at present, socially unskilled in order to promote acceptance by teachers, other adults and peers. A social skills training program might include (among other things):

approaching others in social acceptable ways
asking for permission rather than acting
making and keeping friends
sharing toys/materials
work habits/academic survival skills
attending to task
following directions
seeking attention properly
accepting the consequences of one’s behavior
counting to 10 before reacting
distracting oneself to a pleasurable task
learning an internal dialog to cool oneself down and reflect upon the best course of action
using words instead of physical contact
seeking the assistance of the teacher or conflict resolution team

Examples of Social Skills for Pre-Schoolers

Skills that will help in later instruction (example: listening skills)
Skills that enhance success in school/daycare settings (example: asking a question)
How to make and keep friends (examples: asking for something, asking others to play)
awareness of own and other’s feelings (called “Theory of Mind” - being able to predict how others might feel in a situation and understanding that others might not feel as you do)
coping with negative feelings
Positive, non-aggressive choices when faced with conflict
what to do when you make mistakes
handling teasing and taunting

Social skills terms/definitions

Socially skilled: the ability to respond to a given environment in a manner that produces, maintains, and enhances positive interpersonal (between people) effects. Social competence: one’s overall social functioning; a composite or multitude of generalized social skills. Social competence can be improved by teaching social behaviors/social skills.

Steps to follow in teaching social skills

Essentially, we teach social skills like we teach academics. Assess the level of the students, prepare the materials, introduce the material, model it, have them practice it, and provide feedback. If you purchase a social skills curriculum, it will probably include an assessment device, lessons, and activities. Teaching is a matter of following the directions in the kit. If you’re on your own in developing a curriculum and devising lessons, here are the specifics:

Pre-teaching

Select the students who need training in certain skills, via assessment.
Identify powerful re-enforcers that will motivate the students to attend to lessons and attempt new behaviors. (examples: group and/or individual points, raffle tickets, progressively moving a paper dog along the wall toward a food bowl which earns a reward.)
Identify and specifically define the target behaviors to be taught. Decide which behaviors are needed. Define them precisely so that everyone agrees on what is to be accomplished, or what the student will be able to do/show after instruction.
Task analyze the target behavior(s), if this listing of sequenced actions is not done for you by a packaged program.

Teaching social skills

Create groups of 2-5 youngsters with similar skill deficits. Small groups give students a chance to observe others, practice with peers, and receive feedback.
Remove obstacles to learning (examples: close class door, remove corrections officers.)
Meet early in the day so that kids are attentive and have the whole day to practice what they learn in your lesson.
Introduce the program, it’s content, and why and how it will benefit them (examples: it will help them to return to general education classes, help them obtain and keep a job, result in less trouble with teachers/parents, impress their boyfriend’s/girlfriend’s parents when they meet them, be able to convince the police to let them go if stopped).
Set up the rules and regulations. Identify the behaviors you’ll reward during lessons-one person speaks at a time, pay attention, be positive-all of which may need to be taught in the initial lessons.
Teach the easy-to-learn skills first to ensure student (and teacher) success and reinforcement. Use the traditional teaching model of telling and showing them.
learn what to do when you make mistakes
role play at least two different scenarios, displaying right and wrong behaviors
from oneself
from the teachers
Practice, practice, practice through homework assignments, review sessions, assignments to real life settings, and surprise “tests.” For example, your student has been learning to handle interactions with authority figures. Send the student on an errand and have an unknown teacher confront him/her, accusing the pupil of “forging” a hall pass. See if the student performs poorly, runs, is rude, etc. The teacher can then say, “This is a test. How did you do?”
Teach to the high status kids in your group first. Have them demonstrate the new behaviors and be rewarded. Have your lower status kids demonstrate the behaviors after the leaders do so. Make sure the lessons are interesting and fun so that kids look forward to the lessons. Start the teaching of “following directions” by having them cook, make candy or do magic tricks. Then move to more school-based examples.
practicing in different settings and under various conditions
prompting and coaching the student in naturally occurring situations
having the student submit self-report forms for each class period
meeting with the student to discuss performance throughout school or life
Monitor the behavior outside of the lessons. Keep track of the display of the behavior for IEP documentation, motivation of the student, etc. Have the student self-monitor/self-assess in order to build internal motivation/control.
Recognize and reward its display in everyday school situations. When you see a good situation for a student to display a “new” behavior, prompt its use with cues and hints as subtle as possible, but as strong as necessary.

Example: Pedro is going to be congratulated by the principal for being the “most improved student,” with regard to behavior. As the principal approaches, the teacher whispers into Pedro’s ear, “Remember to wipe the booger off your finger before shaking hands with Mr. Yoon.” Wording for more socially advanced student “What do we do with boogers before we shake hands?” The student must decide on correct course of action.

Social skills training helps individuals make better choices in situations.

saying please and thank you
dealing better with anger and frustration
asking questions appropriately
accepting the consequences administered by the teacher
accepting responsibility for one’s own behavior
dealing with losing/frustration/making a mistake/insults in an appropriate manner (without yelling or physical aggression)
initiating a conversation with others
accepting “No” for an answer
joining a group activity already in progress
making friends
complimenting others
understanding the feelings of others (and accepting them as valid or OK)
compromising on issues
cooperating with peers
coping with taunts and verbal/physical threats/aggression from others
seeking attention in an appropriate manner
waiting one’s turn
asking permission
avoiding fighting with others
interrupting others appropriately
showing sportsmanship
respecting the opinions of others
accepting praise from others
apologizing for wrong doing
familiar/family/friends
same gender
different gender

We want to strive for the lofty goal of all of our students interacting positively with others — particularly us! In order to promote more socially skilled and appropriate actions among our pupils, we must move beyond simply telling them to stop what they are doing wrong. While we might tell them which behaviors to avoid, we then need to teach them what they should be doing in those situations.

Sometimes, the process involves pre-teaching, in which we work to prepare a pupil for the change process through a discussion of the drawbacks of displaying the present inappropriate behavior (e.g., rejection by peers, penalties from school administration), and the benefits of adopting a particular replacement for it.

Humans show specific behaviors because there is a benefit to doing so. In order to fully convince the student to change his or her ways, the benefits of the new actions must outweigh those of continuing the old patterns of behavior. The new ways must also be viewed by schoolmates as being acceptable. Often, packaged social skills programs promote social actions that, while esteemed by adults, would never be shown by any socially accepted kids in the mainstream. In that case, becoming skilled in the new behavior does little to promote acceptance and positive interactions.

As with the teaching of academics, begin with the prerequisite skills and then move on to the more advanced ones. Your curriculum will be comprised of the skills that are most important to classroom decorum and your students’ social needs.

While the teaching of social skills consumes time during the school day, over the weeks and months we gain back lost academic instructional time as our students display more acceptable behavior. Our school life becomes easier and more rewarding. The same applies to the school-based and outside lives of our students.

Related resource from our partner:

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Research tells us that social skills are critical to every child’s success. Children and adolescents with a variety of diagnosed disabilities, and sometimes those without a diagnosis, often have significant social skills impairments that require direct instruction in order to address these deficits.

Your student’s or child’s social skills learning is the most important factor in his or her academic and personal success. Social skills impairments contribute to peer rejection, loss of self-esteem and persistent academic disappointment.
Social skills learning supports success in school, at home, in the community, and in future work life. Strong social skills help to foster and maintain positive relationships with others and contribute to peer acceptance that’s required for success.
POWER-Solving® is a carefully thought-out and tested tool for teaching students the critical skills they need. It has been applied successfully in classrooms, summer programs, clinical settings and home environments.

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Through the use of child- and adolescent-friendly, engaging materials, which rely heavily on visual cues and supports, participants gain the “tools” necessary to successfully problem-solve – tools they can use to solve various challenging social situations.

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Renowned experts in the field of Social Learning are weighing in with their impressions of the POWER-Solving® Curriculum. Here’s one from Tony Atwood, Ph.D.

Tony Attwood, Ph.D. Clinical Psychologist (Brisbane, Australia)

Adjunct Professor, Griffith University (Queensland, Australia) Renowned author and international speaker, specializing in Autism Spectrum Disorders

Social problems for children and adolescents are complex and confusing but this highly structured and engaging curriculum will find solutions. The positive style and engaging material will facilitate friendships and the communication of emotions that will be greatly appreciated by the child, parents and teachers.

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Social Problem-Solving in Early Childhood: Developmental Change and the Influence of Shyness

Olga l. walker.

1 University of Maryland, Department of Human Development

Kathryn A. Degnan

Nathan a. fox, heather a. henderson.

2 University of Miami, Department of Psychology

The purpose of this study was to examine developmental change and the influence of shyness on social problem-solving (SPS). At 24, 36, and 48 months, children (N=570) were observed while interacting with an unfamiliar peer during an SPS task and at 24 months, maternal report of shyness was collected. Results showed that across the full sample, children displayed low but stable levels of withdrawn SPS and increasing levels of SPS competence over development. In addition, results showed that 24-month shyness was associated with high-increasing and high-decreasing withdrawn SPS trajectories compared to the low-increasing withdrawn SPS trajectory. Shyness was also associated with the low-increasing compared to the high-increasing SPS competence trajectory. Findings demonstrate the development of SPS competence over early childhood, as well as the influence of early shyness on this developmental course, with some shy children showing improvement in SPS skills and others continuing to show SPS difficulties over time.

Social problem-solving (SPS) skills are important for children’s everyday social functioning, as well as their academic achievement in school ( Dubow & Tisak, 1989 ; Dubow, Tisak, Causey, Hryshko, & Reid, 1991 ; Walker and Henderson, 2012). There are, however, a wide range of individual differences in the ways children approach socially challenging situations. These individual differences in SPS skills may be attributed in part to a child’s shyness. Shyness refers to wariness and anxiety in response to novel social situations ( Coplan & Armer, 2007 ). Shy children approach socially challenging situations more passively than their peers and experience less success in attaining their social goals during elementary school ( Stewart & Rubin, 1995 ). Furthermore, shy children are at risk for social and emotional adjustment problems including poor peer relations, depression, and anxiety ( Chronis-Tuscano et al., 2009 ; Hirshfeld et al., 1992 ; Rubin, Stewart, & Coplan, 1995 ). Given that individual differences in shyness are evident in early childhood and that poor social interactions may lead to a number of poor outcomes including a cycle of peer rejection, reinforcement of poor social skills, and/or fewer opportunities to learn the scripts that guide social play, research on the origins of difficulties in peer interactions at young ages may significantly add to our understanding of these predictive links. The current study extends previous research with older children by examining developmental changes in SPS abilities and the influence of shyness on individual differences in patterns of change in SPS abilities between 24 and 48 months of age. Findings of the current study increase our understanding of the development of SPS behaviors and affect across early childhood, identify some temperamental origins of peer difficulty, and may help inform intervention efforts aimed at improving shy children’s SPS abilities.

In the current study, we focused specifically on the influence of shyness, a form of social withdrawal ( Rubin & Asendorf, 1993 ; Rubin Coplan, & Bowker, 2009 ) that is moderately stable over the toddler and preschool years ( Lemery, Goldsmith, Klinnert & Mrazek, 1999 ). Social withdrawal is defined as behavioral solitude that originates from factors internal to a child such as strong physiological reactions to novelty (i.e., shyness) and social disinterest, as opposed to solitude that results from being actively rejected by one’s peers ( Rubin, Coplan, & Bowker, 2009 ). Shy children appear motivated to interact with others, however, the fear and distress associated with novelty leads to avoidance of the social situation ( Crozier, 2000 ), making peer interaction during problem situations particularly difficult. In addition, maternal reports of shyness are relatively stable across development, especially between 24 and 48 months ( Lemery et al., 1999 ). This stability is also evidenced by the fact that children rarely change from one extreme of observed social withdrawal versus sociability to the other ( Fox et al., 2001 ; Pfeifer, Goldsmith, Davidson, & Rickman, 2002 ), and when assessed in toddlerhood, they are likely to respond similarly within a few years of assessment and even into adulthood ( Caspi & Silva, 1995 ; Caspi et al., 2003 ; Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000 ). Therefore, it is important to identify the associations between shyness and social difficulties early on.

The development of competent SPS skills is important for children’s everyday social functioning and may influence the quality of their social experiences. SPS skills likely develop from various within-child characteristics (e.g., temperamental reactivity) and environmental factors (e.g., socialization with parents and peers; see Rubin & Rose-Krasnor, 1992 for review). In a cross-sectional study, Rubin and Krasnor (1983) found that both preschoolers and kindergarteners were more likely to suggest using prosocial strategies than aggressive strategies as a means of resolving hypothetical social problems. Another cross-sectional study using a hypothetical-reflective measure of SPS found that children in first and second grade suggest fewer aggressive and more cooperative strategies compared to preschool age children ( McGillicuddy-Delisi, 1980 ). Taken together, these studies suggest that children may use competent SPS strategies as early as preschool and that the frequency of these strategies increase while the frequency of poor SPS behaviors decrease over early elementary school. While these studies examined age-related differences in SPS, longitudinal studies are needed to track individual differences in developmental trajectories of SPS behaviors and affect and predictors of these individual differences. In one longitudinal study of SPS abilities from preschool to first grade, Youngstrom et al. (2000) found that, on average, children reported fewer forceful and more prosocial solutions to hypothetical problems from preschool to first grade. Interestingly, they also found little to no stability of SPS from preschool to first grade, which was attributed to rapid gains in SPS abilities that allowed children who reported relatively poorer SPS skills in preschool to report similar SPS to their peers by first grade.

Based on findings showing that children report using more prosocial competent strategies with age, we hypothesized that children would display more competent SPS (i.e., verbal strategies, success, positive affect, prosocial initiations) and less withdrawn SPS (i.e., passive strategies, time unengaged, and neutral affect) over time.

Individual Differences in SPS

Crick and Dodge (1994) developed an information-processing model that describes the steps involved in SPS. Effective problem solving, according to their model, involves noticing and interpreting social cues, formulating social goals, generating possible strategies to solve the problem, evaluating the possible effectiveness of the strategy, and enacting a response. Emotion, in addition to cognition, influences social information-processing at all steps of the model ( Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000 ), emphasizing the importance of incorporating measures of affect into SPS coding. For shy children, the experience of uncertainty in unfamiliar or challenging social situations may lead to distress, which results in emotional flooding ( Ekman, 1984 ; Thompson & Calkins, 1996 ), or hypervigilance, which may result in blunted affect. Both distress and hypervigilance may interfere with shy children’s ability to enact socially competent responses during challenging situations with peers ( Fox et al., 2005 ). Indeed, withdrawn children are able to generate competent social goals comparable to comparison children, however, they report that they would be less likely to use assertive strategies and more likely to use avoidant strategies compared to comparison and aggressive children ( Wichmann, Coplan, & Daniels, 2004 ). Thus, it is important to observe children’s SPS during actual social situations with peers.

Shy children, specifically, react to challenging social situations with sadness, fear, and lessened positive affect ( Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997 ; Eisenberg, Shepard, Fabes, Murphy & Guthrie, 1998 ; Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Rieser, 2002 ; Rothbart & Bates, 2006 ), possibly disrupting the enactment of competent SPS behaviors. A recent study found that during a structured task requiring friendly competition and negotiation between target children and their friend, socially withdrawn, anxious 10- to 12-year-old children displayed relatively more neutral affect in comparison to control children ( Schneider, 2009 ). The expression of neutral affect in withdrawn children reflects a somber expression, which may lead to increased hypervigilance and limit others’ desire to interact with them. That is, anxious expressions may serve both functional and social purposes, where functionally they may lead to increased scanning and processing of the environment to identify ambiguous threat, while socially these expressions may serve to convey messages about emotion to social partners ( Perkins, Inchley-Mort, Pickering, Corr, & Burgess, 2012 ). In contrast, uninhibited or highly sociable children approach unfamiliar people or objects with minimal avoidance and with positive affect ( Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2002 ; Kagan, Snidman, & Arcus, 1998 ), which may facilitate the translation of strategy ideas into actions during SPS and function to initiate and maintain social interactions with peers. Thus, while positive affect may facilitate social interaction and competent problem solving, neutral and negative affect may limit these social skills.

Because behavior and emotion may both influence the course and outcomes of peer social interactions, it was important to examine the combination of both SPS behavior and affect. Thus, in the current study, we included both SPS behaviors and displayed affect during the SPS task in composites and expected neutral or negative affect to be associated with withdrawn behaviors (i.e., time unengaged and passive SPS) while positive affect would be associated with competent SPS behaviors (i.e., verbal SPS, prosocial interactions, success). In addition, we expected these composites of behavior and affect would be associated with early report of shyness. Socially withdrawn children display more passive SPS during elementary school ( Rubin, Daniels-Beirness, & Bream, 1984 ; Stewart & Rubin, 1995 ). Therefore, whereas some children with poor SPS may report similar SPS compared to their peers by first grade ( Youngstrom et al., 2000 ), shy children may not follow the same developmental trajectory. Since shyness and social withdrawal are associated with avoidant SPS at later ages, we hypothesized that shyness would be associated with more withdrawn SPS over time. Furthermore, previous findings suggested growth in SPS competence across all children. Therefore, we hypothesized that shyness would be associated with increased SPS competence over time, such that children rated higher in shyness will show a typical increase over development. However, we expected that the trajectory associated with shyness would remain lower in SPS relative to the other trajectory at all ages.

In summary, the first goal of the current study was to examine patterns of developmental change in behavior and affect during SPS (i.e., withdrawn SPS and SPS competence). The second goal was to examine whether there was significant variability in these patterns of change and to examine the role of early shyness in predicting these patterns of change. Overall, given normative increases in language, social cognition, and self-regulation, we hypothesized that all children would develop better SPS skills over the period of study (i.e., less SPS withdrawal and more SPS competence), however, superimposed on these developmental changes, we hypothesized that shyness would be associated with individual differences in SPS trajectories over time (i.e., greater withdrawn SPS and less SPS competence).

The current study extended previous research in two ways. First, it is a downward extension of Stewart and Rubin (1995) as it is of interest to understand the origins of peer difficulty at the earliest age possible to intervene or prevent poor peer interactions. Specifically, it extended previous findings by prospectively following the same sample of children from 24 to 48 months, younger ages than have previously been examined. Second, the current study employed direct observations to assess children’s SPS behavior and displayed affect during challenging social situations. In contrast to hypothetical-reflective measures of SPS that ask children to reflect on how they would solve a social problem during hypothetical situations, direct observations allow for the assessment of the actual enactment of social goals and strategies used by children and the evaluation of the outcomes (i.e., success vs. failure) of SPS behavior ( Rubin & Rose-Krasnor, 1992 ). The key difference between these types of measures is that hypothetical-reflective interviews measure how children think and reason about social situations while behavioral observations measure how children actually behave when in those situations ( Rubin & Rose-Krasnor, 1992 ). Moreover, while behavior coding captures what children do in challenging situations, affect coding indexes how they express their emotion to their social partners, providing a more complete picture of the motivations and outcomes of differences in SPS. Therefore, in contrast to previous studies using hypothetical scenarios or behavioral observations, we examined both children’s behavior and affect to better understand children’s reactions to challenging social situations.

Participants

Six hundred and fourteen (295 boys, 319 girls) children and their mothers participated in a longitudinal study. Child ethnicity was as follows: 64% Caucasian, 15% African-American, 14% multiracial, 3% Hispanic, 3% Asian, and 1% as other. Mothers participating in this study represented a highly educated sample. Fourteen percent of the mothers graduated from high school, 44% from college, 37% from graduate school, 4% from other educational programs, and 1% did not report. Two hundred and ninety-one children were originally selected to participate at the age of four months as part of a longitudinal study of temperament and social development (see omitted for peer review ). Three hundred and twenty-three additional children were recruited from the community during toddlerhood to form same-sex, same-age unfamiliar peer dyads. Of these, 570 children (277 boys, 293 girls) participated at least once across 24 ( M = 25.92 months, SD = 2.30), 36 ( M = 37.27 months, SD = 1.59), and 48 months of age ( M = 49.32 months, SD = 1.41) and therefore were included in the current analyses.

Participants were recruited by mailing letters to parents in the community using commercially available mailing lists. Therefore a non-clinical community sample was recruited for participation in the current study. Interested parents contacted the laboratory to schedule a visit for their child. Children from the two groups were randomly paired at each age in order to ensure that the peer pairs were equally unfamiliar to each other at each age of assessment. The pairing was random rather than based on temperament in order to mirror the natural variation in peer characteristics typical of social settings in early childhood. There were no differences between children recruited in infancy and children recruited as toddlers on sex χ 2 (1, N = 614) = .61, p = .44, ethnicity χ 2 (5, N = 614) = 1.92, p = .86, maternal education χ 2 (3, N = 607) = 5.41, p = .14, or shyness at 24 months t (472) = 1.15, p = .25, suggesting that the two groups were comparable to one another.

The analyses presented below were conducted using maximum likelihood estimation. Maximum likelihood estimation utilizes all cases with complete or partial data on the dependent variables (i.e., SPS composites). The first goal of the study was to examine developmental change in SPS over time. Forty-four children were excluded from analyses for this goal due to missing data on all SPS outcomes, thus, analyses included children with complete or partial SPS data ( N = 570). There were no differences between children included in this analysis and children excluded from the analysis on sex, χ 2 (1, N = 614) = .97, p = .33 or ethnicity χ 2 (1, N = 614) = 1.11, p = .29 however, there were differences on maternal education, χ 2 (3, N = 607) = 11.98, p = .007, such that children whose mothers reported completing educational programs other than high school, college, or graduate school were more likely to have missing data. The second goal of the study was to examine the influence of shyness on SPS trajectories. Maximum likelihood utilized all cases with at least some data on the SPS dependent variables as mentioned above, however, it also excludes all cases with missing data on the independent variable (i.e., shyness). Therefore, in addition to the 44 children excluded from the developmental analyses mentioned above, 115 children were excluded from the second set of analyses due to missing data on shyness. Therefore, analyses examining associations between shyness and the development of SPS included data from 455 children. There were no differences between children included in this analysis and those missing shyness data on sex, χ 2 (1, N = 570) = .1.14, p = .29, ethnicity χ 2 (1, N = 570) = 1.98, p = .16, or maternal education, χ 2 (3, N = 563) = 3.93, p = .27, suggesting that the sample included in the first analyses is comparable to the sample included in the second analyses.

Informed consent was signed by the children’s mothers at each visit. Children were randomly paired with a different same-sex, same-age, unfamiliar peer for each visit to capture their SPS behavior and displayed affect during novel social interactions. At all three dyad visits, children were placed in a room with two one-way mirrors. Cameras were used to record the sessions from behind the mirrors.

Children engaged in several activities together. Of interest to the current study was the participants’ behavior during the special toy session, which occurred after approximately 15 minutes of interacting during a freeplay session and a clean-up task. Similar to Stewart and Rubin (1995) , the experimenter entered with the special toy and set it down in the middle of the room. Before leaving, the experimenter told the children they only had one toy so they must share and take turns. The experimenter then informed the children that he or she would return in a few minutes and walked out of the room.

Toys used during the visits were carefully selected at each age to be age-appropriate and comparable in terms of eliciting independent play. A stationary tricycle was used as the special toy introduced to the participants during the 24-month visit. The toy looked like a tricycle in that it had three wheels and pedals but it could only be used to rock back and forth. During the 36 month visit, a stationary car was used as the special toy. The toy had a seat, steering wheel, pedals, and a gear shift. The steering wheel had buttons that played animal noises and a screen to track driving. At the 48-month visit, a movable vehicle was used as the special toy. The child was able to sit in the middle of the toy and use handle bars on the wheels to steer around the room. Participants were given a total of 5 minutes to play with the special toy.

At the 24- and 36-month visit laboratory visits, mothers of the participants sat in separate chairs in two different corners of the room. Mothers were told not to initiate interactions with the children but to respond as they normally would if the child interacted with them. At the 48-month visit, mothers sat in an adjacent room that allowed them to see their children through a one-way mirror. Mothers filled out the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ; Goldsmith 1996 ; Goldsmith, Rieser-Danner, & Briggs, 1991 ) at the 24-month visit.

The Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ; Goldsmith 1996 ; Goldsmith, Rieser-Danner, & Briggs, 1991 ), a 108-item parent report measure of temperament, was collected at 24 months of age. The TBAQ is a valid and reliable questionnaire for use with 16- to 36-month-old children and measures 5 dimensions of temperament: Activity level, pleasure, social fearfulness, anger proneness, and interest/persistence, using 7-point Likert scales ( Goldsmith 1996 ; Goldsmith et al., 1991 ). Of particular interest in the current study was the dimension of social fearfulness, which is composed of 10 items that assess children’s reactions to unfamiliar adults and contexts ( Goldsmith, 1996 ). Sample items include, “If a stranger came to your house or your apartment, how often did your child ‘warm up’ to the stranger within 10 minutes?” and “When your child knew her/his parents were about to leave her/him at home, how often did your child cling to her/his parents?” Internal consistency estimates for the social fearfulness scale were .83 and .87 across different samples of toddlers ( Goldsmith, 1996 ). In the current sample, the internal consistency estimate for social fearfulness was .78 at 24 months.

SPS Behavioral coding

Behavioral coding was based on the scheme used by Rubin and Krasnor (1983) and Stewart and Rubin (1995) . The total time of the task, latency to first get the toy, and the amount of time engaged with the toy were recorded in seconds.

Children’s neutral , positive and sad/fearful affect were assigned a global code for the entire special toy activity. Each affect dimension was coded using a scale of 1–5 (1 = did not display; 5 = displayed the majority of the time or very intensely). Neutral affect was coded when the child displayed little to no emotional expression. Positive affect was scored based on the frequency and intensity of smiling, laughing, talking in excited tones, excited movements, and overall expressions of joy. Sad/fearful affect was scored based on the frequency and intensity of whining, crying, and fearful avoidance when approached by the other child and/or complaining to their mother in a sad or fearful voice that they wanted to play with the toy. Affect codes were not mutually exclusive as each type of affect was coded on a separate 5-point scale based on the frequency and intensity of displays of each affect type.

Event-based codes were used to classify each social initiation made by each child. Each social initiation was classified as (1) an attempt to get the toy , or (2) a prosocial initiation . An attempt to get the toy was defined as an attempt made by the child not in possession of the toy to gain control and/or make it clear to the child on the toy, that he or she wanted a turn. Prosocial initiations were defined as any initiation made to the peer about topics unrelated to getting the toy (e.g., “What school do you go to?”), initiations made by the child playing with the toy to offer the peer a turn (e.g., “Your turn to play”), and initiations made by the child playing with the toy to share with their peer (e.g., “Let’s play with this toy together”). Initiations to share the toy were only coded as prosocial initiations if the initiation was made by the child in possession of the toy. Therefore, prosocial initiations were always positive initiations that were not in regard to getting the toy from the peer.

Each attempt to get the toy was then further classified by the type of strategy used: Passive (i.e., pointing or hovering), active (i.e., touching, shoving, hitting, grabbing, or taking), or verbal (i.e., asking or telling). Strategies were not mutually exclusive, thus if a child used more than one strategy at a time (e.g., asking while pointing), all strategies were recorded. Each attempt to get the toy was also coded in terms of the outcome, such that an attempt to get the toy was coded as unsuccessful when a child made an initiation and did not get the toy.

Teams of two trained research assistants coded the children’s behaviors during the special toy episode using the same coding scheme at each time point. Specifically, one team of two coders coded children’s behaviors at 24 months. Another team of two coders, composed of one of the 24-month coders and a new coder, coded both the 36- and 48-month behaviors. In order to assess inter-rater reliability, coders overlapped on 17–26% of total coded cases at each of the three time points. Disagreements on these double-codes were resolved through discussion. Intra-class correlations (ICC’s) for the codes used in analyses at each age (24, 36, 48 months respectively) were .87, 1.00, and .99 for the total time of the task, .97, .99, and .98 for time engaged , .99, 1.00, .99 for latency to first get the toy, .66 .92, .76 for neutral affect, .70, .87, .78 for positive affect, 84, .97, .97 for get toy , .66, .92, and .86 for prosocial initiations, .72, .92, and .82 for passive strategies, .71, .91, and .76 for verbal strategies, and .86, .96, and .87 for unsuccessful attempts.

A proportion score was created for time engaged by dividing children’s time engaged with the toy in seconds over the total time of the task. Latency and the proportion of time engaged (reverse scored) were standardized and averaged to represent time unengaged with the toy. Proportion scores were also created for passive, verbal, and unsuccessful attempts by dividing the frequency of each variable over the total number of attempts to get the toy . The proportion of unsuccessful attempts was reverse coded to reflect success. Skewed variables were dichotomized at each age as 0 if the behavior was not observed or 1 if the behavior was observed at least once and continuous variables were standardized.

To reduce the number of dependent measures, composite scores were created based on theory and confirmed through principal components analysis to reflect withdrawn and competent SPS behavior and affect. Withdrawn SPS was composed of passive strategies based on findings with socially withdrawn elementary school-aged children, which showed that withdrawn children make fewer attempts to obtain toys from unfamiliar peers and when making attempts, they use more indirect strategies compared to their peers ( Rubin, Daniels-Beirness, & Bream, 1984 ; Stewart & Rubin, 1995 ). Furthermore, because withdrawn children are less successful than their peers ( Rubin, Daniels-Beirness, & Bream, 1984 ; Stewart & Rubin, 1995 ), we expected that they would take longer to get the toy (latency) and spend less time playing with the toy, which reflected time unengaged with the toy. Last, we also expected shy children to display more neutral affect since withdrawn/anxious early adolescents are more likely to display neutral affect compared to control early adolescents ( Schneider, 2009 ). Due to low frequency, sad/fearful affect was not included in the composite scores. Thus, the withdrawn SPS composite scores at each age consisted of passive strategies, time unengaged , and neutral affect, and was confirmed through principal components analyses at 24 (eigenvalue = 1.56; avg loading = .72), 36 (eigenvalue = 1.21; avg loading = .61), and 48 months of age (eigenvalue = 1.22; avg loading = .63). A composite of SPS Competence was created based on displays of verbal strategies, positive affect, prosocial initiations , and success. Social competence was formed to reflect positive social behavior, as seen in the displays of prosocial initiations and displayed positive affect. Furthermore, the use of verbal strategies reflects competence ( Eisenberg et al., 1994 ). Success was also included as it was expected that the use of competent and positive behavior and affect would also result in greater peer compliance. The competent SPS composite scores were confirmed through principal components analyses at 24 (eigenvalue = 1.23; avg loading = .49), 36 (eigenvalue = 1.88; avg loading = .68), and 48 months of age (eigenvalue = 1.66; avg loading = .62). Composite variables were all normally distributed. Active strategies were not thought to be theoretically associated with the constructs of interest in the current study, thus a ctive was not included in the composite scores.

Data Analyses

The first goal of the current study was to identify patterns of developmental growth of withdrawn and competent SPS for all children from 24 to 48 months of age. To examine developmental growth patterns, latent growth analyses (LGA; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002 ), also called hierarchical linear modeling, were conducted. LGA estimates individual trajectories across repeated measures. Overall model fit was examined by reviewing the following fit indices: model χ 2 , RMSEA with 90% confidence intervals, SRMR, and CFI. The second goal of the current study was to examine whether there were individual differences in these patterns of change in withdrawn and competent SPS and to examine whether early shyness predicted these patterns of change. Latent Class Growth Analyses (LCGA; Jones, Nagin, & Roeder, 2001 ) were conducted to identify multiple trajectories of withdrawn and competent SPS from 24 to 48 months of age. LCGA is a type of growth mixture model which combines LGA with latent class analysis (LCA; Muthén, 2001 ), providing multiple growth trajectories associated with unmeasured class membership. Shyness was included as a predictor of membership in the trajectories. The Baysian Information Criteria (BIC) and the Bootstrap Likelihood Ratio Test (BLRT) fit indices were examined ( Nylund, Asparouhov, & Muthén, 2007 ) along with interpretability in order to determine the number of trajectories to retain from each series of models ( Muthén, 2004 ). Specifically, each model examined one more trajectory than the previous model. Once it was determined that the addition of another trajectory was not a better fit than the previous model, the previous model (i.e., one less trajectory) was selected as the final model. All analyses were conducted in M plus 6.12 ( Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2011 ).

Development of SPS

For the first goal of the study, LGA was used to examine average patterns of development in displayed SPS behavior and affect from 24 to 48 months of age. The first LGA model examined the development of withdrawn SPS over time and found evidence for good model fit: χ 2 (1) = .36, p = .55, CFI = 1.00, RMSEA = .00 with CI 90% from .00 to .09, and SRMR = .01. Results showed that children displayed consistent levels of withdrawn SPS at all ages (i.e., non-significant slope, p =.19). The second latent growth model examined the development of SPS competence over time and found evidence for poor model fit: χ 2 (3) = 13.08, p = .005, CFI = .34, RMSEA = .08 with CI 90% from .04 to .12, and SRMR = .06. Thus, the growth model was reexamined while freeing the time score for the 48-month data to be estimated using a latent basis model ( McArdle, 2004 ). This model resulted in good model fit, χ 2 (2) = 2.23, p = .33, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .01 with CI 90% from .00 to .09, and SRMR = .03. Results showed that children displayed greater SPS competence over time (i.e., positive slope, p <.001), with more growth between 36 and 48 months than between 24 and 36 months of age. Taken together, findings show that, on average, children display stable levels of withdrawn SPS and increasing SPS competence over time.

Superimposed on these average developmental changes, we expected that shyness would be associated with displayed SPS behavior and affect over time. Therefore, for the second goal, LCGA models were conducted to examine the relation between early shyness and trajectories of withdrawn and competent SPS. First, LCGA models were conducted with shyness at 24 months as the predictor of the probability of membership in 1 through 4 classes of withdrawn SPS over time. The BIC was 3203.91 for one withdrawn SPS trajectory, 1639.45 for two withdrawn SPS trajectories, 1637.29 for three withdrawn SPS trajectories, and 1648.76 for four withdrawn SPS trajectories. The BLRT showed that the two trajectory model was better than the one trajectory model ( p < .001), and the three trajectory model was better than the two trajectory model ( p < .001), but the four trajectory model was not better than the three trajectory model ( p = .09). Based on the lowest BIC, significant BLRT and interpretability, the three trajectory model was retained. See Figure 1 for the estimated means of displayed withdrawn SPS at each age for the 3-trajectories.

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Longitudinal Trajectories of Withdrawn SPS.

The high-increasing trajectory was composed of children (17% of the sample, n = 77) who displayed high withdrawn SPS at 24 months and continued to increase in withdrawn SPS across time (i.e., had a significant positive slope, p = .001). The high-decreasing trajectory was composed of children (25% of the sample, n =113) who displayed high withdrawn SPS at 24 months and decreased in withdrawn SPS across time (i.e., negative slope, p < .001). The low-increasing trajectory was composed of the majority of children (58% of the sample, n = 265) who showed a slight increase over time (i.e., positive slope, p = .049). Children in this trajectory displayed lower levels of withdrawn SPS at 24 months than children in the high-increasing and high-decreasing trajectories, and maintained these low levels of withdrawn SPS over time (see Figure 1 ). Shyness significantly predicted the probability of membership in the withdrawn SPS trajectories such that children in the high-increasing (B=.81, z =3.44, p =.001) and high-decreasing trajectories (B=.88, z =4.24, p <.001) were more likely to be rated high on shyness at 24 months than children in the low-increasing withdrawn SPS trajectory. That is, for every one unit increase in shyness, the odds of being in the high-increasing withdrawn trajectory were 5.06 and the odds of being in the high-decreasing withdrawn trajectory were 5.81 times the odds of being in the low-increasing withdrawn trajectory.

Second, LCGA models were conducted with shyness at 24 months as the predictor of probability of membership in 1 through 3 classes of SPS competence over time. The BIC was 2237.87 for one SPS competence trajectory, 795.28 for two SPS competence trajectories, and 804.70 for three SPS competence trajectories. In addition, the BLRT showed that two trajectories were significantly better than one trajectory ( p <.001), but three trajectories were not significantly better than two trajectories ( p = .07). Thus, the two trajectory model was retained based on a combination of the lowest BIC, significant BLRT and interpretability. See Figure 2 for the estimated means of displayed SPS competence trajectories at each age.

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Longitudinal Trajectories of Competent SPS

The high-increasing trajectory was composed of children (47% of the sample, n =214) who displayed high SPS competence at 24 months and continued to increase in SPS competence across time (i.e., significant positive slope, p < .001). The low-increasing trajectory was composed of children (53% of the sample, n =241) who displayed low SPS competence at 24 months and increasing SPS competence across time (i.e., significant positive slope, p < .001). Shyness significantly predicted the probability of membership in the trajectories, such that children in the low-increasing trajectory were more likely to be rated high on shyness at 24 months than children in the high-increasing trajectory (B=1.02, z =4.33, p <.001). That is, for every one unit increase in shyness, the odds of being in the low-increasing SPS competence trajectory were 7.67 times the odds of being in the high-increasing competence trajectory.

This is one of the first studies to use a longitudinal design to document developmental changes and individual differences in children’s SPS behaviors and emotion in the early childhood years. The goals of this study were to document developmental growth and examine the longitudinal associations between shyness and the types of SPS behaviors and emotions displayed when a child encounters a challenging social situation with an unfamiliar peer, using a non-clinical community sample of children. Results of the current study extend the literature by examining these questions longitudinally during early childhood and by using observational measures of SPS behavior and affect expression to capture children’s actual behaviors during challenging social situations. Results revealed that, on average, children displayed low stable levels of withdrawn SPS, while competent SPS increased over the toddler and preschool years. In addition to these general developmental findings, there was evidence suggesting that early shyness affects children’s SPS style and their trajectories of change in SPS in response to challenging social situations. Specifically, shyness was associated with a greater likelihood to display more withdrawn SPS and less SPS competence at age 2. However, there were individual differences in developmental patterns stemming from these initial levels. That is, some shy children displayed improvement in SPS skills over time (i.e., decreased withdrawn SPS and increased SPS competence), and some shy children continued to display poor SPS skills (i.e., increased withdrawn SPS over time). These findings highlight the predictive influence of early reports of shyness on initial SPS behaviors and affect and suggest multiple potential outcomes for early shyness, including both continuity and discontinuity in withdrawn SPS over the early childhood years.

Developmental Change in SPS

Contrary to hypotheses, children, on average, expressed consistent levels of withdrawn SPS across ages (i.e., neutral affect, passive SPS, and time unengaged with the toy). Consistent with this, individual trajectories showed that the majority of children displayed consistently low levels of withdrawn SPS over time. These results show that withdrawn SPS is not a predominant style of interaction for most children, even during the early childhood years. Consistent with the hypotheses, children displayed higher levels of SPS competence over time, showing that children were increasingly likely to use verbal strategies, display positive affect, initiate prosocial interactions, and were more successful in their attempts to get the toy. The increased use of verbal strategies reflects increasing competence as verbal initiations are considered the foundation for social play and competent peer interactions ( Eisenberg et al., 1994 ). Displays of positive affect may help keep children and their peers engaged in social interaction longer, which may support persistence and flexibility in approaching the problem situation. Increased use of verbal SPS strategies and approaching the challenging social situations with positive affect likely accounts for more success over time, showing that the use of competent strategies may result in more compliance from peers. Furthermore, the increased use of prosocial initiations and verbal strategies in general likely reflects a combination of children’s gains in social motivation, understanding of others, expressive vocabulary, and pragmatic language during early childhood ( Bloom, 1998 ; Ganger & Brent, 2004 ; Pan & Snow, 1999 ; Rubin & Rose-Krasnor, 1992 ). Interestingly, findings from the SPS competence growth model showed that there was particularly rapid growth in the display of competent SPS between 36 and 48 months than during 24 and 36 months of age. These greater increases may also reflect the development of language skills, social motivation, and understanding of others at these later preschool ages. Taken together, results suggest that both the quantity and quality of children’s competent SPS skills increase from 24 to 48 months of age.

Individual Differences in Shyness and SPS

Results of the LCGA showed individual differences in SPS trajectories over time. Consistent with developmental findings, the majority of children displayed consistently low levels of withdrawn SPS over time; however, there were two additional trajectories defined by high levels of withdrawn SPS at 2 years of age. Further, maternal ratings of shyness predicted membership in these two trajectories compared to the consistently low trajectory. These findings are consistent with hypotheses and previous research on older children that shy children displayed neutral affect, were less likely to use socially assertive strategies and more likely to use subtle, indirect strategies compared to children of average sociability ( Schneider, 2009 ; Stewart & Rubin, 1995 ). Shyness is associated with an approach-avoidance conflict ( Asendorpf, 1990 ; Coplan et al., 2004 ). That is, shy children would like to join in play with others (approach), but fear and anxiety interfere with their ability to easily initiate and engage peers in play, resulting in social withdrawal.

The expression of neutral affect by shy children appeared to reflect their wariness and uncertainty about the social situation. Schneider (2009) also found that socially withdrawn/anxious early adolescents displayed relatively more neutral affect, whereas control children displayed relatively more positive affect while interacting with friends. Interestingly, few instances of sad/fearful affect were displayed during the tasks at all ages. Prior work by Perkins et al., (2011) found evidence for the distinguishability of fearful and anxious expressions of emotion. They suggest that fear may be displayed during situations of clear threat while anxious expressions, reflecting scanning and processing of the environment, may be displayed during ambiguous situations. Shy children’s expression of neutral affect likely reflects their uncertainty and hypervigilance, consistent with the expression of anxious affect.

Interestingly, one of the two trajectories that showed initially high withdrawn SPS showed decreased withdrawn SPS over time, while the other trajectory showing initially high withdrawn SPS increased in withdrawn SPS over time. These findings indicate that some children rated high on shyness showed improvement in SPS skills, while for other children early shyness has an enduring influence on social development, in part, through effects on SPS skills. An important future direction is to identify the factors that moderate the relations between early shyness and these different trajectories of withdrawn SPS. For example, temperament and specific socialization experiences with parents and peers influence patterns of continuity and discontinuity in behavior over time ( Degnan, Almas, & Fox, 2010 ; Degnan & Fox, 2007 ) and thus moderate the associations between early shyness and later social functioning (e.g., Almas et al., 2011 ; Degnan, Henderson, Fox, & Rubin, 2008 ; Rubin, Burgess, & Hastings, 2002 ). The quality of social experiences with peers is particularly important for shy children in learning how to competently initiate interactions with peers to join social play. Furthermore, within-child characteristics, such as the development of self-regulation, may also interact with shyness to influence trajectories of SPS behavior and affect over time. It is possible that a well-regulated shy child may display SPS skills similar to less shy peers, while shy children displaying poor self-regulation are the ones in most need of intervention. For example, the flexible allocation of attention and the ability to shift attention serves as a protective factor for behaviorally inhibited and shy children, decreasing the risk for social adjustment difficulties and anxiety ( Henderson, 2010 ; White, McDermott, Degnan, Henderson, & Fox, 2011 ). Future studies should examine both within-child and environmental factors that moderate the associations between shyness and SPS trajectories. Identifying the moderators that lead to discontinuity is important for the design of intervention and prevention efforts aimed at improving SPS skills for shy children showing increased withdrawn SPS over time, who may be at most risk for the development of anxiety and poor social interactions with peers.

SPS competence LCGA analyses suggest that shy children’s SPS behaviors and affect are developing over the toddler and preschool years in parallel form to their less shy peers. That is, they begin and end with fewer competent SPS interactions than their peers, at least between 24 and 48 months of age. Early shyness continues to relate to less SPS competence as initial differences are maintained over the toddler and preschool years. These results are consistent with findings from other studies showing that inhibited and shy children speak less during unfamiliar situations in school and are less likely to talk or volunteer answers in large group teacher-guided activities ( Asendorpf & Meier, 1993 ; Rimm-Kaufman & Kagan, 2005 ; Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2002 ). In addition, it has been shown that pragmatic language influences the association between shyness and adjustment outcomes ( Coplan & Weeks, 2009 ), suggesting the importance of shy children’s verbal abilities for social development. Shy children’s lack of assertiveness may be due to shy children not knowing how to approach peers and the effect of distress and hypervigilance on their ability to enact a planned behavioral response. As shy children develop, the tendency to initially refrain may be reinforced and strengthened and this, in turn, may lead to a fear of negative evaluation from peers at later ages ( Bruch & Cheek, 1995 ), as well as unfamiliarity with the social scripts guiding cooperative play.

Youngstrom et al (2000) suggest that children with SPS difficulties report similar SPS to their peers by first grade. However, there are multiple origins to difficulties in SPS. Children with poor SPS skills that are not socially withdrawn may learn the skills necessary for effective SPS during the first few years of formal schooling and thus improve their SPS skills. As evidenced by the high decreasing withdrawn SPS trajectory, some shy children also show improvement in their SPS skills. However, other shy children showed increased withdrawn SPS over time. Furthermore, social withdrawal is associated with poor SPS through elementary school ( Stewart & Rubin, 1995 ). Therefore, while many children with poor SPS skills show comparable SPS skills to peers during early elementary school, some shy children in particular may continue to experience limited social interaction during the school years which may interfere with their ability to display competent SPS skills comparable to those of their less shy peers. Additionally, competent SPS behavior mediates the relations between shyness and academic achievement (Walker & Henderson, 2012). Taken together, previous and current findings suggest that some shy children have fewer opportunities to engage with peers and materials in both formal and informal learning environments which results in poor SPS skills and academic achievement.

Identification of characteristics predictive of later SPS skills may aid in the design of interventions for shy children with SPS difficulties to improve later social and academic success. Such programs might focus on identifying early SPS difficulties and reducing the distress felt by some children placed in unfamiliar situations to promote better adaptation and social competence during early childhood. Interventions targeted at increasing shy children’s SPS skills might also include less shy peers. Given that shy children usually want to play with others, having less shy peers initiate interactions might help lessen their distress and provide examples of competent ways to initiate peer play. This may also promote positive social interactions, which are associated with discontinuity in wary behaviors ( Almas et al., 2011 ). Prevention efforts could begin as early as the toddler years given the current study findings showing that shyness is associated with SPS difficulties as early as 24 months of age.

Limitations & Future Directions

One of the strengths of the current study is that we observed SPS behaviors and affect at 24 months of age and continued to follow the same children until 48 months of age. With this comes the challenges of observing behaviors at this very young age (i.e., 24 months of age), when children have a limited repertoire of behaviors and their verbal skills are just beginning to emerge. As such our inter-rater reliability for some of the coded behaviors and loadings for the SPS competence composite were lower at age 2 than at later ages.

Although we speculate above that changes in SPS trajectories were consistent with other aspects of development (e.g., theory of mind, language development, and social motivation), longitudinal studies should examine how the different aspects of development are related to SPS and the direction of these effects. Future studies should also examine the potential moderators (e.g., self-regulation, maternal behavior, peer interactions) that lead to continuity and discontinuity in SPS trajectories associated with shyness. In addition, future studies should examine the inter-relations between shyness and SPS over time to determine the direction of effects and how temperament and SPS covary over time.

Over the 24 to 48 month period, there were changes in children’s SPS competence; however, shy children experienced particular difficulty during social interactions across the toddler and preschool years. One protective factor for shy children may be engaging in positive peer interactions early on. Recent work suggests that early exposure of temperamentally fearful children to same age peers is associated with discontinuity in displays of wariness from infancy through toddlerhood ( Almas et al., 2011 ). Prevention programs might focus on identifying early social deficits to reduce the distress felt by shy children to promote positive peer interactions and SPS skills during challenging social situations.

Correlations and Descriptive Statistics for temperament and SPS variables.

Note: SPS = Social problem solving; SD = Standard Deviation

Competent social problem solving increased for all children during early childhood.
There were multiple trajectories of withdrawn and competent social problem solving.
Some shy children display improvement while others show poor social problem solving.

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10 Best Problem-Solving Therapy Worksheets & Activities

Cognitive science tells us that we regularly face not only well-defined problems but, importantly, many that are ill defined (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Sometimes, we find ourselves unable to overcome our daily problems or the inevitable (though hopefully infrequent) life traumas we face.

Problem-Solving Therapy aims to reduce the incidence and impact of mental health disorders and improve wellbeing by helping clients face life’s difficulties (Dobson, 2011).

This article introduces Problem-Solving Therapy and offers techniques, activities, and worksheets that mental health professionals can use with clients.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is problem-solving therapy, 14 steps for problem-solving therapy, 3 best interventions and techniques, 7 activities and worksheets for your session, fascinating books on the topic, resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

Problem-Solving Therapy assumes that mental disorders arise in response to ineffective or maladaptive coping. By adopting a more realistic and optimistic view of coping, individuals can understand the role of emotions and develop actions to reduce distress and maintain mental wellbeing (Nezu & Nezu, 2009).

“Problem-solving therapy (PST) is a psychosocial intervention, generally considered to be under a cognitive-behavioral umbrella” (Nezu, Nezu, & D’Zurilla, 2013, p. ix). It aims to encourage the client to cope better with day-to-day problems and traumatic events and reduce their impact on mental and physical wellbeing.

Clinical research, counseling, and health psychology have shown PST to be highly effective in clients of all ages, ranging from children to the elderly, across multiple clinical settings, including schizophrenia, stress, and anxiety disorders (Dobson, 2011).

Can it help with depression?

PST appears particularly helpful in treating clients with depression. A recent analysis of 30 studies found that PST was an effective treatment with a similar degree of success as other successful therapies targeting depression (Cuijpers, Wit, Kleiboer, Karyotaki, & Ebert, 2020).

Other studies confirm the value of PST and its effectiveness at treating depression in multiple age groups and its capacity to combine with other therapies, including drug treatments (Dobson, 2011).

The major concepts

Effective coping varies depending on the situation, and treatment typically focuses on improving the environment and reducing emotional distress (Dobson, 2011).

PST is based on two overlapping models:

Social problem-solving model

This model focuses on solving the problem “as it occurs in the natural social environment,” combined with a general coping strategy and a method of self-control (Dobson, 2011, p. 198).

The model includes three central concepts:

Social problem-solving
The problem
The solution

The model is a “self-directed cognitive-behavioral process by which an individual, couple, or group attempts to identify or discover effective solutions for specific problems encountered in everyday living” (Dobson, 2011, p. 199).

Relational problem-solving model

The theory of PST is underpinned by a relational problem-solving model, whereby stress is viewed in terms of the relationships between three factors:

Stressful life events
Emotional distress and wellbeing
Problem-solving coping

Therefore, when a significant adverse life event occurs, it may require “sweeping readjustments in a person’s life” (Dobson, 2011, p. 202).

Enhance positive problem orientation
Decrease negative orientation
Foster ability to apply rational problem-solving skills
Reduce the tendency to avoid problem-solving
Minimize the tendency to be careless and impulsive

D’Zurilla’s and Nezu’s model includes (modified from Dobson, 2011):

Initial structuring Establish a positive therapeutic relationship that encourages optimism and explains the PST approach.
Assessment Formally and informally assess areas of stress in the client’s life and their problem-solving strengths and weaknesses.
Obstacles to effective problem-solving Explore typically human challenges to problem-solving, such as multitasking and the negative impact of stress. Introduce tools that can help, such as making lists, visualization, and breaking complex problems down.
Problem orientation – fostering self-efficacy Introduce the importance of a positive problem orientation, adopting tools, such as visualization, to promote self-efficacy.
Problem orientation – recognizing problems Help clients recognize issues as they occur and use problem checklists to ‘normalize’ the experience.
Problem orientation – seeing problems as challenges Encourage clients to break free of harmful and restricted ways of thinking while learning how to argue from another point of view.
Problem orientation – use and control emotions Help clients understand the role of emotions in problem-solving, including using feelings to inform the process and managing disruptive emotions (such as cognitive reframing and relaxation exercises).
Problem orientation – stop and think Teach clients how to reduce impulsive and avoidance tendencies (visualizing a stop sign or traffic light).
Problem definition and formulation Encourage an understanding of the nature of problems and set realistic goals and objectives.
Generation of alternatives Work with clients to help them recognize the wide range of potential solutions to each problem (for example, brainstorming).
Decision-making Encourage better decision-making through an improved understanding of the consequences of decisions and the value and likelihood of different outcomes.
Solution implementation and verification Foster the client’s ability to carry out a solution plan, monitor its outcome, evaluate its effectiveness, and use self-reinforcement to increase the chance of success.
Guided practice Encourage the application of problem-solving skills across multiple domains and future stressful problems.
Rapid problem-solving Teach clients how to apply problem-solving questions and guidelines quickly in any given situation.

Success in PST depends on the effectiveness of its implementation; using the right approach is crucial (Dobson, 2011).

Problem-solving therapy – Baycrest

The following interventions and techniques are helpful when implementing more effective problem-solving approaches in client’s lives.

First, it is essential to consider if PST is the best approach for the client, based on the problems they present.

Is PPT appropriate?

It is vital to consider whether PST is appropriate for the client’s situation. Therapists new to the approach may require additional guidance (Nezu et al., 2013).

Therapists should consider the following questions before beginning PST with a client (modified from Nezu et al., 2013):

Has PST proven effective in the past for the problem? For example, research has shown success with depression, generalized anxiety, back pain, Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, and supporting caregivers (Nezu et al., 2013).
Is PST acceptable to the client?
Is the individual experiencing a significant mental or physical health problem?

All affirmative answers suggest that PST would be a helpful technique to apply in this instance.

Five problem-solving steps

The following five steps are valuable when working with clients to help them cope with and manage their environment (modified from Dobson, 2011).

Ask the client to consider the following points (forming the acronym ADAPT) when confronted by a problem:

Attitude Aim to adopt a positive, optimistic attitude to the problem and problem-solving process.
Define Obtain all required facts and details of potential obstacles to define the problem.
Alternatives Identify various alternative solutions and actions to overcome the obstacle and achieve the problem-solving goal.
Predict Predict each alternative’s positive and negative outcomes and choose the one most likely to achieve the goal and maximize the benefits.
Try out Once selected, try out the solution and monitor its effectiveness while engaging in self-reinforcement.

If the client is not satisfied with their solution, they can return to step ‘A’ and find a more appropriate solution.

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Enhance wellbeing with these free, science-based exercises that draw on the latest insights from positive psychology.

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Positive self-statements

When dealing with clients facing negative self-beliefs, it can be helpful for them to use positive self-statements.

Use the following (or add new) self-statements to replace harmful, negative thinking (modified from Dobson, 2011):

I can solve this problem; I’ve tackled similar ones before.
I can cope with this.
I just need to take a breath and relax.
Once I start, it will be easier.
It’s okay to look out for myself.
I can get help if needed.
Other people feel the same way I do.
I’ll take one piece of the problem at a time.
I can keep my fears in check.
I don’t need to please everyone.

5 Worksheets and workbooks

Problem-solving self-monitoring form.

Answering the questions in the Problem-Solving Self-Monitoring Form provides the therapist with necessary information regarding the client’s overall and specific problem-solving approaches and reactions (Dobson, 2011).

Ask the client to complete the following:

Describe the problem you are facing.
What is your goal?
What have you tried so far to solve the problem?
What was the outcome?

Reactions to Stress

It can be helpful for the client to recognize their own experiences of stress. Do they react angrily, withdraw, or give up (Dobson, 2011)?

The Reactions to Stress worksheet can be given to the client as homework to capture stressful events and their reactions. By recording how they felt, behaved, and thought, they can recognize repeating patterns.

What Are Your Unique Triggers?

Helping clients capture triggers for their stressful reactions can encourage emotional regulation.

When clients can identify triggers that may lead to a negative response, they can stop the experience or slow down their emotional reaction (Dobson, 2011).

The What Are Your Unique Triggers ? worksheet helps the client identify their triggers (e.g., conflict, relationships, physical environment, etc.).

Problem-Solving worksheet

Imagining an existing or potential problem and working through how to resolve it can be a powerful exercise for the client.

Use the Problem-Solving worksheet to state a problem and goal and consider the obstacles in the way. Then explore options for achieving the goal, along with their pros and cons, to assess the best action plan.

Getting the Facts

Clients can become better equipped to tackle problems and choose the right course of action by recognizing facts versus assumptions and gathering all the necessary information (Dobson, 2011).

Use the Getting the Facts worksheet to answer the following questions clearly and unambiguously:

Who is involved?
What did or did not happen, and how did it bother you?
Where did it happen?
When did it happen?
Why did it happen?
How did you respond?

2 Helpful Group Activities

While therapists can use the worksheets above in group situations, the following two interventions work particularly well with more than one person.

Generating Alternative Solutions and Better Decision-Making

A group setting can provide an ideal opportunity to share a problem and identify potential solutions arising from multiple perspectives.

Use the Generating Alternative Solutions and Better Decision-Making worksheet and ask the client to explain the situation or problem to the group and the obstacles in the way.

Once the approaches are captured and reviewed, the individual can share their decision-making process with the group if they want further feedback.

Visualization

Visualization can be performed with individuals or in a group setting to help clients solve problems in multiple ways, including (Dobson, 2011):

Clarifying the problem by looking at it from multiple perspectives
Rehearsing a solution in the mind to improve and get more practice
Visualizing a ‘safe place’ for relaxation, slowing down, and stress management

Guided imagery is particularly valuable for encouraging the group to take a ‘mental vacation’ and let go of stress.

Ask the group to begin with slow, deep breathing that fills the entire diaphragm. Then ask them to visualize a favorite scene (real or imagined) that makes them feel relaxed, perhaps beside a gently flowing river, a summer meadow, or at the beach.

The more the senses are engaged, the more real the experience. Ask the group to think about what they can hear, see, touch, smell, and even taste.

Encourage them to experience the situation as fully as possible, immersing themselves and enjoying their place of safety.

Such feelings of relaxation may be able to help clients fall asleep, relieve stress, and become more ready to solve problems.

We have included three of our favorite books on the subject of Problem-Solving Therapy below.

1. Problem-Solving Therapy: A Treatment Manual – Arthur Nezu, Christine Maguth Nezu, and Thomas D’Zurilla

This is an incredibly valuable book for anyone wishing to understand the principles and practice behind PST.

Written by the co-developers of PST, the manual provides powerful toolkits to overcome cognitive overload, emotional dysregulation, and the barriers to practical problem-solving.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. Emotion-Centered Problem-Solving Therapy: Treatment Guidelines – Arthur Nezu and Christine Maguth Nezu

Another, more recent, book from the creators of PST, this text includes important advances in neuroscience underpinning the role of emotion in behavioral treatment.

Along with clinical examples, the book also includes crucial toolkits that form part of a stepped model for the application of PST.

3. Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies – Keith Dobson and David Dozois

This is the fourth edition of a hugely popular guide to Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies and includes a valuable and insightful section on Problem-Solving Therapy.

This is an important book for students and more experienced therapists wishing to form a high-level and in-depth understanding of the tools and techniques available to Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists.

For even more tools to help strengthen your clients’ problem-solving skills, check out the following free worksheets from our blog.

Case Formulation Worksheet This worksheet presents a four-step framework to help therapists and their clients come to a shared understanding of the client’s presenting problem.
Understanding Your Default Problem-Solving Approach This worksheet poses a series of questions helping clients reflect on their typical cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to problems.
Social Problem Solving: Step by Step This worksheet presents a streamlined template to help clients define a problem, generate possible courses of action, and evaluate the effectiveness of an implemented solution.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, check out this signature collection of 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

17 Top-Rated Positive Psychology Exercises for Practitioners

Expand your arsenal and impact with these 17 Positive Psychology Exercises [PDF] , scientifically designed to promote human flourishing, meaning, and wellbeing.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

While we are born problem-solvers, facing an incredibly diverse set of challenges daily, we sometimes need support.

Problem-Solving Therapy aims to reduce stress and associated mental health disorders and improve wellbeing by improving our ability to cope. PST is valuable in diverse clinical settings, ranging from depression to schizophrenia, with research suggesting it as a highly effective treatment for teaching coping strategies and reducing emotional distress.

Many PST techniques are available to help improve clients’ positive outlook on obstacles while reducing avoidance of problem situations and the tendency to be careless and impulsive.

The PST model typically assesses the client’s strengths, weaknesses, and coping strategies when facing problems before encouraging a healthy experience of and relationship with problem-solving.

Why not use this article to explore the theory behind PST and try out some of our powerful tools and interventions with your clients to help them with their decision-making, coping, and problem-solving?

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

Cuijpers, P., Wit, L., Kleiboer, A., Karyotaki, E., & Ebert, D. (2020). Problem-solving therapy for adult depression: An updated meta-analysis. European P sychiatry , 48 (1), 27–37.
Dobson, K. S. (2011). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
Dobson, K. S., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2021). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies (4th ed.). Guilford Press.
Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student’s handbook . Psychology Press.
Nezu, A. M., & Nezu, C. M. (2009). Problem-solving therapy DVD . Retrieved September 13, 2021, from https://www.apa.org/pubs/videos/4310852
Nezu, A. M., & Nezu, C. M. (2018). Emotion-centered problem-solving therapy: Treatment guidelines. Springer.
Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & D’Zurilla, T. J. (2013). Problem-solving therapy: A treatment manual . Springer.

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Research article
Open access
Published: 07 October 2020

Impact of social problem-solving training on critical thinking and decision making of nursing students

Soleiman Ahmady 1 &
Sara Shahbazi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8397-6233 2 , 3

BMC Nursing volume 19 , Article number: 94 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The complex health system and challenging patient care environment require experienced nurses, especially those with high cognitive skills such as problem-solving, decision- making and critical thinking. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of social problem-solving training on nursing students’ critical thinking and decision-making.

This study was quasi-experimental research and pre-test and post-test design and performed on 40 undergraduate/four-year students of nursing in Borujen Nursing School/Iran that was randomly divided into 2 groups; experimental ( n = 20) and control (n = 20). Then, a social problem-solving course was held for the experimental group. A demographic questionnaire, social problem-solving inventory-revised, California critical thinking test, and decision-making questionnaire was used to collect the information. The reliability and validity of all of them were confirmed. Data analysis was performed using SPSS software and independent sampled T-test, paired T-test, square chi, and Pearson correlation coefficient.

The finding indicated that the social problem-solving course positively affected the student’ social problem-solving and decision-making and critical thinking skills after the instructional course in the experimental group ( P < 0.05), but this result was not observed in the control group ( P > 0.05).

Conclusions

The results showed that structured social problem-solving training could improve cognitive problem-solving, critical thinking, and decision-making skills. Considering this result, nursing education should be presented using new strategies and creative and different ways from traditional education methods. Cognitive skills training should be integrated in the nursing curriculum. Therefore, training cognitive skills such as problem- solving to nursing students is recommended.

Peer Review reports

Continuous monitoring and providing high-quality care to patients is one of the main tasks of nurses. Nurses’ roles are diverse and include care, educational, supportive, and interventional roles when dealing with patients’ clinical problems [ 1 , 2 ].

Providing professional nursing services requires the cognitive skills such as problem-solving, decision-making and critical thinking, and information synthesis [ 3 ].

Problem-solving is an essential skill in nursing. Improving this skill is very important for nurses because it is an intellectual process which requires the reflection and creative thinking [ 4 ].

Problem-solving skill means acquiring knowledge to reach a solution, and a person’s ability to use this knowledge to find a solution requires critical thinking. The promotion of these skills is considered a necessary condition for nurses’ performance in the nursing profession [ 5 , 6 ].

Managing the complexities and challenges of health systems requires competent nurses with high levels of critical thinking skills. A nurse’s critical thinking skills can affect patient safety because it enables nurses to correctly diagnose the patient’s initial problem and take the right action for the right reason [ 4 , 7 , 8 ].

Problem-solving and decision-making are complex and difficult processes for nurses, because they have to care for multiple patients with different problems in complex and unpredictable treatment environments [ 9 , 10 ].

Clinical decision making is an important element of professional nursing care; nurses’ ability to form effective clinical decisions is the most significant issue affecting the care standard. Nurses build 2 kinds of choices associated with the practice: patient care decisions that affect direct patient care and occupational decisions that affect the work context or teams [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ].

The utilization of nursing process guarantees the provision of professional and effective care. The nursing process provides nurses with the chance to learn problem-solving skills through teamwork, health management, and patient care. Problem-solving is at the heart of nursing process which is why this skill underlies all nursing practices. Therefore, proper training of this skill in an undergraduate nursing program is essential [ 17 ].

Nursing students face unique problems which are specific to the clinical and therapeutic environment, causing a lot of stresses during clinical education. This stress can affect their problem- solving skills [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. They need to promote their problem-solving and critical thinking skills to meet the complex needs of current healthcare settings and should be able to respond to changing circumstances and apply knowledge and skills in different clinical situations [ 22 ]. Institutions should provide this important opportunity for them.

Despite, the results of studies in nursing students show the weakness of their problem-solving skills, while in complex health environments and exposure to emerging diseases, nurses need to diagnose problems and solve them rapidly accurately. The teaching of these skills should begin in college and continue in health care environments [ 5 , 23 , 24 ].

It should not be forgotten that in addition to the problems caused by the patients’ disease, a large proportion of the problems facing nurses are related to the procedures of the natural life of their patients and their families, the majority of nurses with the rest of health team and the various roles defined for nurses [ 25 ].

Therefore, in addition to above- mentioned issues, other ability is required to deal with common problems in the working environment for nurses, the skill is “social problem solving”, because the term social problem-solving includes a method of problem-solving in the “natural context” or the “real world” [ 26 , 27 ]. In reviewing the existing research literature on the competencies and skills required by nursing students, what attracts a lot of attention is the weakness of basic skills and the lack of formal and systematic training of these skills in the nursing curriculum, it indicates a gap in this area [ 5 , 24 , 25 ]. In this regard, the researchers tried to reduce this significant gap by holding a formal problem-solving skills training course, emphasizing the common social issues in the real world of work. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the impact of social problem-solving skills training on nursing students’ critical thinking and decision-making.

Setting and sample

This quasi-experimental study with pretest and post-test design was performed on 40 undergraduate/four-year nursing students in Borujen nursing school in Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences. The periods of data collection were 4 months.

According to the fact that senior students of nursing have passed clinical training and internship programs, they have more familiarity with wards and treatment areas, patients and issues in treatment areas and also they have faced the problems which the nurses have with other health team personnel and patients and their families, they have been chosen for this study. Therefore, this study’s sampling method was based on the purpose, and the sample size was equal to the total population. The whole of four-year nursing students participated in this study and the sample size was 40 members. Participants was randomly divided in 2 groups; experimental ( n = 20) and control (n = 20).

The inclusion criteria to take part in the present research were students’ willingness to take part, studying in the four-year nursing, not having the record of psychological sickness or using the related drugs (all based on their self-utterance).

Intervention

At the beginning of study, all students completed the demographic information’ questionnaire. The study’s intervening variables were controlled between the two groups [such as age, marital status, work experience, training courses, psychological illness, psychiatric medication use and improving cognitive skills courses (critical thinking, problem- solving, and decision making in the last 6 months)]. Both groups were homogeneous in terms of demographic variables ( P > 0.05). Decision making and critical thinking skills and social problem solving of participants in 2 groups was evaluated before and 1 month after the intervention.

All questionnaires were anonymous and had an identification code which carefully distributed by the researcher.

To control the transfer of information among the students of two groups, the classification list of students for internships, provided by the head of nursing department at the beginning of semester, was used.

Furthermore, the groups with the odd number of experimental group and the groups with the even number formed the control group and thus were less in contact with each other.

The importance of not transferring information among groups was fully described to the experimental group. They were asked not to provide any information about the course to the students of the control group.

Then, training a course of social problem-solving skills for the experimental group, given in a separate course and the period from the nursing curriculum and was held in 8 sessions during 2 months, using small group discussion, brainstorming, case-based discussion, and reaching the solution in small 4 member groups, taking results of the social problem-solving model as mentioned by D-zurilla and gold fried [ 26 ]. The instructor was an assistant professor of university and had a history of teaching problem-solving courses. This model’ stages are explained in Table 1 .

All training sessions were performed due to the model, and one step of the model was implemented in each session. In each session, the teacher stated the educational objectives and asked the students to share their experiences in dealing to various workplace problems, home and community due to the topic of session. Besides, in each session, a case-based scenario was presented and thoroughly analyzed, and students discussed it.

Instruments

In this study, the data were collected using demographic variables questionnaire and social problem- solving inventory – revised (SPSI-R) developed by D’zurilla and Nezu (2002) [ 26 ], California critical thinking skills test- form B (CCTST; 1994) [ 27 , 28 ] and decision-making questionnaire.

SPSI-R is a self - reporting tool with 52 questions ranging from a Likert scale (1: Absolutely not – 5: very much).

The minimum score maybe 25 and at a maximum of 125, therefore:

The score 25 and 50: weak social problem-solving skills.

The score 50–75: moderate social problem-solving skills.

The score higher of 75: strong social problem-solving skills.

The reliability assessed by repeated tests is between 0.68 and 0.91, and its alpha coefficient between 0.69 and 0.95 was reported [ 26 ]. The structural validity of questionnaire has also been confirmed. All validity analyses have confirmed SPSI as a social problem - solving scale.

In Iran, the alpha coefficient of 0.85 is measured for five factors, and the retest reliability coefficient was obtained 0.88. All of the narratives analyzes confirmed SPSI as a social problem- solving scale [ 29 ].

California critical thinking skills test- form B(CCTST; 1994): This test is a standard tool for assessing the basic skills of critical thinking at the high school and higher education levels (Facione & Facione, 1992, 1998) [ 27 ].

This tool has 34 multiple-choice questions which assessed analysis, inference, and argument evaluation. Facione and Facione (1993) reported that a KR-20 range of 0.65 to 0.75 for this tool is acceptable [ 27 ].

In Iran, the KR-20 for the total scale was 0.62. This coefficient is acceptable for questionnaires that measure the level of thinking ability of individuals.

After changing the English names of this questionnaire to Persian, its content validity was approved by the Board of Experts.

The subscale analysis of Persian version of CCTST showed a positive high level of correlation between total test score and the components (analysis, r = 0.61; evaluation, r = 0.71; inference, r = 0.88; inductive reasoning, r = 0.73; and deductive reasoning, r = 0.74) [ 28 ].

A decision-making questionnaire with 20 questions was used to measure decision-making skills. This questionnaire was made by a researcher and was prepared under the supervision of a professor with psychometric expertise. Five professors confirmed the face and content validity of this questionnaire. The reliability was obtained at 0.87 which confirmed for 30 students using the test-retest method at a time interval of 2 weeks. Each question had four levels and a score from 0.25 to 1. The minimum score of this questionnaire was 5, and the maximum score was 20 [ 30 ].

Statistical analysis

For analyzing the applied data, the SPSS Version 16, and descriptive statistics tests, independent sample T-test, paired T-test, Pearson correlation coefficient, and square chi were used. The significant level was taken P < 0.05.

The average age of students was 21.7 ± 1.34, and the academic average total score was 16.32 ± 2.83. Other demographic characteristics are presented in Table 2 .

None of the students had a history of psychiatric illness or psychiatric drug use. Findings obtained from the chi-square test showed that there is not any significant difference between the two groups statistically in terms of demographic variables.

The mean scores in social decision making, critical thinking, and decision-making in whole samples before intervention showed no significant difference between the two groups statistically ( P > 0.05), but showed a significant difference after the intervention ( P < 0.05) (Table 3 ).

Scores in Table 4 showed a significant positive difference before and after intervention in the “experimental” group ( P < 0.05), but this difference was not seen in the control group ( P > 0.05).

Among the demographic variables, only a positive relationship was seen between marital status and decision-making skills (r = 0.72, P < 0.05).

Also, the scores of critical thinking skill’ subgroups and social problem solving’ subgroups are presented in Tables 5 and 6 which showed a significant positive difference before and after intervention in the “experimental” group (P < 0.05), but this difference was not seen in the control group ( P > 0.05).

In the present study conducted by some studies, problem-solving and critical thinking and decision-making scores of nursing students are moderate [ 5 , 24 , 31 ].

The results showed that problem-solving skills, critical thinking, and decision-making in nursing students were promoted through a social problem-solving training course. Unfortunately, no study has examined the effect of teaching social problem-solving skills on nursing students’ critical thinking and decision-making skills.

Altun (2018) believes that if the values of truth and human dignity are promoted in students, it will help them acquire problem-solving skills. Free discussion between students and faculty on value topics can lead to the development of students’ information processing in values. Developing self-awareness increases students’ impartiality and problem-solving ability [ 5 ]. The results of this study are consistent to the results of present study.

Erozkan (2017), in his study, reported there is a significant relationship between social problem solving and social self-efficacy and the sub-dimensions of social problem solving [ 32 ]. In the present study, social problem -solving skills training has improved problem -solving skills and its subdivisions.

The results of study by Moshirabadi (2015) showed that the mean score of total problem-solving skills was 89.52 ± 21.58 and this average was lower in fourth-year students than other students. He explained that education should improve students’ problem-solving skills. Because nursing students with advanced problem-solving skills are vital to today’s evolving society [ 22 ]. In the present study, the results showed students’ weakness in the skills in question, and holding a social problem-solving skills training course could increase the level of these skills.

Çinar (2010) reported midwives and nurses are expected to use problem-solving strategies and effective decision-making in their work, using rich basic knowledge.

These skills should be developed throughout one’s profession. The results of this study showed that academic education could increase problem-solving skills of nursing and midwifery students, and final year students have higher skill levels [ 23 ].

Bayani (2012) reported that the ability to solve social problems has a determining role in mental health. Problem-solving training can lead to a level upgrade of mental health and quality of life [ 33 ]; These results agree with the results obtained in our study.

Conducted by this study, Kocoglu (2016) reported nurses’ understanding of their problem-solving skills is moderate. Receiving advice and support from qualified nursing managers and educators can enhance this skill and positively impact their behavior [ 31 ].

Kashaninia (2015), in her study, reported teaching critical thinking skills can promote critical thinking and the application of rational decision-making styles by nurses.

One of the main components of sound performance in nursing is nurses’ ability to process information and make good decisions; these abilities themselves require critical thinking. Therefore, universities should envisage educational and supportive programs emphasizing critical thinking to cultivate their students’ professional competencies, decision-making, problem-solving, and self-efficacy [ 34 ].

The study results of Kirmizi (2015) also showed a moderate positive relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving skills [ 35 ].

Hong (2015) reported that using continuing PBL training promotes reflection and critical thinking in clinical nurses. Applying brainstorming in PBL increases the motivation to participate collaboratively and encourages teamwork. Learners become familiar with different perspectives on patients’ problems and gain a more comprehensive understanding. Achieving these competencies is the basis of clinical decision-making in nursing. The dynamic and ongoing involvement of clinical staff can bridge the gap between theory and practice [ 36 ].

Ancel (2016) emphasizes that structured and managed problem-solving training can increase students’ confidence in applying problem-solving skills and help them achieve self-confidence. He reported that nursing students want to be taught in more innovative ways than traditional teaching methods which cognitive skills training should be included in their curriculum. To this end, university faculties and lecturers should believe in the importance of strategies used in teaching and the richness of educational content offered to students [ 17 ].

The results of these recent studies are adjusted with the finding of recent research and emphasize the importance of structured teaching cognitive skills to nurses and nursing students.

Based on the results of this study on improving critical thinking and decision-making skills in the intervention group, researchers guess the reasons to achieve the results of study in the following cases:

In nursing internationally, problem-solving skills (PS) have been introduced as a key strategy for better patient care [ 17 ]. Problem-solving can be defined as a self-oriented cognitive-behavioral process used to identify or discover effective solutions to a special problem in everyday life. In particular, the application of this cognitive-behavioral methodology identifies a wide range of possible effective solutions to a particular problem and enhancement the likelihood of selecting the most effective solution from among the various options [ 27 ].

In social problem-solving theory, there is a difference among the concepts of problem-solving and solution implementation, because the concepts of these two processes are different, and in practice, they require different skills.

In the problem-solving process, we seek to find solutions to specific problems, while in the implementation of solution, the process of implementing those solutions in the real problematic situation is considered [ 25 , 26 ].

The use of D’zurilla and Goldfride’s social problem-solving model was effective in achieving the study results because of its theoretical foundations and the usage of the principles of cognitive reinforcement skills. Social problem solving is considered an intellectual, logical, effort-based, and deliberate activity [ 26 , 32 ]; therefore, using this model can also affect other skills that need recognition.

In this study, problem-solving training from case studies and group discussion methods, brainstorming, and activity in small groups, was used.

There are significant educational achievements in using small- group learning strategies. The limited number of learners in each group increases the interaction between learners, instructors, and content. In this way, the teacher will be able to predict activities and apply techniques that will lead students to achieve high cognitive taxonomy levels. That is, confront students with assignments and activities that force them to use cognitive processes such as analysis, reasoning, evaluation, and criticism.

In small groups, students are given the opportunity to the enquiry, discuss differences of opinion, and come up with solutions. This method creates a comprehensive understanding of the subject for the student [ 36 ].

According to the results, social problem solving increases the nurses’ decision-making ability and critical thinking regarding identifying the patient’s needs and choosing the best nursing procedures. According to what was discussed, the implementation of this intervention in larger groups and in different levels of education by teaching other cognitive skills and examining their impact on other cognitive skills of nursing students, in the future, is recommended.

Social problem- solving training by affecting critical thinking skills and decision-making of nursing students increases patient safety. It improves the quality of care because patients’ needs are better identified and analyzed, and the best solutions are adopted to solve the problem.

In the end, the implementation of this intervention in larger groups in different levels of education by teaching other cognitive skills and examining their impact on other cognitive skills of nursing students in the future is recommended.

Study limitations

This study was performed on fourth-year nursing students, but the students of other levels should be studied during a cohort from the beginning to the end of course to monitor the cognitive skills improvement.

The promotion of high-level cognitive skills is one of the main goals of higher education. It is very necessary to adopt appropriate approaches to improve the level of thinking. According to this study results, the teachers and planners are expected to use effective approaches and models such as D’zurilla and Goldfride social problem solving to improve problem-solving, critical thinking, and decision-making skills. What has been confirmed in this study is that the routine training in the control group should, as it should, has not been able to improve the students’ critical thinking skills, and the traditional educational system needs to be transformed and reviewed to achieve this goal.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and analyzed during the present study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

California critical thinking skills test

Social problem-solving inventory – revised

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Acknowledgments

This article results from research project No. 980 approved by the Research and Technology Department of Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences. We would like to appreciate to all personnel and students of the Borujen Nursing School. The efforts of all those who assisted us throughout this research.

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Department of Medical Education, Virtual School of Medical Education and Management, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Soleiman Ahmady

Virtual School of Medical Education and management, Shahid Beheshty University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Sara Shahbazi

Community-Oriented Nursing Midwifery Research Center, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran

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SA and SSH conceptualized the study, developed the proposal, coordinated the project, completed initial data entry and analysis, and wrote the report. SSH conducted the statistical analyses. SA and SSH assisted in writing and editing the final report. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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This study was reviewed and given exempt status by the Institutional Review Board of the research and technology department of Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences (IRB No. 08–2017-109). Before the survey, students completed a research consent form and were assured that their information would remain confidential. After the end of the study, a training course for the control group students was held.

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Ahmady, S., Shahbazi, S. Impact of social problem-solving training on critical thinking and decision making of nursing students. BMC Nurs 19 , 94 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-020-00487-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-020-00487-x

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